Datasets:

turingmachine

/

hupd-npe-balanced-same-year-same-class-subset

like 0

PENDING

PROTECTIVE COVER FOR ELECTRONIC DEVICE

A protective cover for an electronic device includes a protective shell and a cushioning member configured for cushioning the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell. The protective cover includes a first opening configured to align with and expose at least a portion of a touch screen display of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell. The protective cover also includes a second opening configured to align with a camera of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell. The protective cover further includes an access port positioned to be proximate an electrical interface of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell.

1. A protective cover for an electronic device, the electronic device having a camera feature, an electrical port, a front surface including a touch screen display, a back surface, and a plurality of sides, at least one of the plurality of sides of the electronic device having one or more control buttons, the protective cover comprising: a protective shell adapted to removably retain the installed electronic device when the electronic device is installed in the protective cover, the protective shell having a back and a plurality of side members that define a perimeter of the protective shell, the protective shell adapted to at least partially cover the back surface and the sides of the installed electronic device, the protective shell including a cushioning member affixed to at least an inner surface of the protective shell, wherein the cushioning member is adapted to receive at least a portion of the back surface of the installed electronic device, wherein the electronic device is a separate unit from the protective cover; a first opening in the protective cover, the first opening adapted to expose at least a portion of the touch screen display of the installed electronic device; a second opening in the protective cover, the second opening adapted to provide optical access to the camera feature of the installed electronic device; and a third opening in the protective cover, the third opening adapted to provide access to the electrical port of the installed electronic device. 2. The protective cover of claim 1 further comprising an access region in one of the plurality of the side members of the protective shell, the access region adapted to provide access to at least one of the one or more control buttons of the installed electronic device. 3. The protective cover of claim 2 further comprising a pliable molded surface covering at least a portion of the access region, wherein the pliable molded surface covering the portion of the access region is adapted to transmit a mechanical pressure applied at an exterior surface of the pliable molded surface to the control button of the installed electronic device for actuation of the control button. 4. The protective cover of claim 3 wherein the cushioning member includes the pliable molded surface covering the access region. 5. The protective cover of claim 2 wherein the protective shell includes an access hole for accessing the access region. 6. The protective cover of claim 1 further comprising an optically clear insert affixed to the protective shell and overlaying at least a portion of the second opening. 7. The protective cover of claim 6 wherein the optically clear insert comprises an optical lens. 8. The protective cover of claim 6 wherein the optically clear insert is molded into the protective shell. 9. The protective cover of claim 1 further comprising a movable door adapted to cover the access port. 10. A protective cover for use with an electronic device, the electronic device having an interactive touch screen display, at least one control button, a camera feature, and an electrical interface, the protective cover comprising: a protective shell base having an inner surface, an outer surface, and a plurality of side members defining a perimeter of the protective shell base, the side members of the protective shell base at least partially covering sides of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover, the electronic device being a separate unit from the protective shell base; a cushioning member coupled with the inner surface of the protective shell base, the cushioning member configured for cushioning the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover; a first opening in the protective shell base, the first opening configured to align with and expose at least a portion of the interactive touch screen display of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover; a second opening in the protective shell base, the second opening configured to align with the camera feature of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover; and a pliable molded surface covering the at least one control button of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover, wherein the pliable molded surface is configured to transmit a mechanical pressure applied at an exterior surface of the pliable molded surface to the control button of the electronic device for actuation of the control button while disposed in the protective cover. 11. The protective cover of claim 10 wherein the cushioning member includes the pliable molded surface covering the control button. 12. The protective cover of claim 10 further comprising an access port in at least one of the plurality of side members of the protective shell base, the access port configured to be proximate the electrical interface of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover. 13. The protective cover of claim 12 further comprising a second access port in at least one of the plurality of side members of the protective shell base, the second access port configured to be proximate and provide access to a headphone jack of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover. 14. The protective cover of claim 10 further comprising an opening in the cushioning member for accessing the electrical interface of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover. 15. The protective cover of claim 10 further comprising a sealing member, the sealing member configured to seal at least one of the first opening and the second opening to a surface of the installed electronic device. 16. The protective cover of claim 15 wherein the cushioning member comprises the sealing member. 17. An apparatus for use with an electronic device, the electronic device having a housing, an interactive touchscreen display, a control button, a camera, and an electrical interface, the apparatus comprising: a protective cover having an inner surface, an outer surface, and a plurality of side members defining a perimeter of the protective cover, the protective cover configured to receive at least a portion of the electronic device and cover at least a portion of the housing of the electronic device when the electronic device is installed in the protective cover, the protective cover having a rigid shell and a cushioning member for cushioning at least a portion of the installed electronic device in the protective cover, wherein the cushioning member contacts at least a portion of a back surface of the housing of the installed electronic device; a first opening in the protective cover, the first opening configured to align with and provide access to at least a portion of the interactive touchscreen display of the installed electronic device; a second opening in the protective cover, the second opening configured to align with the camera of the installed electronic device and provide optical access to the camera of the installed electronic device; and a third opening in at least one of the plurality of the side members of the protective cover, the third opening positioned to be proximate the electrical interface of the installed electronic device and configured to provide access to the electrical interface of the installed electronic device from an area outside the protective cover. 18. The protective cover of claim 17 further comprising a door for covering the third opening, the door movable between a closed position and an opened position for accessing the electrical interface of the installed electronic device from an area outside of the protective cover. 19. The protective cover of claim 17 wherein the control button is on a side of the electronic device and the cushioning member extends over the control button of the installed electronic. 20. The protective cover of claim 17 further comprising a fourth opening in at least one of the plurality of the side members, the fourth opening positioned to be proximate a second electrical interface of the installed electronic device and configured to provide access to the second electrical interface of the installed electronic device from the area outside the protective cover.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/642,437, filed Jul. 6, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/379,777 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,735,827), filed Dec. 15, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/798,562 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,560,435), filed Jul. 14, 2015, which is which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/631,740 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,114,923), filed Feb. 25, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/283,055 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,995,127), filed May 20, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/031,700 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,922,985), filed Sep. 19, 2013, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/560,621 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,599,547), filed Sep. 16, 2009, which is a division of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/456,157 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,609,512), filed Jul. 7, 2006, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/937,048 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,158,376), filed Sep. 8, 2004, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/645,439 (now U.S. Pat. No. 6,995,976), filed Aug. 20, 2003, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/300,200 (now U.S. Pat. No. 6,646,864), filed Nov. 19, 2002, which claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/335,865, filed Nov. 19, 2001. The entire contents of the above mentioned applications and patents are hereby specifically incorporated by reference in their entireties. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Portable electronic devices (PEDs), such as PDAs, computers, MP3 players, music players, video players, smart phones, GPS receivers, telematics devices, cell phones, satellite phones, pagers, monitors, etc., are being very widely used, and are being deployed in industrial as well as office environments. PEDs are being used in industrial environments for data collection, such as service information on an airplane, or for data delivery such as maps for fire fighters and other emergency personnel. When PEDs are deployed in such industrial applications, the data that is collected and displayed on the PED can be extremely valuable and can be lifesaving. The industrial environments impose harsh conditions that typical PEDs are not designed to accommodate. For example, damage can be done to the PED through rough handling and dropping. Further, industrial chemicals, grease, water, dirt, and grime may damage or destroy a functioning PED and inhibit the use of the PEDs valuable data. It is common to hold the PEDs inside a protective case for transport. However, PEDs are usually removed for use since most cases used for transport are not interactive. Interactive cases are also useful for non-industrial applications to provide protection for PEDs. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect, a protective cover is disclosed for an electronic device having an interactive touch screen display, at least one control button, a camera feature, and an electrical interface. The protective cover includes a protective shell having an inner surface, an outer surface, and a plurality of side members defining a perimeter of the protective shell. The protective cover also includes a cushioning member coupled with at least the inner surface of the protective shell. The cushioning member is configured for cushioning the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover. The protective cover also includes a first opening defined by the perimeter of the protective cover. The first opening is configured to align with and expose at least a portion of the interactive touch screen display when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover. The protective cover also includes a second opening configured to align with the camera feature of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover. The protective cover further includes an access port in at least one of the plurality of side members of the protective cover. The access port is positioned to be proximate the electrical interface of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover. In another aspect, a protective enclosure for a mobile computing device is provided. The protective enclosure includes a first case member, a second case member, a plurality of pliable areas, an electrical connector, audio headphones, and a headphone cable. The first and second case members each have an exterior surface, and interior surface, and a perimeter portion. The second case member is removably attachable to the first case member with one or more latching mechanisms. The attachment of the second case member to the first case member forms a protective interior of the protective enclosure for receiving the mobile computing device. The plurality of pliable areas are disposed in the first case member and/or the second case member, and each align with a corresponding control button of the mobile computing device. The pliable areas transmit at least a portion of a force applied at an external surface of one of the pliable areas to the corresponding control button of the mobile computing device to actuate the corresponding control button of the mobile computing device when the mobile computing device is in the protective interior of the protective enclosure. The electrical connector is attached to the interior surface of the second case member, and is structured to mate with a corresponding electrical connector of the mobile computing device when the mobile computing device is inside the protective enclosure. The audio headphones are connected to the exterior surface of one of the first case member and the second case member via a headphone cable. The headphone cable electrically interconnects the audio headphones to the electrical connector of the protective enclosure such that audio signals generated by the mobile computing device inside the protective interior are transmitted through the electrical connector of the mobile computing device through the electrical connector of the protective enclosure and through the headphone cable to the headphones outside the protective enclosure. In another aspect, the disclosure describes a protective case for a portable electronic device, including first and second case portions, a pliable molded surface, an electrical connector, and audio headphones. The first case portion may have an exterior surface, an interior surface, and a perimeter portion. The second case portion may also have an exterior surface, an interior surface, and a perimeter portion, and may be removably attachable to the first case portion to form a protective shell. Such protective shell may include a cavity for the portable electronic device inside the shell, the cavity defined by at least a portion of the interior surface of the first case portion and at least a portion of the interior surface of the second case portion. The pliable molded surface may be disposed in an opening of one of the first case portion and the second case portion, and may align with a corresponding control button of the portable electronic device. The pliable molded surface may transmit a mechanical pressure applied at an exterior surface of the pliable molded surface to the control button of the portable electronic device to actuate the control button of the portable electronic device when the portable electronic device is inside the shell. The electrical connector may be attached to the interior surface of the first or second case portion, and may mate with an electrical interface of the portable electronic device when the portable electronic device is inside the shell. The audio headphones may have a headphone cable connected to the exterior surface of the first or second case portion. The headphone cable may be electrically interconnected through a wall of the first or second case portion to the electrical connector of the protective case. This interconnection permits electrical audio signals generated by the portable electronic device inside the shell to be transmitted from the electrical interface of the portable electronic device through the electrical connector and through the headphone cable to the headphones. In another disclosed aspect a protective case for a portable electronic device may include a protective shell, audio headphones, and a headphone cable. The protective shell may include a first case portion, a second case portion, a pliable surface, and an electrical pass-through. The first case portion and the second case portion may each have an exterior surface and an interior surface. The second case portion may be removably attachable to the first case portion, where attachment of the second case portion to the first case portion forms a protective cavity for the portable electronic device. The pliable surface may be disposed in an opening of one of the first case portion and the second case portion. The pliable surface may align with a control feature of the portable electronic device when the portable electronic device is inside the protective cavity. The pliable surface may also be structured to transmit at least a portion of a mechanical force applied at an external surface of the protective shell to the control feature of the portable electronic device to actuate the control feature. The electrical pass-through provides electrical access to a headphone jack of the portable electronic device from outside the protective shell when the portable electronic device is inside the protective cavity in the protective shell. The audio headphones are affixed, and electrically connected, to the headphone cable. The headphone cable electrically connects the audio headphones to the headphone jack of the portable electronic device inside the protective shell through the electrical pass-through such that audio signals from the portable electronic device inside the protective shell are conducted to the audio headphones through the headphone cable. In yet another example, a protective case for use with a portable electronic device includes a protective shell including a cavity for receiving the portable electronic device and a pliable surface disposed in an opening of the protective shell. The pliable surface being adapted to transmit at least a portion of a mechanical force applied at an external surface of the protective shell to the control feature of the installed portable electronic device to actuate the control feature of the installed portable electronic device. The protective case also includes an electrical pass-through disposed in a wall of the protective shell for accessing an electrical connector of the installed portable electronic device from outside the protective shell and an electrical cable configured to electrically connect a peripheral device to the electrical connector of the installed portable electronic device through the electrical pass-through. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the drawings, FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the invention shown in the closed position. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the invention shown in the open position. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the invention shown in an exploded state. FIG. 4 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the invention shown from the rear. FIG. 5 is a front view of an embodiment of the invention, showing a section line. FIG. 6 is a section view of an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 7 is a detailed view of a section shown in FIG. 6. FIG. 8 is a perspective view of another embodiment comprising a single piece encapsulating cover. FIGS. 9 and 9A to 9C show a perspective view of a third embodiment comprising a non-encapsulating snap over cover and various close-up and cross-sectional views. FIG. 10 is a perspective view of an embodiment that comprises a belt clip. FIG. 11 is a second perspective view of an embodiment that comprises a belt clip. FIG. 12 is a perspective view of another embodiment of the present invention of a protective cover for a PED or other device. FIG. 13A is a perspective top view of another embodiment of a protective enclosure for a tablet PC. FIG. 13B is a view of the protective enclosure lid of FIG. 13A. FIG. 14 is a perspective top view of the embodiment of FIG. 13A with an open lid. FIG. 15 is a perspective bottom view of the embodiment of FIG. 13A. FIG. 16 is a perspective view of the base of the embodiment of FIG. 13A FIG. 17 is an exploded view of an embodiment of a protective enclosure for an interactive flat-panel controlled device. FIG. 18 is an exploded view of another embodiment of a protective enclosure for an interactive flat-panel controlled device. FIG. 19 is an exploded view of another embodiment of a protective enclosure with an open lid for a laptop computer device. FIG. 20 is an exploded view of a protective enclosure with an open lid for a laptop computer device positioned inside the enclosure. FIG. 21 is a perspective top view of a protective enclosure with a closed lid for a laptop computer device. FIG. 22 is a perspective bottom view of the protective enclosure FIG. 21. FIG. 23 is a perspective front view of the embodiment of FIG. 21. FIG. 24 is a perspective end view of the embodiment of FIG. 21. FIG. 25 is a perspective back view of the embodiment of FIG. 21. FIG. 26 is a perspective view of the USB hub. FIG. 27 is a perspective view of the USB hub mounted inside the enclosure of FIG. 21. FIG. 28 is a perspective view of the USB hub mounted inside the enclosure of FIG. 14. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the invention. Embodiment 100 comprises a rigidly molded front case 102 and rear case 104. An overmolded grommet 106 forms a receptacle for stylus 108 and also aids in sealing membrane 110. A flexible hand strap 112 attaches to the rear case 104. A hinge 114 joins front case 102 and rear case 104. A ring 124 for a lanyard is shown as an integral feature of rear case 104. Embodiment 100 is designed to hold a conventional personal digital assistant (PED) in a protective case. A PED, such as a Palm Pilot, Handspring Visor, Compaq Ipaq, Hewlett Packard Jornada, or similar products, use a touch screen for display and data entry. The touch screen display comprises either a color or black and white liquid crystal display with a touch sensitive device mounted on top of the display. The display is used for displaying graphics, text, and other elements to the user. The touch screen is used with a stylus 108 to select elements from the screen, to draw figures, and to enter text with a character recognition program in the PED. The stylus 108 generally resembles a conventional writing implement. However, the tip of the writing implement is a rounded plastic tip. In place of a stylus 108, the user may use the tip of a finger or fingernail, or a conventional pen or pencil. When a conventional writing implement is used, damage to the touch screen element may occur, such as scratches. For the purposes of this specification, the term PED shall include any electronic device that has a touch screen interface. This may include instruments such as voltmeters, oscilloscopes, logic analyzers, and any other hand held, bench top, or rack mounted instrument that has a touch screen interface. Hand held devices, such as cell phones, satellite phones, telemetric devices, and other hand held devices are also to be classified as PEDs for the purposes of this specification. The term PED shall also include any computer terminal display that has a touch screen interface. These may comprise kiosks, outdoor terminal interfaces, industrial computer interfaces, commercial computer interfaces, and other computer displays. Additionally, the term PED may comprise barcode scanners, hand held GPS receivers, and other handheld electronic devices. The foregoing description of the term PED has been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise forms disclosed, and other modifications and variations may be possible in light of the teachings of this specification. In addition, the PEDs typically have a handful of additional buttons as part of the user interface. These buttons are generally on the front of the device, near the touch screen element. The additional buttons may be used as shortcut buttons to instantly call up a certain program on the PED, may comprise a method of scrolling, may be used to select items from a list, or may have any function that the designer of the PED software may assign to the button or set of buttons. The button size, layout, and function may vary for each manufacturer and model of PED. Further, PEDs typically have at least one method of connecting to another computer. This may be through a direct electrical connection, such as through a wire cable or fiber optic, or through another medium such as infrared communication or through a radio communication. Additionally, the PEDs typically have an electrical source. The electrical source may be a rechargeable or non-rechargeable battery or solar cells. The electrical source may be a remote source of electricity that is transmitted to the PED through a wire cable or through other methods of electrical transmission. Further, PEDs may have indicator lights, such as status lights for power, communication, battery status, or other functions. The lights may be located on any of the sides of the PED and may be viewable on one or more sides. Front case 102 and rear case 104 form a protective cover for the PED. The protective cover may be designed for rugged industrial use, recreational use, commercial use, or many other uses. An industrial use may require the protective cover to be watertight, chemically resistant, protect the unit when dropped, and be crush proof. A typical application may be for fire fighters to use a PED for a display of maps for directions to an emergency scene or for a building plan at the scene of a fire. Another example may be a maintenance mechanic in a chemical plant using a PED to record maintenance records in the plant that processes. A recreational use may require the cover to be watertight, afford some protection against dropping and being crushed, float in water, and be dust resistant. A recreational use may be to take the PED during kayaking, diving, or other water sport activity. Further, the case may be used when the PED is taken camping, hiking, or other outdoor activity. A commercial use may additionally require the protective cover to be elegant, but may also require the cover to be replaceable so that scratches and other signs of wear and tear can be easily and cheaply replaced. The protective cover for the PED may take on many embodiments. The embodiment 100 comprises a front case 102 and rear case 104 that are joined by a hinge 114 and a clasp mechanism that is on the side of the cases opposite the hinge 114. Other embodiments may have a small door into which the PED slides, or the protective cover may not completely enclose the PED and only cover the face where the user interface exists, leaving one or more sides of the PED exposed. Those skilled in the art may use other designs of protective covers without deviating from the scope and intent of the present invention. The protective cover may be constructed of rigid plastic, metal, flexible rubber, or any other type of material that could be adapted to afford the protection of the PED desired for the application. For example, a metal cover may be used in an application where an elegant style is necessary but watertightness is not. A flexible rubber cover may be selected for an application in a wet environment. A rigid plastic cover may be selected for an application where dropping the PED is a concern. Those skilled in the art may use other types of materials and constructions without deviating from the spirit of the present invention. The PED may be mounted in the protective cover using many different mounting techniques. For example, the PED may be mounted using open or closed cell foam inserts in the protective cover. In another embodiment, the PED may be mounted by attaching the PED to the cover with a fastener. In another embodiment, the PED may be mounted by snapping into the protective waterproof cover. In another embodiment, the PED may be held in place by resting in molded features of two halves of a protective case that clamps onto the PED. Those skilled in the art may use other types of locating and holding mechanisms without deviating from the spirit of the present invention. The overmolded grommet 106 of the present embodiment is constructed by injection molding a thermoplastic polymerized rubber (TPR) over the front case 102. The grommet 106 has molded features 116 and 118 adapted to retain the stylus 108. Features 116 and 118 capture the stylus 108 during transportation, but allow the user to remove the stylus 108 to operate the PED. In other embodiments of the present invention, the stylus 108 may be constrained to the PED with a tether or lanyard, or the constraining features may be incorporated into other components that make up the protective cover. Further, the stylus 108 may not be present in the embodiment, rather, the PED be adapted to be used with the user's fingernail or with another implement similar to the stylus 108. The membrane 110 of the present embodiment is constructed by thermoforming a sheet of thin plastic. The plastic is selected to be thin enough that the deformation of a stylus conducts the touch to the touch screen, but thick enough to have enough rigidity that the stylus does not catch and rip the membrane. Additionally, the membrane 110 should have enough thickness to endure scratches and other wear and tear without breaking and sacrificing the protective function. Polyvinylchloride material at 0.010 inches to 0.015 inches thickness gives acceptable results. Alternatively, membrane 110 may be constructed by injection molding or other methods. Alternative materials may be used by those skilled in the art to achieve the same results while maintaining within the spirit and intent of the present invention. The membrane 110 in the present embodiment may be translucent or at least partially transparent, so that the images displayed on the PED may be visible through the membrane 110. The membrane 110 may be tinted or colorized in some applications. For example, a protective cover designed as a decorative cover may incorporate a colorized membrane 110. Further, the membrane may be selectively colorized and the opaqueness may vary. For example, the protective membrane may be printed or painted in the areas not used for the touch screen. A printing process may incorporate a logo, graphics, or labeling for individual buttons for the PED. The printing process may further incorporate features, such as text or graphics, that are used by the software on the PED for a purpose such as simplifying data input or for designating an area on the touch screen for a specific function, such as a help function. The printing or painting processes used on the membrane 110 may be purely decorative and may be for aesthetic purposes only. The printing process may also comprise logos or graphics for the brand identity of the PED cover. Other processes, such as colorizing the raw material for the membrane 110 or adding other components to the raw material, such as metal flakes or other additives, may be used to change the optical features of the membrane 110. The optical performance of the membrane 110 may be changed or enhanced by changing the texture of the area of the touch screen. For example, the membrane may be frosted on the outside to hide scratches or may be imprinted with a lens or other features that change the optical characteristics of the membrane 110. The membrane 110 may have optical features that are used in conjunction with the software of the PED. For example, all or a portion of the membrane may comprise a lens that magnifies an image to a user. When the user touches the image on the membrane 110 and the touch is transferred to the touch screen, the software in the PED may have to compensate for the positional differences between the image and actual area that was touched by the user. In another example, if a specific portion of the membrane 110 had a specific optical characteristic, the software of the PED may be constructed to display a specific graphic for the area for an intended effect. The membrane 110 in the present embodiment has a recessed portion 120 and a raised portion 122. The recessed portion 120 may be adapted to press flat against the touch screen area of a specific PED. The raised portion 122 may be adapted to fit over an area of the specific PED where several buttons are located. The raised portion 122 allows the user to operate the buttons on the PED. The raised portion 122 is adapted such that the buttons on the PED are easily operated through the protective membrane 110. The raised portion 122 may have special features to aid the user in pressing the buttons. For example, the raised portion 122 may comprise a dimpled area for the user's finger located directly over the button. Further, a feature to aid the user may comprise a section of membrane 110 defined by a thinner area around the section, enabling the user to more easily deflect the section of membrane over the button. The area of thinner material may comprise a large section or a thin line. Further, tactile elements, such as small ribs or bumps may be incorporated into the membrane 110 in the area of the buttons so that the user has a tactile sensation that the user's finger is over the button. The tactile element may be particularly effective if the button was a power switch, for example, that turned on the PED. The configuration of the membrane 110 may be unique to each style or model of PED, however, the front case 102 and rear case 104 may be used over a variety of PEDs. In the present embodiment, the changeover from one PED variety to another is accomplished by replacing the membrane 110 without having to change any other parts. The present embodiment may therefore be mass-produced with the only customizable area being the membrane 110 to allow different models of PEDs to be used with a certain front case 102 and rear case 104. The hand strap 112 in the present embodiment allows the user to hold the embodiment 100 securely in his hand while using the PED. The hand strap 112 may be constructed of a flexible material, such as rubber or cloth webbing, and may have an adjustment, such as a buckle, hook and loop fastener, or other method of adjustment. In other embodiments, a hand strap may be a rigid plastic handle, a folding handle, or any other method of assisting the user in holding the embodiment. Further, the embodiment may be adapted to be fix-mounted to another object, like a piece of machinery, a wall, or any other object. A fix-mounted embodiment may have other accoutrements adapted for fixed mount applications, such as receptacles for a stylus adapted to a fix-mount, specialized electrical connections, features for locking the PED inside the case to prevent theft, or designs specifically adapted to shed water when rained upon. FIG. 2 illustrates a perspective view of the embodiment 100 shown in an open position. The front case 102 and rear case 104 are shown open about the hinge 114. Membrane 110 is shown installed into gasket 106, and the recessed portion 120 and raised portion 122 of membrane 110 is illustrated looking from the inside of the case. The clasp mechanisms are not shown in this illustration. Hand strap 112 is shown attached to rear case 104. FIG. 3 illustrates a perspective view of the embodiment 100 shown in an exploded state. The hand strap 116 attaches to the rear cover 104. The overmolded grommet 106 holds the stylus 108 and is attached to front cover 102. The membrane 110 attaches to the grommet 106 and is held in place with an o-ring 302. FIG. 4 illustrates a perspective view of the embodiment 100 shown from the rear. The hand strap 116 is shown, along with rear cover 104 and front cover 102. The stylus 108 is shown inserted into the overmolded grommet 106. FIG. 5 illustrates a top view of the embodiment 100. The front cover 102, membrane 110, stylus 108, and hinge 114 are all visible. FIG. 6 illustrates a section view of the embodiment 100 taken through the section line shown in FIG. 5. The front cover 102, rear cover 104, overmolded gasket 106, stylus 108, membrane 110, hand strap 112, and o-ring 302 are all shown hatched in this view. FIG. 7 illustrates a detail view of the embodiment 100 shown in FIG. 6. Front case 102 and rear case 104 are joined at hinge 114. Overmolded gasket 106 traps membrane 110 and o-ring 302 locks membrane 110 in place. Overmolded gasket 106 may be formed by molding thermoplastic polymerized rubber over the front cover 102. The replacement of the membrane 110 is accomplished by removing o-ring 302, pushing the membrane 110 from the overmolded gasket 106, snapping a new membrane 110 into place, and replacing the o-ring 302. The ease of replacement of the present embodiment allows a user to quickly replace a damaged membrane 110, allows a user to upgrade their case to a newer model PED, and may allow a user to select from various membranes 110 for the particular application. One embodiment may have a single case packaged with a small variety of several types of membranes 110. In such an embodiment, the user may purchase the packaged set, select the membrane 110 that suits the user's particular PED, and install the selected membrane 110 with ease. The protective cover of the present invention may have direct connections through the cover for connecting through the case. Such a connection is known as pass through. The connections may be for power, communication, heat dissipation, optical transmissions, mechanical motion, or other reasons. Electrical connections may require an insulated metal conductor from the PED through the wall of the protective cover so that a flexible cable may be attached or so that the PED in its protective case may be placed in a cradle for making the electrical connection. Inside the protective cover, the electrical connections may be made with a flexible cable that is plugged into the PEDs electrical connector before the PED is secured in the protective cover. Alternatively, a fixed connector may be attached to the protective cover and the PED is slid into contact with the fixed connector. Another embodiment may be for a compliant, yet fixed mounted electrical connector to be rigidly mounted inside the protective cover. A compliant, yet fixed mounted electrical connector 1830 may comprise spring loaded probes, commonly referred to as pogo pins. Another embodiment may comprise spring fingers that engage the PEDs electrical contacts. On the outside of the protective cover, the electrical contacts may be terminated into a fix-mounted connector adapted to receive a cable from a computer. The connector may be designed to receive a cable that plugs directly into the PED or it may be adapted to receive a different connector. Further, the electrical connection to the PED may be permanently attached to a cable that extends out of the protective cover. Another embodiment may be to have a small trap door that opens in the protective cover to allow access to the electrical connections. While the trap door exposes the PED to the elements the cover is designed to protect against, a direct electrical connection may eliminate a potential cabling connection problem. Connections for fiber optics can be handled in similar fashions as the electrical connections. An embodiment with a power connection may comprise the use of inductive coils, such as inductive coil 1840, located in proximity to each other but on opposite sides of the protective cover. Those skilled in the art of may devise other embodiments for connecting through the protective cover without deviating from the scope and intent of the present invention. Through the air communications, such as infrared and over the air radio frequency (RF) communications may pass through the protective cover. The material for the front case 102 and rear case 104 may be selected to be clear plastic, such as polycarbonate. The infrared transceiver of the PED can communicate through a clear plastic case to another infrared transceiver outside of the case. Further, the appropriate selection of material for the protective case can thereby enable various RF transmissions, such as cellular phone communications or other wireless communication protocols. An infrared transmission through the protective case of an embodiment of the invention may be accomplished by making the entire protective case out of a clear material. Alternatively, a selected area of the protective case may be clear while the remainder of the case is opaque. The selected area may be constructed of a separate piece that allows the infrared light through the protective case. Alternatively, the selected area may be constructed of a portion of the protective case that was manufactured in a way so as not to be opaque, such as selectively not painting or plating the area of a plastic protective case. Further, the clear material through which the transmission occurs may be tinted in the visual spectrum but be translucent or at least partially transparent in the infrared spectrum of the device. A protective case may allow RF transmissions to and from the PED while the case is closed. Such a case may be constructed of a non-metallic material. In some embodiments, the material of the protective case may be tuned to allow certain frequencies to pass through the protective cover and tune out other frequencies, through loading the material used in the protective cover with conductive media or through varying the thickness of the case and other geometries of the case in the area of the PED transmission and reception antenna. In a different embodiment, it may be desirable to shield the PED from outside RF interference. In this case, the protective cover may be a metallic construction or may be plastic with a metallized coating. Further, membrane 110 may have a light metallized coating applied so that membrane 110 is slightly or fully conductive. An application for such an embodiment may be the use of the PED in an area of high RF noise that may interfere with the operation of the PED, or conversely, the use may be in an area that is highly susceptible to external RF interference and the PEDs RF noise may be interfering with some other device. The PED may be equipped with a camera or other video capture device. A protective cover may have provisions to allow a clear image to be seen by the video capture device through the case. Such provisions may include an optically clear insert assembled into the protective case. Other embodiments may have a sliding trap door whereby the user of the PED may slide the door open for the camera to see. Additionally, other embodiments may comprise a molded case that has an optically clear lens integrally molded. Such an embodiment may be additionally painted, plated, or overmolded, with the lens area masked so that the painting, plating, or overmolding does not interfere with the optics of the lens. An optically clear area may be used for a barcode scanner portion of a PED to scan through the case to the outside world. In such an embodiment, a barcode scanner may be protected from the elements while still maintaining full functionality in the outside world. The PED may have indicator lights that indicate various items, such as power, battery condition, communication, and other status items. The indicator lights may be in positions on the PED that are not readily viewable through the protective membrane 110. The indicator lights may be made visible through the protective case by using light pipes that transmit the light from the PEDs status light to the outside of the protective case. Such light pipes may be constructed of clear or tinted plastic, or other translucent or semi-transparent material. The light pipes may be formed as an integral feature to the protective case or may be separate parts that are formed separately and assembled to the protective case. The PED may have a speaker or other element that makes noise and/or the PED may have a microphone for receiving audio signals. The speaker may be an audio quality device for reproducing sound or it may be a simple buzzer for indicating various functions of the PED. The microphone may be an audio quality device or it may be a low performance device. Special provisions may be made for transmitting sound through a protective case. Such provisions may range from a single hole in the case to a tuned cavity that would allow sound to pass through with minimum distortion. Other embodiments may include a transmissive membrane adapted to allow sound to pass through the protective case with a minimum of distortion. Such membranes may be located near the speaker and microphone elements of the PED. Such membranes may be watertight membranes known by the brand name Gore-Tex. The PED may generate heat during its use and provisions for dissipating the heat may be built into the protective cover. A heat-dissipating device may be integral to the protective cover or may comprise one or more separate parts. For example, a metallic protective cover may be adapted to touch the PED in the area of heat generation and conduct the heat outwardly to the rest of the protective cover. The protective cover may thereby dissipate the heat to the external air without overheating the PED. In another example, a separate heat sink may be applied to the PED and allowed to protrude through a hole in the protective cover. The heat sink may thereby transfer the heat from the PED to the ambient environment without overheating the PED. The heat sinks may be attached to the PED with a thermally conductive adhesive. Other embodiments may include vent holes for heat dissipation and air circulation. The PED may have a button that may not be located underneath the membrane 110. An embodiment may include a flexible, pliable, or otherwise movable mechanism that may transmit mechanical motion from the outside of the case to a button on the PED. Such an embodiment may have a molded dimpled surface that is pliable and allows a user to activate a button on a PED by pressing the dimpled surface. Another embodiment may have a rigid plunger that is mounted on a spring and adapted to transmit the mechanical movement from the exterior of the case to a button on the PED. The buttons on the PED may be located on any side of the PED and an embodiment of a case may have pliable areas adapted to allow the user to press buttons that are not on the front face of the PED. FIG. 8 is an illustration of embodiment 800 of the present invention wherein the PED 802 is encapsulated by a protective cover 804. The installation of the PED 802 is to slide PED 802 into the opening 808, then fold door 806 closed and secure with flap 810, which is hinged along line 812. Areas 814 and 816 may comprise a hook and loop fastener system or other fastening device. Recessed area 818 is adapted to fit against touch screen 820 of PED 802. Embodiment 800 may be comprised of a single molded plastic part that may be very low cost. As shown, embodiment 800 may not be completely weathertight, since the door 806 does not completely seal the enclosure. However, such an embodiment may afford considerable protection to the PED 802 in the areas of dust protection, scratch protection, and being occasionally rained upon. Further, the low cost of the embodiment 800 may be changed often during the life of the PED 802. Embodiment 800 may have custom colors, logos, or designs that allow a user to personalize their PED with a specific cover that is suited to their mood or tastes. The colors, logos, and designs may be integrally molded into the cover 804. Alternatively, different colors, logos, and designs may be applied in a secondary operation such as printing, painting, plating, or other application process. FIG. 9 is an illustration of embodiment 900 of the present invention wherein a decorative cover 902 is snapped over a PED 904. The ends 906 and 908 snap over the PED ends 910 and 912 as an attachment mechanism for cover 902 to PED 904. Recessed area 914 is adapted to fit against touch screen 916. Embodiment 900 may be a cover for decorative purposes only, or may be for protective purposes as well. Cover 902 may be emblazoned with logos, designs, or other visual embellishments to personalize the PED 904. The colors, logos, and designs may be integrally molded into the cover 904. Alternatively, different colors, logos, and designs may be applied in a secondary operation such as printing, painting, plating, or other application process. For example, FIGS. 9A-9C illustrate close-up (9A, 9B) and cross-sectional (9C) views of the cover 902 in which the material of the cover 902 may incorporate various additives, plating, coating, etc. FIG. 9A illustrates an embodiment in which metal flakes 920 are included in the material from which the cover 902 is formed. The drawing is not to scale, and it will be appreciated by those in the art that the metal flakes may take any shape or size, including very small. FIG. 9B illustrates an embodiment that incorporates fibers 930 such as glass fibers, carbon fibers, metal fibers, polyamide fibers, and mixtures thereof. Those having ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the size and orientation of the fibers may vary. FIG. 9C is a cross-sectional view of an protective cover embodiment, such as shown in FIG. 9, that incorporates a coating 940, such as a metallic coating that coats an exterior portion of the protective cover 902. The coating, plating, or painted material, including metallic coating, may be implemented in one or several of a range of thicknesses. Although not shown specifically, one of ordinary skill in the art may appreciate that a coating such as shown in FIG. 9C may itself incorporate metal flakes, fibers, and/or other additives. Those of skill in the art will appreciate that a coating may alternatively or additionally be applied to an interior portion of the cover 902. In some instances the additives and/or coatings may provide shock absorption characteristics to the cover. Although the close-up and cross-sectional views provided in FIGS. 9A-9C are shown in association with decorative cover 902 of FIG. 9, it will be appreciated that the construction material of other embodiments disclosed herein may employ flakes, fibers, coatings, and other additives in like manner. Embodiment 900 may be attached by snapping the cover 902 onto PED 904. Special provisions in the case of PED 904 may be provided for a snapping feature of cover 902, or cover 902 may be adapted to hold onto PED 904 without the use of special features in PED 904. The features used to secure cover 902 to PED 904 may be any mechanism whereby the cover 902 can be secured. This includes snapping, clamping, fastening, sliding, gluing, adhering, or any other method for securing two components together. FIG. 10 illustrates a perspective view of an embodiment of a receiver 1002 for holding the protective case 100. The protective case 100 is held into receiver 1002 in such a manner that the touch screen display is facing into the receiver 1002, to afford the touch screen display with protection. FIG. 11 illustrates a perspective view of the embodiment of a receiver 1002 shown from the opposite side as FIG. 10. Receiver 1002 is comprised of a back 1102, a belt clip mechanism 1104, and four clip areas 1106, 1108, 1110, and 1112. The protective case 100 is placed into the receiver 1002 by inserting one end into the receiver, then rotating the protective case 100 into position such that the snapping action of clip areas 1106, 1108, 1110, and 1112 are engaged to hold protective case 100 securely. Receiver 1002 may be adapted to clip onto a person's belt or may be adapted to be mounted on a wall or other location where the PED may be stored. The orientation of the protective case 100 is such that the touch screen element of the PED is protected during normal transport and storage, since the touch screen interface is facing the back 1102 of the receiver 1002. Receiver 1002 may be made of compliant plastic that allows the clip areas 1106, 1108, 1110, and 1112 to move out of the way and spring back during insertion or removal of the protective case 100. In the present embodiment, receiver 1002 may be constructed of a single part. In alternative embodiments, receiver 1002 may be constructed of multiple parts and of multiple materials, such as a metal back with spring loaded clips. In other embodiments, special features may be included in the protective case 100 where the receiver 1002 may engage a special feature for securing the protective case 100. FIG. 12 illustrates an embodiment 1200 of the present invention of a protective cover for a PED or other device. A rigid front cover 1202 and a rigid rear cover 1204 are held together with a series of latches 1206, 1208, 1210, and 1212. The protective membrane 1214 protects the touchscreen of the enclosed PED. A folding rigid cover 1216 operates as a rigid shield to prevent the membrane 1214 from any damage. The stylus holder 1220 is formed from an overmolded flexible material in which the membrane 1214 is mounted. Embodiment 1200 illustrates yet another embodiment of the present invention wherein a rigid protective cover may be used to contain and protect an electronic device, but provide full usable access to a touchscreen. The protective membrane 1214 and case may be watertight in some embodiments. FIG. 13A illustrates an embodiment of a protective enclosure 1300 that encloses and protects a tablet PC 1302. PEDs that have touch screens, as described above, have an interactive flat-panel control, i.e., the touch screen display. Tablet PCs are portable electronic computing devices that have a high-resolution interactive flat-panel control that accepts smooth stylus strokes such as handwriting. The embodiment of FIG. 13A is crush-resistant, impact-resistant, watertight, and simultaneously allows interactive stylus strokes and other sensitive user inputs to be accurately and easily transmitted through a protective screen membrane 1306 to the interactive flat-panel control of tablet PC 1302. A watertight and shock-absorbing foam cushion 1310 may be fixed and sealed to the underside of the lid 1304 around the interactive flat-panel control opening. The protective screen membrane 1306 is fixed and sealed to the shock-absorbing foam cushion 1310. The shock-absorbing foam cushion 1310 maintains the water tightness of the enclosure. The cushion 1310 also cushions the flat-panel control of the tablet PC 1302 and protects it against breakage if the enclosure and tablet PC are dropped or otherwise subjected to shock. In accordance with the embodiment of FIG. 13A, the shock-absorbing foam cushion 1310 has a thickness of approximately 0.25 inches and extends approximately 0.060 inches below the underside of the interactive flat-panel control opening of the lid 1304. One source of suitable watertight shock-absorbing foam is E.A.R. Specialty Composites of 7911 Zionville Rd., Indianapolis, Ind., 46268. Cushion 1310 allows the protective screen membrane to move a distance of up to 0.125 inches during an impact to the enclosure or when pressure is applied to protect membrane 1306 while pushing the tablet PC control buttons 1308 or writing on the interactive flat-panel control with a stylus through the membrane. The shock-absorbing foam cushion 1310 also pushes the protective screen membrane 1306 flatly against the surface of the interactive flat-panel control of the tablet PC 1302 so that sensitive user stylus strokes and other inputs are accurately transmitted. The pressure of the cushion 1310 on the protective screen membrane 1306 which holds the protective screen membrane 1306 flatly against the interactive flat-panel control of the tablet PC 1302 also keeps display images, viewed through the protective screen membrane, clear and distortion-free. In embodiments of the protective enclosure to protect a touch-screen device, the protective membrane may be adjacent to the touch screen but does not exert mechanical pressure on the touch screen so that mechanical inputs such as style strokes are sensed only when intended. In embodiments of the protective enclosure to protect a tablet PC that has an RF stylus or to protect a handheld device that a capacitance-sensing interactive flat-panel control, the protective membrane may be pressed flat against the interactive flat-panel control which allows undistorted viewing but does not adversely affect the control since the interactive control uses capacitance or radio frequencies for interactive input instead of mechanical pressure. The protective screen membrane 1306 in the embodiment of FIG. 13A is at least partially transparent and has a thickness of approximately 0.010 inches. The thickness of the protective screen membrane 1306 should be typically in the range of 0.001 inches to 0.020 inches so that stylus strokes on the upper surface of protective screen membrane 1306 are transmitted accurately to the interactive flat-panel control of the tablet PC 1302. Likewise, protective screen membrane 1306 may be flexible or semi-rigid and may be made of polyvinylchloride or other suitable transparent thermoplastic, such as, for example, polyvinylchloride, thermoplastic polycarbonate, thermoplastic polypropylene, thermoplastic acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, thermoplastic polyurethane, which has a hardness and texture that permits the stylus to smoothly glide across the surface without skipping, grabbing, or catching against the surface. Some tablet PCs utilize a stylus which transmits strokes to the PC by way of radio frequency transmission. Protective screen membrane 1306 may be made of a rigid, clear, engineered thermoplastic such as, for example, thermoplastic polycarbonate or other thermoplastics as described above, for enclosing a tablet PC. A protective screen membrane 1306 that is rigid may include watertight access ports that allow operation of mechanical buttons or switches of the tablet PC 1302, such as, for example, control buttons 1308. The watertight access ports may include holes that have a moveable watertight plug, or any type of watertight button or lever. Protective screen membrane 1306 may include an anti-glare coating or can be made with an anti-glare texture so that display images are clearly viewable without distortion through the protective screen membrane 1306. In the embodiment of FIG. 13A, the lid 1304 of the protective enclosure 1300 may have an external stylus holder 1324 that securely holds a stylus used with the tablet PC 1302. As described above with respect to FIG. 1, the lid 1304 and the base 1312 may have air-permeable watertight vents 1318, 1326 that permit the cooling fans of the tablet PC 1302 to force air exchange to dissipate heat by convection so that the tablet PC 1302 does not overheat. Watertight vents 1318, 1326 may comprise holes in the lid 1304 and base 1312 that are made watertight by covering and sealing the holes with an air-permeable watertight membrane such as, for example, a fabricated expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) membrane. One source of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) membranes is W.L. Gore & Associates, Inc. of 555 Papermill Road, Newark, Del., 19711. The embodiment of FIG. 13A may also comprise a pod door 1322 that allows access to table PC interfaces such as, for example, PCMCIA or Smart Card slots. The pod door 1322 is attached to the lid 1304 so that it may be removed or opened. In the embodiment of FIG. 13A, the pod door 1322 is hingedly connected to a portion of the base 1312 at a location of the base 1312 that has an opening that allows access to the tablet PC interfaces. The opening can be covered by a watertight seal 1320, such as, for example, an O-ring that is part of pod door 1322. The underside of the lid 1304 also has a watertight seal, such as an O-ring, so that when compound latches 1328, 1330, 1332, and 1334 are closed, the O-ring or seal of the lid 1304 forms a watertight seal against the base 1312. The protective enclosure 1300 protects the tablet PC 1302 from water and dust intrusion sufficient to comply with Ingress Protection (IP) rating of IP 67, i.e., the protective enclosure totally protects the enclosed tablet PC from dust and protects the enclosed tablet PC from the effects of immersion in one meter of water for 30 minutes. The protective enclosure of the embodiment of FIG. 13A may further comprise protective overmolding 1316 attached to the lid 1304. A similar overmolding may be attached to the base 1312. The protective overmolding 1316 may be made of material that is easily gripped in slippery conditions and provides additional shock absorption such as, for example, rubber or silicone. The protective overmolding 1316 extends above the surface of the lid in pre-determined areas to provide protrusions that are easily gripped even in slippery conditions. The protective enclosure of the embodiment of FIG. 13 may further comprise watertight plugs such as access port plug 1314 that fit snugly into openings in the base 1312 that provide access to various interfaces, connectors, and slots of the tablet PC 1302. FIG. 13B illustrates a shell lid 1304 of the embodiment of FIG. 13A. Shell lid 1304 and base 1312 may be made of impact/crush resistant material such as glass-fiber reinforced engineered thermoplastic, such as for example, glass reinforced polycarbonate. Alternatively, the shell lid 1304 and shell base may be made of thermoplastic polycarbonate, thermoplastic polypropylene, thermoplastic acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, and thermoplastic compositions containing one or more thereof, or other engineered thermoplastics that provide a shock-resistant and impact resistant shell may be used. The engineered thermoplastics may be reinforced with glass fibers, carbon fibers, metal fibers, polyamide fibers, and mixtures thereof. Shell lid 1304 may be further reinforced with stiffeners 1334, 1336, 1338, 1340 that are integrally embedded into the shell lid around the perimeter of an opening in the shell that is directly over the interactive flat-panel control portion of the tablet PC. The stiffeners may be made of steel or other hard material so that the stiffeners provide additional strength and prevent flexing of the lid 1304 which enhances the watertightness and the impact/crush resistance. FIG. 14 is an illustration of the embodiment of FIG. 13A with the lid 1404 detached from the base 1412. To protect the tablet PC 1402 using the protective enclosure 1400, the tablet PC 1402 is disposed to fit snugly into the base 1412. The lid is oriented so that hooks 1436, 1438 area aligned with pin 1440 that is connected to a portion of the base 1412 and the lid is closed so that hooks 1436, 1438 are retained by pin 1440. Compound latches 1428, 1430, 1432, and 1434 are then snapped onto the lid so that the lid is compressed tightly against the base providing a watertight seal. FIG. 15 is a bottom view of the embodiment of FIG. 13. The base 1516 of protective enclosure 1500 includes watertight vents such as watertight vent 1506 for air exchange to permit heat and sound dissipation from the enclosed tablet PC while at the same time maintaining watertightness. Pod release knobs 1512, 1518 are attached to the base 1516 so that the knobs can be rotated clockwise to securely wedge against an edge of pod door 1522 to close the pod door 1522 tightly against a rim around the pod opening in base 1516 to create a watertight seal. Knobs 1512, 1518 can be rotated counter-clockwise to release pod door 1522 to access the interfaces of the tablet PC covered by pod door 1522. To provide additional protection against mechanical shock, heavy-duty corner bumpers such as bumper 1504 may be securely attached to the corners of base 1516. As shown in FIG. 15, an adjustable heavy-duty handle may be attached to the base 1516 of the protective enclosure 1500 to allow easy and reliable transportation of the protective enclosure 1500 that encloses a tablet PC. In some circumstances, it is convenient to hold the protective enclosure using hand strap 1514 that is made of strong slightly stretchable fabric. Hand strap 1514 attaches to four points of the base 1516 to that a user's hand or wrist can be inserted along the either the longer or shorted length on the protective enclosure 1500 and enclosure tablet PC. Hand strap 1514 may be made of neoprene or other strong stretchable material to securely hold the protective enclosure to the user's arm even in slippery conditions. The protective enclosure may further include a neck strap to provide a comfortable solution for using the tablet PC while standing. FIG. 16 illustrates a top view of the protective enclosure base 1600. Watertight vents such as watertight vent 1616 allow air exchange for heat dissipation and sound transmission from an enclosed tablet PC. Seal rim 1614 is an integrally formed part of the protective enclosure 1600 which is compressed against an O-ring in the protective enclosure lid to provide a watertight seal when compound latches 1628, 1630, 1632, and 1634 are closed onto the lid. Internal bumpers 1602, 1604, 1608, 1610 attach to the interior corners of protective enclosure base 1600 to provide cushion and mechanical shock protection to an enclosed tablet PC. The L-shape and non-solid interior of internal bumpers 1602, 1604, 1608, 1610 allows the bumpers to deflect and absorb the shock if the enclosed tablet PC is dropped or otherwise subjected to mechanical shock. The protective enclosure provides shock absorption sufficient to meet MIL-STD 810F, Method 516.5, Procedure 4, which is a Transit Drop Test. In the Transit Drop Test, the protective enclosure encloses a tablet PC or a mass equivalent to a tablet PC. The protective enclosure is sequentially dropped onto each face, edge, and corner for a total of 26 drops over plywood from a height of 48 inches. The protective enclosure is visually inspected after each drop and a functional check for leakage is performed after all drops are completed. Some tablet PCs have a docking connector disposed on the underside of the tablet PC so that the tablet PC can connect to power and signals. For example, emergency vehicles such as ambulances, fire trucks, or patrol cars, may have a docking station installed near the driver's seat onto which the driver may dock a tablet PC. The embodiment of protective enclosure base 1600, as illustrated in FIG. 1, may comprise a docking connector channel 1624 that is recessed with respect to the upper surface of the base that allows a docking connector to run from a docking connector that is disposed in the center underside of the tablet PC to access port 1626. Alternatively, a docking pass-through connector 1620 may be made an integral and watertight part of the protective enclosure base 1600 so that the tablet PC docking connector attaches to the docking pass-through connector 1620 which, in turn, connects to the docking station in substantially the same manner as an unenclosed tablet PC. FIG. 17 illustrates another embodiment of protective enclosure 1700 for a handheld electronic device 1702 that has an interactive flat-panel control such as, but limited to, a capacitance-sensing interactive flat panel control, a touch screen or other interactive control. Handheld electronic devices that have an interactive flat-panel control benefit from being enclosed in a rugged protective enclosure that is crush-resistant, watertight, and shock-resistant and that simultaneously allows the user to interact with a sensitive interactive flat-panel control. Handheld electronic devices that have interactive flat-panel control may include music players, MP3 players, audio player/recorders, video players, computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), GPS receivers, cell phones, satellite phones, pagers, monitors, etc. For example, Apple Computer Ipod is a popular handheld interactive device that plays MP3 or otherwise digitally-encoded music/audio. The Apple Ipod has an interactive flat-panel control in which a portion of the front panel is a flat-panel display and portion of the front panel is an interactive flat-panel control, called a touch wheel in some versions of the Ipod and click wheel in other versions of the Ipod, that has capacitive touch/proximity sensors. One function of such an interactive flat-panel control, i.e. touch wheel, is that the control can emulate a rotary control knob by sensing circular motion of a user's finger using capacitive sensors. The click wheel has the same function with the additional feature of sensing proximity of a user's finger and emulating button presses by a user's finger at pre-determined areas. In the embodiment of FIG. 17, the shell lid 1706 and the shell base 1704 are made of polycarbonate or other engineered thermoplastics such as polyethylene, polypropylene, etc. that are crush-resistant and impact resistant. Shell base 1704 has a watertight seal 1718, which may be an overmolded gasket, o-ring, liner or other seal that prevents water from entering the protective enclosure 1700 when the handheld interactive device 1702 is enclosed inside the protective enclosure 1700. Shell base 1704 and shell lid 1706 may include watertight vents, electrical connectors, see-through areas or features as disclosed with respect to FIG. 1. In the embodiment of FIG. 17, shell lid 1706 includes apertures over predetermined portions of the handheld interactive device 1702, such as the areas directly over the display screen 1714 and the interactive flat-panel control 1712, or other designated areas, as desired. A protective screen membrane 1710, that is at least partially transparent, is permanently or removably fixed in a watertight manner to the underside of shell lid 1706 in the aperture that is over the display screen 1714. The protective screen membrane 1710 may be recessed with respect to the upper surface of the shell lid 1706 which provides protective elevated rim that protects the display screen 1714 from breakage. Protective screen membrane 1710 may be PVC, silicone, polyethylene or other material that is watertight and rugged. In the case that display screen 1714 is a touch screen, the protective screen membrane 1710 should be smooth enough and thin enough that stylus strokes and other inputs are transmitted accurately to the touch screen as disclosed above with respect to FIG. 1, FIG. 12, and FIG. 13. Alternatively, it may be desirable not to have an aperture in shell lid 1706 for a protective membrane 1710. In another embodiment, the shell lid 1706 can be made of a transparent material so that a transparent window can be formed in the shell lid 1706 in place of the protective screen membrane 1710. The transparent window is aligned with the display screen 1714 so that the user can view the display screen 1714. In this case, a protective elevated rim that is aligned with the display screen 1714 is not required in the shell lid 1706 to protect the display screen 1714 from damage since there is no protective screen membrane 1710. If the display screen 1714 is a touch screen, the material of the shell lid 1706 that is aligned with the display screen 1714 to provide a window can be made thinner to allow the touch screen to properly operate. As also shown with respect to the embodiment of FIG. 17, a protective control membrane 1708 is permanently or removably fixed in a watertight manner to the underside of shell lid 1706 in an aperture that is aligned with the interactive flat-panel control 1714 of the handheld device 1702. The protective screen membrane 1710 is recessed with respect to the upper surface of the shell lid 1706 which provides protective elevated rim that protects the display screen 1714 from breakage and provides tactile feedback that guides a user's finger to the desired area, even in slippery conditions. Of course, the protective elevated rim may simply comprise the portion of the shell lid 1706 that is formed as a result of making an aperture in the shell lid 1706 and overmolding a protective touch-control membrane 1708 on an inside surface of the shell lid 1706. In other words, the thickness of the shell lid 1706 creates a protective rim since the protective touch-control membrane 1708 is overmolded or otherwise attached to the back side of the shell lid 1706. In that case, the rim is not elevated with respect to the surface of the shell lid 1706, but rather, is elevated with respect to the membrane to form a protective rim. Interactive flat-panel control 1712 has capacitive sensors, which are part of a proximity/touch detector circuit. When a grounded object, such as a person's finger, which has free air capacitance of several hundred picofarads, is brought close to the capacitive sensors, the total capacitance measured by the detector circuit increases because the capacitance of the object with free air capacitance adds to the capacitance of the sensors since the total capacitance of two capacitors in parallel is additive. Multiple sensors may also be arranged so that movement of an object with free air capacitance can be detected, for example, movement of a person's finger in a circular motion analogous to turning a mechanical control knob. Some examples of interactive flat-panel controlled PEDs include Ipod and Ipod Mini music and audio players from Apple Computer. In some PEDs, such as the Apple Ipod, capacitive sensors may be disposed below a front panel made from a dielectric such as polycarbonate, which has a dielectric constant in the range of 2.2-3.8. In the embodiment of FIG. 17, the protective control membrane 1708 is made of thin polycarbonate that is slightly flexible or other engineered thermoplastics that provide the rugged watertight protection and at the same time permit the capacitive sensors of the interactive flat-panel control 1712 to function correctly. Likewise, a protective control membrane 1708 with a dielectric constant that is too high may retain an electric charge long enough to reduce the response rate of the sensor to motion of a user's finger from one capacitive sensor zone of the interactive flat-panel control 1712 to another. A protective control membrane 1708 that is conductive or has a dielectric constant that is too low may diminish the sensitivity of the capacitive sensor by combining in series the capacitance of the protective membrane and the dielectric front panel of the PED which results in a lowering of the overall capacitance. Total capacitance between an object, such as a finger touching the protective control membrane 1708, and interactive flat-panel control 1712 is a function of the thickness and the dielectric constant of the protective control membrane 1708. The capacitance between the object, such as a finger, and the capacitive sensors of the interactive flat-panel control 1712 is proportional to the distance between the object and the sensors. The sensitivity of the capacitive sensors to the object may be diminished or completely eliminated if the protective control membrane 1708 is too thick. In the embodiment of FIG. 17, the thickness of the protective control membrane is approximately 0.020 inches. The protective control membrane 1708 may be any thickness in the range of 0.003 inches to 0.020 inches that is adequate to provide a rugged watertight membrane through which capacitance can be correctly sensed by the interactive flat-panel control 1712. The upper surface of the protective control membrane 1708 has a velvet/matte texture with a texture depth of 0.0004 to 0.003 inches that reduces the surface area of the membrane that is in frictional contact with the user's finger and permits a user's finger to glide rapidly upon the surface of the membrane without catching or sticking as a result of the reduced friction. The hardness of the polycarbonate material, or other hard engineered thermoplastic, also reduces the friction. Headphones or other accessories may be electrically connected to handheld device 1702 the through the protective enclosure 1700 by disposing the wire of the headphone or accessory in an insertable gasket 1716 which fits snugly into one end of the shell base 1704. FIG. 18 illustrates another embodiment of protective enclosure 1800 which is substantially the same as protective enclosure 1700 of FIG. 17. However, protective enclosure 1800 has an alternative electrical pass-through for accessories. In the embodiment of FIG. 18, shell base 1804 includes an adapter cable 1816 that has an adapter plug 1812 at one end which plugs into a jack of handheld device 1802. At the other end of the adapter cable 1816 is an adapter jack 1814 that is molded into, or otherwise integrally made part of, shell base 1804. An external accessory, such as a pair of headphones, may then be plugged into the adapter jack 1814 while the handheld device 1802 in enclosed in protective enclosure 1800. Alternatively, a one-piece adapter that includes both a jack 1814 and a plug 1812 without a cable 1816 may be integrally disposed into shell base 1804. Shell lid 1806 is adapted to retain an O-ring 1808 that seals the protective enclosure 1800 when shell lid 1806 is latched tightly onto shell base 1804 so that water cannot enter protective enclosure 1800. FIG. 19 illustrates in the open position a crush-resistant, impact-resistant, watertight, protective enclosure 2000 for an electronic device such as a laptop computer. The protective enclosure 2000 may be manufactured in a manner similar to the enclosure of FIG. 13 comprising an impact/crush resistant material such as glass-fiber reinforced engineered thermoplastic, such as for example, glass reinforced polycarbonate. It may also be made of thermoplastic polycarbonate, thermoplastic polypropylene, thermoplastic acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, and thermoplastic compositions containing one or more thereof, or other engineered thermoplastics that provide a shock-resistant and impact resistant shell. The inside of the enclosure is covered with a hook and loop liner 2002. Shock absorbing corner bumpers 2004 have hook and loop type bases so that they may attach at any point on the liner inside the enclosure at the corners of the electronic device to secure electronic devices of various sizes and provides a shock absorbent suspension system for the devices. The shape of the bumpers may vary in size and in depth. They may also vary such that the laptop is raised a predetermined height for the bottom of the enclosure so that there may be access to the ports and external drives such as CD and DVD. These bumpers allow the enclosure to be adaptable to any size laptop computer by placing it inside the enclosure and securing it into position with the bumpers 2004. Straps 2006 also secures the laptop into position. FIG. 20 illustrates a laptop 2008 secured in position as described above. An opening for a door or docking position 2010 may be provided that allows the case to be prewired for power or other USB connections. The watertight access ports may include holes that have a moveable watertight plug, or any type of watertight button or lever. The liner 2002 may also have some cushioning that cushions the laptop and protects it against breakage if the enclosure and laptop are dropped or otherwise subjected to shock. Normally, however, most of the cushioning is provided by the corner bumpers and the liner is not cushioned. In accordance with the embodiment of FIG. 19, the liner 2002 has a thickness of approximately 0.25. This enclosure is also adaptable to protect PC tablets of the type illustrated in FIG. 13A. The hook and loop liner may be adjacent to the touch screen but does not exert mechanical pressure on the touch screen so that mechanical inputs such as style stokes are sensed only when intended. The engineered thermoplastics may be reinforced with glass fibers, carbon fibers, metal fibers, polyamide fibers, and mixtures thereof. Referring to FIG. 21 the enclosure 2000 may have an elevated protective rim 2012 substantially surrounding a perimeter of the enclosure. This rim may be further reinforced with stiffeners made of steel or other hard material that are integrally embedded into the enclosure so that the stiffeners provide additional strength and protection to the enclosed devices, as shown in FIG. 13B. An adjustable heavy-duty handle 2016 may be attached to or integrally designed into protective enclosure 2000 to allow easy and reliable transportation. FIG. 22 illustrates the top of the enclosure wherein heavy-duty corner bumpers, such as bumper 2016, provide additional protection against mechanical shock and are securely attached to the corners of the base. The ribs 2012 also substantially surround a perimeter of the base of the enclosure. FIG. 23 illustrates a front view of the protective enclosure 2000. An addition protective rib 2018 is provided along the front of the case and extends around the case on the ends, as shown in FIG. 24. FIG. 25 illustrates the back of the protective enclosure wherein an opening 2010 is provided in the protective enclosure 2000 which is sealed with a rubber plug 2020. The plug 2020 of the USB hub is shown in more detail in FIG. 26. The USB cable hub allows the protective enclosure 2000 to be wired for both power as well as USB connections. In addition, provisions may be made to provide ventilation for the enclosure through opening 2010. FIG. 26 illustrates the USB hub 2021. The hub has mounting apertures such as 2022 that are disposed to receive fasteners to mount the hub inside of the protective enclosure 2000. A USB connecter 2024, that is disposed to connect to a USB slot in a computer laptop or PC tablet computer, is connected by a cable 2026 to the hub 2020. FIG. 27 illustrates the integrated USB hub 2021 mounted in the enclosure 2000. The cable 2026 and USB connector 2024 allow a laptop computer or other computer to be connected to the USB hub 2021. The corner bumpers 2004 are disposed to be removably attached to the enclosure lining 2002 so that the computer may be moved to a new location or the inside of the protective enclosure 2000 to facilitate the making of a connection between a laptop computer and the hub 2020. The hook and loop liner 2005, that is attached to the base of the shock absorbing corner bumpers 2004, extends beyond the base dimensions by a predetermined amount to increase the adhesion between the bumpers 2004 and liner 2002 of the enclosure 2000. FIG. 28 illustrates how the USB assembly comprising the hub 2021, cable 2026, and connector 2026 may be mounted in an enclosure for a PC tablet protective enclosure such as 1400 shown in FIG. 14. The foregoing description of the invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed, and other modifications and variations may be possible in light of the above teachings. The embodiment was chosen and described in order to best explain the principles of the invention and its practical application to thereby enable others skilled in the art to best utilize the invention in various embodiments and various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated. It is intended that the appended claims be construed to include other alternative embodiments of the invention except insofar as limited by the prior art.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Portable electronic devices (PEDs), such as PDAs, computers, MP3 players, music players, video players, smart phones, GPS receivers, telematics devices, cell phones, satellite phones, pagers, monitors, etc., are being very widely used, and are being deployed in industrial as well as office environments. PEDs are being used in industrial environments for data collection, such as service information on an airplane, or for data delivery such as maps for fire fighters and other emergency personnel. When PEDs are deployed in such industrial applications, the data that is collected and displayed on the PED can be extremely valuable and can be lifesaving. The industrial environments impose harsh conditions that typical PEDs are not designed to accommodate. For example, damage can be done to the PED through rough handling and dropping. Further, industrial chemicals, grease, water, dirt, and grime may damage or destroy a functioning PED and inhibit the use of the PEDs valuable data. It is common to hold the PEDs inside a protective case for transport. However, PEDs are usually removed for use since most cases used for transport are not interactive. Interactive cases are also useful for non-industrial applications to provide protection for PEDs.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one aspect, a protective cover is disclosed for an electronic device having an interactive touch screen display, at least one control button, a camera feature, and an electrical interface. The protective cover includes a protective shell having an inner surface, an outer surface, and a plurality of side members defining a perimeter of the protective shell. The protective cover also includes a cushioning member coupled with at least the inner surface of the protective shell. The cushioning member is configured for cushioning the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover. The protective cover also includes a first opening defined by the perimeter of the protective cover. The first opening is configured to align with and expose at least a portion of the interactive touch screen display when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover. The protective cover also includes a second opening configured to align with the camera feature of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover. The protective cover further includes an access port in at least one of the plurality of side members of the protective cover. The access port is positioned to be proximate the electrical interface of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective cover. In another aspect, a protective enclosure for a mobile computing device is provided. The protective enclosure includes a first case member, a second case member, a plurality of pliable areas, an electrical connector, audio headphones, and a headphone cable. The first and second case members each have an exterior surface, and interior surface, and a perimeter portion. The second case member is removably attachable to the first case member with one or more latching mechanisms. The attachment of the second case member to the first case member forms a protective interior of the protective enclosure for receiving the mobile computing device. The plurality of pliable areas are disposed in the first case member and/or the second case member, and each align with a corresponding control button of the mobile computing device. The pliable areas transmit at least a portion of a force applied at an external surface of one of the pliable areas to the corresponding control button of the mobile computing device to actuate the corresponding control button of the mobile computing device when the mobile computing device is in the protective interior of the protective enclosure. The electrical connector is attached to the interior surface of the second case member, and is structured to mate with a corresponding electrical connector of the mobile computing device when the mobile computing device is inside the protective enclosure. The audio headphones are connected to the exterior surface of one of the first case member and the second case member via a headphone cable. The headphone cable electrically interconnects the audio headphones to the electrical connector of the protective enclosure such that audio signals generated by the mobile computing device inside the protective interior are transmitted through the electrical connector of the mobile computing device through the electrical connector of the protective enclosure and through the headphone cable to the headphones outside the protective enclosure. In another aspect, the disclosure describes a protective case for a portable electronic device, including first and second case portions, a pliable molded surface, an electrical connector, and audio headphones. The first case portion may have an exterior surface, an interior surface, and a perimeter portion. The second case portion may also have an exterior surface, an interior surface, and a perimeter portion, and may be removably attachable to the first case portion to form a protective shell. Such protective shell may include a cavity for the portable electronic device inside the shell, the cavity defined by at least a portion of the interior surface of the first case portion and at least a portion of the interior surface of the second case portion. The pliable molded surface may be disposed in an opening of one of the first case portion and the second case portion, and may align with a corresponding control button of the portable electronic device. The pliable molded surface may transmit a mechanical pressure applied at an exterior surface of the pliable molded surface to the control button of the portable electronic device to actuate the control button of the portable electronic device when the portable electronic device is inside the shell. The electrical connector may be attached to the interior surface of the first or second case portion, and may mate with an electrical interface of the portable electronic device when the portable electronic device is inside the shell. The audio headphones may have a headphone cable connected to the exterior surface of the first or second case portion. The headphone cable may be electrically interconnected through a wall of the first or second case portion to the electrical connector of the protective case. This interconnection permits electrical audio signals generated by the portable electronic device inside the shell to be transmitted from the electrical interface of the portable electronic device through the electrical connector and through the headphone cable to the headphones. In another disclosed aspect a protective case for a portable electronic device may include a protective shell, audio headphones, and a headphone cable. The protective shell may include a first case portion, a second case portion, a pliable surface, and an electrical pass-through. The first case portion and the second case portion may each have an exterior surface and an interior surface. The second case portion may be removably attachable to the first case portion, where attachment of the second case portion to the first case portion forms a protective cavity for the portable electronic device. The pliable surface may be disposed in an opening of one of the first case portion and the second case portion. The pliable surface may align with a control feature of the portable electronic device when the portable electronic device is inside the protective cavity. The pliable surface may also be structured to transmit at least a portion of a mechanical force applied at an external surface of the protective shell to the control feature of the portable electronic device to actuate the control feature. The electrical pass-through provides electrical access to a headphone jack of the portable electronic device from outside the protective shell when the portable electronic device is inside the protective cavity in the protective shell. The audio headphones are affixed, and electrically connected, to the headphone cable. The headphone cable electrically connects the audio headphones to the headphone jack of the portable electronic device inside the protective shell through the electrical pass-through such that audio signals from the portable electronic device inside the protective shell are conducted to the audio headphones through the headphone cable. In yet another example, a protective case for use with a portable electronic device includes a protective shell including a cavity for receiving the portable electronic device and a pliable surface disposed in an opening of the protective shell. The pliable surface being adapted to transmit at least a portion of a mechanical force applied at an external surface of the protective shell to the control feature of the installed portable electronic device to actuate the control feature of the installed portable electronic device. The protective case also includes an electrical pass-through disposed in a wall of the protective shell for accessing an electrical connector of the installed portable electronic device from outside the protective shell and an electrical cable configured to electrically connect a peripheral device to the electrical connector of the installed portable electronic device through the electrical pass-through.

H04B13888

20180116

20180517

71259.0

H04B13888

AMINZAY, SHAIMA Q

PROTECTIVE COVER FOR ELECTRONIC DEVICE

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04B

PENDING

VIDEO COMPOSITION BY DYNAMIC LINKING

A computer receives one or more media content source locations. The computer determines two or more media content items associated with the one or more received media content source locations. The computer negotiates digital rights associated with the two or more media content items. The computer pre-fetches the two or more media content items from the one or more media content source locations. The computer determines at least one digital characteristic of a first media content item of the two or more media content items does not match at least one digital characteristic of a second media content item of the two or more media content items. The computer resamples the first media content item of the two or more media content items. The computer publishes a composition of the two or more media content items to appear as one linked asset with uniform digital characteristics.

1. A method for media content composition from distributed sources, the method comprising the steps of: determining, by one or more computer processors, two or more media content items associated with one or more media content source locations; determining, by one or more computer processors, at least one digital characteristic of a first media content item of the two or more media content items does not match at least one digital characteristic of a second media content item of the two or more media content items, wherein the determining at least one of the two or more media content items further comprises the step of determining, by the one or more computer processors, a segment of the at least one of the two or more media content items based on a received time index and duration; responsive to determining at least one digital characteristic of a first media content item of the two or more media content items does not match at least one digital characteristic of a second media content item of the two or more media content items, resampling, by the one or more computer processors, the first media content item of the two or more media content items, wherein the resampling the first media content of the two or more media content items comprises resampling the first media content item to a lowest common denominator of each of the at least one digital characteristics; and publishing, by the one or more computer processors, a composition of the two or more media content items to appear as one linked asset with uniform digital characteristics. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising receiving the one or more media content source locations, wherein the receiving further comprises the step of receiving, by the one or more computer processors, a time index and duration associated with at least one of the two or more media content items associated with the one or more content source locations. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein resampling the first media content item of the two or more media content items comprises the step of editing, by the one or more computer processors, the first media content item such that the two or more media content items have uniform digital characteristics. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein a media content item includes at least one of a video, a video segment, an audio recording, and an audio segment. 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising the steps of: responsive to publishing a composition of the two or more media content items to appear as one linked asset with uniform digital characteristics, receiving, by the one or more computer processors, a notification that at least one of the two or more media content items has changed; and determining, by the one or more computer processors, to update the one linked asset with uniform digital characteristics with the at least one changed media content item. 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising negotiating digital rights associated with the two or more media content items, wherein the negotiating the digital rights comprises the steps of: negotiating, by the one or more computer processors, one or more rights to the two or more media content items; and negotiating, by the one or more computer processors, pricing associated with the one or more rights to the two or more media content items. 7. The method of claim 1, further comprising pre-fetching the two or more media content items from the one or more media content source locations, wherein the pre-fetching comprises the steps of: locating, by the one or more computer processors, the two or more media content items from the one or more media content source locations; downloading, by the one or more computer processors, the two or more media content items from the one or more media content source locations; and storing, by the one or more computer processors, the two or more media content items from the one or more content source locations. 8. A computer program product for media content composition from distributed sources, the computer program product comprising: one or more non-transitory computer readable storage media and program instructions stored on the one or more computer readable storage media, the program instructions comprising: program instructions to determine two or more media content items associated with one or more received media content source locations; program instructions to determine at least one digital characteristic of a first media content item of the two or more media content items does not match at least one digital characteristic of a second media content item of the two or more media content items, wherein the determining at least one of the two or more media content items further comprises the step of determining, by the one or more computer processors, a segment of the at least one of the two or more media content items based on a received time index and duration; responsive to determining at least one digital characteristic of a first media content item of the two or more media content items does not match at least one digital characteristic of a second media content item of the two or more media content items, program instructions to resample the first media content item of the two or more media content items, wherein the resampling the first media content of the two or more media content items comprises resampling the first media content item to a lowest common denominator of each of the at least one digital characteristics; and program instructions to publish a composition of the two or more media content items to appear as one linked asset with uniform digital characteristics. 9. The computer program product of claim 8, further comprising program instructions to receive the one or more media content source locations, wherein the program instruction to receive the one or more media content source locations further comprises program instructions to receive a time index and duration associated with at least one of the two or more media content items associated with the one or more content source locations. 10. The computer program product of claim 8, wherein program instructions to resample the first media content item of the two or more media content items comprises program instructions to edit the first media content item such that the two or more media content items have uniform digital characteristics. 11. The computer program product of claim 8, wherein a media content item includes at least one of a video, a video segment, an audio recording, and an audio segment. 12. The computer program product of claim 8, further comprising: responsive to publishing a composition of the two or more media content items to appear as one linked asset with uniform digital characteristics, program instructions to receive a notification that at least one of the two or more media content items has changed; and program instructions to determine to update the one linked asset with uniform digital characteristics with the at least one changed media content item. 13. The computer program product of claim 8, further comprising program instructions to negotiate digital rights associated with the two or more media content items, wherein the program instructions to negotiate digital rights further comprises: program instructions to negotiate one or more rights to the two or more media content items; and program instructions to negotiate pricing associated with the one or more rights to the two or more media content items. 14. The computer program product of claim 8, further comprising program instructions to pre-fetch the two or more media content items from the one or more media content source locations, wherein the program instructions to pre-fetch the two or more media content items further comprises: program instructions to locate the two or more media content items from the one or more media content source locations; program instructions to download the two or more media content items from the one or more media content source locations; and program instructions to store the two or more media content items from the one or more content source locations. 15. A computer system for media content composition from distributed sources, the computer system comprising: one or more computer processors; one or more computer readable storage media; program instructions stored on the computer readable storage media for execution by at least one of the one or more processors, the program instructions comprising: program instructions to determine two or more media content items associated with one or more media content source locations; program instructions to determine at least one digital characteristic of a first media content item of the two or more media content items does not match at least one digital characteristic of a second media content item of the two or more media content items, wherein the determining at least one of the two or more media content items further comprises the step of determining, by the one or more computer processors, a segment of the at least one of the two or more media content items based on a received time index and duration; responsive to determining at least one digital characteristic of a first media content item of the two or more media content items does not match at least one digital characteristic of a second media content item of the two or more media content items, program instructions to resample the first media content item of the two or more media content items, wherein the resampling the first media content of the two or more media content items comprises resampling the first media content item to a lowest common denominator of each of the at least one digital characteristics; and program instructions to publish a composition of the two or more media content items to appear as one linked asset with uniform digital characteristics. 16. The computer system of claim 15, further comprising program instructions to receive the one or more media content source locations, wherein the program instructions to receive the one or more media content source locations further comprises program instructions to receive a time index and duration associated with at least one of the two or more media content items associated with the one or more content source locations. 17. The computer system of claim 15, wherein program instructions to resample the first media content item of the two or more media content items comprises program instructions to edit the first media content item such that the two or more media content items have uniform digital characteristics. 18. The computer system of claim 15, wherein a media content item includes at least one of a video, a video segment, an audio recording, and an audio segment. 19. The computer system of claim 15, further comprising: responsive to publishing a composition of the two or more media content items to appear as one linked asset with uniform digital characteristics, program instructions to receive a notification that at least one of the two or more media content items has changed; and program instructions to determine to update the one linked asset with uniform digital characteristics with the at least one changed media content item. 20. The computer system of claim 15, further comprising program instructions to pre-fetch the two or more media content items from the one or more media content source locations, wherein the program instructions to pre-fetch the two or more media content items further comprises: program instructions to locate the two or more media content items from the one or more media content source locations; program instructions to download the two or more media content items from the one or more media content source locations; and program instructions to store the two or more media content items from the one or more content source locations.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to the field of streaming media, and more particularly to dynamically linking video from distributed sources. Consumers are continually demanding increased flexibility in viewing streaming and other forms of media. Streaming media is multimedia that is constantly received by and presented to an end-user while being delivered by a provider. The term “streaming media” can apply to media other than video and audio such as live closed captioning, ticker tape, and real-time text, which are all considered “streaming text”. Whereas television viewing traditionally involved watching imagery received on a broadcast signal on a conventional television set, modern media experiences allow media content to be provided via broadcast, cable, satellite, portable media (e.g., DVD) and other sources. Further, the Internet and other relatively high-bandwidth networks now allow media content to be streamed or otherwise delivered to any number of devices (e.g., wireless phones, computers, tablets, etc.) that previously were not typically used for viewing media content. Consumers are therefore able to view media content on a wide variety of devices and in a wide variety of locations. The advent of digital media and analog/digital conversion technologies, especially those that are usable on mass-market general-purpose personal computers, has vastly increased the concerns of copyright-dependent individuals and organizations, especially within the music and movie industries, because these individuals and organizations are partly or wholly dependent on the revenue generated from such works. Digital Rights Management (DRM) is a class of technologies that hardware manufacturers, publishers, copyright holders, and individuals use with the intent to control the use of digital content and devices after sale. The intent of DRM is to control executing, viewing, copying, printing and altering of works or devices. DRM technologies attempt to give control to the seller of digital content or devices after a consumer purchase. For digital content this means preventing the consumer access, or denying the user the ability to copy the content or to convert the content to other formats. SUMMARY According to one embodiment of the present invention, a method for media content composition from distributed sources is provided. The method may include a computer processor receiving one or more media content source locations. The computer processor determines two or more media content items associated with the one or more media content source locations. The computer processor negotiates digital rights associated with the two or more media content items. The computer processor, responsive to negotiating digital rights associated with the two or more media content items, pre-fetches the two or more media content items from the one or more media content source locations. The computer processor determines at least one digital characteristic of a first media content item that does not match at least one digital characteristic of a second media content item of the two or more media content items. The computer processor, responsive to determining at least one digital characteristic of a first media content item that does not match at least one digital characteristic of a second media content item of the two or more media content items, resamples the first media content item of the two or more media content items. The computer processor publishes a composition of the two or more media content items to appear as one linked asset with uniform digital characteristics. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a functional block diagram illustrating a video data processing environment, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a flow diagram depicting the interaction of operational components of a linked asset composer program on a server computer within the video data processing environment of FIG. 1, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a flowchart depicting operational steps of a linked asset composer program, on a server computer within the video data processing environment of FIG. 1, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 4 depicts a block diagram of components of the server computer within the video data processing environment of FIG. 1, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION As current events evolve, the media coverage of the events may be continuously updated. Companies in the media industry often invest resources in recording, processing, and editing media content as an event evolves. In addition, there is often a high cost associated with storing video content (including backup and resiliency abilities). Many organizations also do periodic updates, recording content at a certain frequency or based on events. There is a need for a systematic means of recording content once and replacing segments that become outdated over time. Often, when video segments are linked, there is a lag between the playing of one video to another. Even if there is no lag, the user is generally aware of a new video being played. Embodiments of the present invention recognize that efficiency can be gained by implementing a method of dynamically linking video segments from distributed sources by pre-fetching and resampling the video segments to produce one video that plays seamlessly for a user. Implementation of embodiments of the invention may take a variety of forms, and exemplary implementation details are discussed subsequently with reference to the Figures. FIG. 1 is a functional block diagram illustrating a video data processing environment, generally designated 100, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 1 provides only an illustration of one implementation and does not imply any limitations with regard to the environments in which different embodiments may be implemented. Many modifications to the depicted environment may be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the scope of the invention as recited by the claims. Video data processing environment 100 includes client computing device 104 and server computer 108, interconnected over network 102. Network 102 can be, for example, a telecommunications network, a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), such as the Internet, or a combination of the three, and can include wired, wireless, or fiber optic connections. Network 102 may include one or more wired and/or wireless networks that are capable of receiving and transmitting data, voice, and/or video signals, including multimedia signals that include voice, data, and video information. Client computing device 104 may be a desktop computer, a laptop computer, a tablet computer, a specialized computer server, a smart phone, or any programmable electronic device capable of communicating with server computer 108 via network 102 and with various components and devices within video data processing environment 100. Client computing device 104 may be a wearable computer. Wearable computers are miniature electronic devices that may be worn by the bearer under, with or on top of clothing, as well as in glasses, hats, or other accessories. Wearable computers are especially useful for applications that require more complex computational support than just hardware coded logics. In general, client computing device 104 represents any programmable electronic device or combination of programmable electronic devices capable of executing machine readable program instructions and communicating with other computing devices via a network, such as network 102. Client computing device 104 includes user interface 106. User interface 106 is a program that provides an interface between a user of client computing device 104 and server computer 108. A user interface, such as user interface 106, refers to the information (such as graphic, text, and sound) that a program presents to a user and the control sequences the user employs to control the program. There are many known types of user interfaces. In one embodiment, user interface 106 is a graphical user interface. A graphical user interface (GUI) is a type of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices, such as a computer keyboard and mouse, through graphical icons and visual indicators, such as secondary notation, as opposed to text-based interfaces, typed command labels, or text navigation. In computing, GUIs were introduced in reaction to the perceived steep learning curve of command-line interfaces which require commands to be typed on the keyboard. The actions in GUIs are often performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements. User interface 106 enables a user of client computing device 104 to communicate specific information to server computer 108 regarding media content items the user wants to link together. Server computer 108 may be a management server, a web server, or any other electronic device or computing system capable of receiving and sending data. In other embodiments, server computer 108 may represent a server computing system utilizing multiple computers as a server system, such as in a cloud computing environment. In another embodiment, server computer 108 may be a laptop computer, a tablet computer, a netbook computer, a personal computer (PC), a desktop computer, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a smart phone, or any programmable electronic device capable of communicating with client computing device 104 via network 102. In another embodiment, server computer 108 represents a computing system utilizing clustered computers and components to act as a single pool of seamless resources. Server computer 108 includes linked asset composer program 110 and database 112. In an exemplary embodiment, linked asset composer program 110 dynamically links media content items, for example video segments, from distributed sources such that the composition of the video segments appears as a single, seamless video to a viewer. In another embodiment, linked asset composer program 110 may dynamically link other media content items, such as audio segments, from distributed sources. Audio segments may include journalistic audio segments and recorded music. Distributed sources refers to different origins of the media content items, for example, linked asset composer program 110 may upload an existing video or link to and download other videos, either locally or on a plurality of websites on the Internet. Linked asset composer program 110 receives a request from a user to link video segments from various sources. The user defines the sources as well as the time index and duration of the desired segment. Linked asset composer program 110 receives the user's request and negotiates the rights and/or pricing via digital rights management (DRM). Linked asset composer program 110 pre-fetches and resamples the video segments such that the segments have the same visual attributes, for example, dimensions, frame rate, and quality. Linked asset composer program 110 links the segments and publishes the video. Linked asset composer program 110 is depicted and described in further detail with respect to FIGS. 2 and 3. Database 112 resides on server computer 108. In another embodiment, database 112 may reside on client computing device 104, or elsewhere in the environment. A database is an organized collection of data. Database 112 can be implemented with any type of storage device capable of storing data that may be accessed and utilized by server computer 108, such as a database server, a hard disk drive, or a flash memory. In other embodiments, database 112 can represent multiple storage devices within server computer 108. Database 112 stores the fetched video segments as well as the final, published video composition. Database 112 may also store the links to the video segment sources in addition to the resampling information. Database 112 may also store the DRM history and associated negotiations. FIG. 2 is a flow diagram depicting the interaction of operational components of linked asset composer program 110 on server computer 108 within video data processing environment 100 of FIG. 1, providing linked asset composer program 110 with the capability to dynamically link video segments from distributed sources, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Flow diagram 200 includes content location module 210, DRM module 220, and linked asset composer module 230. Content location module 210 includes content location database 212 and content locator 214. Content locator 214 allows linked asset composer program 110 to receive a request from a user to locate one or more media content items, such as videos, video segments, audio recordings, or audio segments, and locates the media content item. A video or audio location may be represented by a URL that may be found in third party content providers 216. A video or audio location may also be represented by an address on client computing device 104 or on server computer 108. Content location database 212 stores addresses of the content. DRM module 220 includes DRM negotiator 224, DRM tracker 226, and DRM history database 228. DRM negotiator 224 is the computer system component that allows linked asset composer program 110 to receive content locations from content locator 214, and to contact DRM provider 222 to negotiate the DRM governance, i.e., the usage rights and pricing of the requested content. DRM tracker 226 tracks the usage of the content in order to confirm that usage rights are current, and notifies DRM negotiator 224 when negotiated usage rights are nearing expiration, allowing DRM negotiator 224 to re-negotiate rights, if needed, in a timely manner. DRM history database 228 stores the negotiations and transactions between DRM negotiator 224 and DRM provider 222 for use in later negotiations. Linked asset composer module 230 includes pre-fetcher 232, resampler 234, publisher 236, and linked asset database 238. Upon confirmation from DRM negotiator 224 that DRM governance is in place, pre-fetcher 232 accesses content location database 212 to pre-fetch the requested content, for example, video segments, for dynamic linking. Pre-fetching may include locating, downloading, and storing the content. Resampler 234 resamples the pre-fetched content and edits each video such that all of the videos in the final, linked asset have the same visual characteristics. Resampler 234 enables the final, linked asset to appear as one, seamless video. Publisher 236 publishes the linked asset such that a user with proper authorization, such as user 240, may access the linked asset for viewing. Linked asset database 238 stores the final, linked asset for future viewing or editing. For example, a user wants to compose a video describing a current event in the news. The user provides URLs for three video segments to link together. Each video segment is located at a different URL on the Internet. Content locator 214 receives the three URLs and stores them in content location database 212. Content locator 214 also passes the three content locations to DRM negotiator 224. DRM negotiator 224 contacts DRM provider 222 for each of the video segments associated with the three URLs and negotiates usage rights and pricing. DRM negotiator 224 passes the negotiated rights and pricing to DRM tracker 226. DRM tracker 226 tracks the usage of the three video segments to confirm the usage is within the negotiated rights. As the term of the negotiated rights nears an end, DRM tracker 226 contacts DRM negotiator 224 to initiate further negotiations. DRM tracker 226 also stores the record of the usage of each of the three videos and the associated negotiated rights. Responsive to successful DRM negotiations, pre-fetcher 232 pre-fetches the three videos using the addresses stored in content location database 212. Resampler 234 reviews a plurality of visual characteristic attributes of the three video segments. Attributes of video segment A and video segment B, such as frame rate and quality, are the same, but the frame rate and quality of video segment C are lower than those of video segments A and B. Resampler 234 resamples video segments A and B to reduce the frame rate and quality to equal the level of video C such that the frame rate and quality of all three video segments match. Publisher 236 links the resampled video segments A, B and C, and publishes the linked video as one video with uniform digital characteristics. The publishing of the video may take many forms. In this example, publisher 236 posts a hyperlink to the video on a website of the user's choosing. Publisher 236 stores the final video in linked asset database 238. FIG. 3 is a flowchart depicting operational steps of linked asset composer program 110, on server computer 108 within video data processing environment 100 of FIG. 1, for dynamically linking video segments from distributed sources, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 refers to components of server computer 108 as depicted in FIG. 1. Linked asset composer program 110 receives content source location (step 302). A user can compose a video by either uploading existing videos or by linking to videos by specifying a local address or a direct URL to the video on the Internet. In addition, if the user does not want to link the full video, then the user may specify the time index (i.e., the duration with which to offset the linked video) and the duration of the linked video segment to be played. Linked asset composer program 110 receives the source of the video and any associated time index and duration information from the user via user interface 106. This information may be stored in database 112. For example, linked asset composer program 110 receives the URL “newsonvid.com” with a time index of 2 minutes and a duration of 30 seconds. In this example, the user wants to link the segment that starts at 2 minutes after the beginning of the video and continues for 30 seconds. Linked asset composer program 110 negotiates access rights to the content via DRM (step 304). Linked asset composer program 110 parses each video or video segment specified by the target URL or local address to obtain the video and negotiates the access, or usage, rights. Linked asset composer program 110 uses a known DRM system, for example OpenDRM, in which a license may be encoded in a digital data file that defines usage rules, or usage expressions, such as range of criteria, frequency of access, expiration date, restriction of transfer to other devices, etc. As part of DRM negotiation, an agreement may be established on “initial” use of the video segments. For example, the initial agreement may be for a certain number of views, or for a certain time period, or any combination of attributes specified in the usage rules. Thereafter, as the usage limit nears, the DRM process starts again using the historical data in context to negotiate for better rights. Access rights information may be stored in database 112. Linked asset composer program 110 determines whether the access rights negotiation is successful (decision block 306). If the access rights negotiation is not successful (“no” branch, decision block 306), then the content is not used, and linked asset composer program 110 returns to step 302 to receive the next content source location. In one embodiment, if the access rights negotiation is not successful, then linked asset composer program 110 may display an error message, via user interface 106. If the access rights negotiation is successful (“yes” branch, decision block 306), then linked asset composer program 110 negotiates pricing via DRM (step 308). DRM negotiations for pricing vary by content provider. For example, a content provider may create a pricing structure based on a number of views of the video. In another example, a content provider may create a pricing structure based on an elapsed period of time. In a further example, a content provider may create a pricing structure based on the type of content. Pricing information may be stored in database 112. Linked asset composer program 110 determines whether the pricing negotiation is successful (decision block 310). If the pricing negotiation is not successful (“no” branch, decision block 310), then the content is not used, and linked asset composer program 110 returns to step 302 to receive the next content source location. In one embodiment, if the pricing negotiation is not successful, then linked asset composer program 110 may display an error message, via user interface 106. If the pricing negotiation is successful (“yes” branch, decision block 310), then linked asset composer program 110 determines whether the user requests additional content (decision block 312). Via user interface 106, linked asset composer program 110 queries the user to determine whether the user wants to add additional video segments. If the user requests additional content (“yes” branch, decision block 312), then linked asset composer program 110 returns to step 302 to receive the next content source location. If the user does not request additional content (“no” branch, decision block 312), then linked asset composer program 110 pre-fetches content (step 314). Responsive to receiving the location of requested content sources and DRM governance completion, linked asset composer program 110 pre-fetches the requested content, such as video segments, from the associated locations. In one embodiment, pre-fetching video segments includes locating and downloading the video segments. In one embodiment, if a video is not found at the identified location, then linked asset composer program 110 may display an error message, via user interface 106. Linked asset composer program 110 may store the pre-fetched video segments in database 112. Linked asset composer program 110 resamples the content (step 316). Linked asset composer program 110 performs a process of resampling on all successfully fetched videos or video segments. Resampling may be performed using a known tool, for example, VirtualDub. The process of resampling transforms the video segments to appear as one video with uniform digital characteristics once the segments are linked together. Videos from distributed source locations may not use the same codecs as the user, or as each other. In addition, the videos may have different attributes or characteristics, such as dimensions, frame rate, quality, audio frequency, etc. Resampling the segments runs them through a set of codecs to stabilize, resize, and smooth the transition from one segment to another, ensuring that the desired characteristics match from one segment to another. The resampling process may employ one or more codecs to decode, transform, and re-encode the video segments. As part of the transformation, resampling does not modify the original content, but resampling may modify the representation of the content. For example, linked asset composer program 110 may perform the resampling by reducing each video to the lowest common denominator of each of the attributes. Linked asset composer program 110 publishes the linked video (step 318). Linked asset composer program 110 makes the video available for viewing by authorized users. For example, linked asset composer program 110 may add a hyperlink to the video on a website. The usage expressions, extracted during the DRM process, step 304, may be displayed at either the beginning or the end of the linked video. Usage expressions are the provider's rules for using the content, for example, the number of times a video may be viewed for the negotiated price. Linked asset composer program 110 determines whether a notification of changes to the content is received (decision block 320). Through the life of the linked video, parties in the DRM ecosystem may be notified of any changes to the content for which rights have been negotiated. If linked asset composer program 110 determines that a notification of changes to content is not received (“no” branch, decision block 320), then the program ends. If linked asset composer program 110 determines that a notification of changes to content is received (“yes” branch, decision block 320), then the program determines whether to update the linked video (decision block 322). In one embodiment, linked asset composer program 110 notifies the user that updated content is available, and the user makes a decision as to whether or not to instruct the program to receive and resample the updated content. In another embodiment, linked asset composer program 110 determines whether or not to link to the updated content automatically. For example, linked asset composer program 110 may be capable of determining an error in a video, and if so, linking to the updated content automatically. In another example, if the license negotiated through DRM includes an agreement that the content provider provides all content pertaining to a particular subject or from a particular feed, then linked asset composer program 110 may automatically receive all updates with no user intervention. In another embodiment, linked asset composer program 110 checks with the provider of each of the segments periodically, for example, once a day, to determine whether updated content is available. If linked asset composer program 110 determines not to update the linked video (“no” branch, decision block 322), then the program ends. A user may receive notification of updates to the content provided earlier, but the user does not want to obtain the updates to the content because the cost outweighs the value. For example, if the change to the content is only a change to the visual characteristics, and the original content is already resampled to match other segments, then the cost of the updated content may outweigh the value. If linked asset composer program 110 determines to update the linked video (“yes” branch, decision block 322), then the program returns to step 302 to receive the new content source location, and proceeds with the remaining steps to publish an updated linked video. A user may receive notification of updates to the content provided earlier, and the user does want to obtain the updates to the content because the value outweighs the cost. For example, if there is an error in the content of the original video, such as an incorrect name stated, the value to update the video may outweigh the cost. FIG. 4 depicts a block diagram of components of server computer 108 within video data processing environment 100 of FIG. 1, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. It should be appreciated that FIG. 4 provides only an illustration of one implementation and does not imply any limitations with regard to the environments in which different embodiments may be implemented. Many modifications to the depicted environment may be made. Server computer 108 includes communications fabric 402, which provides communications between computer processor(s) 404, memory 406, persistent storage 408, communications unit 410, and input/output (I/O) interface(s) 412. Communications fabric 402 can be implemented with any architecture designed for passing data and/or control information between processors (such as microprocessors, communications and network processors, etc.), system memory, peripheral devices, and any other hardware components within a system. For example, communications fabric 402 can be implemented with one or more buses. Memory 406 and persistent storage 408 are computer readable storage media. In this embodiment, memory 406 includes random access memory (RAM) 414 and cache memory 416. In general, memory 406 can include any suitable volatile or non-volatile computer readable storage media. Linked asset composer program 110 and database 112 are stored in persistent storage 408 for execution and/or access by one or more of the respective computer processor(s) 404 via one or more memories of memory 406. In this embodiment, persistent storage 408 includes a magnetic hard disk drive. Alternatively, or in addition to a magnetic hard disk drive, persistent storage 408 can include a solid-state hard drive, a semiconductor storage device, a read-only memory (ROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), a flash memory, or any other computer readable storage media that is capable of storing program instructions or digital information. The media used by persistent storage 408 may also be removable. For example, a removable hard drive may be used for persistent storage 408. Other examples include optical and magnetic disks, thumb drives, and smart cards that are inserted into a drive for transfer onto another computer readable storage medium that is also part of persistent storage 408. Communications unit 410, in these examples, provides for communications with other data processing systems or devices, including resources of client computing device 104. In these examples, communications unit 410 includes one or more network interface cards. Communications unit 410 may provide communications through the use of either or both physical and wireless communications links. Linked asset composer program 110 and database 112 may be downloaded to persistent storage 408 through communications unit 410. I/O interface(s) 412 allows for input and output of data with other devices that may be connected to server computer 108. For example, I/O interface(s) 412 may provide a connection to external device(s) 418 such as a keyboard, a keypad, a touch screen, a microphone, a digital camera, and/or some other suitable input device. External device(s) 418 can also include portable computer readable storage media such as, for example, thumb drives, portable optical or magnetic disks, and memory cards. Software and data used to practice embodiments of the present invention, e.g., linked asset composer program 110 and database 112, can be stored on such portable computer readable storage media and can be loaded onto persistent storage 408 via I/O interface(s) 412. I/O interface(s) 412 also connect to a display 420. Display 420 provides a mechanism to display data to a user and may be, for example, a computer monitor. The programs described herein are identified based upon the application for which they are implemented in a specific embodiment of the invention. However, it should be appreciated that any particular program nomenclature herein is used merely for convenience, and thus the invention should not be limited to use solely in any specific application identified and/or implied by such nomenclature. The present invention may be a system, a method, and/or a computer program product. The computer program product may include a computer readable storage medium (or media) having computer readable program instructions thereon for causing a processor to carry out aspects of the present invention. The computer readable storage medium can be any tangible device that can retain and store instructions for use by an instruction execution device. The computer readable storage medium may be, for example, but is not limited to, an electronic storage device, a magnetic storage device, an optical storage device, an electromagnetic storage device, a semiconductor storage device, or any suitable combination of the foregoing. A non-exhaustive list of more specific examples of the computer readable storage medium includes the following: a portable computer diskette, a hard disk, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM or Flash memory), a static random access memory (SRAM), a portable compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), a digital versatile disk (DVD), a memory stick, a floppy disk, a mechanically encoded device such as punch-cards or raised structures in a groove having instructions recorded thereon, and any suitable combination of the foregoing. A computer readable storage medium, as used herein, is not to be construed as being transitory signals per se, such as radio waves or other freely propagating electromagnetic waves, electromagnetic waves propagating through a waveguide or other transmission media (e.g., light pulses passing through a fiber-optic cable), or electrical signals transmitted through a wire. Computer readable program instructions described herein can be downloaded to respective computing/processing devices from a computer readable storage medium or to an external computer or external storage device via a network, for example, the Internet, a local area network, a wide area network and/or a wireless network. The network may comprise copper transmission cables, optical transmission fibers, wireless transmission, routers, firewalls, switches, gateway computers and/or edge servers. A network adapter card or network interface in each computing/processing device receives computer readable program instructions from the network and forwards the computer readable program instructions for storage in a computer readable storage medium within the respective computing/processing device. Computer readable program instructions for carrying out operations of the present invention may be assembler instructions, instruction-set-architecture (ISA) instructions, machine instructions, machine dependent instructions, microcode, firmware instructions, state-setting data, or either source code or object code written in any combination of one or more programming languages, including an object oriented programming language such as Smalltalk, C++ or the like, and conventional procedural programming languages, such as the “C” programming language or similar programming languages. The computer readable program instructions may execute entirely on the user's computer, partly on the user's computer, as a stand-alone software package, partly on the user's computer and partly on a remote computer or entirely on the remote computer or server. In the latter scenario, the remote computer may be connected to the user's computer through any type of network, including a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN), or the connection may be made to an external computer (for example, through the Internet using an Internet Service Provider). In some embodiments, electronic circuitry including, for example, programmable logic circuitry, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA), or programmable logic arrays (PLA) may execute the computer readable program instructions by utilizing state information of the computer readable program instructions to personalize the electronic circuitry, in order to perform aspects of the present invention. Aspects of the present invention are described herein with reference to flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams of methods, apparatus (systems), and computer program products according to embodiments of the invention. It will be understood that each block of the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, and combinations of blocks in the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, can be implemented by computer readable program instructions. These computer readable program instructions may be provided to a processor of a general purpose computer, a special purpose computer, or other programmable data processing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computer or other programmable data processing apparatus, create means for implementing the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. These computer readable program instructions may also be stored in a computer readable storage medium that can direct a computer, a programmable data processing apparatus, and/or other devices to function in a particular manner, such that the computer readable storage medium having instructions stored therein comprises an article of manufacture including instructions which implement aspects of the function/act specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. The computer readable program instructions may also be loaded onto a computer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other device to cause a series of operational steps to be performed on the computer, other programmable apparatus or other device to produce a computer implemented process, such that the instructions which execute on the computer, other programmable apparatus, or other device implement the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. The flowchart and block diagrams in the Figures illustrate the architecture, functionality, and operation of possible implementations of systems, methods, and computer program products according to various embodiments of the present invention. In this regard, each block in the flowchart or block diagrams may represent a module, a segment, or a portion of instructions, which comprises one or more executable instructions for implementing the specified logical function(s). In some alternative implementations, the functions noted in the block may occur out of the order noted in the Figures. For example, two blocks shown in succession may, in fact, be executed substantially concurrently, or the blocks may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality involved. It will also be noted that each block of the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, and combinations of blocks in the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, can be implemented by special purpose hardware-based systems that perform the specified functions or acts or carry out combinations of special purpose hardware and computer instructions. The descriptions of the various embodiments of the present invention have been presented for purposes of illustration, but are not intended to be exhaustive or limited to the embodiments disclosed. Many modifications and variations will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. The terminology used herein was chosen to best explain the principles of the embodiment, the practical application or technical improvement over technologies found in the marketplace, or to enable others of ordinary skill in the art to understand the embodiments disclosed herein.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates generally to the field of streaming media, and more particularly to dynamically linking video from distributed sources. Consumers are continually demanding increased flexibility in viewing streaming and other forms of media. Streaming media is multimedia that is constantly received by and presented to an end-user while being delivered by a provider. The term “streaming media” can apply to media other than video and audio such as live closed captioning, ticker tape, and real-time text, which are all considered “streaming text”. Whereas television viewing traditionally involved watching imagery received on a broadcast signal on a conventional television set, modern media experiences allow media content to be provided via broadcast, cable, satellite, portable media (e.g., DVD) and other sources. Further, the Internet and other relatively high-bandwidth networks now allow media content to be streamed or otherwise delivered to any number of devices (e.g., wireless phones, computers, tablets, etc.) that previously were not typically used for viewing media content. Consumers are therefore able to view media content on a wide variety of devices and in a wide variety of locations. The advent of digital media and analog/digital conversion technologies, especially those that are usable on mass-market general-purpose personal computers, has vastly increased the concerns of copyright-dependent individuals and organizations, especially within the music and movie industries, because these individuals and organizations are partly or wholly dependent on the revenue generated from such works. Digital Rights Management (DRM) is a class of technologies that hardware manufacturers, publishers, copyright holders, and individuals use with the intent to control the use of digital content and devices after sale. The intent of DRM is to control executing, viewing, copying, printing and altering of works or devices. DRM technologies attempt to give control to the seller of digital content or devices after a consumer purchase. For digital content this means preventing the consumer access, or denying the user the ability to copy the content or to convert the content to other formats.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>According to one embodiment of the present invention, a method for media content composition from distributed sources is provided. The method may include a computer processor receiving one or more media content source locations. The computer processor determines two or more media content items associated with the one or more media content source locations. The computer processor negotiates digital rights associated with the two or more media content items. The computer processor, responsive to negotiating digital rights associated with the two or more media content items, pre-fetches the two or more media content items from the one or more media content source locations. The computer processor determines at least one digital characteristic of a first media content item that does not match at least one digital characteristic of a second media content item of the two or more media content items. The computer processor, responsive to determining at least one digital characteristic of a first media content item that does not match at least one digital characteristic of a second media content item of the two or more media content items, resamples the first media content item of the two or more media content items. The computer processor publishes a composition of the two or more media content items to appear as one linked asset with uniform digital characteristics.

H04N2144016

20180117

20180524

95678.0

H04N2144

FLYNN, RANDY A

VIDEO COMPOSITION BY DYNAMIC LINKING

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04N

PENDING

ADJUSTABLE BOLSTER SWING LEGS FOR SLIPFORM PAVING MACHINES

A paving machine for spreading, leveling and finishing concrete having a main frame, center module, bolsters laterally movably, and a crawler track associated with respective aft and forward ends of the bolsters. A bolster swing leg for each crawler track supports an upright jacking column. A worm gear drive permits rotational movements of the crawler track and the jacking column. A hinge bracket is interposed between each swing leg and a surface of the bolsters to enable pivotal movements of the swing leg. A length-adjustable holder engages the pivot pin on the hinge bracket and pivotally engages the swing leg. The holder permits pivotal motions of the swing leg in its length-adjustable configuration and prevents substantially any motion of the swing leg in its fixed-length configuration. A feedback loop cooperates with transducers keeping the crawler tracks position. The paving machine can be reconfigured into a narrowed transport configuration.

1. A paving machine configured to move in a paving direction for laying concrete into a molded form, having a generally upwardly exposed concrete surface and terminating in lateral concrete sides, the paving machine comprising: a center module having a forward end, an aft end, and lateral sides; one forward bolster connected to the forward end of the center module, having a forward crawler track mechanically coupled to the forward bolster; one aft bolster connected to the aft end of the center module, having an aft crawler track mechanically coupled to the aft bolster; a side crawler track mechanically coupled one of the lateral sides of the center module; the forward bolster having a forward swing leg, an upright forward jacking column secured to the forward swing leg, and a first rotary connection between the forward jacking column and the forward crawler track permitting relative rotational movements of the forward crawler track and the forward jacking column about a forward upright axis; a side swing leg, connected to the same lateral side of the center module that is connected to the side crawler track, a upright side jacking column secured to the side swing leg, and a second rotary connection between the side jacking column and the side crawler track permitting relative rotational movements of the side crawler track and the side jacking column about a side upright axis; and a power drive between associated jacking columns and crawler tracks configured for translating relative rotational movements between the associated jacking columns and the crawler tracks. 2. A paving machine according to claim 1, wherein the paving machine further comprises: a forward hinge bracket interposed between the forward swing leg and an associated surface of the forward bolster; and an forward upright pivot shaft that engages the forward swing leg that permits pivotal movements of the forward swing leg relative to the forward hinge bracket about the forward upright axis in a substantially horizontal plane. 3. A paving machine according to claim 2, wherein the paving machine further comprises: a side hinge bracket interposed between the side swing leg and the associated lateral side of the center module; and an side upright pivot shaft that engages the side swing leg that permits pivotal movements of the side swing leg relative to the side hinge bracket about the side upright axis in a substantially horizontal plane. 4. A paving machine according to claim 1, wherein the paving machine further comprises: a side hinge bracket interposed between the side swing leg and the associated lateral side of the center module; and an side upright pivot shaft that engages the side swing leg that permits pivotal movements of the side swing leg relative to the side hinge bracket about the side upright axis in a substantially horizontal plane. 5. A paving machine according to claim 1, further comprising: a first forward angular position transducer between the forward jacking column and the forward crawler track, emitting a first forward signal which is indicative of an angular orientation of the forward crawler track relative to the forward jacking column; a second forward angular position transducer between the forward swing leg and an associated surface of the forward bolster, emitting a second forward signal which is indicative of the angular orientation of the forward swing leg relative to the associated surface of the forward bolster; and a processor configured for receiving the first forward signal and the second forward signal, and for emitting a control signal for activating the respective power drive and thereby rotationally moving the respective crawler track relative to the forward jacking column for keeping the forward crawler track oriented in the paving direction in response to changes of the first forward signal caused by pivotal motions of the forward swing leg about a forward pivot shaft. 6. A paving machine according to claim 5, further comprising: a first side angular position transducer between the side jacking column and the side crawler track, emitting a first side signal which is indicative of the angular orientation of the side crawler track relative to the side jacking column; a second side angular position transducer between the side swing leg and the associated lateral side of the center module, emitting a second side signal which is indicative of the angular orientation of the side swing leg relative to the associated lateral side of the center module; and wherein the processor is further configured to receive the first side signal and the second side signal, the processor emitting the control signal for activating respective power drives and thereby rotationally moving the forward and side crawler tracks relative to their respective jacking columns for keeping the forward and side crawler tracks oriented in the paving direction in response to changes of both the first forward signal caused by pivotal motions of the forward swing leg about the forward pivot shaft, and the first side signal caused by pivotal motions of the side swing leg about the side pivot shaft. 7. A paving machine according to claim 1, further comprising: a first side angular position transducer between the side jacking column and the side crawler track, emitting a first side signal which is indicative of an angular orientation of the side crawler track relative to the side jacking column; a second side angular position transducer between the side swing leg and an associated hinge bracket, emitting a second side signal which is indicative of the angular orientation of the side swing leg relative to the associated hinge bracket; and a processor configured for receiving the first side signal and the second side signal, and for emitting a control signal for activating the respective power drive and thereby rotationally moving the side crawler track relative to the side jacking column for keeping the side crawler track oriented in the paving direction in response to changes of the first side signal caused by pivotal motions of the side swing leg about a side pivot shaft. 8. A paving machine according to claim 5 further comprising: a feedback for maintaining an orientation of each of the crawlers relative to each other independently of angular inclinations of the crawlers relative to either the forward bolster or the aft bolster; and a first feedback loop operatively coupled to the forward swing leg and the associated crawler track for angularly repositioning the crawler track relative to the forward swing leg in response to angular motions of the forward swing leg. 9. A paving machine according to claim 8 further comprising: a second feedback loop operatively coupled to the side swing leg and the associated crawler track for angularly repositioning the crawler track relative to the side swing leg in response to angular motions of the side swing leg. 10. A paving machine according to claim 6 further comprising: a first feedback loop for maintaining an orientation of each of the crawlers relative to each other independently of angular inclinations of the crawlers relative either the forward bolster or the aft bolster; and a second feedback loop operatively coupled to the side swing leg and the associated crawler track for angularly repositioning the crawler track relative to the side swing leg in response to angular motions of the side swing leg. 11. A paving machine according to claim 1, wherein the forward swing leg is movably connected to the forward bolster and is movable in a lateral direction. 12. A paving machine according to claim 1, wherein the side swing leg is movably connected to the lateral side of the center module and is movable in a transverse direction. 13. A paving machine according to claim 1, further comprising a conveyor arranged to deliver semi-solid concrete to a hopper; the hopper arranged to receive and vibrate the semi-solid concrete; and a profile mold, arranged to receive semi-solid concrete from the hopper and configured to lay down concrete in a shaped form. 14. A paving machine according to claim 1 wherein the power drive further comprises a first helical worm gear drive and a second helical worm gear drive, diametrically opposed, wherein the first and second helical worm gear drives engage and drive a ring gear disposed between them. 15. A paving machine according to claim 5, wherein the power drive further comprises a slew gear drive, configured to receive the control signal and maintain the crawler track associated with the forward jacking column in the paving direction. 16. A paving machine according to claim 7, wherein the power drive further comprises a slew gear drive, configured to receive the control signal and maintain the crawler track associated with the side jacking column in the paving direction. 17. A paving machine according to claim 1, wherein the aft bolster is mechanically coupled to an aft swing leg, an upright aft jacking column secured to the aft swing leg, and a rotary connection between the aft jacking column and an aft crawler track permitting relative rotational movements of the aft crawler track and the aft jacking column about an upright axis. 18. A paving machine according to claim 17, wherein the aft swing leg is movably connected to the aft bolster and movable in a lateral direction. 19. A paving machine according to claim 17, further comprising: a first aft angular position transducer between the aft jacking column and the aft crawler track, emitting a first aft signal which is indicative of an angular orientation of the aft crawler track relative to the aft jacking column; a second aft angular position transducer between the aft swing leg and the aft bolster emitting a second aft signal which is indicative of the angular orientation of the aft swing leg relative to the aft bolster; and a processor configured for receiving the first aft signal and the second aft signal, and emitting a control signal for activating the power drive and thereby rotationally moving the aft crawler track relative to the aft jacking column for keeping the aft crawler track oriented in the paving direction in response to changes of the first aft signal caused by pivotal motions of the aft swing leg about an aft pivot shaft. 20. A paving machine according to claim 19 further comprising: A first feedback loop for maintaining an orientation of each of the crawlers relative to each other independently of angular inclinations of the crawlers relative to either the forward bolster or the aft bolster; and a second feedback loop operatively coupled to the aft swing leg and the aft crawler track for angularly repositioning the aft crawler track relative to the aft swing leg in response to angular motions of the aft swing leg.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/623,012 (now allowed), filed on Jun. 14, 2017; which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/148,811, filed on May 6, 2016, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,708,020; which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/897,125, filed on May 17, 2013; now U.S. Pat. No. 9,359,727; issued Jun. 7, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/069,096, filed on Mar. 22, 2011, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,459,898, issued Jun. 11, 2013; which claims the priority of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/318,223, filed on Mar. 26, 2010, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention concerns concrete slipform paving machines that have a propelling unit or tractor from which a paving kit is suspended with which a layer of concrete is shaped and finished over the underlying ground as the tractor travels along a road or airfield alignment. The tractor of a concrete slipform paver has a rectilinear frame which straddles the concrete roadway or airfield pavement section that is being paved. The frame is propelled and supported on either end by crawler tracks mounted on side bolsters. These side bolsters each typically have two hydraulic supporting jacking columns, each of which connects to a crawler track, that allow the tractor frame elevation to be manually or automatically varied relative to the ground. The frame, and in particular a center module thereof, supports a diesel engine-driven hydraulic power unit which supplies power to the tractor and the paving kit. The paving kit is conventionally suspended below the tractor frame by mechanical means, such as with hooks and a locking mechanism. The paving kit takes its hydraulic power from the power unit on the tractor. The tractor and the paving kit pass over fresh concrete placed in and distributed over its path as a relatively even and level mass that can be conveniently slipform-paved. During this process, the tractor-attached paving kit spreads the semi-solid concrete dumped in the path of the paver, levels and vibrates it into a semi-liquid state, then confines and finishes the concrete back into a semi-solid slab with an upwardly exposed and finished surface. The sideforms mounted on each side of the slipform paving kit shape and confine the sides of the slab during the slipform paving process. Other kits can be attached to these tractors such as kits for conveying and spreading concrete and trimming and spreading base materials. The tractor normally has four crawler tracks, but can also have only three, each mounted to a jacking column, supporting and propelling the frame during use of the paver in the paving direction. The jacking columns are carried on the bolsters, or on bolster swing legs connected to the fore and aft ends of the side bolsters, that are pivotable about vertical axes to change the relative position of the crawlers for a variety of reasons and/or for changing the movement correction of the crawlers and therewith of the paving machine during use. The bolster swing legs with jacking columns and crawlers can also be relocated and mounted directly to the front and rear of the tractor center module, to the outside of the side bolsters or directly to the outside of the tractor center module in some less conventional paving applications. For the purposes of this description, the focus is on the manner in which bolster swing arms and the orientation of the crawlers can be changed and controlled in the more conventional paving configuration of the machine. As is well known, tractor frames for slipform paving machines, which typically are extendable/retractable in the lateral direction to change the widths of the tractor frame and the remainder of the paving machine, have a generally rectangularly shaped center module or platform which supports, for example, the power unit including the engine for the paver, an operator platform, and the like. A side bolster is laterally movable and secured to each lateral side of the tractor frame (by means of male support tubes that telescopic in and out of the tractor center module), and bolster swing legs pivotally connect the fore and aft ends of the bolster to the respective jacking columns and crawlers of the paver. The swing legs are pivotally mounted to front and aft ends of the bolsters on vertically oriented hinge pins so that pivotal movement of the swing legs moves their end portions, which mount the jacking column and the crawlers, sideways relative to the paving direction of the paving machine and in a generally horizontal plane for increasing or decreasing the distance between the crawlers, and the distance and orientation of the crawlers relative to the tractor frame of the paving machine. Once the bolster swing legs supporting the jacking column with crawler track have the desired spacing between them and the desired orientation relative to the tractor frame, they are locked in place to prevent the crawler tracks from deviating from the desired direction/position and to absorb any existing tolerances between the bolster ends and the bolster swing legs which, if permitted to exist, allow undesired orientational deviations of the crawlers. In the past, turnbuckles and/or hydraulic cylinders were employed to prevent such tolerance-based play. To eliminate all play, two counteracting turnbuckle and/or hydraulic actuators arrangements were sometimes employed to establish a positive, immovably locked position and orientation for each crawler track. The position fixing turnbuckles and/or hydraulic actuators were secured to mounting brackets that were bolted to a hole pattern in the front (or aft) facing surfaces of the tractor frame and the bolster swing legs and/or between the side bolster ends and the bolster swing legs. To be effective, the turnbuckles/hydraulic actuators must have a substantial angular inclination relative to the bolster swing leg. If this angular inclination becomes too small, the turnbuckles/hydraulic actuators lose effectiveness and rigidity, which, if permitted to occur, can lead to undesired deviations in the desired orientation of the crawler tracks, and if the inclination becomes too large, the distance between the point of connection of the turnbuckles/hydraulic actuators to the tractor frame and to the bolster swing leg can exceed the effective length of the turnbuckle or hydraulic actuator. Thus, in the past, when the machine width had to be changed by a significant amount it became necessary to reposition the turnbuckle/hydraulic actuator mounting bracket along the length (in a lateral direction that is perpendicular to the travel direction) of the tractor frame to maintain the angular inclination of the turnbuckle/hydraulic actuator within an acceptable range. This was a time-consuming task that required skilled workers and, therefore, was costly. In addition, the time it takes to change the position of the mounting bracket for the turnbuckle/hydraulic actuator is a downtime for the machine during which it is out of use and cannot generate revenues. Bolster swing legs are used so that the crawler tracks can be relatively quickly relocated in relationship to the edge of the concrete pavement that is being laid down from the normal straight-ahead position, for example to avoid obstacles in the path of the crawler tracks or to make room that may be required to allow tie bars to pass the inside of the rear crawlers and the like. One of the conventional ways of relocating the crawler track was to support the side bolster of the tractor, using the jacking column to hydraulically lift the crawler off the ground, then to use one or more turnbuckles (or one or more hydraulic actuators) to mechanically pivot the bolster swing leg with the jacking column and crawler track and, once the desired position is reached, to hold it there with a turnbuckle or steamboat ratchet (or actuator). If only one turnbuckle is used in the normal position, which is the inboard side of the bolster swing leg, the swing leg is free to move due to the inevitable manufacturing and assembly clearances and tolerances in the turnbuckle connections. These clearances are undesirable because if the swing leg is allowed to pivot or tilt under varying loads, it can adversely affect steering and elevation control. Because of this connection play, opposing turnbuckle sets were at times employed, one being located in the inboard side and one or more turnbuckles being located on the outboard side of the swing leg. In such an arrangement, after the crawler track is in the desired position, the opposing turnbuckles are tensioned (pulled) against each other to keep the swing leg from moving. This transfers all the clearance in the pin connections to one side of the hole, eliminating any possible movement in the connection. The drawback of this approach is that the outboard turnbuckles increase the overall machine profile outside the edge of concrete and therefore require more room for the machine when paving past obstacles in tight confines. If the outboard turnbuckle angle is decreased to decrease the machine profile, the effectiveness of the turnbuckles at this flat angle in holding the swing leg can decrease to almost nil. Further, every time the crawler track is relocated, all the turnbuckles must be readjusted. Attempts have been made to eliminate the need for the outboard opposing turnbuckles by adding a hydraulic cylinder/actuator between the tractor frame and the swing leg behind the turnbuckle on the inboard of the leg. The cylinder effectively pushes the pin connection clearances to the inside of the turnbuckle connection holes and eliminates the risk of swing leg movement by keeping the hydraulic actuator pressurized. The relocation of the bolster swing leg and crawler track in relationship to the tractor frame is further adversely affected by the need to relocate the turnbuckle connection on the tractor frame where it connects to the bolsters to which the swing leg is attached. The turnbuckle connection on the bolster swing leg side typically stays at the same connection point. In the past, the turnbuckle connection to the tractor frame posed several problems. One such problem was when the tractor frame was telescoped narrower. At wider tractor widths, the turnbuckle connects to the outboard end of the support beam of the tractor frame with a turnbuckle bracket that is bolted to the male support beam (that telescopes in and out of the tractor center module) with two or more bolts; however, if the tractor frame is telescoped narrower, the bracket will eventually interfere with the tractor center module, which prevents the further narrowing of the tractor frame. Once this point is reached, the turnbuckle mounting bracket therefore had to be unbolted from the male support beam and rebolted to the tractor center module. To maintain the optimum turnbuckle angle to the swing leg so the turnbuckle is effective in holding the leg in the desired position, the turnbuckle bracket had to be relocated along the tractor center module repeatedly, which slowed down the machine width change process during each change. The inboard turnbuckles can also interfere with other attachments required on the front and rear of the machine, such as a spreader plow that is mounted off the front of the tractor frame, which had to be disconnected and reconnected, which increases costs further. Another problem was when the swing leg complete with jacking column and crawler track is relocated to the outside of the side bolster or mounted directly to the tractor center module, in some paving applications there was no place to connect the bolster swing leg or turnbuckles (hydraulic actuators). The relocation of the bolster swing legs and crawler track in relationship to the tractor frame is further adversely affected by the steering cylinders that typically were used on the jacking columns. The steering cylinders allow the crawler track angle to be changed in relationship to the jacking column for manual or automatic steering purposes. In the past, the steering cylinders at times protruded to the outside of the associated steering column. This is undesirable because it increases the outside width of the paving machine, which dictates and will limit how close the machine can pave next to a building or obstruction, and the stroke of the steering cylinder dictates how far the swing leg can be swung inboard or outboard. Amongst others, such a jacking column steering cylinder configuration does not allow the crawler tracks to be rotated 90° from their normal operating orientation without the time-consuming repinning or repositioning of the steering, which is a drawback. It is however highly advantageous to rotate the crawlers to such a 90° steering position (and being able to steer the crawler track in that position) from their normal position when readjusting the machine for paving different widths, maneuvering the machine around the jobsite, or for readying the machine for transport to a different paving site. In such an event, the swing legs with jacking columns and crawlers are pivoted relative to the tractor frame until the crawlers extend in the lateral direction (which is perpendicular to the normal paving direction) of the paving machine, which minimizes the width of the paving machine so the gauge between the crawler tracks in the transport position is narrow enough to walk the machine onto a trailer and for its transportation over normal roads to a new site. This outboard 90° bolster swing leg orientation is not to be confused with rotating just the crawler tracks in the 90° position using 90° steering. Thus, when repositioning the crawler tracks of a paving machine in accordance with conventional methods, the machine is initially appropriately supported so that a first one of the bolster swing leg-mounted crawler tracks can be lifted off the ground. The turnbuckle is then used to pivot the bolster swing leg until the jacking column and the associated crawler are at the desired (lateral) position and have the required crawler orientation. If the needed lateral movement of the crawler is too great, the turnbuckle mounting bracket must be repositioned by unbolting it from the frame and rebolting it thereto at a hole pattern located at the appropriate (lateral) point on the tractor frame or the center module. Thereafter, the turnbuckle is tightened in the new position of the crawler so that the bolster swing leg can no longer move and the orientation of the crawler is maintained. Thereafter, the crawler is lowered to the ground, it is rotated about the vertical axis of the jacking column to place it in the desired orientation, and an orientation measuring transducer is reset for the new crawler orientation to keep the crawler in the straight-ahead position. This has to be repeated for each of the typically four crawlers of the paving machine, a process that is time-consuming, costly and results in a prolonged, unproductive downtime for the machine. This cost is encountered each time the lateral position of the crawler and/or turnbuckle mounting bracket is changed and the crawlers must then be reoriented relative to the frame so that they face in the required transport direction. This procedure is also used to ready the paving machine for transportation to a new work site. In such an event, the swing legs are pivoted relative to the frame until the crawlers extend in the lateral direction (which is perpendicular to the normal paving direction) of the paving machine, which minimizes the width of the paving machine for transportation to a new site. In an alternative approach used in the past, the crawlers and the associated jacking columns were connected to the fore and aft ends of the side bolsters and fixed mounted to the end of the parallel linkages and oriented so that the crawlers extend in the paving direction of the paving machine. The parallel linkages typically include a hydraulic actuator to assist in the crawler track relocation and to hold the crawler track in the desired position. This approach simplified the lateral adjustment of the positions/orientations of the crawlers in relationship to the tractor as compared to crawlers mounted on pivoted swing legs because no matter where the crawler track was repositioned, the crawler track always remained oriented straight ahead and the turnbuckle relocation issue went away. However, in such arrangements, the limited range of movement of the parallel linkages with hydraulic actuator limits how narrowly the machine can be collapsed for transporting it over highways (with standard highway width restrictions) to new construction sites. The ability to quickly and efficiently move the paving machine from one site to the next, which is highly desirable for the efficient use of the machine, is lost with this approach. Instead, paving machines employing such parallel linkages for the crawlers required that the tractor frame itself had to be collapsed in order to narrow the width of the machine sufficiently so that it could be transported over highways. This requires that either the paving kit itself be telescopic or that the paving kit is removed from the tractor. In either case, this could significantly increase the overall cost of the machine or the cost or time required for moving the machine and is therefore an undesirable alternative. The only way to overcome this limitation is to add a pivot hinge (with a means to lock/pin the pivot hinge in either the working or transport position) between the side bolster and the parallel linkage to allow the parallel linkage with jacking columns and crawlers to pivot outboard relative to the tractor frame until the crawlers extend in the lateral direction (which is perpendicular to the normal paving direction) of the paving machine required for loading on a trailer and transport. Of course, adding the pivot hinge with a pinning mechanism to each corner of the machine is costly, and pinning and unpinning of the hinge is time-consuming. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to a first aspect of the present invention, each bolster swing leg is pivotally mounted on a hinge bracket that is secured to the front (or aft) ends of the side bolsters of the paving machine. This bracket also supports the turnbuckle or, preferably, a hydraulic actuator which eliminates the need to tie the swing leg into the tractor frame for holding the swing leg, and the crawler track secured to it, in a fixed position during paving. One end of the turnbuckle or actuator is tied into the swing leg conventionally, while the other end is mounted to the hinge bracket. This eliminates the need encountered in the past to relocate the turnbuckle mounts on the tractor frame when the width of the tractor frame is changed. Instead, in accordance with the present invention, every time the width of the paving machine is changed, the attachment point for the turnbuckle or hydraulic actuator automatically follows the positional change of the swing leg because the attachment point is mounted on the hinge bracket, that is, in a fixed position relative to the bolster and the swing leg. To facilitate the required realignment of the crawler tracks, another important aspect of the present invention preferably replaces the turnbuckles with hydraulic actuators and provides angular position transducers at the pivot connection for the swing leg at the hinge bracket and another such transducer between the jacking column and the crawler track. An onboard computer or other processor receives the outputs from the transducers and generates a signal to pivot the crawler track relative to the associated jacking column to keep the crawler tracks oriented in the paving direction when the angular orientation of the swing leg changes, and also keeps all the crawler tracks' orientations synchronized. Thus, no matter what the swing leg angle is, the crawler track stays straight ahead in the paving direction and position. Of course it is also possible to override this computerized feature so the crawler track orientation can be changed relative to the bolster swing leg, which may be required from time to time for width change, maneuvering on site, etc. The bolster swing leg hydraulic actuator and the hydraulic rotary power drive or steering cylinder for pivoting the crawler track relative to the jacking column working in cooperation with the position transducers allow the swing leg with crawler track to be held in a fixed location in relationship to the edge of the concrete. A closed loop feedback system that connects the hydraulic actuator for the swing leg, the rotary power drive for the crawler, and the onboard computer always maintains the swing leg angle at a fixed, preset angle. If the swing leg migrates away from a preset angle, the swing leg hydraulic cylinder is actuated to maintain the preset angle and at the same time the necessary adjustments to the crawler track orientation are made with the hydraulic rotary power drive or steering cylinder. Alternatively, a hydraulic system using a locking valve can be provided instead of the position transducer and feedback loop for holding the swing leg in the desired position. Thus, the crawler track positions can be relocated when the machine is walked forward or backward while the crawler tracks at all times stay in their straight-ahead normal operating orientation and position without requiring any manual mechanical or electronic adjustments. The crawler tracks can also be relocated when the machine is stationary by supporting the weight of the machine off the ground, then hydraulically lifting each crawler track (one at a time) off the ground, and thereafter using the swing leg hydraulic cylinder and position transducer working in conjunction with the power drive or steering cylinder between the jacking column and the crawler track for moving the crawler track to another position. A still further aspect of the present invention eliminates the need to reposition the steering cylinder on the jacking columns when the crawler track is repositioned within the range of the swing leg cylinder and to allow 90° steering without having to reposition the steering cylinder by employing a hydraulic motor driven rotary actuator (slew gear) with an angular position transducer as the power drive between the crawler track and the jacking column. The rotary actuator also allows a wide range of steering angles while in the 90° steering mode to make the machine highly maneuverable on site. Working in conjunction with the swing leg position transducer, and after unpinning the swing leg hydraulic cylinder from the swing leg, the rotary actuators allow the machine to be preprogrammed to first turn the crawler tracks relative to the jacking columns normal to the paving direction, and then walk the crawler tracks on the ground in an arc around the pivot shaft of the swing legs into their outboard transport position (in which the crawlers are oriented 90°, i.e. substantially transverse to the paving direction) so that the paving machine can be sufficiently narrowed for moving it over ordinary highways to a new paving site with a legal or otherwise approved transport width dimension, or, for maneuvering the paving machine around a paving site which is tightly confined. The heretofore common need to manually move the swing legs with jacking columns and crawler tracks into the outboard position as previously described is thereby eliminated, which significantly reduces the time required to ready the machine for transport and/or for maneuvering the machine at the work site. Thus, a paving machine constructed in accordance with the present invention has a main frame that includes a center module, a side bolster that is laterally movably connected to respective lateral sides of the center module for changing a spacing between the bolsters, a crawler track associated with respective aft and forward ends of the bolsters, and a bolster swing leg for each crawler track. An upright jacking column is secured to the free end of the swing leg, and a connection between the jacking column and the crawler track permits rotational movements of the crawler track and the jacking column about an upright axis. A hinge bracket is interposed between each swing leg and an associated surface of the bolsters and includes a fixed, upright pivot shaft that pivotally engages the swing leg for pivotal movements in a substantially horizontal plane. The hinge plate includes a pivot pin that is laterally spaced from and fixed in relation to the pivot shaft. A length-adjustable, preferably hydraulically actuated, holder is capable of being held at a fixed length and has a first end that pivotally engages the pivot pin and a second end that pivotally engages the swing leg. The holder permits pivotal motions of the swing leg about the hinge pin when in its length-adjustable configuration and prevents substantially any motion of the swing leg when the holder is in its fixed-length configuration. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Illustrative aspects of the present disclosure are described in detail below with reference to the following drawing figures. It is intended that that embodiments and figures disclosed herein are to be considered illustrative rather than restrictive. FIG. 1 is a front elevational, perspective view of a complete paving machine having pivotable swing legs with a jacking column and a crawler, each constructed in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is a partial, simplified plan view of portions of a paving machine illustrating the pivotal swing leg of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a perspective, front elevational view of a hinge bracket for securing the swing leg to the paving machine; FIG. 4 is a front elevational view, in section, taken through the vertical center line of the jacking column and crawler, which are only schematically shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 4A is an enlargement of the portion of FIG. 4 within the circle A-A of FIG. 4; FIG. 5 is a front elevational view, in section, through the pivot connection between the hinge bracket shown in FIG. 3 and the bolster swing leg attached thereto with a pivot pin; FIG. 6 is a schematic plan view similar to FIG. 2 and illustrates the attachment of the bolster swing legs to the aft portion of the paving machine, with the paving machine having an additional cross beam between the tractor frame and the swing legs for additional kits that may be mounted on the paving machine; FIG. 6A shows in plan view a paving machine with a DBI Module incorporating special bolt-in short bolster extensions with built-in mounts for DBI longitudinal support beams; FIG. 6B is an illustration similar to FIG. 6A with the paving machine and the DBI shown in various relative positions as they are being readied for transportation while in their respective transport orientations; FIG. 6C is a side elevation of the paving machine shown in FIG. 6B, in its transport orientation; FIG. 7 is a perspective, side-elevational view showing the bolster swing leg that is pivotally secured to the hinge bracket; and FIGS. 8A-E are schematic plan views of the paving machine which illustrate reconfiguring the machine into its transportation mode (or vice versa). FIG. 9 is a plan view illustration of a three-leg paving machine having one forward swing leg, according to aspects of the disclosure. FIGS. 10A and 10B are plan view illustrations of a three-leg paving machine having two forward swing leg, according to aspects of the disclosure. FIG. 11 is a plan view illustration of a three-leg paving machine having two forward swing leg and an aft swing leg, according to aspects of the disclosure. FIG. 12A and 12B are plan view illustrations of a three-leg paving machine having one forward swing leg and one side swing leg, according to aspects of the disclosure. FIGS. 13A-E are plan view illustrations showing reconfiguration of a three-leg paving machine, according to aspects of the disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring initially to FIG. 1, a concrete slipform paving machine 2 has a main tractor frame 4 defined by a center module or platform 6 that carries the diesel engine powered power unit 8 of the paving machine and from which extendable or telescoping male support beams 10 extend outwardly in a lateral direction. Side bolsters 12 are secured to the respective outboard ends of the support beams. Upright jacking columns 14 are mounted in the vicinity of respective front and aft ends of the bolsters, and crawlers 16 are conventionally secured to the lower ends of the jacking columns. The jacking columns are hydraulically powered for raising and lowering of the paving machine relative to the crawlers on the ground. The crawlers are mounted to the lower ends of the jacking columns, and they are rotatable relative to the jacking columns about vertical axes, an arrangement that is known in the art. The crawlers support the entire machine and move it over the ground. The respective bolsters can be moved in the lateral direction relative to the center module so that the machine frame, including the crawlers, straddles a paving kit (not separately shown) that extends over, clears and forms a strip of concrete (not shown) being laid down by the machine. When finished, the strip of concrete defines an upwardly exposed, appropriately leveled and finished concrete surface (not shown) that extends across the strip between the upright sides of the concrete strip. In use, the paving machine is aligned with the paving direction 18 so that the concrete strip can be laid between the crawlers 16 of the machine over a width determined by a paving kit 63 suspended from the main tractor frame. Fresh concrete is deposited in front of the machine, a spreader plow or a spreading auger (not shown) approximately levels the concrete over a major portion of the width of the concrete strip, and, as the machine advances forwardly, a metering gate substantially evenly spreads the top of the fresh concrete. Following the “liquification” of the concrete by vibrators supported by a vibrator rack at a fixed elevation on the front side of the paving kit, finishing pans (not shown in FIG. 1) are provided on the aft end of the paving kit to finish the top surface of the concrete as the paving kit passes over it, while sideform(s) form the sides of the concrete strip or slab. A finished concrete strip emerges from the aft end of the paving machine and is permitted to conventionally set and harden. Referring to FIGS. 1-5, each crawler 16 and the associated jacking column 14 are mounted to a free end 19 (shown in FIG. 7) of a bolster swing leg 20. The swing leg is typically formed as a box beam 22 and has another end 21 (shown in FIG. 7) that is pivotal about a vertically oriented pivot shaft 24 which extends through a bearing bushing 26 that is supported in its vertical orientation on a hinge bracket 28 with spaced-apart support webs 30. The hinge bracket has appropriately positioned fastening holes 32 for securing it to respective end surfaces 34 of side bolsters 12 with conventional bolt and nut fasteners 23 as shown, for example, in FIG. 7. A female keyway is provided on the jacking column bolting flange 57 (shown in FIG. 4) with male keyways provided on the mating bolting flanges to take the shear of the bolts and to eliminate possible misalignment. The ends of box beams 22 adjacent bolster end surface 34 have connector plates 36, secured to the top and bottom surfaces of the box beam by welding, for example. The connector plates project towards the tractor frame past the end of the box beam and have holes that pivotally engage pivot shaft 24 in bearing bushing 26 of the hinge bracket so that the swing legs are free to pivot relative to bolsters 12 in a horizontal plane (as indicated in FIG. 2) about an upright axis defined by the pivot shaft. The closed end of the cylinder of a hydraulic actuator 38 is pivotally pinned to two spaced-apart support plates which are secured, e.g. welded, to the inside of the hinge bracket 28 and a mid-portion of bearing bushing 26, as is best seen in FIG. 3. The support plates include aligned bores 42 that are laterally spaced some distance away from the bearing bushing 26. The closed end of the hydraulic cylinder is pivotally movably secured to the support plates with a pin that extends through the bores. The piston 44 of the hydraulic actuator is pivotally pinned to a pair of spaced-apart brackets 46 which are located between the ends of the swing leg and typically relatively closer to its free end 19. When the hydraulic actuator is pinned to the hinge bracket 28 and the brackets on bolster swing leg 20, it is angularly inclined relative to the paving direction 18, as best seen in FIGS. 1 and 2. It is foreseen that on a larger machine more than one, e.g. two, vertically spaced-apart hydraulic cylinders placed above each other may be required to generate the force required to hold the bolster swing leg in a fixed position relative to the male pivot hinge. Further, if desired, for example for cost reasons, hydraulic actuators can be replaced by turnbuckles. When assembled installed between hinge bracket 28 and swing leg 20, hydraulic actuator 38 can be energized to pivot bolster swing leg 20 in a horizontal plane as schematically illustrated in FIG. 2. Since hinge bracket 28 is secured to end face 34 of bolster 12, the angular inclination of the actuator relative to the bolster swing leg does not change when the length of the tractor frame 4 (in the lateral direction perpendicular to the normal paving direction 18) is changed. There is therefore no need to reposition the hinge bracket that secures one end of the hydraulic actuator to the machine frame, as was necessary in the past. The extendable length of the hydraulic actuator and its attachment points to hinge bracket 28 and swing leg 20 are chosen so that the angular inclination of the hydraulic actuator relative to the bolster swing leg is maintained over a reasonably large arc (as schematically illustrated in FIG. 2) that is sufficient to permit repositioning of the swing leg during normal use encountering normal operating conditions of the paving machine without having to disconnect the actuator from the swing leg and/or the hinge bracket. However, when the swing legs are to be rotated 90° from the paving direction 18 towards a position that is laterally outward of bolsters 12, principally for readying the paving machine so that it can be transported by truck and trailer to a new location, hydraulic actuator 38 is disengaged from at least one of the swing leg or the hinge bracket 28, for example by pulling pin 41 that connects the end of piston 44 to brackets 46 on the swing leg, to prevent interference between the hydraulic actuator and support plates 40 and/or bearing bushing 26 of the hinge bracket. When bolster swing legs 20 are longitudinally aligned with tractor frame 4 and its laterally extending support beams 10, a position in which the legs are oriented approximately perpendicular to paving direction 18, it is preferred to pin the swing legs in that position during shipment of the paving machine with a turnbuckle or other fastener (not shown) to webs 45, 47 on the laterally facing surfaces of the bolster and the swing leg as seen in FIG. 2. The turnbuckle or the like is released at the new location so that the swing legs can be returned to their normal operating position in which they are parallel, or only slightly angularly inclined relative to the paving direction 18. Each time the bolster swing legs 20 are pivoted inwardly or outwardly relative to tractor frame 4 of the paving machine, the relative angular inclination between the bolster swing legs and the tractor frame changes. This change is replicated by crawler tracks 16 mounted below jacking columns 14 at the free end of the swing legs. This change in crawler track orientation has to be compensated for so that, following the pivotal movement of the swing leg, and preferably simultaneously therewith in real time, the crawler tracks extend in the paving direction. This is done by adjusting the angular orientation of the crawler track by an amount that depends on or is a function of the angular displacement of the swing legs relative to the hinge bracket 28 so that the crawler tracks always remain in alignment with paving direction 18 of the paving machine, as is schematically illustrated in FIG. 2 by the parallel orientation of the crawler tracks (in part shown in phantom lines in FIG. 2) irrespective of the angular orientation of the swing legs. This relocation process can be accomplished while the machine is supported so the crawler track can be lifted off the ground and relocated to the desired location inwardly or outwardly. With this relocation process, typically each swing leg/crawler track is relocated one at a time. Alternatively, this relocation process can also be accomplished while the machine is walking forward or backward. For example, for moving outwards, the angle of the crawler can be hydraulically “jogged” slightly outward while walking the swing leg/crawler track to the desired location with or without the assistance of the swing leg hydraulic cylinder. Once the desired position is reached and the job switch disengaged, the crawler track will automatically go back to the straight-ahead position. In the alternate case, the crawler track relocation process is done while walking in the forward or reverse direction moving one swing leg/crawler track at a time or moving more or all four at a time. Referring to the drawings, and particularly to FIGS. 4 and 7 thereof, jacking column 14 has telescoping outer and inner tubes 48, 50 of a generally rectangular cross-section, as is typical for jacking columns on paving machines, and a vertically oriented hydraulic actuator 52 having its cylinder and piston appropriately secured, e.g. by pinning, to the outer and inner tubes. Activation of the hydraulic actuator telescopingly moves the outer and inner tubes relative to each other for lengthening or shortening the distance between the crawler track and the bolster swing leg 20 for raising or lowering the paving machine relative to the ground or, while the paving machine is otherwise supported, raising or lowering the crawler track off the ground. Spaced-apart axial bearings 54 keep the tubes aligned and permit them to slide relative to each other in their axial direction while maintaining tight clearances to minimize backlash. A support structure 57 is further provided for securing the jacking columns to free ends 19 of the bolster legs. This construction of jacking column 14 is conventional and is therefore not further described herein. A slew or worm gear drive or other rotary actuator 60 is bolted to a mounting plate 56 at the lower end of inner tube 50 of the jacking column. The worm gear drive has a ring gear 58 that is driven by a pair of diametrically opposite, hydraulically activated helical worm drives 61 carried on a ring-shaped member 63 disposed between an inner bearing race 65 of the worm gear drives and a transverse portion 66 of yoke 62, to which the ring-shaped member is secured. An outer bearing race 67 is secured, e.g. bolted, to the lower end of mounting plate 56 at the end of inner tube 50. On its periphery, the outer bearing race 67 defines ring gear 58. Such slew gear drives are commercially available from Kinematics Manufacturing, Inc., of 2221 W. Melinda Lane, Phoenix, Ariz. 85027, as “Slewing Drive s17b-102m-200ra”. Providing the slew gear drive with two oppositely arranged worm drives increases the power available to rotate the crawler track while a portion of the total machine load is carried by it. The slew drive design also effectively minimizes undesirable play or “backlash” during steering of the crawler track and effectively minimizes undesirable play or backlash between the yoke 62 and the jacking column 14 whether the slew gear drive is activated or deactivated. An angular position transducer or sensor 70 is arranged inside an upwardly open can 72 (provided to protect the sensor) that is disposed within an opening 69 in the transverse portion 66 of yoke 62. Supports 74 extend across opening 69 and secure the can with transducer 70 at the rotational center between the jacking column and the yoke. The transducer cooperates with a trigger pin 68 extending downwardly from the under side of plate 56 and a suitable actuator arm that turns the transducer. Alternatively, the trigger pin can cooperate with the transducer via a belt drive 64 as schematically indicated in FIG. 4A. Transducer 70, in cooperation with trigger pin 68, generates a signal that indicates the angular position of yoke 62 relative to jacking column 14 and any changes in the angular position due to rotational movements of the yoke. Corresponding output signals are generated by the transducer and fed to a lead 84 not shown in FIG. 4 but shown in FIG. 5. Referring to the drawings, and in particular to FIGS. 5 and 7 thereof, another angular position transducer 78 is placed on top of swing leg pivot shaft 24 (FIG. 5). As is best seen in FIG. 7, the top of the pivot shaft defines a generally drop-shaped head 86 that is engaged by blocks 88 fixed to the upper side of connector plate 36 so that pivot shaft 24 is rotationally fixed to the connector plate and duplicates the angular movements of swing leg 20 about the pivot shaft. Replaceable bearings are provided at the top and bottom of the male hinge bearing (shown in FIG. 3) as well as a means to get grease to them (not shown in the drawings) so the pivot shaft 24 does not seize in the bearing, which would prevent the swing leg from freely rotating. Angular position transducer 78 is mounted inside a downwardly open protective can 90, as seen in FIG. 5, which is bolted to hinge bracket 28 via an upright holding arm 92. A trigger pin 94 projects upwardly from the top surface of pivot shaft 24 and cooperates with angular position transducer 78 to generate an angular position signal which reflects the angular inclination between the pivot shaft and the hinge bracket, and which changes when the bolster swing leg 20 changes its angular position relative to the hinge bracket 28, and therewith also relative to bolster 12 and tractor frame 4. The output of transducer 78 is fed to a lead 80. The output signal of the position transducer 78 is fed via lead 80 to an onboard computer 82 of the paving machine, or another suitable processor, which receives as its second input the output signal of position transducer 70 between jacking column 14 and crawler tracks 16 via a lead 84, as is schematically illustrated in FIG. 5. Onboard computer or processor 82 and the associated transducers 70, 78 form a feedback loop in which the computer receives the angular position signal from swing leg transducer 78. When the angular position of the swing leg changes, the output signal from transducer 78 changes correspondingly. As a result of this orientational change of the swing leg, the angular orientation of the crawler tracks becomes angularly inclined relative to paving direction 18. Computer 82 calculates by how much the angle of the crawler track has to be changed relative to the jacking column (which has also been angularly offset relative to the transport direction by the swivel motion of the swing leg) to reset the crawler track suspended from yoke 62 to the angular orientation of the desired paving direction. The onboard computer then signals by how much worm gear drive 60 must rotationally adjust the orientation of yoke 62 and crawler tracks 16 to again align the crawler tracks with the paving direction. This process is repeated each time the angular position of the swing leg is changed, or when for other reasons the angular orientation of the crawler tracks becomes misaligned from the desired paving direction of the machine. Thus, the above-described feedback loop automatically adjusts the angular orientation of the crawler tracks so that the tracks remain oriented in the travel direction without any need to stop operation of the machine or manually adjust the orientation of the tracks and/or the swing legs. FIGS. 8A-E illustrate with more particularity how the paving machine of the present invention is readily, quickly and inexpensively reconfigured between its paving orientation shown in FIG. 8A or configuration for laying down the layer of concrete, and its transportation orientation shown in FIG. 8E or configuration in which the width of the machine is reduced to a roadway accepted width with minimal efforts. As already mentioned, from time to time the paving machine must be reoriented, either at the work site for maneuvering or repositioning it around, or to ready the machine for transport to a different site, which requires loading the machine on a suitable trailer (not shown) and then hauling it to the new site over available roads. Maneuvering the paving machine around the work site is accomplished by rotating the crawlers 16 relative to the jacking column 14 and then, or simultaneously therewith, activating the crawlers to move the machine into the desired position or to a given location at the site. For loading the paving machine for transport to a different site on a trailer over standard highways, it is necessary to reduce the transport width of the paving machine to the maximum allowable width for highway vehicles. With the crawlers resting on the ground and initially facing in the paving direction 18, they are rotated 90° about the vertical jacking column axis with worm gear drive 60 into a position in which they are substantially transverse to the paving direction. The respective hydraulic actuators 38 keep the associated swing legs 20 in their paving orientation as seen in FIG. 8B. The ends of the hydraulic actuators 38 are then disconnected from the associated swing legs 20 by removing a pin, then with the crawler track on the ground, walking in an arc around the pivot shaft of the swing leg as shown in FIG. 8C. Once in this position, the crawlers are again rotated 90° about the vertical jacking column axis with worm gear drive 60 to place the swing legs in their transport orientation (shown in FIG. 8D) which is perpendicular to the paving direction. Finally, a turnbuckle 95 or like holding device is applied to the main frame side bolster of the paving machine and the swing legs to fix the latter in their transport orientation. This process is repeated at each corner of the machine until each swing leg and crawler track is in the transport orientation and the swing legs are in their transport orientation (FIG. 8E) and perpendicular to the paving direction (FIG. 8D). With the earlier described, cooperating position transducers 70, angular transducer 78 (not shown in FIGS. 8A-E) and worm gear drive 60, or if desired manually, the crawlers 16 are thereby brought into alignment with the bolster swing legs, which, in the transport direction, are oriented perpendicular to the paving direction 18 and do not materially extend laterally past the remainder of the paving machine, so that the entire machine width is within permissible width limits for highway transportation. Once the crawler and the associated swing leg 20 are in their transport orientation, which preferably is slightly more than 90°, e.g. 95°, the tightened transportation turnbuckle 95 having its ends attached to the paving machine frame side bolster and the swing arm prevents movements of the swing leg and the crawler out of their transport orientation while the paving machine is moved to another site. Thus, in the transport position the swing legs and crawlers are parallel to and extend past the respective lateral ends of the paving machine while the overall width is kept within width limits allowed for highway vehicles. Placing the paving machine in the transport direction requires little time since the operation can be quickly performed and the crawlers can then be used to move the paving machine onto a trailer for transport to a different site without requiring heavy lifting equipment such as a crane to place the paving machine from the paving to the transport directions, and vice versa. FIG. 6 shows a paving machine 2 including a center module 6, laterally extending support beams 10, side bolsters 12, jacking columns 14 and crawlers 16 as described above. The paving machine can be used, for example, with a dowel bar inserter 116 for intermittently inserting dowel bars (not shown) into the freshly laid down concrete strip immediately behind the paving kit. Such a dowel bar inserter, its construction and attachment to the paving machine are described, for example, in commonly owned, copending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/556,486, filed Sep. 9, 2009, for a Paver Having Dowel Bar Inserter With Automated Dowel Bar Feeder, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference as if it were fully set forth herein. To movably support the dowel bar inserter 116, for example, or another kit of the paving machine from the tractor frame, the lateral ends 112 of a cross beam 110 are tied into, that is, they are typically bolted to, rearwardly extending bolster extensions 114. The longitudinal support beams 43 for the dowel bar inserter shown (the rest of the dowel bar inserter is not shown) attach to the rear of the tractor frame by means of a mounting bracket attached to the support beam in the front and to the rear cross beam 110 in the rear. The forward ends of the bolster extensions 114 are secured to the rearwardly facing end surfaces of the main tractor frame bolsters 12 that can be provided with or without an additional bolt-in hinge 102. When no hinge in the bolster is provided, the bolster extension 114 must be removed prior to transporting the machine. Prior to removing the bolster extensions for loading and transporting the paver, the rear hinge 36 and swing leg 20 along with the jacking column 14 and crawler track 16 (the entire assembly) must be removed and then lifted and bolted to the rear of the main frame side bolster 12 and the paver put into the transport orientation. The weight of this entire swing leg, jacking column and crawler track assembly can be handled with a relatively small crane. When the bolster extension is provided with a bolt-in hinge 102, the bolster extension 114, swing leg, jacking column and crawler track can be left on the paving machine so that by hinging the bolsters into the outboard transport position, the paving machine is capable of self-loading onto a trailer, with the bolster, swing leg and jacking column with crawler track folded up for transport. The advantage of this is that no crane is required to remove the bolster extension in order to transport. A variation to the DBI mounting arrangement shown in FIG. 6 with a bolt-in hinge is the mounting arrangement shown in FIGS. 6A and 6B. Instead of a bolt-in hinge 102, a special bolt-in short bolster extension 104 with built-in mount 106 for the DBI longitudinal support beam 43 is supplied. Instead of the longitudinal support beams 43 attaching to the rear of the tractor frame by means of a mounting bracket described above, the longitudinal support beams mount to the bolster extension 104. When the bolster extension is provided with a special bolt-in short bolster extension 104 with built-in mount 106 for the DBI longitudinal support beam, a practical and fast loading/transport solution is possible for both the paver and the DBI, providing a medium-size crane is readily available. Because the bolster extensions are tied to the DBI supporting longitudinal support beam 43 in this configuration and also to the rear cross beam 110, a rectilinear frame is formed where the DBI, complete with bolster extensions 114 and 104, becomes a kit (module) 108 of a legally transportable width. If this DBI Module is supported complete with bolter extensions 114 and 104, while it is still attached to the paver, the rear hinge 36 and swing leg 20 along with the jacking column and crawler track (the entire assembly), it can be lifted with a relatively light small crane (without disconnecting any of the hydraulic or electrical connections) and bolted to the side of the main frame side bolster 12, using the universal bolting pattern found on the side bolster 12 as shown in FIGS. 6B and 6C (that matches the hole pattern of the swing leg) covered and described in copending, commonly owned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/703,101, filed Feb. 9, 2010, for a Slipform Paving Machine With Adjustable Length Tractor Frame. This swing leg, jacking column and crawler track assembly is mounted in the transport orientation as shown in FIG. 6B and FIG. 6C. Once this procedure is completed on the opposite side of the machine, the complete DBI with bolster extensions 114 and 104 and the DBI Module 108 can be lifted as a module 108 on a truck transporting trailer. With the DBI Module 108 removed from the rear of the paver tractor frame, then the other front swing leg and jacking column with crawler track can be walked into the transport orientation as described herein. With all the swing legs and jacking columns with crawler tracks now in the transport orientation, the paver can self-load by walking onto a transporting trailer. The advantage of this arrangement is that if a medium-size crane is available, adding or removing the DBI Module 108 and unloading or loading the DBI Module and paver can be done very rapidly. FIG. 6B schematically illustrates the paving machine and the DBI Module arranged for transport in two loads, as a crawler track paver module and as a DBI Module 108. The right and left rear jacking columns 14/crawler 16/swing leg 20/rear hinge 36 subassembly has been moved into its transport orientation as previously described. The left front jacking column/crawler/swing leg/rear hinge subassembly has been rotated towards its transport orientation, while the right front jacking column, crawler/swing leg/front hinge subassembly is shown in its paving orientation and must still be rotated into its transport orientation before the modules are ready for loading onto a trailer (not shown). Cross beam 110 may comprise a non-telescoping or a telescoping cross beam, laterally extendable and retractable support system that has a female center housing 6′ which movably receives male support beams 10′ that extend in opposite directions from the center housing towards the rearward bolster extensions 76. The construction and operation of telescoping cross beam 110 and the kits, such as a dowel bar inserter kit suspended therefrom, are described in copending, commonly owned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/703,101, filed Feb. 9, 2010, for a Slipform Paving Machine With Adjustable Length Tractor Frame, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Expanding on the three-leg paver embodiments considered above, several configurations of paving machines having three leg with corresponding crawler tracks are considered below. As with four leg implementations of paving machines using swing legs, one or more legs of a three-leg paver can be a swing leg with a jacking column and crawler track. These swing legs can be coordinated electronically allowing ease of automatically or semi-automatically reconfiguring the machine to go into a transport position, an operational paving position, or to reposition jacking column and/or crawler track positions on the fly to avoid obstacles or severe grade deviations during paving. These adjustable swing legs can reduce the time required for switching the machine between the transport configuration and the operational paving configuration. Unlike traditional paver machines that implement leg adjustment using four-bar linkages or require stopping of the machine and time-consuming supporting the machine frame, hydraulically lifting the crawler track off the ground, then mechanically re-aligning the swing leg to the new position, hydraulically lowering the crawler track back on the ground then rotating the crawler track to the new desired position and resetting the electronics, the present disclosure provides for machines that can adjust leg and crawler track location while in operation (“on the fly”). In each of the three-leg paver embodiments considered herein, further particular advantages are obtained through use of at least one swing leg as part of a three-leg paving machine. In embodiments with two forward-mounted legs on the paving machine, these legs can be referred to as first and second legs, as appropriate. In some aspects, three-leg paving machines as disclosed herein are capable of transitioning into a transport position while moving. While a paving machine is moving, it is capable of automatically going from a working position to the narrow and predetermined profile of the transport position, relocating the crawler tracks attached to jacking columns via slew drives and transducers attached the swing legs. The transducers can control adjustment via slew drives such that the crawler tracks are kept oriented straight ahead or at an angle to match the desired “tracking” of the crawlers to minimize or eliminate skidding. This predetermined transport position can take into account the position of the swing leg/jacking column with crawler tracks to avoid interfering with the auger conveyor or belt conveyor and the desired gauge of the crawler tracks in relationship to each other to match the width of the trailer bed on which the machine will be loaded. This predetermined position can be manually overridden or “jogged” to a fine tuning position. Generally, the transport position can be configured to be sufficiently narrow or aligned such that the tracks of the three-leg paving machine will fit onto the bed of a trailer for carrying the three-leg paving machine. While the paving machine is moving, allowing automatic repositioning of one or more swing legs (inclusive of jacking column and crawler tracks) into new positions provides for the ability to avoid obstacles (e.g., manholes, guard rails, posts, etc.) or large changes in grade. The adjustment implemented by the transducers coupled to the swing leg and crawler tracks, and resolved by the onboard computer automatically, keeps the respective crawler tracks at optimum angles to reposition and proceed straight ahead once the new position is reached. In particular, three-leg implementations of the paving machine are capable of working on tight radius curves while moving. Such tight radius movement is employed for the slipform paving of concrete profiles such as curbs, including 90° turns (left or right) and 180° turns (e.g. a rounded end or U-turn at the end of a curb), or turns at increments of degree therein. In other aspects, three-leg paving machines as disclosed herein can also transition into a transport position while stationary. This can be accomplished using a support under the tractor frame, hydraulically lifting one crawler track off the ground using a jacking column attached to a swing leg, and then using a hydraulic actuator or a mechanical turnbuckle to move the respective leg and crawler track to another position. Such adjustments can be done for all three legs of a three-leg paving machine one at a time or concurrently, automatically or semi-automatically, to prepare the paving machine jacking column(s) and crawler track position(s) for transport and to move to a predetermined transport position. Conversely, this process can also be applied to moving legs of a three-leg paver to a predetermined working position(s). As with adjustments made while the paving machine is in motion, this predetermined position can be manually overridden or jogged to fine tune or optimize the jacking column(s) and crawler track positions. Similarly, a variation of tight radius curve paving is also provided for embodiments where the paving machine is stationary. Again, the machine frame can be supported and elevated via hydraulic lifting one crawler track off the ground, using the jacking column attached to the swing leg and moving the leg position with a hydraulic actuator or a mechanical turnbuckle, one at a time or concurrently, automatically or semi-automatically, to a predetermined position, stored in the memory of the onboard computer. In a stationary position, the paving machine can adjust to continue with paving different concrete profiles that require tight radius movement (such as curbs), including 90° through 180° turns, or turns at increments of degree therein. At the end of a pour or paving up to an obstacle, once the paving machine is stationary, the slew drives between the crawler track and the jacking columns can allow the paver machine crawler tracks to all be turned 90° relative to the previous direction of travel, such that the paver machine can walk laterally. This can reduce the amount of manual forming needed when finishing paving for barrier wall or curbs and gutters. Once in this 90° degree mode position, the paving machine can walk and steer in the direction perpendicular to the prior working direction, and the new alignment of the front tracks will stay parallel with the new alignment of the rear crawler track to avoid skidding the crawler tracks. The 90° degree mode position can be a preset configuration saved within the onboard computer, responsive to orientation input from the swing leg and crawler track transducers FIG. 9 is a plan view illustration of a three-leg paving machine 900 having one forward swing leg 20 extending from tractor frame 4. Three-leg paving machine 900 further includes an aft leg 902 and a forward (laterally) telescoping leg 904 also extending from tractor frame 4. Each of the swing leg 20, aft leg 902, and forward telescoping leg 904 further include crawler tracks 16. Forward swing leg 20 can be further supported via a jacking column 14, providing a pivot location for movement of the forward swing leg 20. A conveyor 906 is connected to the tractor frame 4 which can convey concrete to a hopper 928, attached to a profile mold 930 for vibrating and shaping the concrete into a semi-solid state. Semi-solid concrete dumped in the hopper 928 of a profile mold 930 (e.g. a curb profile) attached to the underside or lateral side of the tractor frame, and through the profile mold 930, concrete can be laid down in a shaped form or profile, having an upward surface and lateral sides (e.g., formed as a curb). The concrete belt conveyor 906 is illustrative as one means of supplying concrete to the profile mold 930 and hopper 928; alternatively, a concrete auger conveyor or a conveyor mounted to another machine can deliver concrete to the hopper 928. An exemplary concrete curb is shown, formed from the profile mold 930, in accordance with the paving direction. Further, while hopper 928 and profile mold 930 are shown in FIG. 9 on the lateral side of tractor frame proximate to forward swing leg 20, it can be appreciated that in some embodiments, hopper 928 and profile mold 930 can be positioned on the lateral side of tractor frame proximate to forward laterally telescoping leg 904. In some embodiments, aft leg 902 is further laterally movable long the back end width of tractor frame 4. FIG. 9 shows both forward swing leg 20 and forward telescoping leg 904 in a transport position (in solid line) relatively close in toward the tractor frame 4, and in an operational working position (in dashed line) relatively distant from the tractor frame. Forward swing leg 20 and forward telescoping leg 904 can be driven between transport and operational positions by power unit 8. As shown, forward telescoping leg 904 can be configured to extend and retract relative to the tractor frame 4 in a direction perpendicular to the direction of paving; in other words, perpendicular to the forward and aft ends of the tractor frame 4. As in other embodiments, swing leg 20 further includes cooperating position transducer 70 and angular transducer 78 which can relay movement data to an onboard computer, which can resolve the direction and orientation of swing leg 20 and its corresponding crawler track 16 as the three-leg paving machine 900 is in operation or being transported. In some aspects, forward telescoping leg 904 can also include an angular transducer 78 coupled to its crawler track 16. In combination with a known position of forward telescoping leg 904, tracked with a linear transducer 908, (which can be adjusted in width position via a hydraulic actuator, a linear actuator, or the like), the positions of forward swing leg 20 and forward telescoping leg 904 can be changed while the three-leg paving machine 900 is in motion, using data from the various transducers, and resolved by an onboard computer, to maintain crawler tracks 16 in needed orientations for forward motion, backward motion, and/or turning while minimizing skidding. FIGS. 10A and 10B are plan view illustrations of a three-leg paving machine 1000 having two forward swing legs 20 extending from tractor frame 4. Three-leg paving machine 1000 further includes an aft leg 902 also extending from tractor frame 4. Each of the forward swing legs 20 and aft leg 902 further include crawler tracks 16. Forward swing legs 20 can each be further supported via separate jacking columns 14, providing respective pivot locations for movement of the forward swing legs 20. A conveyor 906 is connected to the tractor frame 4 which can convey concrete to a hopper 928, attached to a profile mold 930 for vibrating and shaping the concrete into a semi-solid state. Semi-solid concrete dumped in the hopper 928 of a profile mold 930 (e.g. a curb profile) attached to the underside or lateral side of the tractor frame, and through the profile mold 930, concrete can be laid down in a shaped form or profile, having an upward surface and lateral sides (e.g., formed as a curb). The concrete belt conveyor 906 is illustrative as one means of supplying concrete to the profile mold 930 and hopper 928; alternatively, a concrete auger conveyor or a conveyor mounted to another machine can deliver concrete to the hopper 928. An exemplary concrete curb is shown, formed from the profile mold 930, in accordance with the paving direction. It can be appreciated that hopper 928 and profile mold 930 can be positioned on either lateral side of tractor frame 4. In some embodiments, aft leg 902 is further laterally movable long the back end width of tractor frame 4. FIG. 10A shows both forward swing legs 20 in a transport position (in solid line) relatively close in toward the tractor frame 4 (with a “narrow” or “inboard” profile), and in an operational working position (in dashed line) relatively distant from the tractor frame. Forward swing legs 20 can be driven between transport and operational positions by power unit 8. As in other embodiments, swing legs 20 both further include a cooperating position transducer 70 and an angular transducer 78 which can relay movement data for each independent leg to an onboard computer, which can resolve the direction and orientation of swing legs 20 and corresponding crawler tracks 16 as the three-leg paving machine 1000 is in operation or being transported. The positions of forward swing legs 20 can be changed while the three-leg paving machine 900 is in motion, using data from the various transducers, and resolved by an onboard computer, to maintain crawler tracks 16 in needed orientations for forward motion, backward motion, and/or turning while minimizing skidding. FIG. 10B shows the rotatable range of crawler tracks 16 on each of the two forward swing legs 20 and the aft leg 902 on three-leg paving machine 1000. Hydraulic actuator 38 is further identified on one of the two forward swing legs 20 (the other hydraulic actuator for the complementary swing leg being occluded by conveyor 906), which can be used to control the position and range of motion of the swing leg 20. While hydraulic actuator 38 is shown connected to a front end of the tractor frame 4, in alternative aspects, hydraulic actuators 38 can be connected to either forward swing leg 20 from either the front end or lateral sides of the tractor frame 4. In further alternative aspects, slew drives can be used to control the position and range of motion of the swing legs 20. FIG. 11 is a plan view illustration of a three-leg paving machine 1100 having two forward swing leg 20 and an aft swing leg 20 extending from tractor frame 4. All three of the swing legs 20, forward and aft, further include crawler tracks 16. All three of the swing legs 20, forward and aft, can each be further supported via separate jacking columns 14, providing respective pivot locations for movement of the swing legs 20. A conveyor 906 is connected to the tractor frame 4 which can convey concrete to a hopper 928, attached to a profile mold 930 for vibrating and shaping the concrete into a semi-solid state. Semi-solid concrete dumped in the hopper 928 of a profile mold 930 (e.g. a curb profile) attached to the underside or lateral side of the tractor frame, and through the profile mold 930, concrete can be laid down in a shaped form or profile, having an upward surface and lateral sides (e.g., formed as a curb). The concrete belt conveyor 906 is illustrative as one means of supplying concrete to the profile mold 930 and hopper 928; alternatively, a concrete auger conveyor or a conveyor mounted to another machine can deliver concrete to the hopper 928. An exemplary concrete curb is shown, formed from the profile mold 930, in accordance with the paving direction. It can be appreciated that hopper 928 and profile mold 930 can be positioned on either lateral side of tractor frame 4. FIG. 11 shows both forward swing legs 20 in an operational working position (in solid line) relatively distal from the tractor frame 4, and in a transport position (in dashed line) relatively proximate to the tractor frame. All swing legs 20 can be driven between transport and operational positions by power unit 8. As in other embodiments, swing legs 20 each further include a cooperating position transducer 70 and an angular transducer 78 which can relay movement data for each independent leg to an onboard computer, which can resolve the direction and orientation of swing legs 20 and corresponding crawler tracks 16 as the three-leg paving machine 1100 is in operation or being transported. The positions of all three of the swing legs 20 can be changed while the three-leg paving machine 1100 is in motion, using data from the various transducers, and resolved by an onboard computer, to maintain crawler tracks 16 in needed orientations for forward motion, backward motion, and/or turning while minimizing skidding. Hydraulic actuators 38 on each swing leg 20 (one of which being occluded by conveyor 906), can be used to control the position and range of motion of the respective swing legs 20. FIG. 12A and 12B are plan view illustrations of a three-leg paving machine 1200 having one forward swing leg 20 and one side swing leg 920 extending from tractor frame 4. Three-leg paving machine 1200 further includes an aft leg 902 also extending from tractor frame 4. Each of forward swing leg 20, side swing leg 920, and aft leg 902 further include crawler tracks 16. Forward swing leg 20 and side swing leg 920 can each be further supported via separate jacking columns 14, providing respective pivot locations for movement of the forward swing legs 20. A conveyor 906 is connected to the tractor frame 4 which can convey concrete to a hopper 928, attached to a profile mold 930 for vibrating and shaping the concrete into a semi-solid state. Semi-solid concrete dumped in the hopper 928 of a profile mold 930 (e.g. a curb profile) attached to the underside or lateral side of the tractor frame, and through the profile mold 930, concrete can be laid down in a shaped form or profile, having an upward surface and lateral sides (e.g., formed as a curb). The concrete belt conveyor 906 is illustrative as one means of supplying concrete to the profile mold 930 and hopper 928; alternatively, a concrete auger conveyor or a conveyor mounted to another machine can deliver concrete to the hopper 928. It can be appreciated that hopper 928 and profile mold 930 can be positioned on either lateral side of tractor frame 4, where the side swing leg 920 is positioned on the lateral side of tractor frame 4 opposite of the hopper 928 and profile mold 930. In some embodiments, aft leg 902 is further laterally movable long the back end width of tractor frame 4. FIG. 12A shows both side swing 920 (alternatively referred to as an outboard or a lateral leg) in an operational working position (in solid line) relatively close in toward the tractor frame 4, and in a transport position (in dashed line) relatively distant from the tractor frame 4. Forward swing leg 20 and side swing leg 920 can be driven between transport and operational positions by power unit 8. As in other embodiments, forward swing leg 20 and side swing leg 920 both further include a cooperating position transducer 70 and an angular transducer 78 which can relay movement data for each independent leg to an onboard computer, which can resolve the direction and orientation of forward swing leg 20 and side swing leg 920 and corresponding crawler tracks 16 as the three-leg paving machine 1200 is in operation or being transported. The positions of forward swing leg 20 and side swing leg 920 can be changed while the three-leg paving machine 1200 is in motion, using data from the various transducers to maintain crawler tracks 16 in needed orientations for forward motion, backward motion, and/or turning while minimizing skidding. FIG. 12B shows a range of motion for side swing leg transitioning between an operational working position and a transport position. Hydraulic actuator 38 can which can be used to control the position and range of motion of the side swing leg 920. For example, as shown, the side swing leg 920 can be moved from a position aligned and proximate to the rear end of the tractor frame 4 to a position extending outward from a lateral side of the tractor frame, perpendicular to the direction of movement of the three-leg paving machine 1200. In other words, side swing leg 920 is capable of adjusting its orientation to 90° from its initial position. In further aspects, one or more hydraulic actuators 38 can be configured to move side swing leg 920 to a position aligned and proximate to the front end of the tractor frame 4. In other words, side swing leg 920 is capable of adjusting its orientation to 180° from its initial position. As in other embodiments, the crawler tracks 16 on each of the legs of the three-leg paving machine 1200 can be rotated as needed for movement and directional control. It should be appreciated that the movement of side swing leg 920 from one configuration to another can be rapid, accomplished when stationary. While in the embodiments considered above, hopper 928 and profile mold 930 are shown positioned on a lateral side of the respective tractor frames 4, it is appreciated that in alternative embodiments, a profile mold 930 and variation of the hopper 928 can be positioned on the underside of the tractor frame, thus laying down a form or profile of concrete that passes under the aft end of the tractor frame. In such embodiments, a respective aft leg can be moved or adjusted such that the aft leg does not interfere with or run into the concrete profile. FIGS. 13A-E are plan view illustrations showing reconfiguration of a three-leg paving machine 1200 having a side swing leg 920 (the conveyor 906 not shown). In particular, the gradual reconfiguration of the three-leg paving machine 1200 having a side swing leg 920 is shown. Starting with FIG. 13A, the three-leg paving machine 1200 is in a transport position, with side swing leg 920 close-in with the main body of the tractor frame 4, relatively aligned with the aft leg 902. Forward swing leg 20 (having a hydraulic actuator 38) is also shown in a default transport position. In FIG. 13B, side swing leg 920 is shown in a first transitional position, moving outward from the tractor frame 4, and with its respective crawler track 16 pointing outward in the same direction that the side swing leg 920 is moving toward. The rotation of the appropriate crawler track 16 allows for the side swing leg 920 adjustment to occur while the three-leg paving machine 1200 is moving (and thus also while paving) without causing significant skidding of the crawler track 16 or shuddering/vibration of the tractor frame 4 that would otherwise disrupt the laying down of concrete. In FIG. 13C, side swing leg 920 is shown in an intermediary position, a set distance away from the tractor frame 4, and with its respective crawler track 16 pointing straight ahead in the same direction of the motion three-leg paving machine 1200. Three-leg paving machine 1200 can operate in this configuration, for example, to work around an obstacle that the corresponding crawler track 16 would otherwise run into. Similarly, this configuration can be a step in the process of a complete extension or readjustment to a working position of side swing leg 920. Again, this adjustment and phase of operation allows for the three-leg paving machine 1200 is moving (and thus also while paving) without causing significant skidding of the crawler track 16 or shuddering/vibration of the tractor frame 4 that would otherwise disrupt the laying down of concrete. In FIG. 13D, side swing leg 920 is shown in a second transitional position, moving further outward from the tractor frame 4, and with its respective crawler track 16 pointing outward in the same direction that the side swing leg 920 is moving toward. Finally, in FIG. 13E, the side swing leg 920 is shown in a working operational position, at its full distance away from the tractor frame 4, with its crawler track 16 aligned with the other two crawler tracks 16 of three-leg paving machine 1200. From the foregoing, it will be appreciated that specific embodiments of the invention have been described herein for purposes of illustration, but that various modifications may be made without deviating from the spirit and scope of the various embodiments of the invention. Further, while various advantages associated with certain embodiments of the invention have been described above in the context of those embodiments, other embodiments may also exhibit such advantages, and not all embodiments need necessarily exhibit such advantages to fall within the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the invention is not limited, except as by the recited claims. The teachings of the invention provided herein can be applied to other systems, not necessarily the system described above. The elements and acts of the various examples described above can be combined to provide further implementations of the invention. Some alternative implementations of the invention may include not only additional elements to those implementations noted above, but also may include fewer elements. Further any specific numbers noted herein are only examples; alternative implementations may employ differing values or ranges, and can accommodate various increments and gradients of values within and at the boundaries of such ranges. References throughout the foregoing description to features, advantages, or similar language do not imply that all of the features and advantages that may be realized with the present technology should be or are in any single embodiment of the invention. Rather, language referring to the features and advantages is understood to mean that a specific feature, advantage, or characteristic described in connection with an embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the present technology. Thus, discussion of the features and advantages, and similar language, throughout this specification may, but do not necessarily, refer to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the described features, advantages, and characteristics of the present technology may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments. One skilled in the relevant art will recognize that the present technology can be practiced without one or more of the specific features or advantages of a particular embodiment. In other instances, additional features and advantages may be recognized in certain embodiments that may not be present in all embodiments of the present technology.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention concerns concrete slipform paving machines that have a propelling unit or tractor from which a paving kit is suspended with which a layer of concrete is shaped and finished over the underlying ground as the tractor travels along a road or airfield alignment. The tractor of a concrete slipform paver has a rectilinear frame which straddles the concrete roadway or airfield pavement section that is being paved. The frame is propelled and supported on either end by crawler tracks mounted on side bolsters. These side bolsters each typically have two hydraulic supporting jacking columns, each of which connects to a crawler track, that allow the tractor frame elevation to be manually or automatically varied relative to the ground. The frame, and in particular a center module thereof, supports a diesel engine-driven hydraulic power unit which supplies power to the tractor and the paving kit. The paving kit is conventionally suspended below the tractor frame by mechanical means, such as with hooks and a locking mechanism. The paving kit takes its hydraulic power from the power unit on the tractor. The tractor and the paving kit pass over fresh concrete placed in and distributed over its path as a relatively even and level mass that can be conveniently slipform-paved. During this process, the tractor-attached paving kit spreads the semi-solid concrete dumped in the path of the paver, levels and vibrates it into a semi-liquid state, then confines and finishes the concrete back into a semi-solid slab with an upwardly exposed and finished surface. The sideforms mounted on each side of the slipform paving kit shape and confine the sides of the slab during the slipform paving process. Other kits can be attached to these tractors such as kits for conveying and spreading concrete and trimming and spreading base materials. The tractor normally has four crawler tracks, but can also have only three, each mounted to a jacking column, supporting and propelling the frame during use of the paver in the paving direction. The jacking columns are carried on the bolsters, or on bolster swing legs connected to the fore and aft ends of the side bolsters, that are pivotable about vertical axes to change the relative position of the crawlers for a variety of reasons and/or for changing the movement correction of the crawlers and therewith of the paving machine during use. The bolster swing legs with jacking columns and crawlers can also be relocated and mounted directly to the front and rear of the tractor center module, to the outside of the side bolsters or directly to the outside of the tractor center module in some less conventional paving applications. For the purposes of this description, the focus is on the manner in which bolster swing arms and the orientation of the crawlers can be changed and controlled in the more conventional paving configuration of the machine. As is well known, tractor frames for slipform paving machines, which typically are extendable/retractable in the lateral direction to change the widths of the tractor frame and the remainder of the paving machine, have a generally rectangularly shaped center module or platform which supports, for example, the power unit including the engine for the paver, an operator platform, and the like. A side bolster is laterally movable and secured to each lateral side of the tractor frame (by means of male support tubes that telescopic in and out of the tractor center module), and bolster swing legs pivotally connect the fore and aft ends of the bolster to the respective jacking columns and crawlers of the paver. The swing legs are pivotally mounted to front and aft ends of the bolsters on vertically oriented hinge pins so that pivotal movement of the swing legs moves their end portions, which mount the jacking column and the crawlers, sideways relative to the paving direction of the paving machine and in a generally horizontal plane for increasing or decreasing the distance between the crawlers, and the distance and orientation of the crawlers relative to the tractor frame of the paving machine. Once the bolster swing legs supporting the jacking column with crawler track have the desired spacing between them and the desired orientation relative to the tractor frame, they are locked in place to prevent the crawler tracks from deviating from the desired direction/position and to absorb any existing tolerances between the bolster ends and the bolster swing legs which, if permitted to exist, allow undesired orientational deviations of the crawlers. In the past, turnbuckles and/or hydraulic cylinders were employed to prevent such tolerance-based play. To eliminate all play, two counteracting turnbuckle and/or hydraulic actuators arrangements were sometimes employed to establish a positive, immovably locked position and orientation for each crawler track. The position fixing turnbuckles and/or hydraulic actuators were secured to mounting brackets that were bolted to a hole pattern in the front (or aft) facing surfaces of the tractor frame and the bolster swing legs and/or between the side bolster ends and the bolster swing legs. To be effective, the turnbuckles/hydraulic actuators must have a substantial angular inclination relative to the bolster swing leg. If this angular inclination becomes too small, the turnbuckles/hydraulic actuators lose effectiveness and rigidity, which, if permitted to occur, can lead to undesired deviations in the desired orientation of the crawler tracks, and if the inclination becomes too large, the distance between the point of connection of the turnbuckles/hydraulic actuators to the tractor frame and to the bolster swing leg can exceed the effective length of the turnbuckle or hydraulic actuator. Thus, in the past, when the machine width had to be changed by a significant amount it became necessary to reposition the turnbuckle/hydraulic actuator mounting bracket along the length (in a lateral direction that is perpendicular to the travel direction) of the tractor frame to maintain the angular inclination of the turnbuckle/hydraulic actuator within an acceptable range. This was a time-consuming task that required skilled workers and, therefore, was costly. In addition, the time it takes to change the position of the mounting bracket for the turnbuckle/hydraulic actuator is a downtime for the machine during which it is out of use and cannot generate revenues. Bolster swing legs are used so that the crawler tracks can be relatively quickly relocated in relationship to the edge of the concrete pavement that is being laid down from the normal straight-ahead position, for example to avoid obstacles in the path of the crawler tracks or to make room that may be required to allow tie bars to pass the inside of the rear crawlers and the like. One of the conventional ways of relocating the crawler track was to support the side bolster of the tractor, using the jacking column to hydraulically lift the crawler off the ground, then to use one or more turnbuckles (or one or more hydraulic actuators) to mechanically pivot the bolster swing leg with the jacking column and crawler track and, once the desired position is reached, to hold it there with a turnbuckle or steamboat ratchet (or actuator). If only one turnbuckle is used in the normal position, which is the inboard side of the bolster swing leg, the swing leg is free to move due to the inevitable manufacturing and assembly clearances and tolerances in the turnbuckle connections. These clearances are undesirable because if the swing leg is allowed to pivot or tilt under varying loads, it can adversely affect steering and elevation control. Because of this connection play, opposing turnbuckle sets were at times employed, one being located in the inboard side and one or more turnbuckles being located on the outboard side of the swing leg. In such an arrangement, after the crawler track is in the desired position, the opposing turnbuckles are tensioned (pulled) against each other to keep the swing leg from moving. This transfers all the clearance in the pin connections to one side of the hole, eliminating any possible movement in the connection. The drawback of this approach is that the outboard turnbuckles increase the overall machine profile outside the edge of concrete and therefore require more room for the machine when paving past obstacles in tight confines. If the outboard turnbuckle angle is decreased to decrease the machine profile, the effectiveness of the turnbuckles at this flat angle in holding the swing leg can decrease to almost nil. Further, every time the crawler track is relocated, all the turnbuckles must be readjusted. Attempts have been made to eliminate the need for the outboard opposing turnbuckles by adding a hydraulic cylinder/actuator between the tractor frame and the swing leg behind the turnbuckle on the inboard of the leg. The cylinder effectively pushes the pin connection clearances to the inside of the turnbuckle connection holes and eliminates the risk of swing leg movement by keeping the hydraulic actuator pressurized. The relocation of the bolster swing leg and crawler track in relationship to the tractor frame is further adversely affected by the need to relocate the turnbuckle connection on the tractor frame where it connects to the bolsters to which the swing leg is attached. The turnbuckle connection on the bolster swing leg side typically stays at the same connection point. In the past, the turnbuckle connection to the tractor frame posed several problems. One such problem was when the tractor frame was telescoped narrower. At wider tractor widths, the turnbuckle connects to the outboard end of the support beam of the tractor frame with a turnbuckle bracket that is bolted to the male support beam (that telescopes in and out of the tractor center module) with two or more bolts; however, if the tractor frame is telescoped narrower, the bracket will eventually interfere with the tractor center module, which prevents the further narrowing of the tractor frame. Once this point is reached, the turnbuckle mounting bracket therefore had to be unbolted from the male support beam and rebolted to the tractor center module. To maintain the optimum turnbuckle angle to the swing leg so the turnbuckle is effective in holding the leg in the desired position, the turnbuckle bracket had to be relocated along the tractor center module repeatedly, which slowed down the machine width change process during each change. The inboard turnbuckles can also interfere with other attachments required on the front and rear of the machine, such as a spreader plow that is mounted off the front of the tractor frame, which had to be disconnected and reconnected, which increases costs further. Another problem was when the swing leg complete with jacking column and crawler track is relocated to the outside of the side bolster or mounted directly to the tractor center module, in some paving applications there was no place to connect the bolster swing leg or turnbuckles (hydraulic actuators). The relocation of the bolster swing legs and crawler track in relationship to the tractor frame is further adversely affected by the steering cylinders that typically were used on the jacking columns. The steering cylinders allow the crawler track angle to be changed in relationship to the jacking column for manual or automatic steering purposes. In the past, the steering cylinders at times protruded to the outside of the associated steering column. This is undesirable because it increases the outside width of the paving machine, which dictates and will limit how close the machine can pave next to a building or obstruction, and the stroke of the steering cylinder dictates how far the swing leg can be swung inboard or outboard. Amongst others, such a jacking column steering cylinder configuration does not allow the crawler tracks to be rotated 90° from their normal operating orientation without the time-consuming repinning or repositioning of the steering, which is a drawback. It is however highly advantageous to rotate the crawlers to such a 90° steering position (and being able to steer the crawler track in that position) from their normal position when readjusting the machine for paving different widths, maneuvering the machine around the jobsite, or for readying the machine for transport to a different paving site. In such an event, the swing legs with jacking columns and crawlers are pivoted relative to the tractor frame until the crawlers extend in the lateral direction (which is perpendicular to the normal paving direction) of the paving machine, which minimizes the width of the paving machine so the gauge between the crawler tracks in the transport position is narrow enough to walk the machine onto a trailer and for its transportation over normal roads to a new site. This outboard 90° bolster swing leg orientation is not to be confused with rotating just the crawler tracks in the 90° position using 90° steering. Thus, when repositioning the crawler tracks of a paving machine in accordance with conventional methods, the machine is initially appropriately supported so that a first one of the bolster swing leg-mounted crawler tracks can be lifted off the ground. The turnbuckle is then used to pivot the bolster swing leg until the jacking column and the associated crawler are at the desired (lateral) position and have the required crawler orientation. If the needed lateral movement of the crawler is too great, the turnbuckle mounting bracket must be repositioned by unbolting it from the frame and rebolting it thereto at a hole pattern located at the appropriate (lateral) point on the tractor frame or the center module. Thereafter, the turnbuckle is tightened in the new position of the crawler so that the bolster swing leg can no longer move and the orientation of the crawler is maintained. Thereafter, the crawler is lowered to the ground, it is rotated about the vertical axis of the jacking column to place it in the desired orientation, and an orientation measuring transducer is reset for the new crawler orientation to keep the crawler in the straight-ahead position. This has to be repeated for each of the typically four crawlers of the paving machine, a process that is time-consuming, costly and results in a prolonged, unproductive downtime for the machine. This cost is encountered each time the lateral position of the crawler and/or turnbuckle mounting bracket is changed and the crawlers must then be reoriented relative to the frame so that they face in the required transport direction. This procedure is also used to ready the paving machine for transportation to a new work site. In such an event, the swing legs are pivoted relative to the frame until the crawlers extend in the lateral direction (which is perpendicular to the normal paving direction) of the paving machine, which minimizes the width of the paving machine for transportation to a new site. In an alternative approach used in the past, the crawlers and the associated jacking columns were connected to the fore and aft ends of the side bolsters and fixed mounted to the end of the parallel linkages and oriented so that the crawlers extend in the paving direction of the paving machine. The parallel linkages typically include a hydraulic actuator to assist in the crawler track relocation and to hold the crawler track in the desired position. This approach simplified the lateral adjustment of the positions/orientations of the crawlers in relationship to the tractor as compared to crawlers mounted on pivoted swing legs because no matter where the crawler track was repositioned, the crawler track always remained oriented straight ahead and the turnbuckle relocation issue went away. However, in such arrangements, the limited range of movement of the parallel linkages with hydraulic actuator limits how narrowly the machine can be collapsed for transporting it over highways (with standard highway width restrictions) to new construction sites. The ability to quickly and efficiently move the paving machine from one site to the next, which is highly desirable for the efficient use of the machine, is lost with this approach. Instead, paving machines employing such parallel linkages for the crawlers required that the tractor frame itself had to be collapsed in order to narrow the width of the machine sufficiently so that it could be transported over highways. This requires that either the paving kit itself be telescopic or that the paving kit is removed from the tractor. In either case, this could significantly increase the overall cost of the machine or the cost or time required for moving the machine and is therefore an undesirable alternative. The only way to overcome this limitation is to add a pivot hinge (with a means to lock/pin the pivot hinge in either the working or transport position) between the side bolster and the parallel linkage to allow the parallel linkage with jacking columns and crawlers to pivot outboard relative to the tractor frame until the crawlers extend in the lateral direction (which is perpendicular to the normal paving direction) of the paving machine required for loading on a trailer and transport. Of course, adding the pivot hinge with a pinning mechanism to each corner of the machine is costly, and pinning and unpinning of the hinge is time-consuming.

<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to a first aspect of the present invention, each bolster swing leg is pivotally mounted on a hinge bracket that is secured to the front (or aft) ends of the side bolsters of the paving machine. This bracket also supports the turnbuckle or, preferably, a hydraulic actuator which eliminates the need to tie the swing leg into the tractor frame for holding the swing leg, and the crawler track secured to it, in a fixed position during paving. One end of the turnbuckle or actuator is tied into the swing leg conventionally, while the other end is mounted to the hinge bracket. This eliminates the need encountered in the past to relocate the turnbuckle mounts on the tractor frame when the width of the tractor frame is changed. Instead, in accordance with the present invention, every time the width of the paving machine is changed, the attachment point for the turnbuckle or hydraulic actuator automatically follows the positional change of the swing leg because the attachment point is mounted on the hinge bracket, that is, in a fixed position relative to the bolster and the swing leg. To facilitate the required realignment of the crawler tracks, another important aspect of the present invention preferably replaces the turnbuckles with hydraulic actuators and provides angular position transducers at the pivot connection for the swing leg at the hinge bracket and another such transducer between the jacking column and the crawler track. An onboard computer or other processor receives the outputs from the transducers and generates a signal to pivot the crawler track relative to the associated jacking column to keep the crawler tracks oriented in the paving direction when the angular orientation of the swing leg changes, and also keeps all the crawler tracks' orientations synchronized. Thus, no matter what the swing leg angle is, the crawler track stays straight ahead in the paving direction and position. Of course it is also possible to override this computerized feature so the crawler track orientation can be changed relative to the bolster swing leg, which may be required from time to time for width change, maneuvering on site, etc. The bolster swing leg hydraulic actuator and the hydraulic rotary power drive or steering cylinder for pivoting the crawler track relative to the jacking column working in cooperation with the position transducers allow the swing leg with crawler track to be held in a fixed location in relationship to the edge of the concrete. A closed loop feedback system that connects the hydraulic actuator for the swing leg, the rotary power drive for the crawler, and the onboard computer always maintains the swing leg angle at a fixed, preset angle. If the swing leg migrates away from a preset angle, the swing leg hydraulic cylinder is actuated to maintain the preset angle and at the same time the necessary adjustments to the crawler track orientation are made with the hydraulic rotary power drive or steering cylinder. Alternatively, a hydraulic system using a locking valve can be provided instead of the position transducer and feedback loop for holding the swing leg in the desired position. Thus, the crawler track positions can be relocated when the machine is walked forward or backward while the crawler tracks at all times stay in their straight-ahead normal operating orientation and position without requiring any manual mechanical or electronic adjustments. The crawler tracks can also be relocated when the machine is stationary by supporting the weight of the machine off the ground, then hydraulically lifting each crawler track (one at a time) off the ground, and thereafter using the swing leg hydraulic cylinder and position transducer working in conjunction with the power drive or steering cylinder between the jacking column and the crawler track for moving the crawler track to another position. A still further aspect of the present invention eliminates the need to reposition the steering cylinder on the jacking columns when the crawler track is repositioned within the range of the swing leg cylinder and to allow 90° steering without having to reposition the steering cylinder by employing a hydraulic motor driven rotary actuator (slew gear) with an angular position transducer as the power drive between the crawler track and the jacking column. The rotary actuator also allows a wide range of steering angles while in the 90° steering mode to make the machine highly maneuverable on site. Working in conjunction with the swing leg position transducer, and after unpinning the swing leg hydraulic cylinder from the swing leg, the rotary actuators allow the machine to be preprogrammed to first turn the crawler tracks relative to the jacking columns normal to the paving direction, and then walk the crawler tracks on the ground in an arc around the pivot shaft of the swing legs into their outboard transport position (in which the crawlers are oriented 90°, i.e. substantially transverse to the paving direction) so that the paving machine can be sufficiently narrowed for moving it over ordinary highways to a new paving site with a legal or otherwise approved transport width dimension, or, for maneuvering the paving machine around a paving site which is tightly confined. The heretofore common need to manually move the swing legs with jacking columns and crawler tracks into the outboard position as previously described is thereby eliminated, which significantly reduces the time required to ready the machine for transport and/or for maneuvering the machine at the work site. Thus, a paving machine constructed in accordance with the present invention has a main frame that includes a center module, a side bolster that is laterally movably connected to respective lateral sides of the center module for changing a spacing between the bolsters, a crawler track associated with respective aft and forward ends of the bolsters, and a bolster swing leg for each crawler track. An upright jacking column is secured to the free end of the swing leg, and a connection between the jacking column and the crawler track permits rotational movements of the crawler track and the jacking column about an upright axis. A hinge bracket is interposed between each swing leg and an associated surface of the bolsters and includes a fixed, upright pivot shaft that pivotally engages the swing leg for pivotal movements in a substantially horizontal plane. The hinge plate includes a pivot pin that is laterally spaced from and fixed in relation to the pivot shaft. A length-adjustable, preferably hydraulically actuated, holder is capable of being held at a fixed length and has a first end that pivotally engages the pivot pin and a second end that pivotally engages the swing leg. The holder permits pivotal motions of the swing leg about the hinge pin when in its length-adjustable configuration and prevents substantially any motion of the swing leg when the holder is in its fixed-length configuration.

B62D55084

20180117

20180524

62797.0

B62D55084

HARTMANN, GARY S

ADJUSTABLE BOLSTER SWING LEGS FOR SLIPFORM PAVING MACHINES

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

B62D

PENDING

MOTION PREDICTION IN VIDEO CODING

There is disclosed apparatuses, methods and computer programs for utilizing motion prediction in video coding. A block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream is read, and a type of the block is determined. If the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, a first reference pixel location in a first reference block is determined and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block is determined. The first reference pixel location is used to obtain a first prediction. Said first prediction has a second precision, which is higher than the first precision. The second reference pixel location is used to obtain a second prediction, which also has the second precision. The first prediction and the second prediction are combined to obtain a combined prediction; and the precision of the combined prediction is reduced to the first precision.

1. A method for decoding or encoding video, the method comprising: determining a coding type of a block of pixels of the video, values of said pixels having a first precision, wherein the first precision indicates the number of bits needed to represent values of said pixels; determining a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; using said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; using said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision, wherein the second precision indicates the number of bits needed to represent values of said first prediction and values of said second prediction; obtaining a combined prediction based at least partly upon said first prediction and said second prediction; and decreasing a precision of said combined prediction by shifting bits of the combined prediction to the right. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein said second reference pixel location is an integer sample, and wherein said second prediction is obtained by shifting a value of said second reference pixel location to the left. 3. The method according to claim 1 further comprising: inserting a first rounding offset to said first prediction and said second prediction. 4. The method according to claim 3 further comprising: inserting a second rounding offset to the combined prediction before said decreasing. 5. The method according to claim 3, wherein the first rounding offset is 2y, and said decreasing comprises right shifting the combined prediction y+1 bit. 6. The method according to claim 1 further comprising: reducing the precision of said first prediction and said second prediction to an intermediate prediction after adding a first rounding offset, said intermediate prediction being higher than said first precision. 7. The method according to claim 1, wherein said type of the block is a bi-directional block or a multidirectional block. 8. An apparatus for decoding or encoding video, the apparatus comprising: at least one processor and at least one memory including computer program code, the at least one memory and computer program code configured to, with the processor, cause the apparatus to: determine an encoding type of a block of pixels of a video, values of said pixels having a first precision, wherein the first precision indicates the number of bits needed to represent values of said pixels; determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision, wherein the second precision indicates the number of bits needed to represent values of said first prediction and values of said second prediction; obtain a combined prediction based at least partly upon said first prediction and said second prediction; and decrease a precision of said combined prediction by shifting bits of the combined prediction to the right. 9. The apparatus according to claim 8, wherein said second reference pixel location is an integer sample, and wherein said second prediction is obtained by shifting a value of said second reference pixel location to the left. 10. The apparatus according to claim 8, wherein the at least one memory and computer code are further configured to: insert a first rounding offset to said first prediction and said second prediction. 11. The apparatus according to claim 10, wherein the at least one memory and computer code are further configured to: insert a second rounding offset to the combined prediction before said decreasing. 12. The apparatus according to claim 10, wherein the first rounding offset is 2y, and said decreasing comprises right shifting the combined prediction y+1 bits. 13. The apparatus according to claim 8, wherein the at least one memory and computer code are further configured to: reduce the precision of said first prediction and said second prediction to an intermediate prediction after adding said first rounding offset, said intermediate prediction being higher than said first precision. 14. The apparatus according to claim 8, wherein said type of the block is a bi-directional block or a multidirectional block. 15. A computer program product for decoding or encoding video, the computer program product comprising at least one non-transitory computer readable storage medium having computer executable program code portions stored therein, the computer executable program code portions comprising program code instructions configured to: determine a coding type of a block of pixels of the video, values of said pixels having a first precision, wherein the first precision indicates the number of bits needed to represent values of said pixels; determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision, wherein the second precision indicates the number of bits needed to represent values of said first prediction and values of said second prediction; obtain a combined prediction based at least partly upon said first prediction and said second prediction; and decrease a precision of said combined prediction by shifting bits of the combined prediction to the right. 16. The computer program product according to claim 15, wherein said second reference pixel location is an integer sample, and wherein said second prediction is obtained by shifting a value of said second reference pixel location to the left. 17. The computer program product according to claim 15 further comprising: inserting a first rounding offset to said first prediction and said second prediction; and inserting a second rounding offset to the combined prediction before said decreasing. 18. The computer program product according to claim 15, further comprising inserting a first rounding offset to said first prediction and said second prediction, wherein the first rounding offset is 2y, and said decreasing comprises right shifting the combined prediction y+1 bit. 19. An apparatus for decoding or encoding video, the apparatus comprising: a determinator to determine a coding type of a block of pixels of the video, values of said pixels having a first precision, wherein the first precision indicates the number of bits needed to represent values of said pixels, said determinator further to determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; a first predictor to use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; a second predictor to use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision, wherein the second precision indicates the number of bits needed to represent values of said first prediction and values of said second prediction; a combiner to obtain a combined prediction based at least partly upon said first prediction and said second prediction; and a shifter to decrease the precision of said combined prediction by shifting bits of the combined prediction to the right. 20. The apparatus according to claim 19, wherein said second reference pixel location is an integer sample, and wherein said second prediction is obtained by shifting a value of said second reference pixel location to the left. 21. The apparatus according to claim 19 further configured to: insert a first rounding offset to said first prediction and said second prediction; and insert a second rounding offset to the combined prediction before said decreasing. 22. The apparatus according to claim 19, further configured to insert a first rounding offset to said first prediction and said second prediction, wherein the first rounding offset is 2y, and said decreasing comprises right shifting the combined prediction y+1 bit. 23. An apparatus for decoding or encoding video, the apparatus comprising: means for determining a coding type of a block of pixels of the video, values of said pixels having a first precision, wherein the first precision indicates the number of bits needed to represent values of said pixels; means for determining a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; means for using said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; means for using said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision, wherein the second precision indicates the number of bits needed to represent values of said first prediction and values of said second prediction; means for obtaining a combined prediction based at least partly upon said first prediction and said second prediction; and means for decreasing the precision of said combined prediction by shifting bits of the combined prediction to the right. 24. The apparatus according to claim 23, wherein said second reference pixel location is an integer sample, and wherein said second prediction is obtained by shifting a value of said second reference pixel location to the left. 25. The apparatus according to claim 23 further comprising: means for inserting a first rounding offset to said first prediction and said second prediction; and means for inserting a second rounding offset to the combined prediction before said decreasing. 26. The apparatus according to claim 23, further comprising means for inserting a first rounding offset to said first prediction and said second prediction, wherein the first rounding offset is 2y, and said decreasing comprises right shifting the combined prediction y+1 bit.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/490,469, filed Apr. 18, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/250,124, filed Aug. 29, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/344,893, filed on Jan. 6, 2012, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/430,694, filed Jan. 7, 2011, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to an apparatus, a method and a computer program for producing and utilizing motion prediction information in video encoding and decoding. BACKGROUND INFORMATION A video codec may comprise an encoder which transforms input video into a compressed representation suitable for storage and/or transmission and a decoder that can uncompress the compressed video representation back into a viewable form, or either one of them. The encoder may discard some information in the original video sequence in order to represent the video in a more compact form, for example at a lower bit rate. Many hybrid video codecs, operating for example according to the International Telecommunication Union's ITU-T H.263 and H.264 coding standards, encode video information in two phases. In the first phase, pixel values in a certain picture area or “block” are predicted. These pixel values can be predicted, for example, by motion compensation mechanisms, which involve finding and indicating an area in one of the previously encoded video frames (or a later coded video frame) that corresponds closely to the block being coded. Additionally, pixel values can be predicted by spatial mechanisms which involve finding and indicating a spatial region relationship, for example by using pixel values around the block to be coded in a specified manner. Prediction approaches using image information from a previous (or a later) image can also be called as Inter prediction methods, and prediction approaches using image information within the same image can also be called as Intra prediction methods. The second phase is one of coding the error between the predicted block of pixels and the original block of pixels. This is typically accomplished by transforming the difference in pixel values using a specified transform. This transform may be e.g. a Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) or a variant thereof. After transforming the difference, the transformed difference may be quantized and entropy encoded. By varying the fidelity of the quantization process, the encoder can control the balance between the accuracy of the pixel representation, (in other words, the quality of the picture) and the size of the resulting encoded video representation (in other words, the file size or transmission bit rate). An example of the encoding process is illustrated in FIG. 1. The decoder reconstructs the output video by applying a prediction mechanism similar to that used by the encoder in order to form a predicted representation of the pixel blocks (using the motion or spatial information created by the encoder and stored in the compressed representation of the image) and prediction error decoding (the inverse operation of the prediction error coding to recover the quantized prediction error signal in the spatial domain). After applying pixel prediction and error decoding processes the decoder combines the prediction and the prediction error signals (the pixel values) to form the output video frame. The decoder (and encoder) may also apply additional filtering processes in order to improve the quality of the output video before passing it for display and/or storing as a prediction reference for the forthcoming frames in the video sequence. An example of the decoding process is illustrated in FIG. 2. Motion Compensated Prediction (MCP) is a technique used by video compression standards to reduce the size of an encoded bitstream. In MCP, a prediction for a current frame is formed using a previously coded frame(s), where only the difference between original and prediction signals, representative of the current and predicted frames, is encoded and sent to a decoder. A prediction signal, representative of a prediction frame, is formed by first dividing a current frame into blocks, e.g., macroblocks, and searching for a best match in a reference frame for each block. In this way, the motion of a block relative to the reference frame is determined and this motion information is coded into a bitstream as motion vectors. A decoder is able to reconstruct the exact prediction frame by decoding the motion vector data encoded in the bitstream. An example of a prediction structure is presented in FIG. 8. Boxes indicate pictures, capital letters within boxes indicate coding types, numbers within boxes are picture numbers (in decoding order), and arrows indicate prediction dependencies. In this example I-pictures are intra pictures which do not use any reference pictures and thus can be decoded irrespective of the decoding of other pictures. P-pictures are so called uni-predicted pictures i.e. they refer to one reference picture, and B-pictures are bi-predicted pictures which use two other pictures as reference pictures, or two prediction blocks within one reference picture. In other words, the reference blocks relating to the B-picture may be in the same reference picture (as illustrated with the two arrows from picture P7 to picture B8 in FIG. 8) or in two different reference pictures (as illustrated e.g. with the arrows from picture P2 and from picture B3 to picture B4 in FIG. 8). It should also be noted here that one picture may include different types of blocks i.e. blocks of a picture may be intra-blocks, uni-predicted blocks, and/or bi-predicted blocks. Motion vectors often relate to blocks wherein for one picture a plurality of motion vectors may exist. In some systems the uni-predicted pictures are also called as uni-directionally predicted pictures and the bi-predicted pictures are called as bi-directionally predicted pictures. The motion vectors are not limited to having full-pixel accuracy, but could have fractional-pixel accuracy as well. That is, motion vectors can point to fractional-pixel positions/locations of the reference frame, where the fractional-pixel locations can refer to, for example, locations “in between” image pixels. In order to obtain samples at fractional-pixel locations, interpolation filters may be used in the MCP process. Conventional video coding standards describe how a decoder can obtain samples at fractional-pixel accuracy by defining an interpolation filter. In MPEG-2, for example, motion vectors can have at most, half-pixel accuracy, where the samples at half-pixel locations are obtained by a simple averaging of neighboring samples at full-pixel locations. The H.264/AVC video coding standard supports motion vectors with up to quarter-pixel accuracy. Furthermore, in the H.264/AVC video coding standard, half-pixel samples are obtained through the use of symmetric and separable 6-tap filters, while quarter-pixel samples are obtained by averaging the nearest half or full-pixel samples. In typical video codecs, the motion information is indicated by motion vectors associated with each motion compensated image block. Each of these motion vectors represents the displacement of the image block in the picture to be coded (in the encoder) or decoded (at the decoder) and the prediction source block in one of the previously coded or decoded images (or pictures). In order to represent motion vectors efficiently, motion vectors are typically coded differentially with respect to block specific predicted motion vector. In a typical video codec, the predicted motion vectors are created in a predefined way, for example by calculating the median of the encoded or decoded motion vectors of the adjacent blocks. In typical video codecs the prediction residual after motion compensation is first transformed with a transform kernel (like DCT) and then coded. The reason for this is that often there still exists some correlation among the residual and transform can in many cases help reduce this correlation and provide more efficient coding. Typical video encoders utilize the Lagrangian cost function to find optimal coding modes, for example the desired macro block mode and associated motion vectors. This type of cost function uses a weighting factor or λ to tie together the exact or estimated image distortion due to lossy coding methods and the exact or estimated amount of information required to represent the pixel values in an image area. This may be represented by the equation: C=D+□R (1) where C is the Lagrangian cost to be minimised, D is the image distortion (for example, the mean-squared error between the pixel values in original image block and in coded image block) with the mode and motion vectors currently considered, λ is a Lagrangian coefficient and R is the number of bits needed to represent the required data to reconstruct the image block in the decoder (including the amount of data to represent the candidate motion vectors). Some hybrid video codecs, such as H.264/AVC, utilize bi-directional motion compensated prediction to improve the coding efficiency. In bi-directional prediction, prediction signal of the block may be formed by combining, for example by averaging two motion compensated prediction blocks. This averaging operation may further include either up or down rounding, which may introduce rounding errors. The accumulation of rounding errors in bi-directional prediction may cause degradation in coding efficiency. This rounding error accumulation may be removed or decreased by signalling whether rounding up or rounding down have been used when the two prediction signals have been combined for each frame. Alternatively the rounding error could be controlled by alternating the usage of the rounding up and rounding down for each frame. For example, rounding up may be used for every other frame and, correspondingly, rounding down may be used for every other frame. In FIG. 9 an example of averaging two motion compensated prediction blocks using rounding is illustrated. Sample values of the first prediction reference is input 902 to a first filter 904 in which values of two or more full pixels near the point which the motion vector is referring to are used in the filtering. A rounding offset may be added 906 to the filtered value. The filtered value added with the rounding offset is right shifted 908 x-bits i.e. divided by 2x to obtain a first prediction signal P1. Similar operation is performed to the second prediction reference as is illustrated with blocks 912, 914, 916 and 918 to obtain a second prediction signal P2. The first prediction signal P1 and the second prediction signal P2 are combined e.g. by summing the prediction signals P1, P2. A rounding offset may be added 920 with the combined signal after which the result is right shifted y-bits i.e. divided by 2y. The rounding may be upwards, if the rounding offset is positive, or downwards, if the rounding offset is negative. The direction of the rounding may always be the same, or it may alter from time to time, e.g. for each frame. The direction of the rounding may be signaled in the bitstream so that in the decoding process the same rounding direction can be used. However, these methods increase somewhat the complexity as two separate code branches need to be written for bi-directional averaging. In addition, the motion estimation routines in the encoder may need to be doubled for both cases of rounding and truncation. SUMMARY The present invention introduces a method which enables reducing the effect of rounding errors in bi-directional and multi-directional prediction. According to some embodiments of the invention prediction signals are maintained in a higher precision during the prediction calculation and the precision is reduced after the two or more prediction signals have been combined with each other. In some example embodiments prediction signals are maintained in higher accuracy until the prediction signals have been combined to obtain the bi-directional or multidirectional prediction signal. The accuracy of the bi-directional or multidirectional prediction signal can then be downshifted to an appropriate accuracy for post processing purposes. Then, no rounding direction indicator need not be included in or read from the bitstream According to a first aspect of the present invention there is provided a method comprising: determining a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; determining a type of the block; if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, determining a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; using said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; using said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; combining said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and decreasing the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. According to a second aspect of the present invention there is provided an apparatus comprising: a processor; and a memory unit operatively connected to the processor and including: computer code configured to determine a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; computer code configured to determine a type of the block; computer code configured to, if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; combine said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and decrease the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. According to a third aspect of the present invention there is provided a computer readable storage medium stored with code thereon for use by an apparatus, which when executed by a processor, causes the apparatus to perform: determine a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; determine a type of the block; if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; combine said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and decrease the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. According to a fourth aspect of the present invention there is provided at least one processor and at least one memory, said at least one memory stored with code thereon, which when executed by said at least one processor, causes an apparatus to perform: determine a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; determine a type of the block; if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; combine said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and decrease the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. According to a fifth aspect of the present invention there is provided an apparatus comprising: an input to determine a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; a determinator to determine a type of the block; wherein if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, said determinator further to determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; a first predictor to use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; a second predictor to use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; a combiner to combine said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and a shifter to decrease the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. According to a sixth aspect of the present invention there is provided an apparatus comprising: means for determining a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; means for determining a type of the block; means for determining a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block, if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks; means for using said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; means for using said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; means for combining said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and means for decreasing the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. This invention removes the need to signal the rounding offset or use different methods for rounding for different frames. This invention may keep the motion compensated prediction signal of each one of the predictions at highest precision possible after interpolation and perform the rounding to the bit-depth range of the video signal after both prediction signals are added. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For better understanding of the present invention, reference will now be made by way of example to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 shows schematically an electronic device employing some embodiments of the invention; FIG. 2 shows schematically a user equipment suitable for employing some embodiments of the invention; FIG. 3 further shows schematically electronic devices employing embodiments of the invention connected using wireless and wired network connections; FIG. 4a shows schematically an embodiment of the invention as incorporated within an encoder; FIG. 4b shows schematically an embodiment of an inter predictor according to some embodiments of the invention; FIG. 5 shows a flow diagram showing the operation of an embodiment of the invention with respect to the encoder as shown in FIG. 4a; FIG. 6 shows a schematic diagram of a decoder according to some embodiments of the invention; FIG. 7 shows a flow diagram of showing the operation of an embodiment of the invention with respect to the decoder shown in FIG. 6; FIG. 8 illustrates an example of a prediction structure in a video sequence; FIG. 9 depicts an example of a bit stream of an image; FIG. 10 depicts an example of bi-directional prediction using rounding; FIG. 11 depicts an example of bi-directional prediction according to an example embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 12 illustrates an example of some possible prediction directions for a motion vector. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SOME EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS The following describes in further detail suitable apparatus and possible mechanisms for the provision of reducing information to be transmitted in video coding systems and more optimal codeword mappings in some embodiments. In this regard reference is first made to FIG. 1 which shows a schematic block diagram of an exemplary apparatus or electronic device 50, which may incorporate a codec according to an embodiment of the invention. The electronic device 50 may for example be a mobile terminal or user equipment of a wireless communication system. However, it would be appreciated that embodiments of the invention may be implemented within any electronic device or apparatus which may require encoding and decoding or encoding or decoding video images. The apparatus 50 may comprise a housing 30 for incorporating and protecting the device. The apparatus 50 further may comprise a display 32 in the form of a liquid crystal display. In other embodiments of the invention the display may be any suitable display technology suitable to display an image or video. The apparatus 50 may further comprise a keypad 34. In other embodiments of the invention any suitable data or user interface mechanism may be employed. For example the user interface may be implemented as a virtual keyboard or data entry system as part of a touch-sensitive display. The apparatus may comprise a microphone 36 or any suitable audio input which may be a digital or analogue signal input. The apparatus 50 may further comprise an audio output device which in embodiments of the invention may be any one of: an earpiece 38, speaker, or an analogue audio or digital audio output connection. The apparatus 50 may also comprise a battery 40 (or in other embodiments of the invention the device may be powered by any suitable mobile energy device such as solar cell, fuel cell or clockwork generator). The apparatus may further comprise an infrared port 42 for short range line of sight communication to other devices. In other embodiments the apparatus 50 may further comprise any suitable short range communication solution such as for example a Bluetooth wireless connection or a USB/firewire wired connection. The apparatus 50 may comprise a controller 56 or processor for controlling the apparatus 50. The controller 56 may be connected to memory 58 which in embodiments of the invention may store both data in the form of image and audio data and/or may also store instructions for implementation on the controller 56. The controller 56 may further be connected to codec circuitry 54 suitable for carrying out coding and decoding of audio and/or video data or assisting in coding and decoding carried out by the controller 56. The apparatus 50 may further comprise a card reader 48 and a smart card 46, for example a UICC and UICC reader for providing user information and being suitable for providing authentication information for authentication and authorization of the user at a network. The apparatus 50 may comprise radio interface circuitry 52 connected to the controller and suitable for generating wireless communication signals for example for communication with a cellular communications network, a wireless communications system or a wireless local area network. The apparatus 50 may further comprise an antenna 44 connected to the radio interface circuitry 52 for transmitting radio frequency signals generated at the radio interface circuitry 52 to other apparatus(es) and for receiving radio frequency signals from other apparatus(es). In some embodiments of the invention, the apparatus 50 comprises a camera capable of recording or detecting individual frames which are then passed to the codec 54 or controller for processing. In some embodiments of the invention, the apparatus may receive the video image data for processing from another device prior to transmission and/or storage. In some embodiments of the invention, the apparatus 50 may receive either wirelessly or by a wired connection the image for coding/decoding. With respect to FIG. 3, an example of a system within which embodiments of the present invention can be utilized is shown. The system 10 comprises multiple communication devices which can communicate through one or more networks. The system 10 may comprise any combination of wired or wireless networks including, but not limited to a wireless cellular telephone network (such as a GSM, UMTS, CDMA network etc), a wireless local area network (WLAN) such as defined by any of the IEEE 802.x standards, a Bluetooth personal area network, an Ethernet local area network, a token ring local area network, a wide area network, and the Internet. The system 10 may include both wired and wireless communication devices or apparatus 50 suitable for implementing embodiments of the invention. For example, the system shown in FIG. 3 shows a mobile telephone network 11 and a representation of the internet 28. Connectivity to the internet 28 may include, but is not limited to, long range wireless connections, short range wireless connections, and various wired connections including, but not limited to, telephone lines, cable lines, power lines, and similar communication pathways. The example communication devices shown in the system 10 may include, but are not limited to, an electronic device or apparatus 50, a combination of a personal digital assistant (PDA) and a mobile telephone 14, a PDA 16, an integrated messaging device (IMD) 18, a desktop computer 20, a notebook computer 22. The apparatus 50 may be stationary or mobile when carried by an individual who is moving. The apparatus 50 may also be located in a mode of transport including, but not limited to, a car, a truck, a taxi, a bus, a train, a boat, an airplane, a bicycle, a motorcycle or any similar suitable mode of transport. Some or further apparatus may send and receive calls and messages and communicate with service providers through a wireless connection 25 to a base station 24. The base station 24 may be connected to a network server 26 that allows communication between the mobile telephone network 11 and the internet 28. The system may include additional communication devices and communication devices of various types. The communication devices may communicate using various transmission technologies including, but not limited to, code division multiple access (CDMA), global systems for mobile communications (GSM), universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS), time divisional multiple access (TDMA), frequency division multiple access (FDMA), transmission control protocol-internet protocol (TCP-IP), short messaging service (SMS), multimedia messaging service (MMS), email, instant messaging service (IMS), Bluetooth, IEEE 802.11 and any similar wireless communication technology. A communications device involved in implementing various embodiments of the present invention may communicate using various media including, but not limited to, radio, infrared, laser, cable connections, and any suitable connection. Various embodiments can extend conventional two-stage sub-pixel interpolation algorithms, such as the algorithm used in the H.264/AVC video coding standard, without the need to increase the complexity of the decoder. It should be noted here that FIG. 11 illustrates only some full pixel values which are the nearest neighbors to the example block of pixels but in the interpolation it may also be possible to use full pixel values located farther from the block under consideration. Furthermore, the present invention is not only limited to implementations using one-dimensional interpolation but the fractional pixel samples can also be obtained using more complex interpolation or filtering. It should be noted that various embodiments can be implemented by and/or in conjunction with other video coding standards besides the H.264/AVC video coding standard. With respect to FIG. 4a, a block diagram of a video encoder suitable for carrying out embodiments of the invention is shown. Furthermore, with respect to FIG. 5, the operation of the encoder exemplifying embodiments of the invention specifically with respect to the utilization of higher accuracy calculation of prediction signals is shown as a flow diagram. FIG. 4a shows the encoder as comprising a pixel predictor 302, prediction error encoder 303 and prediction error decoder 304. FIG. 4a also shows an embodiment of the pixel predictor 302 as comprising an inter-predictor 306, an intra-predictor 308, a mode selector 310, a filter 316, and a reference frame memory 318. The mode selector 310 comprises a block processor 381 and a cost evaluator 382. FIG. 4b also depicts an embodiment of the inter-predictor 306 which comprises a block selector 360 and a motion vector definer 361, which may be implemented e.g. in a prediction processor 362. The inter-predictor 306 may also have access to a parameter memory 404. The mode selector 310 may also comprise a quantizer 384. The pixel predictor 302 receives the image 300 to be encoded at both the inter-predictor 306 (which determines the difference between the image and a motion compensated reference frame 318) and the intra-predictor 308 (which determines a prediction for an image block based only on the already processed parts of current frame or picture). The output of both the inter-predictor and the intra-predictor are passed to the mode selector 310. The intra-predictor 308 may have more than one intra-prediction modes. Hence, each mode may perform the intra-prediction and provide the predicted signal to the mode selector 310. The mode selector 310 also receives a copy of the image 300. The block processor 381 determines which encoding mode to use to encode the current block. If the block processor 381 decides to use an inter-prediction mode it will pass the output of the inter-predictor 306 to the output of the mode selector 310. If the block processor 381 decides to use an intra-prediction mode it will pass the output of one of the intra-predictor modes to the output of the mode selector 310. According to some example embodiments the pixel predictor 302 operates as follows. The inter predictor 306 and the intra prediction modes 308 perform the prediction of the current block to obtain predicted pixel values of the current block. The inter predictor 306 and the intra prediction modes 308 may provide the predicted pixel values of the current block to the block processor 381 for analyzing which prediction to select. In addition to the predicted values of the current block, the block processor 381 may, in some embodiments, receive an indication of a directional intra prediction mode from the intra prediction modes. The block processor 381 examines whether to select the inter prediction mode or the intra prediction mode. The block processor 381 may use cost functions such as the equation (1) or some other methods to analyze which encoding method gives the most efficient result with respect to a certain criterion or criteria. The selected criteria may include coding efficiency, processing costs and/or some other criteria. The block processor 381 may examine the prediction for each directionality i.e. for each intra prediction mode and inter prediction mode and calculate the cost value for each intra prediction mode and inter prediction mode, or the block processor 381 may examine only a subset of all available prediction modes in the selection of the prediction mode. In some embodiments the inter predictor 306 operates as follows. The block selector 360 receives a current block to be encoded (block 504 in FIG. 5) and examines whether a previously encoded image contains a block which may be used as a reference to the current block (block 505). If such a block is found from the reference frame memory 318, the motion estimator 365 may determine whether the current block could be predicted by using one or two (or more) reference blocks i.e. whether the current block could be a uni-predicted block or a bi-predicted block (block 506). If the motion estimator 365 has determined to use uni-prediction, the motion estimator 365 may indicate the reference block to the motion vector definer 361. If the motion estimator 365 has selected to use bi-prediction, the motion estimator 365 may indicate both reference blocks, or if more than two reference blocks have been selected, all the selected reference blocks to the motion vector definer 361. The motion vector definer 361 utilizes the reference block information and defines a motion vector (block 507) to indicate the correspondence between pixels of the current block and the reference block(s). In some embodiments the inter predictor 306 calculates a cost value for both one-directional and bi-directional prediction and may then select which kind of prediction to use with the current block. In some embodiments the motion vector may point to a full pixel sample or to a fraction pixel sample i.e. to a half pixel, to a quarter pixel or to a one-eighth pixel. The motion vector definer 361 may examine the type of the current block to determine whether the block is a bi-predicted block or another kind of a block (block 508). The type may be determined by the block type indication 366 which may be provided by the block selector 360 or another element of the encoder. If the type of the block is a bi-predicted block, two (or more) motion vectors are defined by the motion vector definer 361 (block 509). Otherwise, if the block is a uni-predicted block, one motion vector shall be defined (block 510). It is also possible that the type of the block is determined before the motion vector is calculated. The motion vector definer 361 provides motion vector information to the block processor 381 which uses this information to obtain the prediction signal. When the cost has been calculated with respect to intra prediction mode and possibly with respect to the inter prediction mode(s), the block processor 381 selects one intra prediction mode or the inter prediction mode for encoding the current block. When the inter prediction mode was selected, the predicted pixel values or predicted pixel values quantized by the optional quantizer 384 are provided as the output of the mode selector. The output of the mode selector is passed to a first summing device 321. The first summing device may subtract the pixel predictor 302 output from the image 300 to produce a first prediction error signal 320 which is input to the prediction error encoder 303. The pixel predictor 302 further receives from a preliminary reconstructor 339 the combination of the prediction representation of the image block 312 and the output 338 of the prediction error decoder 304. The preliminary reconstructed image 314 may be passed to the intra-predictor 308 and to a filter 316. The filter 316 receiving the preliminary representation may filter the preliminary representation and output a final reconstructed image 340 which may be saved in a reference frame memory 318. The reference frame memory 318 may be connected to the inter-predictor 306 to be used as the reference image against which the future image 300 is compared in inter-prediction operations. The operation of the pixel predictor 302 may be configured to carry out any known pixel prediction algorithm known in the art. The pixel predictor 302 may also comprise a filter 385 to filter the predicted values before outputting them from the pixel predictor 302. The operation of the prediction error encoder 303 and prediction error decoder 304 will be described hereafter in further detail. In the following examples the encoder generates images in terms of 16×16 pixel macroblocks which go to form the full image or picture. Thus, for the following examples the pixel predictor 302 outputs a series of predicted macroblocks of size 16×16 pixels and the first summing device 321 outputs a series of 16×16 pixel residual data macroblocks which may represent the difference between a first macro-block in the image 300 against a predicted macro-block (output of pixel predictor 302). It would be appreciated that other size macro blocks may be used. The prediction error encoder 303 comprises a transform block 342 and a quantizer 344. The transform block 342 transforms the first prediction error signal 320 to a transform domain. The transform is, for example, the DCT transform. The quantizer 344 quantizes the transform domain signal, e.g. the DCT coefficients, to form quantized coefficients. The entropy encoder 330 receives the output of the prediction error encoder and may perform a suitable entropy encoding/variable length encoding on the signal to provide error detection and correction capability. Any suitable entropy encoding algorithm may be employed. The prediction error decoder 304 receives the output from the prediction error encoder 303 and performs the opposite processes of the prediction error encoder 303 to produce a decoded prediction error signal 338 which when combined with the prediction representation of the image block 312 at the second summing device 339 produces the preliminary reconstructed image 314. The prediction error decoder may be considered to comprise a dequantizer 346, which dequantizes the quantized coefficient values, e.g. DCT coefficients, to reconstruct the transform signal and an inverse transformation block 348, which performs the inverse transformation to the reconstructed transform signal wherein the output of the inverse transformation block 348 contains reconstructed block(s). The prediction error decoder may also comprise a macroblock filter (not shown) which may filter the reconstructed macroblock according to further decoded information and filter parameters. The operation and implementation of the mode selector 310 is shown in further detail with respect to FIG. 5. On the basis of the prediction signals from the output of the inter-predictor 306, the output of the intra-predictor 308 and/or the image signal 300 the block processor 381 determines which encoding mode to use to encode the current image block. This selection is depicted as the block 500 in FIG. 5. The block processor 381 may calculate a rate-distortion cost (RD) value or another cost value for the prediction signals which are input to the mode selector 310 and select such an encoding mode 503, 504 for which the determined cost is the smallest. The mode selector 310 provides an indication of the encoding mode of the current block (501). The indication may be encoded and inserted to a bit stream or stored into a memory together with the image information. If the intra-prediction mode is selected, the block is predicted by an intra-prediction method (503). Respectively, if the inter-prediction mode is selected, the block is predicted by an inter-prediction method (504-510). An example of the operation of the mode selector when the inter-prediction mode is selected and the type of the block is a bi-predicted block, is illustrated as a block diagram in FIG. 11. Motion vector information provided by the motion vector definer 361 contains indication of a first reference block and a second reference block. In multi-prediction applications the motion vector information may contain indication of more than two reference blocks. The block processor 381 uses the motion vector information to determine which block is used as a first reference block for the current block and which block is used as a second reference block for the current block. The block processor 381 then uses some pixel values of the first reference block to obtain first prediction values and some pixel values of the second reference block to obtain second prediction values. For example, if a first motion vector points to a fraction of a pixel (a subpixel) illustrated by the square b in the example of FIG. 12, the block processor 381 may use pixel values of several full pixels on the same row, for example, than said fraction of the pixel to obtain a reference pixel value. The block processor 381 may use e.g. a P-tap filter such as a six-tap filter in which P pixel values of the reference block are used to calculate the prediction value. In the example of FIG. 12 these pixel values could be pixels E, F, G, H, I and J. The taps of the filter may be e.g. integer values. An example of such a six-tap filter is [1 −5 20 20 −5 1]/32. Hence, the filter 1102 would receive 1101 the pixel values of pixels E, F, G, H, I and J and filter these values by the equation P1=(E1−5*F1+20*G1+20*H1−5*I1+J1), in which E1 is the value of the pixel E in the first reference block, F1 is the value of the pixel F in the first reference block, G1 is the value of the pixel G in the first reference block, H1 is the value of the pixel H in the first reference block, I1 is the value of the pixel I in the first reference block, and J1 is the value of the pixel J in the first reference block. In the first rounding offset insertion block 1103 a first rounding offset may be added to the value P1 i.e. P1+rounding offset. Then, the sum may be shifted by the first shifting block 1104 to the right so that the precision of the sum becomes M bits. The precision M is higher than the precision of the expected prediction value. For example, pixel values and the prediction values may be represented by N bits wherein M>N. In some example implementations N is 8 bits and M is 16 bits but it is obvious that also other bit lengths can be used with the present invention. The second prediction can be obtained similarly by the second filter 1106, which receives 1105 some pixel values of the second reference block. These pixel values are determined on the basis of the second motion vector. The second motion vector may point to the same pixel (or a fraction of the pixel) in the second reference block to which the first motion vector points in the first reference block (using the example above that pixel is the subpixel b) or to another full pixel or a subpixel in the second reference block. The second filter 1106 uses similar filter than the first filter 1102 and outputs the second filtering result P2. According to the example above the filter is a six-tap filter [1 −5 20 20 −5 1]/32, wherein P2=(E2−5*F2+20*G2+20*H2−5*I2+J2), in which E2 is the value of the pixel E in the second reference block, F2 is the value of the pixel F in the second reference block, G2 is the value of the pixel G in the second reference block, H2 is the value of the pixel H in the second reference block, I2 is the value of the pixel I in the second reference block, and J2 is the value of the pixel J in the second reference block. In the second rounding offset insertion block 1107 the first rounding offset may be added to the value P2 i.e. P2+rounding offset. Then, the sum may be shifted by the second shifting block 1108 to the right so that the precision of the sum becomes M bits. In the combining block 1109 the two prediction values P1, P2 are combined e.g. by summing and the combined value is added with a second rounding value in the third rounding value insertion block 1110. The result is converted to a smaller precision e.g. by shifting bits of the result to the right y times in the third shifting block 1111. This corresponds with dividing the result by 2y. After the conversion the precision of the prediction signal corresponds with the precision of the input pixel values. However, the intermediate results are at a higher precision, wherein possible rounding errors have a smaller effect to the prediction signal compared to existing methods such as the method illustrated in FIG. 10. In an alternative embodiment the rounding offset is not added separately to the results of the first 1102 and the second filter 1106 but after combining the results in the combining block 1110. In this case the value of the rounding offset is twice the value of the first rounding offset because in the embodiment of FIG. 11 the first rounding offset is actually added twice, once to P1 and once to P2. In some embodiments also the first shifting block 1105 and the second shifting block 1109 are not needed when the precision of registers which store the filtering results is sufficient without reducing the precision of the filtering results. In that case the third shifting block may need to shift the prediction result more than y bits to the right so that the right shifted value P has the same prediction than the input pixel values, for example 8 bits. In some other example embodiments may partly differ from the above. For example, if a motion vector of one of the prediction directions point to an integer sample, the bit-depth of prediction samples with integer accuracy may be increased by shifting the samples to the left so that the filtering can be performed with values having the same precision. Samples of each one of the prediction directions could be rounded at an intermediate step to a bit-depth that is still larger than the input bit-depth to make sure all the intermediate values fit to registers of certain length, e.g. 16-bit registers. For example, let's consider the same example above but using filter taps: {3, −17, 78, 78, −17, 3}. Then P1 and P2 are obtained as: P1=(3*E1−17*F1+78*G1+78*H1−17*I1+3*J1+1)>>1 P2=(3*E2−17*F2+78*G2+78*H2−17*I2+3*J2+1)>>1 The bi-directional prediction signal may then be obtained using: P=(P1+P2+32)>>6. When a motion vector points between two full pixels i.e. to a fraction of the pixel, the value for that the reference pixel value may be obtained in several ways. Some possibilities were disclosed above but in the following some further non-limiting examples shall be provided with reference to FIG. 12. If a motion vector points to the block labeled j the corresponding reference pixel value could be obtained by using full pixel values on the same diagonal than j, or by a two-phase process in which e.g. pixel values of rows around the block j are used to calculate a set of intermediate results and then these intermediate results could be filtered to obtain the reference pixel value. In an example embodiment the full pixel values A and B could be used to calculate a first intermediate result to represent a fraction pixel value aa, full pixel values C and D could be used to calculate a second intermediate result to represent a fraction pixel value bb, and full pixel values E to J could be used to calculate a third intermediate result to represent a fraction pixel value b. Similarly, fourth, fifth and sixth intermediate values to represent fraction pixel values s, gg, hh could be calculated on the basis of full pixel values K to Q; R, S; and T, U. These intermediate results could then be filtered by a six-tap filter, for example. The prediction signal P obtained by the above described operations need not be provided to a decoder but the encoder uses this information to obtain predicted blocks and prediction error. The prediction error may be provided to the decoder so that the decoder can use corresponding operations to obtain the predicted blocks by prediction and correct the prediction results on the basis of the prediction error. The encoder may also provide motion vector information to the decoder. In an example embodiment, as is depicted in FIG. 9, the bit stream of an image comprises an indication of the beginning of an image 910, image information of each block of the image 920, and indication of the end of the image 930. The image information of each block of the image 920 may include a block type indicator 932, and motion vector information 933. It is obvious that the bit stream may also comprise other information. Further, this is only a simplified image of the bit stream and in practical implementations the contents of the bit stream may be different from what is depicted in FIG. 9. The bit stream may further be encoded by the entropy encoder 330. Although the embodiments above have been described with respect to the size of the macroblock being 16×16 pixels, it would be appreciated that the methods and apparatus described may be configured to handle macroblocks of different pixel sizes. In the following the operation of an example embodiment of the decoder 600 is depicted in more detail with reference to FIG. 6. At the decoder side similar operations are performed to reconstruct the image blocks. FIG. 6 shows a block diagram of a video decoder suitable for employing embodiments of the invention and FIG. 7 shows a flow diagram of an example of a method in the video decoder. The decoder shows an entropy decoder 600 which performs an entropy decoding on the received signal. The entropy decoder thus performs the inverse operation to the entropy encoder 330 of the encoder described above. The entropy decoder 600 outputs the results of the entropy decoding to a prediction error decoder 602 and a pixel predictor 604. The pixel predictor 604 receives the output of the entropy decoder 600. The output of the entropy decoder 600 may include an indication on the prediction mode used in encoding the current block. A predictor selector 614 within the pixel predictor 604 determines that an intra-prediction, an inter-prediction, or interpolation operation is to be carried out. The predictor selector may furthermore output a predicted representation of an image block 616 to a first combiner 613. The predicted representation of the image block 616 is used in conjunction with the reconstructed prediction error signal 612 to generate a preliminary reconstructed image 618. The preliminary reconstructed image 618 may be used in the predictor 614 or may be passed to a filter 620. The filter 620 applies a filtering which outputs a final reconstructed signal 622. The final reconstructed signal 622 may be stored in a reference frame memory 624, the reference frame memory 624 further being connected to the predictor 614 for prediction operations. The prediction error decoder 602 receives the output of the entropy decoder 600. A dequantizer 692 of the prediction error decoder 602 may dequantize the output of the entropy decoder 600 and the inverse transform block 693 may perform an inverse transform operation to the dequantized signal output by the dequantizer 692. The output of the entropy decoder 600 may also indicate that prediction error signal is not to be applied and in this case the prediction error decoder produces an all zero output signal. The decoder selects the 16×16 pixel residual macroblock to reconstruct. The selection of the 16×16 pixel residual macroblock to be reconstructed is shown in step 700. The decoder receives information on the encoding mode used when the current block has been encoded. The indication is decoded, when necessary, and provided to the reconstruction processor 691 of the prediction selector 614. The reconstruction processor 691 examines the indication (block 701 in FIG. 7) and selects one of the intra-prediction modes (block 703), if the indication indicates that the block has been encoded using intra-prediction, or an inter-prediction mode (blocks 704-711), if the indication indicates that the block has been encoded using inter-prediction. If the current block has been encoded using inter-prediction, the pixel predictor 604 may operate as follows. The pixel predictor 604 receives motion vector information (block 704). The pixel predictor 604 also receives (block 705) block type information and examines whether the block is a bi-predicted block or not (block 706). If the block type is a bi-predicted block, the pixel predictor 604 examines the motion vector information to determine which reference frames and reference block in the reference frames have been used in the construction of the motion vector information. The reconstruction processor 691 calculates the motion vectors (709) and uses the value of the (fraction of the) pixel of the reference blocks to which the motion vectors point to obtain a motion compensated prediction (710) and combines the prediction error with the value to obtain a reconstructed value of a pixel of the current block (block 711). If the block type is a uni-predicted block, the pixel predictor 604 examines the motion vector information to determine which reference frame and reference block in the reference frame has been used in the construction of the motion vector information. The reconstruction processor 691 calculates the motion vector (707) and uses the value of the (fraction of the) pixel of the reference block to which the motion vector points to obtain a motion compensated prediction (708) and combines the prediction error with the value to obtain a reconstructed value of a pixel of the current block (block 711). When the motion vector does not point to a full pixel sample in the reference block, the reconstruction processor 691 calculates using e.g. a one-directional interpolation or P-tap filtering (e.g. six-tap filtering) to obtain the values of the fractional pixels. Basically, the operations may be performed in the same way than in the encoder i.e. maintaining the higher accuracy values during the filtering until in the final rounding operation the accuracy may be decreased to the accuracy of the input pixels. Therefore, the effect of possible rounding errors may not be so large to the predicted values than in known methods. The above described procedures may be repeated to each pixel of the current block to obtain all reconstructed pixel values for the current block. In some embodiments the reconstruction processor 691 use the interpolator 694 to perform the calculation of the fractional pixel values. In some embodiments the reconstruction processor 691 provides the fractional pixel values to the predictor 695 which combines the fractional pixel values with prediction error to obtain the reconstructed values of the pixels of the current block. In some embodiments the interpolation may also be performed by using full pixel values, half pixel values, and/or quarter pixel values which may have been stored into a reference frame memory. For example, the encoder or the decoder may comprise a reference frame memory in which the full pixel samples, half pixel values and quarter pixel values can be stored. Furthermore, in some embodiments the type of the block may also be a multi-predicted block wherein the prediction of a block may be based on more than two reference blocks. The embodiments of the invention described above describe the codec in terms of separate encoder and decoder apparatus in order to assist the understanding of the processes involved. However, it would be appreciated that the apparatus, structures and operations may be implemented as a single encoder-decoder apparatus/structure/operation. Furthermore in some embodiments of the invention the coder and decoder may share some or all common elements. Although the above examples describe embodiments of the invention operating within a codec within an electronic device, it would be appreciated that the invention as described below may be implemented as part of any video codec. Thus, for example, embodiments of the invention may be implemented in a video codec which may implement video coding over fixed or wired communication paths. Thus, user equipment may comprise a video codec such as those described in embodiments of the invention above. It shall be appreciated that the term user equipment is intended to cover any suitable type of wireless user equipment, such as mobile telephones, portable data processing devices or portable web browsers. Furthermore elements of a public land mobile network (PLMN) may also comprise video codecs as described above. In general, the various embodiments of the invention may be implemented in hardware or special purpose circuits, software, logic or any combination thereof. For example, some aspects may be implemented in hardware, while other aspects may be implemented in firmware or software which may be executed by a controller, microprocessor or other computing device, although the invention is not limited thereto. While various aspects of the invention may be illustrated and described as block diagrams, flow charts, or using some other pictorial representation, it is well understood that these blocks, apparatus, systems, techniques or methods described herein may be implemented in, as non-limiting examples, hardware, software, firmware, special purpose circuits or logic, general purpose hardware or controller or other computing devices, or some combination thereof. The embodiments of this invention may be implemented by computer software executable by a data processor of the mobile device, such as in the processor entity, or by hardware, or by a combination of software and hardware. Further in this regard it should be noted that any blocks of the logic flow as in the Figures may represent program steps, or interconnected logic circuits, blocks and functions, or a combination of program steps and logic circuits, blocks and functions. The software may be stored on such physical media as memory chips, or memory blocks implemented within the processor, magnetic media such as hard disk or floppy disks, and optical media such as for example DVD and the data variants thereof, CD. The memory may be of any type suitable to the local technical environment and may be implemented using any suitable data storage technology, such as semiconductor-based memory devices, magnetic memory devices and systems, optical memory devices and systems, fixed memory and removable memory. The data processors may be of any type suitable to the local technical environment, and may include one or more of general purpose computers, special purpose computers, microprocessors, digital signal processors (DSPs) and processors based on multi-core processor architecture, as non-limiting examples. Embodiments of the inventions may be practiced in various components such as integrated circuit modules. The design of integrated circuits is by and large a highly automated process. Complex and powerful software tools are available for converting a logic level design into a semiconductor circuit design ready to be etched and formed on a semiconductor substrate. Programs, such as those provided by Synopsys, Inc. of Mountain View, Calif. and Cadence Design, of San Jose, Calif. automatically route conductors and locate components on a semiconductor chip using well established rules of design as well as libraries of pre-stored design modules. Once the design for a semiconductor circuit has been completed, the resultant design, in a standardized electronic format (e.g., Opus, GDSII, or the like) may be transmitted to a semiconductor fabrication facility or “fab” for fabrication. The foregoing description has provided by way of exemplary and non-limiting examples a full and informative description of the exemplary embodiment of this invention. However, various modifications and adaptations may become apparent to those skilled in the relevant arts in view of the foregoing description, when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings and the appended claims. However, all such and similar modifications of the teachings of this invention will still fall within the scope of this invention. A method according to a first embodiment comprises: determining a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; determining a type of the block; if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, determining a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; using said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; using said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; combining said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and decreasing the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. In some methods according to the first embodiment a first rounding offset is inserted to said first prediction and said second prediction. In some methods according to the first embodiment the precision of said first prediction and said second prediction is reduced to an intermediate prediction after adding said first rounding offset, said intermediate prediction being higher than said first precision. In some methods according to the first embodiment a second rounding offset is inserted to the combined prediction before said decreasing. In some methods according to the first embodiment said type of the block is a bi-directional block. In some methods according to the first embodiment said type of the block is a multidirectional block. In some methods according to the first embodiment the first rounding offset is 2y, and said decreasing comprises right shifting the combined prediction y+1 bits. In some methods according to the first embodiment the first precision is 8 bits. In some methods according to the first embodiment the value of y is 5. In some methods according to the first embodiment said first prediction and said second prediction are obtained by filtering pixel values of said reference blocks. In some methods according to the first embodiment the filtering is performed by a P-tap filter. An apparatus according to a second embodiment comprises: a processor; and a memory unit operatively connected to the processor and including: computer code configured to determine a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; computer code configured to determine a type of the block; computer code configured to, if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; combine said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and decrease the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. In some apparatuses according to the second embodiment the computer code is further configured to insert a first rounding offset to said first prediction and said second prediction. In some apparatuses according to the second embodiment the computer code is further configured to reduce the precision of said first prediction and said second prediction to an intermediate prediction after adding said first rounding offset, said intermediate prediction being higher than said first precision. In some apparatuses according to the second embodiment the computer code is further configured to insert a second rounding offset to the combined prediction before said decreasing. In some apparatuses according to the second embodiment said type of the block is a bi-directional block. In some apparatuses according to the second embodiment said type of the block is a multidirectional block. In some apparatuses according to the second embodiment the first rounding offset is 2y, and said decreasing comprises right shifting the combined prediction y+1 bits. In some apparatuses according to the second embodiment the first precision is 8 bits. In some apparatuses according to the second embodiment the value of y is 5. In some apparatuses according to the second embodiment the computer code is further configured to obtain said first prediction and said second prediction by filtering pixel values of said reference blocks. In some apparatuses according to the second embodiment said filtering comprises a P-tap filter. According to a third embodiment there is provided a computer readable storage medium stored with code thereon for use by an apparatus, which when executed by a processor, causes the apparatus to: determine a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; determine a type of the block; if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; combine said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and decrease the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. According to a fourth embodiment there is provided at least one processor and at least one memory, said at least one memory stored with code thereon, which when executed by said at least one processor, causes an apparatus to perform: determine a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; determine a type of the block; if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; combine said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and decrease the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. According to some example embodiments the apparatus is an encoder. According to some example embodiments the apparatus is a decoder. An apparatus according to a fifth embodiment comprises: an input to determine a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; a determinator to determine a type of the block; wherein if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, said determinator further to determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; a first predictor to use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; a second predictor to use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; a combiner to combine said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and a shifter to decrease the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. An apparatus according to a sixth embodiment comprises: means for determining a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; means for determining a type of the block; means for determining a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block, if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks; means for using said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; means for using said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; means for combining said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and means for decreasing the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision.

<SOH> BACKGROUND INFORMATION <EOH>A video codec may comprise an encoder which transforms input video into a compressed representation suitable for storage and/or transmission and a decoder that can uncompress the compressed video representation back into a viewable form, or either one of them. The encoder may discard some information in the original video sequence in order to represent the video in a more compact form, for example at a lower bit rate. Many hybrid video codecs, operating for example according to the International Telecommunication Union's ITU-T H.263 and H.264 coding standards, encode video information in two phases. In the first phase, pixel values in a certain picture area or “block” are predicted. These pixel values can be predicted, for example, by motion compensation mechanisms, which involve finding and indicating an area in one of the previously encoded video frames (or a later coded video frame) that corresponds closely to the block being coded. Additionally, pixel values can be predicted by spatial mechanisms which involve finding and indicating a spatial region relationship, for example by using pixel values around the block to be coded in a specified manner. Prediction approaches using image information from a previous (or a later) image can also be called as Inter prediction methods, and prediction approaches using image information within the same image can also be called as Intra prediction methods. The second phase is one of coding the error between the predicted block of pixels and the original block of pixels. This is typically accomplished by transforming the difference in pixel values using a specified transform. This transform may be e.g. a Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) or a variant thereof. After transforming the difference, the transformed difference may be quantized and entropy encoded. By varying the fidelity of the quantization process, the encoder can control the balance between the accuracy of the pixel representation, (in other words, the quality of the picture) and the size of the resulting encoded video representation (in other words, the file size or transmission bit rate). An example of the encoding process is illustrated in FIG. 1 . The decoder reconstructs the output video by applying a prediction mechanism similar to that used by the encoder in order to form a predicted representation of the pixel blocks (using the motion or spatial information created by the encoder and stored in the compressed representation of the image) and prediction error decoding (the inverse operation of the prediction error coding to recover the quantized prediction error signal in the spatial domain). After applying pixel prediction and error decoding processes the decoder combines the prediction and the prediction error signals (the pixel values) to form the output video frame. The decoder (and encoder) may also apply additional filtering processes in order to improve the quality of the output video before passing it for display and/or storing as a prediction reference for the forthcoming frames in the video sequence. An example of the decoding process is illustrated in FIG. 2 . Motion Compensated Prediction (MCP) is a technique used by video compression standards to reduce the size of an encoded bitstream. In MCP, a prediction for a current frame is formed using a previously coded frame(s), where only the difference between original and prediction signals, representative of the current and predicted frames, is encoded and sent to a decoder. A prediction signal, representative of a prediction frame, is formed by first dividing a current frame into blocks, e.g., macroblocks, and searching for a best match in a reference frame for each block. In this way, the motion of a block relative to the reference frame is determined and this motion information is coded into a bitstream as motion vectors. A decoder is able to reconstruct the exact prediction frame by decoding the motion vector data encoded in the bitstream. An example of a prediction structure is presented in FIG. 8 . Boxes indicate pictures, capital letters within boxes indicate coding types, numbers within boxes are picture numbers (in decoding order), and arrows indicate prediction dependencies. In this example I-pictures are intra pictures which do not use any reference pictures and thus can be decoded irrespective of the decoding of other pictures. P-pictures are so called uni-predicted pictures i.e. they refer to one reference picture, and B-pictures are bi-predicted pictures which use two other pictures as reference pictures, or two prediction blocks within one reference picture. In other words, the reference blocks relating to the B-picture may be in the same reference picture (as illustrated with the two arrows from picture P 7 to picture B 8 in FIG. 8 ) or in two different reference pictures (as illustrated e.g. with the arrows from picture P 2 and from picture B 3 to picture B 4 in FIG. 8 ). It should also be noted here that one picture may include different types of blocks i.e. blocks of a picture may be intra-blocks, uni-predicted blocks, and/or bi-predicted blocks. Motion vectors often relate to blocks wherein for one picture a plurality of motion vectors may exist. In some systems the uni-predicted pictures are also called as uni-directionally predicted pictures and the bi-predicted pictures are called as bi-directionally predicted pictures. The motion vectors are not limited to having full-pixel accuracy, but could have fractional-pixel accuracy as well. That is, motion vectors can point to fractional-pixel positions/locations of the reference frame, where the fractional-pixel locations can refer to, for example, locations “in between” image pixels. In order to obtain samples at fractional-pixel locations, interpolation filters may be used in the MCP process. Conventional video coding standards describe how a decoder can obtain samples at fractional-pixel accuracy by defining an interpolation filter. In MPEG-2, for example, motion vectors can have at most, half-pixel accuracy, where the samples at half-pixel locations are obtained by a simple averaging of neighboring samples at full-pixel locations. The H.264/AVC video coding standard supports motion vectors with up to quarter-pixel accuracy. Furthermore, in the H.264/AVC video coding standard, half-pixel samples are obtained through the use of symmetric and separable 6-tap filters, while quarter-pixel samples are obtained by averaging the nearest half or full-pixel samples. In typical video codecs, the motion information is indicated by motion vectors associated with each motion compensated image block. Each of these motion vectors represents the displacement of the image block in the picture to be coded (in the encoder) or decoded (at the decoder) and the prediction source block in one of the previously coded or decoded images (or pictures). In order to represent motion vectors efficiently, motion vectors are typically coded differentially with respect to block specific predicted motion vector. In a typical video codec, the predicted motion vectors are created in a predefined way, for example by calculating the median of the encoded or decoded motion vectors of the adjacent blocks. In typical video codecs the prediction residual after motion compensation is first transformed with a transform kernel (like DCT) and then coded. The reason for this is that often there still exists some correlation among the residual and transform can in many cases help reduce this correlation and provide more efficient coding. Typical video encoders utilize the Lagrangian cost function to find optimal coding modes, for example the desired macro block mode and associated motion vectors. This type of cost function uses a weighting factor or λ to tie together the exact or estimated image distortion due to lossy coding methods and the exact or estimated amount of information required to represent the pixel values in an image area. This may be represented by the equation: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? C=D+□R (1) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? where C is the Lagrangian cost to be minimised, D is the image distortion (for example, the mean-squared error between the pixel values in original image block and in coded image block) with the mode and motion vectors currently considered, λ is a Lagrangian coefficient and R is the number of bits needed to represent the required data to reconstruct the image block in the decoder (including the amount of data to represent the candidate motion vectors). Some hybrid video codecs, such as H.264/AVC, utilize bi-directional motion compensated prediction to improve the coding efficiency. In bi-directional prediction, prediction signal of the block may be formed by combining, for example by averaging two motion compensated prediction blocks. This averaging operation may further include either up or down rounding, which may introduce rounding errors. The accumulation of rounding errors in bi-directional prediction may cause degradation in coding efficiency. This rounding error accumulation may be removed or decreased by signalling whether rounding up or rounding down have been used when the two prediction signals have been combined for each frame. Alternatively the rounding error could be controlled by alternating the usage of the rounding up and rounding down for each frame. For example, rounding up may be used for every other frame and, correspondingly, rounding down may be used for every other frame. In FIG. 9 an example of averaging two motion compensated prediction blocks using rounding is illustrated. Sample values of the first prediction reference is input 902 to a first filter 904 in which values of two or more full pixels near the point which the motion vector is referring to are used in the filtering. A rounding offset may be added 906 to the filtered value. The filtered value added with the rounding offset is right shifted 908 x-bits i.e. divided by 2 x to obtain a first prediction signal P 1 . Similar operation is performed to the second prediction reference as is illustrated with blocks 912 , 914 , 916 and 918 to obtain a second prediction signal P 2 . The first prediction signal P 1 and the second prediction signal P 2 are combined e.g. by summing the prediction signals P 1 , P 2 . A rounding offset may be added 920 with the combined signal after which the result is right shifted y-bits i.e. divided by 2 y . The rounding may be upwards, if the rounding offset is positive, or downwards, if the rounding offset is negative. The direction of the rounding may always be the same, or it may alter from time to time, e.g. for each frame. The direction of the rounding may be signaled in the bitstream so that in the decoding process the same rounding direction can be used. However, these methods increase somewhat the complexity as two separate code branches need to be written for bi-directional averaging. In addition, the motion estimation routines in the encoder may need to be doubled for both cases of rounding and truncation.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present invention introduces a method which enables reducing the effect of rounding errors in bi-directional and multi-directional prediction. According to some embodiments of the invention prediction signals are maintained in a higher precision during the prediction calculation and the precision is reduced after the two or more prediction signals have been combined with each other. In some example embodiments prediction signals are maintained in higher accuracy until the prediction signals have been combined to obtain the bi-directional or multidirectional prediction signal. The accuracy of the bi-directional or multidirectional prediction signal can then be downshifted to an appropriate accuracy for post processing purposes. Then, no rounding direction indicator need not be included in or read from the bitstream According to a first aspect of the present invention there is provided a method comprising: determining a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; determining a type of the block; if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, determining a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; using said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; using said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; combining said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and decreasing the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. According to a second aspect of the present invention there is provided an apparatus comprising: a processor; and a memory unit operatively connected to the processor and including: computer code configured to determine a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; computer code configured to determine a type of the block; computer code configured to, if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; combine said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and decrease the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. According to a third aspect of the present invention there is provided a computer readable storage medium stored with code thereon for use by an apparatus, which when executed by a processor, causes the apparatus to perform: determine a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; determine a type of the block; if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; combine said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and decrease the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. According to a fourth aspect of the present invention there is provided at least one processor and at least one memory, said at least one memory stored with code thereon, which when executed by said at least one processor, causes an apparatus to perform: determine a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; determine a type of the block; if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; combine said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and decrease the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. According to a fifth aspect of the present invention there is provided an apparatus comprising: an input to determine a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; a determinator to determine a type of the block; wherein if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks, said determinator further to determine a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block; a first predictor to use said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; a second predictor to use said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; a combiner to combine said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and a shifter to decrease the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. According to a sixth aspect of the present invention there is provided an apparatus comprising: means for determining a block of pixels of a video representation encoded in a bitstream, values of said pixels having a first precision; means for determining a type of the block; means for determining a first reference pixel location in a first reference block and a second reference pixel location in a second reference block, if the determining indicates that the block is a block predicted by using two or more reference blocks; means for using said first reference pixel location to obtain a first prediction, said first prediction having a second precision, which is higher than said first precision; means for using said second reference pixel location to obtain a second prediction, said second prediction having the second precision, which is higher than said first precision; means for combining said first prediction and said second prediction to obtain a combined prediction; and means for decreasing the precision of said combined prediction to said first precision. This invention removes the need to signal the rounding offset or use different methods for rounding for different frames. This invention may keep the motion compensated prediction signal of each one of the predictions at highest precision possible after interpolation and perform the rounding to the bit-depth range of the video signal after both prediction signals are added.

H04N1950

20180122

20180524

66973.0

H04N1950

LE, PETER D

MOTION PREDICTION IN VIDEO CODING

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04N

PENDING

WEDGE SHAPED CELLS IN A WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Aspects described herein relate to a network for providing air-to-ground wireless communication in various cells. The network includes a first base station array, each base station of which includes a respective first antenna array defining a directional radiation pattern that is oriented in a first direction, wherein each base station of the first base station array is disposed spaced apart from another base station of the first base station array along the first direction by a first distance. The network also includes a similar second base station array where the second base station array extends substantially parallel to the first base station array and is spaced apart from the first base station array by a second distance to form continuous and at least partially overlapping cell coverage areas between respective base stations of the first and second base station arrays.

1. A network for providing air-to-ground (ATG) wireless communication in various cells, comprising: a first base station including a first antenna array defining a first directional radiation pattern that is oriented toward a horizon; and a second base station including second antenna array defining a second directional radiation pattern that at least partially overlaps with the first base station, wherein the first base station employs unlicensed spectrum, wherein the second base station employs licensed spectrum, wherein the first and second base stations are each configured to wirelessly communicate with a radio disposed on an aircraft flying through respective cell coverage areas of the first and second base stations, and wherein the first and second base stations are each configured to handover communication with the radio as the aircraft moves between the respective cell coverage areas of the first and second base stations. 2. The network of claim 1, wherein at least one of the first directional radiation pattern or the second direction radiation pattern defines a substantially wedge shaped radiation pattern. 3. The network of claim 2, wherein the first and second directional radiation patterns overlap each other to provide continuous coverage up to a predetermined altitude. 4. The network of claim 3, wherein coverage up to the predetermined altitude immediately above the first base station is provided by the second base station. 5. The network of claim 4, wherein the predetermined altitude is about 45,000 feet. 6. The network of claim 1, wherein one of the first antenna array or the second antenna array forms a semicircular radiation pattern. 7. The network of claim 1, wherein the first antenna array and the second antenna array each form semicircular radiation patterns. 8. The network of claim 7, wherein the first antenna array and the second antenna array each include six sectors of about thirty degrees. 9. The network of claim 1, wherein each of the first directional radiation pattern and the second direction radiation pattern define a substantially wedge shaped radiation pattern. 10. The network of claim 9, wherein each of the first directional radiation pattern and the second direction radiation pattern form semicircular radiation patterns. 11. The network of claim 1, wherein the first directional radiation pattern is differently shaped than the second direction radiation pattern. 12. A network for providing air-to-ground (ATG) wireless communication in various cells, comprising: a first base station including a first antenna array defining a first directional radiation pattern that is oriented toward a horizon; and a second base station including second antenna array defining a second directional radiation pattern that at least partially overlaps with the first base station, wherein one of the first base station or the second base station employs unlicensed spectrum, and the other of the first base station and the second base station employs licensed spectrum, wherein the first and second base stations are each configured to wirelessly communicate with a radio disposed on an aircraft flying through respective cell coverage areas of the first and second base stations, and wherein the first and second base stations are each configured to handover communication with the radio as the aircraft moves between the respective cell coverage areas of the first and second base stations. 13. The network of claim 12, wherein at least one of the first directional radiation pattern or the second direction radiation pattern defines a substantially wedge shaped radiation pattern. 14. The network of claim 13, wherein the first and second directional radiation patterns overlap each other to provide continuous coverage up to a predetermined altitude. 15. The network of claim 14, wherein coverage up to the predetermined altitude immediately above the first base station is provided by the second base station. 16. The network of claim 15, wherein the predetermined altitude is about 45,000 feet. 17. The network of claim 12, wherein one of the first antenna array or the second antenna array forms a semicircular radiation pattern. 18. The network of claim 12, wherein each of the first directional radiation pattern and the second direction radiation pattern define a substantially wedge shaped radiation pattern. 19. The network of claim 18, wherein each of the first directional radiation pattern and the second direction radiation pattern form semicircular radiation patterns. 20. The network of claim 12, wherein the first directional radiation pattern is differently shaped than the second direction radiation pattern.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/345,527 filed Nov. 8, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/017,794 filed Feb. 8, 2016, (now patented as U.S. Pat. No. 9,503,912 which issued on Nov. 22, 2016), which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/681,429 filed Apr. 8, 2015, (now patented as U.S. Pat. No. 9,294,933 which issued on Mar. 22, 2016), which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/832,385 filed Mar. 15, 2013 (now patented as U.S. Pat. No. 9,008,669 which issued on Apr. 14, 2015), the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD Example embodiments generally relate to wireless communications and, more particularly, relate to employing wedge shaped cells to provide continuous wireless communication at various distances and altitudes. BACKGROUND High speed data communications and the devices that enable such communications have become ubiquitous in modern society. These devices make many users capable of maintaining nearly continuous connectivity to the Internet and other communication networks. Although these high speed data connections are available through telephone lines, cable modems or other such devices that have a physical wired connection, wireless connections have revolutionized our ability to stay connected without sacrificing mobility. However, in spite of the familiarity that people have with remaining continuously connected to networks while on the ground, people generally understand that easy and/or cheap connectivity will tend to stop once an aircraft is boarded. Aviation platforms have still not become easily and cheaply connected to communication networks, at least for the passengers onboard. Attempts to stay connected in the air are typically costly and have bandwidth limitations or high latency problems. Moreover, passengers willing to deal with the expense and issues presented by aircraft communication capabilities are often limited to very specific communication modes that are supported by the rigid communication architecture provided on the aircraft. Conventional ground based wireless communications systems use vertical antennas to provide coverage for device connectivity. Antennas used in terrestrial systems typically provide coverage in the azimuthal, or horizontal, plane with a width of 65 to 90 degrees. The elevation, or vertical, pattern is typically more narrow in order to maximize the antenna performance in the horizontal plane, which can result in a larger coverage area, increased signal strength or clarity in the coverage area, etc. With focus on the horizontal plane, however, these existing antennas may be unable to support connectivity for aircraft traveling above an elevation of the coverage area. BRIEF SUMMARY OF SOME EXAMPLES The continuous advancement of wireless technologies offers new opportunities to provide wireless coverage for aircraft at varying elevations using multiple antennas installed at certain sites. A plurality of antennas at a base station can each transmit signals having a radiation pattern defined between two elevation angles resulting in an increasing vertical beam width and smaller azimuth to form a wedge shaped sector. These wedge shaped sectors may then be overlapped with each other to progressively build in altitude for providing communications with continuous coverage at high altitudes. In one example, the plurality of antennas are configured at the base station such that corresponding wedge shaped sectors are adjacent in a horizontal plane to form a substantially semicircular coverage area in the horizontal plane that achieves at least a predetermined altitude within a predetermined distance from the base station. In addition, multiple deployed base stations can be substantially aligned in a first direction while substantially offset in a second direction. Moreover, a distance between the deployed base stations in the first direction can be less than the distance between the base stations in the second direction to facilitate providing continuous coverage up to the predetermined altitude based on the wedge shaped sectors. In the first direction, the base stations can be aligned and deployed at a distance such that the wedge shaped sectors of a first base station are overlapped by the wedge shaped sectors of a second base station behind the first base station along the first direction. This allows the sectors of the second base station to cover altitudes up to the predetermined altitude at the location of the first base station and extending therebeyond in the first direction for a predetermined distance from the first base station until the sectors of the first base station reach the predetermined altitude. In the second direction, the base stations can be offset and deployed at a distance such to allow continuous coverage based on a horizontal plane coverage area of the sectors, as the coverage area is compensated for altitude deficiencies in the first direction, and thus may not need to be compensated by adjacent coverage areas in the second direction. In one example embodiment, a network for providing air-to-ground (ATG) wireless communication in various cells is provided. The network includes a first base station array, each base station of which includes a respective first antenna array defining a directional radiation pattern that is oriented in a first direction, wherein each base station of the first base station array is disposed spaced apart from another base station of the first base station array along the first direction by a first distance. The network also includes a second base station array, each base station of which includes a respective second antenna array defining a directional radiation pattern that is oriented in the first direction, wherein each base station of the second base station array is disposed spaced apart from another base station of the second base station array along the first direction by the first distance, and wherein the second base station array extends substantially parallel to the first base station array and is spaced apart from the first base station array by a second distance to form continuous and at least partially overlapping cell coverage areas between respective base stations of the first and second base station arrays. Base stations of the first base station array and the second base station array are disposed to be located offset from each other along the first direction by a third distance, and wherein the first distance is less than the second distance. In another example embodiment, a network for providing ATG wireless communication in various cells is provided. The network includes a first base station having a first antenna array providing a directional radiation pattern oriented along a first direction, the directional radiation pattern extending over a predetermined range in azimuth centered on the first direction, and extending between a first elevation angle and a second elevation angle over at least a predetermined distance to define a substantially wedge shaped radiation pattern. The network also includes a second base station deployed spaced apart from the first base station by a first distance in the first direction, the second base station having a second antenna array having the same directional radiation pattern as the first antenna array such that coverage areas of the first and second antenna arrays overlap at different altitude ranges moving along the first direction from the second base station. The network further includes a third base station deployed spaced apart from the second base station by the first distance along the first direction, the third base station having a third antenna array having the same directional radiation pattern as the first and second antenna arrays such that coverage areas of the first, second and third antenna arrays overlap at different altitude ranges moving along the first direction from the third base station to achieve continuous coverage to a predetermined altitude. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWING(S) Having thus described the invention in general terms, reference will now be made to the accompanying drawings, which are not necessarily drawn to scale, and wherein: FIG. 1 illustrates a top view of an example network deployment providing air-to-ground (ATG) wireless communication coverage areas; FIG. 2 illustrates an aspect of an example network deployment of base stations providing overlapping cell coverage areas to achieve coverage up to a predetermined altitude; FIG. 3 illustrates an aspect of an example network deployment of base stations providing overlapping cell coverage areas and/or additional coverage areas; FIG. 4 illustrates a functional block diagram of a base station of an example embodiment; and FIG. 5 illustrates an example methodology for deploying base stations to provide ATG wireless communications at a predetermined altitude. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Some example embodiments now will be described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which some, but not all example embodiments are shown. Indeed, the examples described and pictured herein should not be construed as being limiting as to the scope, applicability or configuration of the present disclosure. Rather, these example embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will satisfy applicable legal requirements. Like reference numerals may be used to refer to like elements throughout. Furthermore, as used herein, the term “or” is to be interpreted as a logical operator that results in true whenever one or more of its operands are true. Some example embodiments described herein provide architectures for improved air-to-ground (ATG) wireless communication performance. In this regard, some example embodiments may provide for base stations having antenna structures that facilitate providing wireless communication coverage in vertical and horizontal planes with sufficient elevation to communicate with aircraft at high elevations. A base station can provide a wedge shaped cell coverage area in a vertical plane that achieves coverage at a predetermined altitude within a predetermined distance from the base station to facilitate ATG wireless communications. The cell coverage area can be substantially semicircular in the horizontal plane, and can be provided by multiple antennas each providing a wedge shaped sector over a portion of the semicircular azimuth. The base stations can be deployed as substantially aligned in a first direction while offset in a second direction. For example, the base stations can also be deployed in the first direction at a first distance to provide coverage overlapping in elevation to achieve coverage over the predetermined altitude, and within a second distance in the second direction based on an achievable coverage area distance of the sectors. FIG. 1 illustrates a top view of a network 100 of deployed base stations for providing ATG wireless communication coverage. Network 100 includes various base stations providing substantially semicircular cell coverage areas. The cell coverage areas are each depicted in two portions. For example, the cell coverage area for a first base station is shown as similarly patterned portions 102 and 104. The portions 102 and 104 represent a single continuous cell coverage area over a horizontal plane; however, FIG. 1 depicts intervening portion 108 of another cell coverage area as providing overlapping coverage to achieve continuous coverage up to a predetermined altitude, as described further herein. Portion 102 is shown to represent the initial cell coverage area from the location of the corresponding base station out to an arbitrary distance for illustrative purposes; it is to be appreciated that this portion 102 also includes the overlapping coverage of portion 108 of another cell coverage area to achieve coverage at the predetermined altitude. Moreover, the coverage area represented by portions 106 and 108 may extend beyond boundary 130 of coverage area portion 104; the coverage areas are limited in the depiction to illustrate at least one point where the bordering coverage areas are able to provide ATG wireless communication coverage at the predetermined altitude. Further, the base stations are not depicted for ease of explanation, but it is to be appreciated that the base stations can be located such to provide the cell coverage area indicated by portions 102 and 104, portions 106 and 108, portions 110 and 112, etc. The cell coverage areas 102/104 and 106/108 can be provided by respective base stations in a first base station array, where the base stations of one or more base station arrays are substantially aligned in a first direction 120 (as depicted by the representative cell coverage areas). As shown, cell coverage areas 102/104 and 106/108 project a directional radiation pattern that is oriented in the first direction, and are aligned front to back along the first direction. Such alignment can be achieved by substantially aligning base stations in the base station array to provide the substantially aligned cell coverage areas, antenna rotation to achieve alignment in the cell coverage areas in the first direction 120, and/or the like. As described, in this regard, a first base station that provides cell coverage area 102/104 can be overlapped by at least a cell coverage area 106/108 of a second base station in front of the first base station in the first direction 120. For example, a base station, or antennas thereof, can provide wedge shaped cell coverage areas defined by multiple elevation angles employed by antennas transmitting signals to achieve a predetermined altitude by a certain distance from the base station. Thus, overlapping the cell coverage areas in the first direction 120 allows cell coverage area 106/108 to achieve the predetermined altitude for at least the certain distance between the base station providing cell coverage area 102/104 and a point along line 130 where the cell coverage area 102/104 achieves the predetermined altitude. In addition, base stations in the first base station array providing cell coverage areas 102/104 and 106/108 can be spaced apart in a second direction 122 from base stations of a second base station array, which can provide additional cell coverage areas 110/112, 114/116, etc., aligned in the first direction 120. The first and second base station arrays can extend substantially parallel to each other in the first direction 120. In addition, base stations of the second base station array can be offset from base stations of the first base station array in the first direction 120 (as depicted by the representative cell coverage areas). The second direction 122 can be substantially perpendicular to the first direction 120 in one example. In this example, the first and second base station arrays can be offset to provide the offsetting of respective cell coverage areas (e.g., the offset shown between cell coverage areas 102/104 and 110/112), and any other coverage areas of the base station arrays aligned in the first direction 120. The first and second base station arrays can be spaced apart at a greater distance in the second direction 122 than base stations within the respective arrays spaced apart in the first direction 120. For example, the base stations can be spaced in the second direction 122 according to an achievable coverage distance of the base station providing the cell coverage areas. Because the base stations providing cell coverage areas 102/104 and 106/108 in the first base station array are aligned in the first direction 120 such that cell coverage area 106/108 provides overlapping coverage to cell coverage area 102/104 to achieve the predetermined altitude, the base station arrays themselves can be separated based on the achievable distance of the respective cell coverage areas 102/104 and 110/112. In this regard, no substantial overlapping is needed between the boundaries of cell coverage areas 102/104 and 110/112 provided by base stations of adjacent base station arrays to reach the predetermined altitude since the altitude deficiencies near the respective base stations are covered by cell coverage areas of base stations in the base station array aligned in the first direction 120. Moreover, offsetting the base stations providing the various cell coverage areas over the second direction 122 can allow for further spacing in the first direction 120 and/or second direction 122 as the end portions of one cell coverage area in the horizontal plane can abut to a middle portion of another cell coverage area from a base station in an adjacent base station array to maximize the distance allowed between the cell coverage areas while maintaining continuous coverage, which can lower the number of base stations necessary to provide coverage over a given area. In one example, the spacing in the second direction 122 can be more than twice the spacing in the first direction 120, depending on the coverage distance of the cell coverage areas and the distance over which it takes a cell coverage area to reach the predetermined altitude. As depicted, the spacing of a first distance between base stations in a given base station array can be indicated as distance 140 in the first direction 120. The spacing of a second distance between base station arrays in the second direction 122 can be indicated as distance 142. Moreover, the offset between the base station arrays can be indicated as a third distance 144. In one specific example, the distance 140 can be near 150 kilometers (km), where distance 142 between the base stations providing cell coverage area 102/104 can be 400 km or more. In this example, the achievable cell coverage areas can be at least 200 km from the corresponding base station in the direction of the transmitted signals that form the coverage areas or related sectors thereof. Moreover, in this example, the distance 144 can be around 75 km. In an example, the base stations providing cell coverage areas 102/104, 106/108, 110/112, etc. can each include respective antenna arrays defining a directional radiation pattern oriented in the first direction. The respective antenna arrays can include multiple antennas providing a sector portion of the radiation pattern resulting in a coverage area that is wedge shaped in the vertical plane. For example, the cell coverage area provided by each antenna can have first and second elevation angles that exhibit an increasing vertical beam width in the vertical plane, and fills a portion of an azimuth in the horizontal plane. Using more concentrated signals that provide smaller portions of the azimuth can allow for achieving further distance and/or increased elevation angles without increasing transmission power. In the depicted example, the cell coverage areas defined by the antenna arrays include six substantially 30 degree azimuth sectors that are substantially adjacent to form a directional radiation pattern extending substantially 180 degrees in azimuth centered on the first direction to define the semicircular coverage area. Each sector can be provided by an antenna at the corresponding base station, for example. Moreover, in one example, the base station can have a radio per antenna, a less number of radios with one or more switches to switch between the antennas to conserve radio resources, and/or the like, as described further herein. It is to be appreciated that additional or a less number of sectors can be provided. In addition, the sectors can have an azimuth more or less than 30 degrees and/or can form a larger or smaller total cell coverage area azimuth than the depicted semicircular cell coverage area. In yet other examples, the network 100 can implement frequency reuse of two such that adjacent base stations can use alternating channels in providing the cell coverage areas. For example, a base station providing cell coverage areas 102/104 can use a first channel, and a base station providing cell coverage area 106/108 in the same base station array can use a second channel. Similarly, the base station providing cell coverage area 110/112 in a different base station array can use the second channel, etc. It is to be appreciated that other frequency reuse patterns and/or number of reuse factors can be utilized in this scheme to provide frequency diversity between adjacent cell coverage areas. Furthermore, in an example deployment of network 100, the first direction 120 and/or second direction 122 can be, or be near, a cardinal direction (e.g., north, south, east, or west), an intermediate direction (e.g., northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest, north-northeast, east-northeast, etc.), and/or the like on a horizontal plane. In addition, the network 100 can be deployed within boundaries of a country, boundaries of an air corridor across one or more countries, and/or the like. In one example, cell coverage area 106/108 can be provided by an initial base station at a border of a country or air corridor. In this example, a base station providing cell coverage area 106/108, 110/112, and/or additional cell coverage areas at the border, can include one or more patch antennas to provide coverage at the predetermined altitude from the distance between the base station to the point where the respective cell coverage area 106/108, 110/112, etc. reaches the predetermined altitude. For example, the one or more patch antennas can be present behind the cell coverage areas 106/108, 110/112, etc., and/or on the base stations thereof (e.g., as one or more antennas angled at an uptilt and/or parallel to the horizon) to provide cell coverage up to the predetermined altitude. FIG. 2 illustrates an example network 200 for providing overlapping cells to facilitate ATG wireless communication coverage at least at a predetermined altitude. Network 200 includes base stations 202, 204, and 206 that transmit signals for providing the ATG wireless communications. Base stations 202, 204, and 206 can each transmit signals that exhibit a radiation pattern defined by a first and second elevation angle such to achieve a predetermined altitude. In this example, base stations 202, 204, and 206 provide respective wedge shaped cell coverage areas 212, 214, and 216. The base stations 202, 204, and 206 can be deployed as substantially aligned in a first direction 120 as part of the same base station array, as described above, or to otherwise allow for aligning the cell coverage areas 212, 214, and 216 in the first direction, such that cell coverage area 212 can overlap cell coverage area 214 (and/or 216 at a different altitude range in the vertical plane), cell coverage area 214 can overlap cell coverage area 216, and so on. This can allow the cell coverage areas 212, 214, and 216 to achieve at least a predetermined altitude (e.g., 45,000 feet (ft)) for a distance defined by the various aligned base stations 202, 204, 206, etc. As depicted, base station 202 can provide cell coverage area 212 that overlaps cell coverage area 214 of base station 204 to facilitate providing cell coverage up to 45,000 ft near base station 204 for a distance until signals transmitted by base station 204 reach the predetermined altitude of 45,000 ft (e.g., near point 130), in this example. In this example, base station 204 can be deployed at a position corresponding to the distance between which it takes cell coverage area 214 of base station 204 to reach the predetermined altitude subtracted from the achievable distance of cell coverage area 212 of base station 202. In this regard, there can be substantially any number of overlapping cell coverage areas of different base stations to reach the predetermined altitude based on the elevation angles, the distance it takes to achieve a vertical beam width at the predetermined altitude based on the elevation angles, the distance between the base stations, etc. In one specific example, the base stations 202, 204, and 206 can be spaced apart by a first distance 140, as described. The first distance 140 can be substantially 150 km along the first direction 120, such that base station 204 is around 150 km from base station 202, and base station 206 is around 300 km from base station 202. Further, in an example, an aircraft flying between base station 206 and 204 may be covered by base station 202 depending on its altitude, and in one example, altitude can be used in determining whether and/or when to handover a device on the aircraft to another base station or cell provided by the base station. Moreover, as described in some examples, base stations 202, 204 and 206 can include an antenna array providing a directional radiation pattern oriented along the first direction 120, as shown in FIG. 1, where the directional radiation pattern extends over a predetermined range in azimuth centered on the first direction 120, and extends between the first elevation angle and the second elevation angle of the respective coverage areas 212, 214, and 216 over at least a predetermined distance to define the substantially wedge shaped radiation pattern. In this regard, FIG. 2 depicts a side view of a vertical plane of the base stations 202, 204, and 206, and associated coverage areas 212, 214, and 216. Thus, in one example, base station 202 can provide a cell coverage area 212 that is similar to cell coverage area 106/108 in FIG. 1 in a horizontal plane, and base station 204 can provide a cell coverage area 214 similar to cell coverage area 102/104 in FIG. 1. Moreover, as described, direction 120 can correlate to a cardinal direction, intermediate direction, and/or the like. In addition, in a deployment of network 200, additional base stations can be provided in front of base station 206 along direction 120 until a desired coverage area is provided (e.g., until an edge of a border or air corridor is reached). FIG. 3 illustrates an example network 300 for providing overlapping cells to facilitate ATG wireless communication coverage at least at a predetermined altitude, as in FIG. 2. Network 300, thus, includes base stations 202, 204, and 206 that transmit signals for providing the ATG wireless communications. Base stations 202, 204, and 206 can each transmit signals that exhibit a radiation pattern defined by a first and second elevation angle such to achieve a predetermined altitude. This results in providing respective wedge shaped cell coverage areas 212, 214, and 216. The base stations 202, 204, and 206 can be deployed as substantially aligned in a first direction as part of the same base station array, as described above, or to otherwise allow for aligning the cell coverage areas 212, 214, and 216 in the first direction, such that cell coverage area 212 can overlap cell coverage area 214 (and/or 216), cell coverage area 214 can overlap cell coverage area 216, and so on. This can allow the cell coverage areas 212, 214, and 216 to achieve at least a predetermined altitude (e.g., 45,000 ft) for a distance defined by the various aligned base stations 202, 204, 206, etc., as described. In addition, however, base station 202 can be deployed at an edge of a desired coverage area, and can include one or more patch antennas to provide additional ATG wireless communication coverage. In an example, the edge of the desired coverage area can include a border of a country, an edge of an air corridor, etc. For example, the one or more patch antennas can be provided at an uptilt angle and/or with additional elevation as compared to antenna(s) providing cell coverage area 202. In one example, at least one patch antenna can provide additional coverage areas 302 and/or 304 up to the target altitude to fill coverage gaps near the border or edge in the network deployment configuration described herein, for example. FIG. 4 illustrates a functional block diagram of a base station 400 in an example embodiment. In this regard, for example, the base station 400 may include processing circuitry 402 that may be configurable to perform control functions in accordance with example embodiments. The processing circuitry 402 may provide electronic control inputs to one or more functional units of an aircraft for providing ATG wireless communications thereto. The processing circuitry 402 may be configured to perform data processing, control function execution and/or other processing and management services according to an example embodiment. In some examples, the processing circuitry 402 may be embodied as a chip or chip set. In other words, the processing circuitry 402 may comprise one or more physical packages (e.g., chips) including materials, components and/or wires on a structural assembly (e.g., a baseboard). The structural assembly may provide physical strength, conservation of size, and/or limitation of electrical interaction for component circuitry included thereon. The processing circuitry 402 may therefore, in some cases, be configured to implement an embodiment of the disclosed subject matter on a single chip or as a single “system on a chip.” As such, in some cases, a chip or chipset may constitute means for performing one or more operations for providing the functionalities described herein. In an example embodiment, the processing circuitry 402 may include one or more instances of a processor 404 and memory 406 that may be in communication with or otherwise control a transceiver 408. The processing circuitry 402 may be embodied as a circuit chip (e.g., an integrated circuit chip) configured (e.g., with hardware, software or a combination of hardware and software) to perform operations described herein. However, in some embodiments, the processing circuitry 402 may be embodied as a portion of an on-board computer. The transceiver 408 may include one or more mechanisms for enabling communication with various devices. In some cases, the transceiver 408 can include device or circuitry embodied in either hardware, or a combination of hardware and software that is configured to receive and/or transmit data from/to aircraft or other devices in communication with the processing circuitry 402. Thus, for example, the transceiver 408 may allow for communication via different antennas, such as antenna 1 410, antenna 2 412, antenna N 414, where N is a positive integer, etc. In an example embodiment, the processing circuitry 402 may be configured to control configuration or operation of one or more instances of the transceiver 408 to facilitate operation of one or more antennas, such as antenna 1 410, antenna 2 412, antenna N 414, etc. In one example, as depicted, the antennas 410, 412, 414, etc. can be operated by a single radio 416, and the radio 416 can include a switch 418 to alternate between transmitting signals over the various antennas 410, 412, 414, etc. In another example, though not depicted, the antennas 410, 412, 414, etc. can use independent radios, and/or can transmit signals concurrently. In any case, processing circuitry 402 can use transceiver 408 to provide cell coverage via communications using the antennas 410, 412, 414, etc. to provide wedge shaped cells, as described. In addition, the wedge shaped cells provided by the antennas can be substantially adjacent in a direction to provide multiple aligned sectors that form semicircular coverage areas, as described. In some examples, transceiver 408 can employ additional patch antennas (not shown) to provide additional coverage areas to provide border coverage at the predetermined altitude. Moreover, it is to be appreciated that the radio(s) 416 can communicate using substantially any air interface in a licensed spectrum (e.g., third generation partnership project (3GPP) long term evolution (LTE), Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA), and/or the like), unlicensed spectrum (e.g., 2.4 gigahertz (GHz), 5.8 GHz, and/or the like), etc. The processor 404 may be embodied in a number of different ways. For example, the processor 404 may be embodied as various processors, such as one or more of a microprocessor or other processing element, a coprocessor, a controller or various other computing or processing devices including integrated circuits such as, for example, an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a field programmable gate array (FPGA), or the like. In an example embodiment, the processor 402 may be configured to execute instructions stored in the memory 406 or otherwise accessible to the processor 404. As such, whether configured by hardware or by a combination of hardware and software, the processor 404 may represent an entity (e.g., physically embodied in circuitry—in the form of processing circuitry 402) capable of performing operations according to embodiments of the present invention while configured accordingly. Thus, for example, when the processor 404 is embodied as an ASIC, FPGA or the like, the processor 404 may be specifically configured hardware for conducting the operations described herein. Alternatively, as another example, when the processor 404 is embodied as an executor of software instructions, the instructions may specifically configure the processor 404 to perform the operations described herein. In an example embodiment, the processor 404 (or the processing circuitry 402) may be embodied as, include or otherwise control the operation of the base station 400, as described herein. As such, in some embodiments, the processor 404 (or the processing circuitry 402) may be said to cause each of the operations described in connection with the base station 400 in relation to operation of the base station 400 by directing components of the transceiver 408 to undertake the corresponding functionalities responsive to execution of instructions or algorithms configuring the processor 404 (or processing circuitry 402) accordingly. In an exemplary embodiment, the memory 406 may include one or more non-transitory memory devices such as, for example, volatile and/or non-volatile memory that may be either fixed or removable. The memory 406 may be configured to store information, data, applications, instructions or the like for enabling the processing circuitry 402 to carry out various functions in accordance with exemplary embodiments described herein. For example, the memory 406 could be configured to buffer input data for processing by the processor 404. Additionally or alternatively, the memory 406 could be configured to store instructions for execution by the processor 404. As yet another alternative, the memory 406 may include one or more databases that may store a variety of data sets related to functions described herein. Among the contents of the memory 406, applications may be stored for execution by the processor 404 in order to carry out the functionality associated with each respective application. In some cases, the applications may include instructions for recognition of various input signals related to component status or operational parameters and, if necessary, applying timing control, encryption, channel control and/or the like associated with handling the reception of such signals. The applications may further include instructions for operational control of the base station 400, as described above. Referring to FIG. 5, a methodology that can be utilized in accordance with various aspects described herein is illustrated. While, for purposes of simplicity of explanation, the methodology is shown and described as a series of acts, it is to be understood and appreciated that the methodology is not limited by the order of acts, as some acts can, in accordance with one or more aspects, occur in different orders and/or concurrently with other acts from that shown and described herein. For example, those skilled in the art will understand and appreciate that a methodology could alternatively be represented as a series of interrelated states or events, such as in a state diagram. Moreover, not all illustrated acts may be required to implement a methodology in accordance with one or more aspects. FIG. 5 illustrates an example methodology 500 for providing deploying a plurality of base stations to provide ATG wireless communication coverage areas. At 502, a first base station is deployed providing a wedge shaped coverage area in a vertical plane over a semicircular shaped coverage area in a horizontal plane. As described, an increasing vertical beam width over a distance, as effectuated by multiple elevation angles of signal transmissions by the base station, can result in the wedge shape of the coverage area. In addition, the semicircular shape in the horizontal plane can be effectuated by an azimuth of transmission by one or more antennas. As described, in an example, transmissions from a plurality of antennas can form substantially adjacent sectors that together form the semicircular shaped cell coverage area. At 504, a second base station can be deployed aligned with the first base station in a first direction to facilitate providing overlapping coverage with the first base station in the first direction to achieve a predetermined altitude. In this regard, as described, a second cell coverage area of the second base station can be similarly shaped in the vertical and horizontal planes as the cell coverage area of the first base station, such that the second cell coverage area can fill coverage gaps in the cell coverage area near the first base station up to a predetermined altitude in a semicircular coverage area shape in the horizontal plane. In this example, the second base station can be deployed at a distance that allows the second base station to cover the cell coverage area of the first base station at least at the predetermined altitude and at least to a point where the cell coverage area of the first base station reaches the predetermined altitude. Moreover, as described, the first and second base stations can be deployed in the same base station array. At 506, a third base station can be deployed in a second direction from the first base station, and offset in the first direction, to facilitate providing continuous coverage at the predetermined altitude in the second direction. The second direction can be substantially perpendicular to the first direction such that the third base station is deployed based on an achievable cell coverage area distance by the first base station and the third base station. As described, since the cell coverage area of the first base station is compensated for altitude deficiency in the first direction (e.g., by the overlapping cells of the second base station aligned in the first direction), no such compensation is needed in the second direction, and thus the base stations in the second direction can be further spaced apart based on the achievable coverage area distance of each base station. Moreover, as described, the third base station can be deployed in a base station array adjacent to the base station array to which the first and second base stations are associated. Many modifications and other embodiments of the inventions set forth herein will come to mind to one skilled in the art to which these inventions pertain having the benefit of the teachings presented in the foregoing descriptions and the associated drawings. Therefore, it is to be understood that the inventions are not to be limited to the specific embodiments disclosed and that modifications and other embodiments are intended to be included within the scope of the appended claims. Moreover, although the foregoing descriptions and the associated drawings describe exemplary embodiments in the context of certain exemplary combinations of elements and/or functions, it should be appreciated that different combinations of elements and/or functions may be provided by alternative embodiments without departing from the scope of the appended claims. In this regard, for example, different combinations of elements and/or functions than those explicitly described above are also contemplated as may be set forth in some of the appended claims. In cases where advantages, benefits or solutions to problems are described herein, it should be appreciated that such advantages, benefits and/or solutions may be applicable to some example embodiments, but not necessarily all example embodiments. Thus, any advantages, benefits or solutions described herein should not be thought of as being critical, required or essential to all embodiments or to that which is claimed herein. Although specific terms are employed herein, they are used in a generic and descriptive sense only and not for purposes of limitation.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>High speed data communications and the devices that enable such communications have become ubiquitous in modern society. These devices make many users capable of maintaining nearly continuous connectivity to the Internet and other communication networks. Although these high speed data connections are available through telephone lines, cable modems or other such devices that have a physical wired connection, wireless connections have revolutionized our ability to stay connected without sacrificing mobility. However, in spite of the familiarity that people have with remaining continuously connected to networks while on the ground, people generally understand that easy and/or cheap connectivity will tend to stop once an aircraft is boarded. Aviation platforms have still not become easily and cheaply connected to communication networks, at least for the passengers onboard. Attempts to stay connected in the air are typically costly and have bandwidth limitations or high latency problems. Moreover, passengers willing to deal with the expense and issues presented by aircraft communication capabilities are often limited to very specific communication modes that are supported by the rigid communication architecture provided on the aircraft. Conventional ground based wireless communications systems use vertical antennas to provide coverage for device connectivity. Antennas used in terrestrial systems typically provide coverage in the azimuthal, or horizontal, plane with a width of 65 to 90 degrees. The elevation, or vertical, pattern is typically more narrow in order to maximize the antenna performance in the horizontal plane, which can result in a larger coverage area, increased signal strength or clarity in the coverage area, etc. With focus on the horizontal plane, however, these existing antennas may be unable to support connectivity for aircraft traveling above an elevation of the coverage area.

<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF SOME EXAMPLES <EOH>The continuous advancement of wireless technologies offers new opportunities to provide wireless coverage for aircraft at varying elevations using multiple antennas installed at certain sites. A plurality of antennas at a base station can each transmit signals having a radiation pattern defined between two elevation angles resulting in an increasing vertical beam width and smaller azimuth to form a wedge shaped sector. These wedge shaped sectors may then be overlapped with each other to progressively build in altitude for providing communications with continuous coverage at high altitudes. In one example, the plurality of antennas are configured at the base station such that corresponding wedge shaped sectors are adjacent in a horizontal plane to form a substantially semicircular coverage area in the horizontal plane that achieves at least a predetermined altitude within a predetermined distance from the base station. In addition, multiple deployed base stations can be substantially aligned in a first direction while substantially offset in a second direction. Moreover, a distance between the deployed base stations in the first direction can be less than the distance between the base stations in the second direction to facilitate providing continuous coverage up to the predetermined altitude based on the wedge shaped sectors. In the first direction, the base stations can be aligned and deployed at a distance such that the wedge shaped sectors of a first base station are overlapped by the wedge shaped sectors of a second base station behind the first base station along the first direction. This allows the sectors of the second base station to cover altitudes up to the predetermined altitude at the location of the first base station and extending therebeyond in the first direction for a predetermined distance from the first base station until the sectors of the first base station reach the predetermined altitude. In the second direction, the base stations can be offset and deployed at a distance such to allow continuous coverage based on a horizontal plane coverage area of the sectors, as the coverage area is compensated for altitude deficiencies in the first direction, and thus may not need to be compensated by adjacent coverage areas in the second direction. In one example embodiment, a network for providing air-to-ground (ATG) wireless communication in various cells is provided. The network includes a first base station array, each base station of which includes a respective first antenna array defining a directional radiation pattern that is oriented in a first direction, wherein each base station of the first base station array is disposed spaced apart from another base station of the first base station array along the first direction by a first distance. The network also includes a second base station array, each base station of which includes a respective second antenna array defining a directional radiation pattern that is oriented in the first direction, wherein each base station of the second base station array is disposed spaced apart from another base station of the second base station array along the first direction by the first distance, and wherein the second base station array extends substantially parallel to the first base station array and is spaced apart from the first base station array by a second distance to form continuous and at least partially overlapping cell coverage areas between respective base stations of the first and second base station arrays. Base stations of the first base station array and the second base station array are disposed to be located offset from each other along the first direction by a third distance, and wherein the first distance is less than the second distance. In another example embodiment, a network for providing ATG wireless communication in various cells is provided. The network includes a first base station having a first antenna array providing a directional radiation pattern oriented along a first direction, the directional radiation pattern extending over a predetermined range in azimuth centered on the first direction, and extending between a first elevation angle and a second elevation angle over at least a predetermined distance to define a substantially wedge shaped radiation pattern. The network also includes a second base station deployed spaced apart from the first base station by a first distance in the first direction, the second base station having a second antenna array having the same directional radiation pattern as the first antenna array such that coverage areas of the first and second antenna arrays overlap at different altitude ranges moving along the first direction from the second base station. The network further includes a third base station deployed spaced apart from the second base station by the first distance along the first direction, the third base station having a third antenna array having the same directional radiation pattern as the first and second antenna arrays such that coverage areas of the first, second and third antenna arrays overlap at different altitude ranges moving along the first direction from the third base station to achieve continuous coverage to a predetermined altitude.

H04W1630

20180123

20180607

65760.0

H04W1630

GONZALEZ, AMANCIO

WEDGE SHAPED CELLS IN A WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04W

PENDING

SELECTIVE CELL TARGETING USING ADENOVIRUS AND CHEMICAL DIMERS

Compositions and methods for retargeting adenovirus to a cell using chemical dimers are described. In particular, a recombinant adenovirus comprising a nucleic acid comprising a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate is provided.

1. A recombinant nucleic acid encoding a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate, wherein the capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate comprises an adenoviral fiber protein and a FRB protein inserted into the H1 loop of the adenoviral fiber protein, and the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate comprises a ligand and a FKBP protein. 2. The recombinant nucleic acid of claim 1, wherein the ligand is capable of binding a tumor cell. 3. The recombinant nucleic acid of claim 2, wherein the ligand is an antibody. 4. The recombinant nucleic acid of claim 3, wherein the antibody is a single domain antibody. 5. The recombinant nucleic acid of claim 1, wherein the FRB protein is 90 amino acids in length. 6. The recombinant nucleic acid of claim 1, wherein the FRB protein comprises a wild-type mTOR FRB domain. 7. The recombinant nucleic acid of claim 1, wherein the FRB protein is encoded by the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 69. 8. The recombinant nucleic acid of claim 1, wherein the FRB protein comprises a mutant mTOR FRB domain. 9. The recombinant nucleic acid of claim 8, comprising SEQ ID NO: 110. 10. The recombinant nucleic acid of claim 1, wherein the FKBP protein is a human FKBP protein. 11. The recombinant nucleic acid of claim 10, wherein the human FKBP protein is FKBP12. 12. A recombinant adenovirus comprising the recombinant nucleic acid of claim 1. 13. A recombinant adenovirus comprising a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate, wherein the capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate comprises an adenoviral fiber protein and a FRB protein inserted into the H1 loop of the adenoviral fiber protein. 14. The recombinant adenovirus of claim 13, wherein the capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate is bound to a dimerizing agent. 15. The recombinant adenovirus of claim 14, wherein the dimerizing agent is further bound to a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. 16. The recombinant adenovirus of claim 14, wherein the dimerizing agent is rapamycin or a rapalog. 17. The recombinant adenovirus of claim 13, wherein the FRB protein is 90 amino acids in length. 18. The recombinant adenovirus of claim 13, wherein the FRB protein comprises a wild-type mTOR FRB domain. 19. The recombinant adenovirus of claim 18, wherein the FRB protein is encoded by the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 69. 20. The recombinant adenovirus of claim 13, wherein the FRB protein comprises a mutant mTOR FRB domain.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/485,472, filed Sep. 12, 2014, which is a continuation of International Application No. PCT/US2013/031002, filed Mar. 13, 2013, published in English under PCT Article 21(2), which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/610,416 filed Mar. 13, 2012. The above-listed applications are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. REFERENCE TO SEQUENCE LISTING The Sequence Listing is submitted as an ASCII text file, created on Jan. 22, 2018, 762 KB, which is incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND Cancer is a debilitating disease that accounts for more than half a million deaths each year. There is a profound need for more effective, selective and safe treatments for cancer. Existing treatments for this pervasive, life threatening disease, such as chemotherapy and surgery, rarely eliminate all malignant cells, and often exhibit deleterious side-effects that can outweigh therapeutic benefit. One approach that has the potential to address many of the shortcomings of current cancer treatments is oncolytic adenoviral therapy (Pesonen, S. et al., Molecular Pharmaceutics, 8(1): p. 12-28 (2010)). These viruses are designed to replicate specifically in cancer cells, but leave normal cells unharmed. One way to engineer tumor selectivity is to target adenovirus infection to receptors upregulated on tumor cells, for example EGFR family members (Zhang H, Berezov A, Wang Q, Zhang G, Drebin J, Murali R, et al. ErbB receptors: from oncogenes to targeted cancer therapies. J Clin Invest. 2007;117(8):2051-8. PMCID: 1934579), CEACAM (Li H J, Everts M, Pereboeva L, Komarova S, Idan A, Curiel D T, et al. Adenovirus tumor targeting and hepatic untargeting by a coxsackie/adenovirus receptor ectodomain anti-carcinoembryonic antigen bispecific adapter. Cancer Res. 2007;67(11):5354-61), EpCAM (Haisma H J, Pinedo H M, Rijswijk A, der Meulen-Muileman I, Sosnowski B A, Ying W, et al. Tumor-specific gene transfer via an adenoviral vector targeted to the pan-carcinoma antigen EpCAM. Gene Ther. 1999;6(8):1469-7), and HLA-A1/MAGE-A1 (de Vrij J, Uil T G, van den Hengel S K, Cramer S J, Koppers-Lalic D, Verweij M C, et al. Adenovirus targeting to HLA-A1/MAGE-A1-positive tumor cells by fusing a single-chain T-cell receptor with minor capsid protein IX. Gene Ther. 2008;15(13):978-89). For a review of various strategies of adenovirus targeting, see Noureddini S C and Curiel D T (Genetic targeting strategies for adenovirus. Mol Pharm. 2005;2(5):341-7; Nicklin S A, Wu E, Nemerow G R, Baker A H. The influence of adenovirus fiber structure and function on vector development for gene therapy. Mol Ther. 2005;12(3):384-93). Adenovirus (Ad) is a self-replicating biological machine. It consists of a linear double-stranded 36 kb DNA genome sheathed in a protein coat. Ad requires a human host cell to replicate. It invades and hijacks the cellular replicative machinery to reproduce and upon assembly induces lytic cell death to escape the cell and spread and invade surrounding cells (FIG. 1). No ab initio system has come close to mimicking the autonomy and efficiency of Ad, however, Applicants have developed new strategies to systematically manipulate the Ad genome to create novel adenoviruses. Henceforth, with the ability to manipulate the Ad genome, Applicants can take the virus by the horns and redesign it to perform the functions of tumor-specific infection, replication, and cell killing. Currently, adenoviral vectors rely on a single cellular receptor for their uptake, which significantly limits their therapeutic potential. Ad5 infection is mediated primarily through interactions between the fiber protein on the outer viral capsid and the coxsackie and adenovirus receptor (CAR) on human epithelial cells. Unfortunately, many cancer cells do not express CAR, such as mesenchymal and deadly metastatic tumor cells. Since viral replication/killing is limited by the ability to infect cells, there is a need for viruses that infect tumor cells via receptors other than CAR, ideally those specifically upregulated on tumor cells. The present invention addresses these and other needs in the art by providing viral compositions and methods that chemically link viral capsids via chemical adapters to a broad variety of cellular receptors. Provided herein is a novel, inducible, genetically encoded chemical adapter system that retargets infection to multiple cell types, and is not lost upon viral replication. The compositions provided herein can be used to customize an oncolytic virus to target different cellular receptors over the course of infection. SUMMARY In one aspect, a recombinant nucleic acid encoding a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are provided. In another aspect, a recombinant adenovirus including a recombinant nucleic acid provided herein including embodiments thereof is provided. In another aspect, a recombinant adenovirus including a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate is provided. In another aspect, a cell including a recombinant adenovirus provided herein including embodiments thereof is provided. In another aspect, a method of forming an adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct is provided. The method includes infecting a cell with a recombinant adenovirus provided herein, thereby forming an adenoviral infected cell. The adenoviral infected cell is allowed to express the recombinant nucleic acid, thereby forming a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a recombinant adenovirus including a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. The recombinant adenovirus and the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are contacted with a dimerizing agent. The recombinant adenovirus and the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are allowed to bind to the dimerizing agent, thereby forming the adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct. In another aspect, a method of targeting a cell is provided. The method includes contacting a cell with a recombinant adenovirus provided herein including embodiments thereof. In another aspect, a method of targeting a cancer cell in a cancer patient is provided. The method includes administering to a cancer patient a recombinant adenovirus provided herein. The recombinant adenovirus is allowed to infect a cell in the cancer patient, thereby forming an adenoviral infected cell. The adenoviral infected cell is allowed to express the recombinant nucleic acid, thereby forming a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a recombinant adenovirus including a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. The cancer patient is administered with a dimerizing agent. The recombinant adenovirus and the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are allowed to bind to the dimerizing agent, thereby forming an adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct. The adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct is allowed to bind to a cancer cell, thereby targeting the cancer cell in the cancer patient. In another aspect, a method of targeting a cell is provided. The method includes contacting a first cell with a recombinant adenovirus provided herein. The recombinant adenovirus is allowed to infect the first cell, thereby forming an adenoviral infected cell. The adenoviral infected cell is allowed to express the recombinant nucleic acid, thereby forming a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a recombinant adenovirus comprising a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. The ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and the recombinant adenovirus are contacted with a dimerizing agent. The recombinant adenovirus and the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are allowed to bind to the dimerizing agent, thereby forming an adenoviral cell targeting construct. The adenoviral cell targeting construct is allowed to bind to a second cell, thereby targeting the cell. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1. General rationale of oncolytic viral cancer therapy. FIG. 2. Structural features of adenovirus and a map of the adenovirus genome with transcriptional units in boxes and labeled genes. FIGS. 3A-3B. Outline of the Adsembly and Ad-SlicR adenovirus genome manipulation strategies developed by Applicants. FIG. 3A upper panel: The Ad genome is organized into early (E1-4) and late (L1-5) transcription units that express multiple genes via alternative splicing. Arrows represent multi-gene transcriptional units used by the adenovirus with functional organization reminiscent of operons. The genome is split into transcriptional and functional units (‘parts’) and cloned into plasmids (FIG. 3A lower panel). The Library of parts includes mutants, alternate serotypes and transgenes. Systematic multi-site specific in vitro re-assembly (Adsembly or Ad-SLIC) and reconstitution of virus is performed. FIG. 3B: the Adenovirus genome (FIG. 3B top panel) is separated into components (FIG. 3B second panel from top). Mutagenesis is performed on individual vectors to build library parts (FIG. 3B third panel form the top) and the virus is assembled in vitro (FIG. 3B bottom panel) to generate novel adenoviruses. FIG. 4. Ribbon representation of the adenovirus fiber protein trimer. The N terminus (left) is bound to the surface of the capsid, with the C-terminal knob domain farthest away from the virus core. The flexible H1 loop the knob domain has been used for peptides insertions to impart new properties to fiber. FIG. 5. Structure of immunosuppressive anti-tumor drug and antibiotic rapamycin and rapalog AP21967. FIG. 6. Genome assembly strategy utilizing the building and combination of components to systematically create combination mutations in novel adenoviruses. FIGS. 7A-7B. Ad 122 is a viable adenovirus expressing fiber with the FRB insertion. Ad-122 is a viable adenovirus expressing fiber with the FRB insertion. FIG. 7A: Western blot using anti-fiber antibody 4D2 (Abcam) on lysates from Ad-122 and Wt Ad5 infected 293 E4 cells 48 h p.i. FIG. 7B: Bright field and GFP fluorescence images of 293 E4 cells infected with Ad-122 48 h p.i. showing significant CPE. FIGS. 8A-8E. Genetic configurations to express FRB-Fiber and FKBP from Ad5 E3 region. FIG. 8A: Wild-type Ad5 E3 region. FIG. 8B: FRB insertion into fiber gene. FIG. 8C: Co-translational expression of FKBP using Furin-2A auto-cleavage sequence. FIG. 8D: Co-transcriptional expression of FKBP using IRES element on fiber transcript. FIG. 8E: Replacement of E3B encoded proteins (RIDα, RIDβ, 14.7 k) with FKBP. FIG. 9. AD-178 expresses FKBP during infection. Lysates collected from infected 293 E4 cells 24 and 60 h p.i. and probed with anti-fiber (top panel of FIG. 9) and anti-FKBP antibody ab2918 (Abcam; bottom panel of FIG. 9). FIGS. 10A-10B. Ribbon model of FRB-fiber knob-domain in complex with rapamycin/VHH-FKBP and VHH target. Ad5 knob trimer (PDB ID 1KNB) with FRB domain in complex with FKBP (PDB ID 1NSG) as a C-terminal fusion of VHH, binding its target (PDB ID 3EBA). FIG. 10A: Model from ‘top down’ view. FIG. 10B: Model from ‘side’ view, showing that the binding interface of the VHH is facing away from the virus particle if it is fused to the N-terminus of FKBP. FIG. 11. Immunofluorescence to detect fiber and CEAVHH-FKBP localization in infected 293 E4 cells. 293 E4 cells infected with either Ad-177 (CEAVHH-FKBP, FRB-fiber) or Ad-199 (CEAVHH-FKBP, wt fiber) and 500 nM rap or solvent only (EtOH) added 30 h p.i. Cells fixed at 36 h and stained with anti-fiber antibody 4D2 or anti-FBKP antibody ab2918 (Abcam). FIG. 12. FKBP fusion protein does not detectibly accumulate when controlled by 5′ IRES on fiber gene. 293 E4 cells infected with recombinant adenoviruses. Cells harvested, and soluble proteins probed for fiber and FKBP expression by immunoblot. Top panel: FRB-fiber accumulates during infection. Bottom panel: VHH-FKBP (˜32 kDa) is not detectible. FIG. 13. Representative IMAGEXPRESS™ images of rapamycin-induced EGFR-retargeted Ad5 infection of MDA MB 468. Ad-178 expressing a GFP-reporter was prepared in the presence or absence of 500 nM rapamycin by infection of 293 E4 cells, and supernatant was used to infect MDA MB 468 in culture. FIG. 13 left panel represents infections with undiluted viral supernatant; FIG. 13 right panel represents infections with 1/16 dilution of viral supernatant. FIG. 14. Representative IMAGEXPRESS™ images of rapamycin-induced EGFR-retargeted Ad5 infection of MDA MB 453. Ad-178 expressing a GFP-reporter was prepared in the presence or absence of 500 nM rapamycin by infection of 293 E4 cells, and supernatant was used to infect MDA MB 453 in culture. FIG. 14 left panel represents infections with undiluted viral supernatant; FIG. 14 right panel represents infections with ⅛ dilution of viral supernatant. FIG. 15. Representative IMAGEXPRESS™ images of rapamycin-induced EGFR-retargeted Ad5 infection of MDA MB 231. Ad-178 expressing a GFP-reporter was prepared in the presence or absence of 500 nM rapamycin by infection of 293 E4 cells, and supernatant was used to infect MDA MB 231 in culture. FIG. 15 left panel represents infections with undiluted viral supernatant; FIG. 15 right panel represents infections with ⅛ dilution of viral supernatant. FIG. 16. Representative IMAGEXPRESS™ images of rapamycin-induced EGFR-retargeted Ad5 infection of HS578T. Ad-178 expressing a GFP-reporter was prepared in the presence or absence of 500 nM rapamycin by infection of 293 E4 cells, and supernatant was used to infect HS578T in culture. FIG. 16 left panel represents infections with undiluted viral supernatant; FIG. 16 right panel represents infections with ¼ dilution of viral supernatant. FIG. 17. Representative IMAGEXPRESS™ images of rapamycin-induced EGFR-retargeted Ad5 infection of U87. Ad-178 expressing a GFP-reporter was prepared in the presence or absence of 500 nM rapamycin by infection of 293 E4 cells, and supernatant was used to infect U87 in culture. FIG. 17 left panel represents infections with undiluted viral supernatant; FIG. 17 right panel represents infections with ⅛ dilution of viral supernatant. FIG. 18. Infection of a panel of breast cancer cell lines by rapamycin-induced EGFR-retargeted adenovirus. Ad-178 expressing a GFP-reporter was prepared in the presence or absence of 500 nM rapamycin by infection of 293 E4 cells, and supernatant was diluted 50-fold used to infect cells in culture. % infected cells determined 24 h p.i. by IMAGEXPRESS™ analysis of GFP positive nuclei. Each pair of columns in the histogram shows infection of a breast cancer cell line with Ad-178 expressing a GFP-reporter prepared in the absence (left column) or in the presence (right column) of rapamycin. The histogram shows from left to right infection of MDA MB468 cells (90% without rapamycin; 96% plus rapamycin), MDA MB415 cells (69% without rapamycin; 55% plus rapamycin), MDA MB453 (16% without rapamycin; 73% plus rapamycin), MDA MB231 (16% without rapamycin; 78% plus rapamycin), BTS49 (37% without rapamycin; 74% plus rapamycin), and HS578 (0% without rapamycin; 28% plus rapamycin), respectively. FIG. 19. Infection of a panel of cancer cell lines by rapamycin-induced EGFR-retargeted adenovirus. An Ad-178 expressing a GFP-reporter was prepared in the presence or absence of 500 nM rapamycin by infection of 293 E4 cells, and supernatant was diluted 50-fold used to infect different cancer cells in culture. % infected cells determined 24 h p.i. by IMAGEXPRESS™ analysis of GFP positive nuclei. Each pair of columns in the histogram shows infection of a cancer cell line with Ad-178 expressing a GFP-reporter prepared in the absence (left column) or in the presence (right column) of rapamycin. The histogram shows from left to right infection of U2OS osteosarcoma cell line (52% without rapamycin; 24% plus rapamycin), H1299 lung carcinoma cell line (78% without rapamycin; 78% plus rapamycin), A549 lung carcinoma cell line (37% without rapamycin; 66% plus rapamycin), and U87 glioblastoma cell line (11% without rapamycin; 50% plus rapamycin), respectively. FIG. 20. Rapamycin concentration optimization for EGFR-retargeting with Ad-178 to infect MDA MB 453. Ad-178 expressing a GFP-reporter was prepared in the presence or absence of various rapamycin concentration during infection of 293 E4 cells, and supernatant was used to infect MDA MB 453 cells in culture. % infected cells determined 24 h p.i. by FACS analysis of GFP positive cells. Percent GFP positive cells were 54.13% at 0 nM rap, 58.96% at 10 nM rap, 68.23% at 25 nM rap, 76.75% at 50 nM rap, 70.73% at 100 nM rap, and 71.76% at 500 nM rap, respectively. FIGS. 21A-21C. EGFR-dependent infection of Ad-178. Infection quantified by FACS, counting cells expressing adenovirus-delivered GFP gene, >30 k events each. FIG. 21A: Adenovirus with genetically encoded FRB domain insertion in fiber, and EGFRVHH-FKBP fusion protein prepared in the presence or absence of 50 nM rapamycin and used to infect MDA MB 453 cells with or without shRNA-mediated EGFR knockdown. FIG. 21B: Adenovirus with only genetically encoded FRB domain insertion in fiber, prepared in the presence or absence of 50 nM rapamycin and used to infect MDA MB 453 cells with or without shRNA-mediated EGFR knockdown. FIG. 21C: Verification of stable, shRNA-mediated EGFR knockdown in MDA MB 453 cells by protein immunoblot. FIG. 22. Rapamycin induced EGFR-retargeting of Ad-178 enhances cell killing of HS578T. CPE assay using WST-1 reagent for % metabolic activity vs. uninfected cells 9 days post infection. 50 nM rapamycin added to cells at time points indicated in figure legend. Data points shown are averages of samples in triplicate. FIGS. 23A-23H. Targeted infection of cell lines by control Ad, or by Ad encoding ligands fused to FKBP. The viruses encoded either the CEACAM single domain antibody fragment fused to FKBP (CEAVHH-FKBP), the EGFR single domain antibody fragment fused to FKBP (EGFRVHH-FKBP), or domain 4 of protective antigen fused to FKBP (D4-FKBP). The adenoviruses were prepared in the presence or absence of 100 nM rapamycin by infection of 293 E4 cells, and supernatant was used to infect the targeted cell lines: FIG. 23A shows infection of MDA MB231. FIG. 23B shows infection of MDA MB453. FIG. 23C shows infection of MDA MB468. FIG. 23D shows infection of HS578T. FIG. 23E shows infection of BT474. FIG. 23F shows infection of MCF7. FIG. 23G shows infection of CHO K1. FIG. 23H shows infection of CHO R1.1. Numbers on top of the columns represent % of GFP (i.e. infected) cells. FIGS. 24A-24D. Targeted infection of cell lines using AP21967 and mutant FRB domain-containing Ad. The adenoviruses were prepared in the presence or absence of 100 nM rapamycin or 100 nM AP21967 by infection of 293 E4 cells, and supernatant was used to infect the targeted cell lines. FIG. 24A shows infection of MDA MB453. FIG. 24B shows infection of MDA MB468. FIG. 24C shows infection of MDA HS578T. FIG. 24D shows infection of MDA MCF7. Numbers on top of the columns represent % of GFP (i.e. infected) cells. FIG. 25. Targeted infection of cell lines using AP21967 and mutant FRB domain-containing Ad. The EGFR-targeted adenovirus containing the FRB-mutant in the capsid was prepared with a range of concentration of AP21967 or 100 nM rapamycin were prepared by infection of 293 E4 cells, and supernatant was used to infect the MDA MB 453. Numbers on top of the columns represent % of GFP (i.e. infected) cells. FIG. 26. Targeted infection of cell lines ectopically expressed ligand-FKBP fusion, EGFRVHH-FKBP. The ligand-FKBP fusion (or GFP as a control) was transiently expressed in 293 E4 cells, and infected with Ad-122. The virus was prepared in the presence of absence of 100 nM rapamycin, and the supernatant was used to infect the MDA MB 231. Numbers on top of the columns represent % of GFP (i.e. infected) cells. FIGS. 27A-27C. Targeted infection of cell lines by control Ad, or by Ad encoding ligands fused to FKBP. The adenoviruses were prepared in the presence or absence of 100 nM rapamycin by infection of 293 E4 cells, and supernatant was used to infect the targeted cell lines. FIG. 27A upper panel shows infection of MDA MB231. FIG. 27A middle panel shows infection of MDA MB453. FIG. 27A lower panel shows infection of MDA MB468. FIG. 27B upper panel shows infection of HS578T. FIG. 27B middle panel shows infection of BT474. FIG. 27B lower panel shows infection of MCF7. FIG. 27C upper panel shows infection of CHO K1. FIG. 27C lower panel shows infection of CHO R1.1. Numbers on top of the columns represent % of GFP (i.e. infected) cells. DETAILED DESCRIPTION I. Definitions “Nucleic acid” refers to deoxyribonucleotides or ribonucleotides and polymers thereof in either single- or double-stranded form, and complements thereof. The term encompasses nucleic acids containing known nucleotide analogs or modified backbone residues or linkages, which are synthetic, naturally occurring, and non-naturally occurring, which have similar binding properties as the reference nucleic acid, and which are metabolized in a manner similar to the reference nucleotides. Examples of such analogs include, without limitation, phosphorothioates, phosphoramidates, methyl phosphonates, chiral-methyl phosphonates, 2-O-methyl ribonucleotides, peptide-nucleic acids (PNAs). The terms “Ad5” and “Adenoviral genome” as used herein refer to the nucleic sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 108. Unless otherwise indicated, a particular nucleic acid sequence also implicitly encompasses conservatively modified variants thereof (e.g., degenerate codon substitutions) and complementary sequences, as well as the sequence explicitly indicated. Specifically, degenerate codon substitutions may be achieved by generating sequences in which the third position of one or more selected (or all) codons is substituted with mixed-base and/or deoxyinosine residues (Batzer et al., Nucleic Acid Res. 19:5081 (1991); Ohtsuka et al., J. Biol. Chem. 260:2605-2608 (1985); Rossolini et al., Mol. Cell. Probes 8:91-98 (1994)). The term nucleic acid is used interchangeably with gene, cDNA, mRNA, oligonucleotide, and polynucleotide. A particular nucleic acid sequence also implicitly encompasses “splice variants.” Similarly, a particular protein encoded by a nucleic acid implicitly encompasses any protein encoded by a splice variant of that nucleic acid. “Splice variants,” as the name suggests, are products of alternative splicing of a gene. After transcription, an initial nucleic acid transcript may be spliced such that different (alternate) nucleic acid splice products encode different polypeptides. Mechanisms for the production of splice variants vary, but include alternate splicing of exons. Alternate polypeptides derived from the same nucleic acid by read-through transcription are also encompassed by this definition. Any products of a splicing reaction, including recombinant forms of the splice products, are included in this definition. An example of potassium channel splice variants is discussed in Leicher, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 273(52):35095-35101 (1998). Construction of suitable vectors containing the desired therapeutic gene coding and control sequences may employ standard ligation and restriction techniques, which are well understood in the art (see Maniatis et al., in Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York (1982)). Isolated plasmids, DNA sequences, or synthesized oligonucleotides may be cleaved, tailored, and re-ligated in the form desired. Nucleic acid is “operably linked” when it is placed into a functional relationship with another nucleic acid sequence. For example, DNA for a presequence or secretory leader is operably linked to DNA for a polypeptide if it is expressed as a preprotein that participates in the secretion of the polypeptide; a promoter or enhancer is operably linked to a coding sequence if it affects the transcription of the sequence; or a ribosome binding site is operably linked to a coding sequence if it is positioned so as to facilitate translation. Generally, “operably linked” means that the DNA sequences being linked are near each other, and, in the case of a secretory leader, contiguous and in reading phase. However, enhancers do not have to be contiguous. Linking is accomplished by ligation at convenient restriction sites. If such sites do not exist, the synthetic oligonucleotide adaptors or linkers are used in accordance with conventional practice. The terms “identical” or percent “identity,” in the context of two or more nucleic acids or polypeptide sequences, refer to two or more sequences or subsequences that are the same or have a specified percentage of amino acid residues or nucleotides that are the same (i.e., about 60% identity, preferably 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or higher identity over a specified region, when compared and aligned for maximum correspondence over a comparison window or designated region) as measured using a BLAST or BLAST 2.0 sequence comparison algorithms with default parameters described below, or by manual alignment and visual inspection (see, e.g., NCBI web site or the like). Such sequences are then said to be “substantially identical.” This definition also refers to, or may be applied to, the compliment of a test sequence. The definition also includes sequences that have deletions and/or additions, as well as those that have substitutions. As described below, the preferred algorithms can account for gaps and the like. Preferably, identity exists over a region that is at least about 25 amino acids or nucleotides in length, or more preferably over a region that is 50-100 amino acids or nucleotides in length. For sequence comparison, typically one sequence acts as a reference sequence, to which test sequences are compared. When using a sequence comparison algorithm, test and reference sequences are entered into a computer, subsequence coordinates are designated, if necessary, and sequence algorithm program parameters are designated. Preferably, default program parameters can be used, or alternative parameters can be designated. The sequence comparison algorithm then calculates the percent sequence identities for the test sequences relative to the reference sequence, based on the program parameters. A “comparison window”, as used herein, includes reference to a segment of any one of the number of contiguous positions selected from the group consisting of from 20 to 600, usually about 50 to about 200, more usually about 100 to about 150 in which a sequence may be compared to a reference sequence of the same number of contiguous positions after the two sequences are optimally aligned. Methods of alignment of sequences for comparison are well-known in the art. Optimal alignment of sequences for comparison can be conducted, e.g., by the local homology algorithm of Smith & Waterman, Adv. Appl. Math. 2:482 (1981), by the homology alignment algorithm of Needleman & Wunsch, J. Mol. Biol. 48:443 (1970), by the search for similarity method of Pearson & Lipman, Proc. Nat'l. Acad. Sci. USA 85:2444 (1988), by computerized implementations of these algorithms (GAP, BESTFIT, FASTA, and TFASTA in the Wisconsin Genetics Software Package, Genetics Computer Group, 575 Science Dr., Madison, Wis.), or by manual alignment and visual inspection (see, e.g., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (Ausubel et al., eds. 1995 supplement)). A preferred example of algorithm that is suitable for determining percent sequence identity and sequence similarity are the BLAST and BLAST 2.0 algorithms, which are described in Altschul et al., Nuc. Acids Res. 25:3389-3402 (1977) and Altschul et al., J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410 (1990), respectively. BLAST and BLAST 2.0 are used, with the parameters described herein, to determine percent sequence identity for the nucleic acids and proteins of the invention. Software for performing BLAST analyses is publicly available through the National Center for Biotechnology Information, as known in the art. This algorithm involves first identifying high scoring sequence pairs (HSPs) by identifying short words of length W in the query sequence, which either match or satisfy some positive-valued threshold score T when aligned with a word of the same length in a database sequence. T is referred to as the neighborhood word score threshold (Altschul et al., supra). These initial neighborhood word hits act as seeds for initiating searches to find longer HSPs containing them. The word hits are extended in both directions along each sequence for as far as the cumulative alignment score can be increased. Cumulative scores are calculated using, for nucleotide sequences, the parameters M (reward score for a pair of matching residues; always >0) and N (penalty score for mismatching residues; always <0). For amino acid sequences, a scoring matrix is used to calculate the cumulative score. Extension of the word hits in each direction are halted when: the cumulative alignment score falls off by the quantity X from its maximum achieved value; the cumulative score goes to zero or below, due to the accumulation of one or more negative-scoring residue alignments; or the end of either sequence is reached. The BLAST algorithm parameters W, T, and X determine the sensitivity and speed of the alignment. The BLASTN program (for nucleotide sequences) uses as defaults a wordlength (W) of 11, an expectation (E) of 10, M=5, N=−4 and a comparison of both strands. For amino acid sequences, the BLASTP program uses as defaults a wordlength of 3, and expectation (E) of 10, and the BLOSUM62 scoring matrix (see Henikoff & Henikoff, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:10915 (1989)) alignments (B) of 50, expectation (E) of 10, M=5, N=−4, and a comparison of both strands. The terms “polypeptide,” “peptide” and “protein” are used interchangeably herein to refer to a polymer of amino acid residues. The terms apply to amino acid polymers in which one or more amino acid residue is an artificial chemical mimetic of a corresponding naturally occurring amino acid, as well as to naturally occurring amino acid polymers and non-naturally occurring amino acid polymer. The term “amino acid” refers to naturally occurring and synthetic amino acids, as well as amino acid analogs and amino acid mimetics that function in a manner similar to the naturally occurring amino acids. Naturally occurring amino acids are those encoded by the genetic code, as well as those amino acids that are later modified, e.g., hydroxyproline, γ-carboxyglutamate, and O-phosphoserine. Amino acid analogs refers to compounds that have the same basic chemical structure as a naturally occurring amino acid, i.e., an a carbon that is bound to a hydrogen, a carboxyl group, an amino group, and an R group, e.g., homoserine, norleucine, methionine sulfoxide, methionine methyl sulfonium. Such analogs have modified R groups (e.g., norleucine) or modified peptide backbones, but retain the same basic chemical structure as a naturally occurring amino acid. Amino acid mimetics refers to chemical compounds that have a structure that is different from the general chemical structure of an amino acid, but that functions in a manner similar to a naturally occurring amino acid. Amino acids may be referred to herein by either their commonly known three letter symbols or by the one-letter symbols recommended by the IUPAC-IUB Biochemical Nomenclature Commission. Nucleotides, likewise, may be referred to by their commonly accepted single-letter codes. “Conservatively modified variants” applies to both amino acid and nucleic acid sequences. With respect to particular nucleic acid sequences, conservatively modified variants refers to those nucleic acids which encode identical or essentially identical amino acid sequences, or where the nucleic acid does not encode an amino acid sequence, to essentially identical sequences. Because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, a large number of functionally identical nucleic acids encode any given protein. For instance, the codons GCA, GCC, GCG and GCU all encode the amino acid alanine. Thus, at every position where an alanine is specified by a codon, the codon can be altered to any of the corresponding codons described without altering the encoded polypeptide. Such nucleic acid variations are “silent variations,” which are one species of conservatively modified variations. Every nucleic acid sequence herein which encodes a polypeptide also describes every possible silent variation of the nucleic acid. One of skill will recognize that each codon in a nucleic acid (except AUG, which is ordinarily the only codon for methionine, and TGG, which is ordinarily the only codon for tryptophan) can be modified to yield a functionally identical molecule. Accordingly, each silent variation of a nucleic acid which encodes a polypeptide is implicit in each described sequence with respect to the expression product, but not with respect to actual probe sequences. As to amino acid sequences, one of skill will recognize that individual substitutions, deletions or additions to a nucleic acid, peptide, polypeptide, or protein sequence which alters, adds or deletes a single amino acid or a small percentage of amino acids in the encoded sequence is a “conservatively modified variant” where the alteration results in the substitution of an amino acid with a chemically similar amino acid. Conservative substitution tables providing functionally similar amino acids are well known in the art. Such conservatively modified variants are in addition to and do not exclude polymorphic variants, interspecies homologs, and alleles of the invention. The following eight groups each contain amino acids that are conservative substitutions for one another: 1) Alanine (A), Glycine (G); 2) Aspartic acid (D), Glutamic acid (E); 3) Asparagine (N), Glutamine (Q); 4) Arginine (R), Lysine (K); 5) Isoleucine (I), Leucine (L), Methionine (M), Valine (V); 6) Phenylalanine (F), Tyrosine (Y), Tryptophan (W); 7) Serine (S), Threonine (T); and 8) Cysteine (C), Methionine (M) (see, e.g., Creighton, Proteins (1984)). The term “recombinant” when used with reference, e.g., to a cell, virus, nucleic acid, protein, or vector, indicates that the cell, virus, nucleic acid, protein or vector, has been modified by the introduction of a heterologous nucleic acid or protein or the alteration of a native nucleic acid or protein, or that the cell is derived from a cell so modified. Thus, for example, recombinant cells express genes that are not found within the native (non-recombinant) form of the cell or express native genes that are otherwise abnormally expressed, under expressed or not expressed at all. The phrase “stringent hybridization conditions” refers to conditions under which a probe will hybridize to its target subsequence, typically in a complex mixture of nucleic acids, but to no other sequences. Stringent conditions are sequence-dependent and will be different in different circumstances. Longer sequences hybridize specifically at higher temperatures. An extensive guide to the hybridization of nucleic acids is found in Tijssen, Techniques in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology—Hybridization with Nucleic Probes, “Overview of principles of hybridization and the strategy of nucleic acid assays” (1993). Generally, stringent conditions are selected to be about 5-10° C. lower than the thermal melting point (Tm) for the specific sequence at a defined ionic strength pH. The Tm is the temperature (under defined ionic strength, pH, and nucleic concentration) at which 50% of the probes complementary to the target hybridize to the target sequence at equilibrium (as the target sequences are present in excess, at Tm, 50% of the probes are occupied at equilibrium). Stringent conditions may also be achieved with the addition of destabilizing agents such as formamide. For selective or specific hybridization, a positive signal is at least two times background, preferably 10 times background hybridization. Exemplary stringent hybridization conditions can be as following: 50% formamide, 5×SSC, and 1% SDS, incubating at 42° C., or, 5×SSC, 1% SDS, incubating at 65° C., with wash in 0.2×SSC, and 0.1% SDS at 65° C. Nucleic acids that do not hybridize to each other under stringent conditions are still substantially identical if the polypeptides which they encode are substantially identical. This occurs, for example, when a copy of a nucleic acid is created using the maximum codon degeneracy permitted by the genetic code. In such cases, the nucleic acids typically hybridize under moderately stringent hybridization conditions. Exemplary “moderately stringent hybridization conditions” include a hybridization in a buffer of 40% formamide, 1 M NaCl, 1% SDS at 37° C., and a wash in 1×SSC at 45° C. A positive hybridization is at least twice background. Those of ordinary skill will readily recognize that alternative hybridization and wash conditions can be utilized to provide conditions of similar stringency. Additional guidelines for determining hybridization parameters are provided in numerous reference, e.g., and Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, ed. Ausubel, et al., John Wiley & Sons. For PCR, a temperature of about 36° C. is typical for low stringency amplification, although annealing temperatures may vary between about 32° C. and 48° C. depending on primer length. For high stringency PCR amplification, a temperature of about 62° C. is typical, although high stringency annealing temperatures can range from about 50° C. to about 65° C., depending on the primer length and specificity. Typical cycle conditions for both high and low stringency amplifications include a denaturation phase of 90° C.-95° C. for 30 sec −2 min., an annealing phase lasting 30 sec. −2 min., and an extension phase of about 72° C. for 1-2 min. Protocols and guidelines for low and high stringency amplification reactions are provided, e.g., in Innis et al. (1990) PCR Protocols, A Guide to Methods and Applications, Academic Press, Inc. N.Y.). The terms “transfection”, “transduction”, “transfecting” or “transducing” can be used interchangeably and are defined as a process of introducing a nucleic acid molecule or a protein to a cell. Nucleic acids are introduced to a cell using non-viral or viral-based methods. The nucleic acid molecule can be a sequence encoding complete proteins or functional portions thereof. Typically, a nucleic acid vector, comprising the elements necessary for protein expression (e.g., a promoter, transcription start site, etc.). Non-viral methods of transfection include any appropriate method that does not use viral DNA or viral particles as a delivery system to introduce the nucleic acid molecule into the cell. Exemplary non-viral transfection methods include calcium phosphate transfection, liposomal transfection, nucleofection, sonoporation, transfection through heat shock, magnetifection and electroporation. For viral-based methods, any useful viral vector can be used in the methods described herein. Examples of viral vectors include, but are not limited to retroviral, adenoviral, lentiviral and adeno-associated viral vectors. In some aspects, the nucleic acid molecules are introduced into a cell using a adenoviral vector following standard procedures well known in the art. The terms “transfection” or “transduction” also refer to introducing proteins into a cell from the external environment. Typically, transduction or transfection of a protein relies on attachment of a peptide or protein capable of crossing the cell membrane to the protein of interest. See, e.g., Ford et al. (2001) Gene Therapy 8:1-4 and Prochiantz (2007) Nat. Methods 4:119-20. Expression of a transfected gene can occur transiently or stably in a host cell. During “transient expression” the transfected nucleic acid is not integrated into the host cell genome, and is not transferred to the daughter cell during cell division. Since its expression is restricted to the transfected cell, expression of the gene is lost over time. In contrast, stable expression of a transfected gene can occur when the gene is co-transfected with another gene that confers a selection advantage to the transfected cell. Such a selection advantage may be a resistance towards a certain toxin that is presented to the cell. Expression of a transfected gene can further be accomplished by transposon-mediated insertion into to the host genome. During transposon-mediated insertion, the gene is positioned in a predictable manner between two transposon linker sequences that allow insertion into the host genome as well as subsequent excision. “FKBP” or an “FKBP protein or polypeptide” as referred to herein includes any of the naturally-occurring forms of the FKBP protein, or variants thereof that maintain FKBP protein activity (e.g. within at least 50%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% activity compared to FKBP). In some embodiments, variants have at least 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% amino acid sequence identity across the whole sequence or a portion of the sequence (e.g. a 50, 100, 150 or 200 continuous amino acid portion) compared to a naturally occurring FKBP protein as set forth in SEQ ID NO:66. “FRB” or an “FRB protein or polypeptide” as referred to herein includes any of the naturally-occurring forms of the FRB protein, or variants thereof that maintain FRB protein activity (e.g. within at least 50%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% activity compared to FRB). In some embodiments, variants have at least 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or 100% amino acid sequence identity across the whole sequence or a portion of the sequence (e.g. a 50, 100, 150 or 200 continuous amino acid portion) compared to a naturally occurring FRB protein as set forth in SEQ ID NO:69. “EGFR” refers to the epidermal growth factor receptor corresponding to the amino acid sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO:21. “VHH” refers to a single domain antibody consisting of a single monomeric variable antibody domain that is capable of selectively binding to a specific antigen (e.g. EGFR). VHH single-domain antibodies may be engineered from heavy-chain antibodies found in camelids. The terms VHH or VHH are used interchangeably throughout and are used according to their common meaning in the art. An “EGFR VHH” or “a EGFR VHH protein” as provided herein refers to a VHH single domain antibody specifically binding to EGFR. In some embodiments, the EGFR VHH has the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 4. In further embodiments, EGFR VHH is operably linked to FKBP to form a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. In some further embodiments, the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate has the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 6. “CEA” or CEACAM5” as provided herein refers to carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 5 also known in the art as CD66.“CEA VHH” or “a CEA VHH protein” as provided herein refers to a VHH single domain antibody specifically binding to CEA. In some embodiments, the CEA VHH has the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1. In further embodiments, the CEA VHH is operably linked to FKBP to form a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. In some further embodiments, the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate has the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 3. A “protective antigen domain 4 (D4) protein” provided herein refers to the Bacillus anthracis protective antigen domain 4 as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 94. In some embodiments, D4 is operably linked to FKBP to form a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. In some further embodiments, the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate has the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 9. A “control” sample or value refers to a sample that serves as a reference, usually a known reference, for comparison to a test sample. For example, a test sample can be taken from a test condition, e.g., in the presence of a test compound, and compared to samples from known conditions, e.g., in the absence of the test compound (negative control), or in the presence of a known compound (positive control). A control can also represent an average value gathered from a number of tests or results. One of skill in the art will recognize that controls can be designed for assessment of any number of parameters. For example, a control can be devised to compare therapeutic benefit based on pharmacological data (e.g., half-life) or therapeutic measures (e.g., comparison of side effects). One of skill in the art will understand which controls are valuable in a given situation and be able to analyze data based on comparisons to control values. Controls are also valuable for determining the significance of data. For example, if values for a given parameter are widely variant in controls, variation in test samples will not be considered as significant. As used herein, the term “cancer” refers to all types of cancer, neoplasm, or malignant tumors found in mammals, including leukemia, carcinomas and sarcomas. Exemplary cancers include cancer of the brain, breast, cervix, colon, head & neck, liver, kidney, lung, non-small cell lung, melanoma, mesothelioma, ovary, sarcoma, stomach, uterus and Medulloblastoma. Additional examples include, Hodgkin's Disease, Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma, multiple myeloma, neuroblastoma, ovarian cancer, rhabdomyosarcoma, primary thrombocytosis, primary macroglobulinemia, primary brain tumors, cancer, malignant pancreatic insulanoma, malignant carcinoid, urinary bladder cancer, premalignant skin lesions, testicular cancer, lymphomas, thyroid cancer, neuroblastoma, esophageal cancer, genitourinary tract cancer, malignant hypercalcemia, endometrial cancer, adrenal cortical cancer, neoplasms of the endocrine and exocrine pancreas, and prostate cancer. The term “leukemia” refers broadly to progressive, malignant diseases of the blood-forming organs and is generally characterized by a distorted proliferation and development of leukocytes and their precursors in the blood and bone marrow. Leukemia is generally clinically classified on the basis of (1) the duration and character of the disease-acute or chronic; (2) the type of cell involved; myeloid (myelogenous), lymphoid (lymphogenous), or monocytic; and (3) the increase or non-increase in the number abnormal cells in the blood-leukemic or aleukemic (subleukemic). The P388 leukemia model is widely accepted as being predictive of in vivo anti-leukemic activity. It is believed that a compound that tests positive in the P388 assay will generally exhibit some level of anti-leukemic activity in vivo regardless of the type of leukemia being treated. Accordingly, the present invention includes a method of treating leukemia, and, preferably, a method of treating acute nonlymphocytic leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, acute granulocytic leukemia, chronic granulocytic leukemia, acute promyelocytic leukemia, adult T-cell leukemia, aleukemic leukemia, a leukocythemic leukemia, basophylic leukemia, blast cell leukemia, bovine leukemia, chronic myelocytic leukemia, leukemia cutis, embryonal leukemia, eosinophilic leukemia, Gross' leukemia, hairy-cell leukemia, hemoblastic leukemia, hemocytoblastic leukemia, histiocytic leukemia, stem cell leukemia, acute monocytic leukemia, leukopenic leukemia, lymphatic leukemia, lymphoblastic leukemia, lymphocytic leukemia, lymphogenous leukemia, lymphoid leukemia, lymphosarcoma cell leukemia, mast cell leukemia, megakaryocytic leukemia, micromyeloblastic leukemia, monocytic leukemia, myeloblastic leukemia, myelocytic leukemia, myeloid granulocytic leukemia, myelomonocytic leukemia, Naegeli leukemia, plasma cell leukemia, multiple myeloma, plasmacytic leukemia, promyelocytic leukemia, Rieder cell leukemia, Schilling's leukemia, stem cell leukemia, subleukemic leukemia, and undifferentiated cell leukemia. The term “sarcoma” generally refers to a tumor which is made up of a substance like the embryonic connective tissue and is generally composed of closely packed cells embedded in a fibrillar or homogeneous substance. Sarcomas which can be treated with a combination of antineoplastic thiol-binding mitochondrial oxidant and an anticancer agent include a chondrosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, lymphosarcoma, melanosarcoma, myxosarcoma, osteosarcoma, Abemethy's sarcoma, adipose sarcoma, liposarcoma, alveolar soft part sarcoma, ameloblastic sarcoma, botryoid sarcoma, chloroma sarcoma, chorio carcinoma, embryonal sarcoma, Wilms' tumor sarcoma, endometrial sarcoma, stromal sarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma, fascial sarcoma, fibroblastic sarcoma, giant cell sarcoma, granulocytic sarcoma, Hodgkin's sarcoma, idiopathic multiple pigmented hemorrhagic sarcoma, immunoblastic sarcoma of B cells, lymphoma, immunoblastic sarcoma of T-cells, Jensen's sarcoma, Kaposi's sarcoma, Kupffer cell sarcoma, angiosarcoma, leukosarcoma, malignant mesenchymoma sarcoma, parosteal sarcoma, reticulocytic sarcoma, Rous sarcoma, serocystic sarcoma, synovial sarcoma, and telangiectaltic sarcoma. The term “melanoma” is taken to mean a tumor arising from the melanocytic system of the skin and other organs. Melanomas which can be treated with a combination of antineoplastic thiol-binding mitochondrial oxidant and an anticancer agent include, for example, acral-lentiginous melanoma, amelanotic melanoma, benign juvenile melanoma, Cloudman's melanoma, S91 melanoma, Harding-Passey melanoma, juvenile melanoma, lentigo maligna melanoma, malignant melanoma, nodular melanoma, subungal melanoma, and superficial spreading melanoma. The term “carcinoma” refers to a malignant new growth made up of epithelial cells tending to infiltrate the surrounding tissues and give rise to metastases. Exemplary carcinomas which can be treated with a combination of antineoplastic thiol-binding mitochondrial oxidant and an anticancer agent include, for example, acinar carcinoma, acinous carcinoma, adenocystic carcinoma, adenoid cystic carcinoma, carcinoma adenomatosum, carcinoma of adrenal cortex, alveolar carcinoma, alveolar cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, carcinoma basocellulare, basaloid carcinoma, basosquamous cell carcinoma, bronchioalveolar carcinoma, bronchiolar carcinoma, bronchogenic carcinoma, cerebriform carcinoma, cholangiocellular carcinoma, chorionic carcinoma, colloid carcinoma, comedo carcinoma, corpus carcinoma, cribriform carcinoma, carcinoma en cuirasse, carcinoma cutaneum, cylindrical carcinoma, cylindrical cell carcinoma, duct carcinoma, carcinoma durum, embryonal carcinoma, encephaloid carcinoma, epiermoid carcinoma, carcinoma epitheliale adenoides, exophytic carcinoma, carcinoma ex ulcere, carcinoma fibrosum, gelatiniforni carcinoma, gelatinous carcinoma, giant cell carcinoma, carcinoma gigantocellulare, glandular carcinoma, granulosa cell carcinoma, hair-matrix carcinoma, hematoid carcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, Hurthle cell carcinoma, hyaline carcinoma, hypemephroid carcinoma, infantile embryonal carcinoma, carcinoma in situ, intraepidermal carcinoma, intraepithelial carcinoma, Krompecher's carcinoma, Kulchitzky-cell carcinoma, large-cell carcinoma, lenticular carcinoma, carcinoma lenticulare, lipomatous carcinoma, lymphoepithelial carcinoma, carcinoma medullare, medullary carcinoma, melanotic carcinoma, carcinoma molle, mucinous carcinoma, carcinoma muciparum, carcinoma mucocellulare, mucoepidermoid carcinoma, carcinoma mucosum, mucous carcinoma, carcinoma myxomatodes, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, oat cell carcinoma, carcinoma ossificans, osteoid carcinoma, papillary carcinoma, periportal carcinoma, preinvasive carcinoma, prickle cell carcinoma, pultaceous carcinoma, renal cell carcinoma of kidney, reserve cell carcinoma, carcinoma sarcomatodes, schneiderian carcinoma, scirrhous carcinoma, carcinoma scroti, signet-ring cell carcinoma, carcinoma simplex, small-cell carcinoma, solanoid carcinoma, spheroidal cell carcinoma, spindle cell carcinoma, carcinoma spongiosum, squamous carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, string carcinoma, carcinoma telangiectaticum, carcinoma telangiectodes, transitional cell carcinoma, carcinoma tuberosum, tuberous carcinoma, verrucous carcinoma, and carcinoma villosum. By “therapeutically effective dose or amount” herein is meant a dose that produces effects for which it is administered. The exact dose and formulation will depend on the purpose of the treatment, and will be ascertainable by one skilled in the art using known techniques (see, e.g., Lieberman, Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms (vols. 1-3, 1992); Lloyd, The Art, Science and Technology of Pharmaceutical Compounding (1999); Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, 20th Edition, Gennaro, Editor (2003), and Pickar, Dosage Calculations (1999)). The term “pharmaceutically acceptable salts” or “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” is meant to include salts of the active compounds which are prepared with relatively nontoxic acids or bases, depending on the particular substituents found on the compounds described herein. When compounds of the present invention contain relatively acidic functionalities, base addition salts can be obtained by contacting the neutral form of such compounds with a sufficient amount of the desired base, either neat or in a suitable inert solvent. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salts include sodium, potassium, calcium, ammonium, organic amino, or magnesium salt, or a similar salt. When compounds of the present invention contain relatively basic functionalities, acid addition salts can be obtained by contacting the neutral form of such compounds with a sufficient amount of the desired acid, either neat or in a suitable inert solvent. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts include those derived from inorganic acids like hydrochloric, hydrobromic, nitric, carbonic, monohydrogencarbonic, phosphoric, monohydrogenphosphoric, dihydrogenphosphoric, sulfuric, monohydrogensulfuric, hydriodic, or phosphorous acids and the like, as well as the salts derived from relatively nontoxic organic acids like acetic, propionic, isobutyric, maleic, malonic, benzoic, succinic, suberic, fumaric, lactic, mandelic, phthalic, benzenesulfonic, p-tolylsulfonic, citric, tartaric, methanesulfonic, and the like. Also included are salts of amino acids such as arginate and the like, and salts of organic acids like glucuronic or galactunoric acids and the like (see, e.g., Berge et al., Journal of Pharmaceutical Science 66:1-19 (1977)). Certain specific compounds of the present invention contain both basic and acidic functionalities that allow the compounds to be converted into either base or acid addition salts. Other pharmaceutically acceptable carriers known to those of skill in the art are suitable for the present invention. A “subject,” “individual,” or “patient,” is used interchangeably herein, which refers to a vertebrate, preferably a mammal, more preferably a human. Mammals include, but are not limited to, murine, simian, human, farm animals, sport animals, and pets. Tissues, cells and their progeny of a biological entity obtained in vitro or cultured in vitro are also encompassed. II. Compositions Provided herein, inter alia, are adenoviral compositions useful for infecting a broad variety of different cell types (e.g. cancer cells). For example, the compositions provided herein may be used to retarget adenovirus infection to receptors upregulated on tumor cells (e.g. EGFR, CEA, ErbB). Using the compositions provided herein including embodiments thereof, the heterogeneity of tumors can be overcome by designing recombinant adenoviruses that are able to infect tumor cells through more than one receptor. The viral compositions provided herein express polypeptide binding pairs (as listed in Table 2, e.g. FKBP and FRB) capable of dimerizing in the presence of a chemical dimerizing agent (e.g. rapamycin) and thereby forming a ternary complex. The ternary complex enables the virus to bind to a specific cellular surface receptor. The components of the ternary complex may completely or partially be encoded by the adenoviral genome and are therefore not lost during viral replication providing for the ability of the virus of subsequent re-infection. Thus, in one aspect, a recombinant nucleic acid encoding a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are provided. The capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate includes a dimerizing agent binder (e.g. FRB) operably linked to a viral capsid protein (e.g. fiber). A dimerizing agent binder as provided herein is an agent capable of binding a dimerizing agent. A dimerizing agent binder includes without limitation a protein, a compound or a small molecule. In some embodiments, the dimerizing agent binder is a FRB protein. Non limiting examples of dimerizing agent binders are set forth in Table 2 provided herein. Binding of the dimerizing agent binder to the dimerizing agent may occur through non-covalent intermolecular interactions such as hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic and Van der Waals forces. The capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate includes a viral capsid protein. The term capsid refers to any component (e.g. capsid proteins or polypeptides) forming the shell of a virus, wherein the capsid can include one or more of these components. The capsid includes any appropriate structural components of the viral shell. In some embodiments, the capsid protein is an adenoviral capsid protein. Non-limiting examples of capsid proteins are L3 II (hexon) (e.g. encoding major structural proteins that form the triangular faces of the capsid), L1 Ma (e.g. encoding minor structural proteins that help to stabilize the capsid), L2 III (penton) (e.g. encoding major structural proteins that form the vertex of the capsid where the fiber protrudes), L2 pVII (e.g. encoding core structural proteins with homology to histone H3 and associate with viral DNA in the capsid), and L5 IV (Fiber) (e.g. encoding major structural proteins that extend from the penton base and are responsible for receptor binding). In some embodiments, the adenoviral capsid protein is a fiber protein. Upon expression in a cell the dimerizing agent binder and the viral capsid protein form a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate, which is capable of binding to a dimerizing agent (e.g. rapamycin) through the dimerizing agent binder (e.g. FRB) and is incorporated into the viral capsid by the capsid protein (e.g. fiber). Thus, in some embodiments, the capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate includes a capsid protein and a dimerizing agent binder. In other embodiments, the capsid protein is operably linked to the dimerizing agent binder. Through binding to the dimerizing agent the capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate may connect to the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. The ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate includes a cell surface receptor-specific ligand (e.g. EGFR VHH) operably linked to a second dimerizing agent binder (e.g. FKBP). A ligand as provided herein is a protein with the capability of binding a molecule expressed on the surface of a cell. Non-limiting examples of ligands and corresponding cellular receptors are set forth in Table 3. In some embodiments, the ligand is a EGFR VHH protein. In a further embodiment, the dimerizing agent binder is FKBP. In some embodiments, the ligand is a CEA VHH protein. In a further embodiment, the dimerizing agent binder is FKBP. In some embodiments, the ligand is a protective antigen domain 4 (D4) protein. In a further embodiment, the dimerizing agent binder is FKBP. In some embodiments, the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate includes a ligand and a dimerizing agent binder. In some embodiments, the ligand is operably linked to the dimerizing agent binder. In some embodiments, the ligand is an antibody. In some further embodiments, the antibody is a single domain antibody. In some embodiments, a plurality of ligands is operably linked to the dimerizing agent binder, wherein the plurality of ligands are individually different. The plurality of ligands may be operably linked to one or both termini of the dimerizing agent binder. In some embodiments, the plurality of ligands is operably linked in tandem to one or both termini of the dimerizing agent binder. In some embodiments, the dimerizing agent binder is an immunophilin protein. In some further embodiments, the immunophilin protein is a FKBP protein. In some further embodiments, the FKBP protein is a human FKBP protein. In some further embodiments, the human FKBP protein is FKBP12. In other embodiments, the ligand is capable of binding a cell. In other embodiments, the cell is a tumor cell. Provided herein, inter alia, are recombinant adenoviruses expressing the recombinant nucleic acid described above. Thus, in another aspect, a recombinant adenovirus including a recombinant nucleic acid provided herein including embodiments thereof is provided. In some embodiments, the adenovirus is a replication incompetent adenovirus. In other embodiments, the adenovirus is a replication competent adenovirus. Where the adenovirus is a replication competent adenovirus, the adenovirus is capable of infecting a cell by binding to a specific cellular surface receptor (e.g. EGFR), replicating inside said cell thereby producing new viral progeny capable of infecting additional cells. In contrast, a replication incompetent adenovirus, is capable of entering a cell by binding to a specific cellular receptor and expressing the adenoviral genome inside said cell. However, a replication incompetent virus lacks genes necessary to produce new viral progeny and therefore is not capable of subsequent infection of additional cells. In another aspect, a recombinant adenovirus including a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate is provided. As described above a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate includes a capsid protein (e.g. fiber) operably linked to a dimerizing agent binder (e.g. FRB). The binding of the dimerizing agent binder (e.g. FRB) to the dimerizing agent (e.g. rapamycin) therefore connects the recombinant adenovirus to the dimerizing agent. Thus, the recombinant adenovirus including a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate may be bound to a dimerizing agent. A dimerizing agent as provided herein is an agent capable of binding a dimerizing agent binder of a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a dimerizing agent binder of a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. In some embodiments, the dimerizing agent binds a dimerizing agent binder of a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. The dimerizing agent may bind a dimerizing agent binder of a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a dimerizing agent binder of a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. Thus, in some embodiments, the dimerizing agent is further bound to a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. A dimerizing agent may bind the dimerizing agent binder through non-covalent intermolecular interactions such as hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, hydrophobic and Van der Waals forces. In some embodiments, the dimerizing agent binds covalently to the dimerizing agent binder. The dimerizing agent as provided herein may be a naturally occurring substance (e.g. rapamycin, abscisic acid) or a synthetic substance (e.g. a small molecule, a compound). Examples of dimerizing agents according to the invention provided herein are listed in Table 2. In some embodiments, the dimerizing agent is a compound. In some further embodiments, the compound is rapamycin. Rapamycin refers, in the customary sense, to CAS Registry No. 53123-88-9. Rapamycin inhibits the mTOR kinase and is used as an immunosuppressing agent and anti-cancer treatment. In some further embodiments, the dimerizing agent is a rapalog. A rapalog as provided herein is a rapamycin analog does not inhibit cellular mTOR kinase activity. In some further embodiment, the rapalog is AP21967. In some embodiments, the dimerizing agent is an anti-cancer drug. As described above, the compositions provided herein include a recombinant adenovirus including a recombinant nucleic acid including a capsid-dimerizing agent binder and a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. Therefore, the recombinant adenovirus may further include a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. In other embodiments, the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate is ectopically expressed. Wherein the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate is ectopically expressed, the nucleic acid encoding the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate does not form part of the recombinant nucleic acid included in the recombinant adenovirus. Where the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate is ectopically expressed it may be encoded by the genome of the cell infected with the recombinant adenovirus. In some embodiments, the recombinant adenovirus includes a plurality of ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugates, wherein each ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate may be different. For example where the recombinant adenovirus includes a plurality of ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugates, the recombinant adenovirus may include a first ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate, a second ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a third ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate with each ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate being different. Thus, the first ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate may include a first ligand and a first dimerizing agent binder, the second ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate may include a second ligand and a second dimerizing agent binder, wherein the first ligand is different from the second ligand and the first dimerizing agent binder is the same or different from the second dimerizing agent binder. For example, the first ligand-EGFR VHH may be operably linked to the first dimerizing agent binder FKBP and the second ligand CEA VHH may be operably linked to the second dimerizing agent binder AB1 or FKBP. Moreover, the recombinant adenovirus may include a plurality of capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugates, wherein each capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate may be different. For example where the recombinant adenovirus includes a plurality of capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugates, the recombinant adenovirus may include a first capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate, a second capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a third capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate with each capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate being different. Thus, the first capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate may include a first capsid protein and a first dimerizing agent binder, the second capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate may include a second capsid protein and a second dimerizing agent binder, wherein the first and second capsid protein may be the same or different and the first and second dimerizing agent binder may the same or different. For example, the first capsid protein fiber may be operably linked to the first dimerizing agent binder FRB and the second capsid protein fiber may be operably linked to the second dimerizing agent binder PYL1. Thus, in one embodiment, the recombinant adenovirus includes a first capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate (e.g. fiber/FRB), a first ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate (e.g. EGFR VHH/FKBP), a second capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate (e.g. fiber/PYL1) and a second ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate (e.g. CEA VHH/AB1). In the presence of a first dimerizing agent (i.e. rapamycin) the first capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and the first ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are connected through the binding of FRB and FKBP to rapamycin. In the presence of a second dimerizing agent (i.e. abscisic acid) the second capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and the second ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are connected through the binding of AB1 and Pyl1 to abscisic acid. Therefore, in the presence of rapamycin the recombinant adenovirus infects cells expressing the EGF receptor and in the presence of abscisic acid the same virus may infect cells expressing CEA. Thus, the same recombinant adenovirus is capable of infecting different cell types depending on the presence of dimerizing agent administered. In another aspect, a cell including a recombinant adenovirus provided herein including embodiments thereof is provided. In some embodiments, the cell is a cancer cell in a cancer patient. In other embodiments, the cell is a non-cancer cell in a cancer patient. In some embodiments, the cell is a cell in an organism. In some further embodiments, the organism is a mammal. In some further embodiments, the mammal is a human. In other embodiments, the cell is a cell in a culture vessel. In some further embodiments, the cell is a transformed cell. III. Methods In another aspect, a method of forming an adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct is provided. The method includes infecting a cell with a recombinant adenovirus provided herein, thereby forming an adenoviral infected cell. The adenoviral infected cell is allowed to express the recombinant nucleic acid, thereby forming a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a recombinant adenovirus including a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. The recombinant adenovirus and the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are contacted with a dimerizing agent. The recombinant adenovirus and the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are allowed to bind to the dimerizing agent, thereby forming the adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct. As described above, the recombinant nucleic acid may include a plurality of capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugates and ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugates, thereby enabling the adenovirus expressing the recombinant nucleic acid to bind to plurality of different cellular surface receptors. In another aspect, a method of targeting a cell is provided. The method includes contacting a cell with a recombinant adenovirus provided herein including embodiments thereof. In some embodiments, the cell is a cancer cell. In another aspect, a method of targeting a cancer cell in a cancer patient is provided. The method includes administering to a cancer patient a recombinant adenovirus provided herein. The recombinant adenovirus is allowed to infect a cell in the cancer patient, thereby forming an adenoviral infected cell. The adenoviral infected cell is allowed to express the recombinant nucleic acid, thereby forming a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a recombinant adenovirus including a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. The cancer patient is administered with a dimerizing agent. The recombinant adenovirus and the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are allowed to bind to the dimerizing agent, thereby forming an adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct. The adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct is allowed to bind to a cancer cell, thereby targeting the cancer cell in the cancer patient. In some embodiments, the cell is a cancer cell. In other embodiments, the cell is a non-cancer cell. In another aspect, a method of targeting a cell is provided. The method includes contacting a first cell with a recombinant adenovirus provided herein. The recombinant adenovirus is allowed to infect the first cell, thereby forming an adenoviral infected cell. The adenoviral infected cell is allowed to express the recombinant nucleic acid, thereby forming a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a recombinant adenovirus comprising a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. The ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and the recombinant adenovirus are contacted with a dimerizing agent. The recombinant adenovirus and the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are allowed to bind to the dimerizing agent, thereby forming an adenoviral cell targeting construct. The adenoviral cell targeting construct is allowed to bind to a second cell, thereby targeting said cell. In some embodiments, the first cell and the second cell form part of an organism. IV. Specific Embodiments Cancer is a debilitating disease that accounts for more than half a million deaths each year. There is a profound need for more effective, selective and safe treatments for cancer. Existing treatments for this pervasive, life threatening disease, such as chemotherapy and surgery, rarely eliminate all malignant cells, and often exhibit deleterious side-effects that can outweigh therapeutic benefit. The present invention provides powerful recombinant viruses that are capable of infecting tumor cells via disparate receptors. These viruses will enable a new safe form of effective, self-amplifying therapy that breaks the paradigm of systemic genotoxic treatments for cancer. One approach that has the potential to address many of the shortcomings of current cancer treatments is oncolytic adenoviral therapy (Pesonen, S. et al., Molecular Pharmaceutics, 8(1): p. 12-28 (2010)). These viruses are designed to replicate specifically in cancer cells, but leave normal cells unharmed. This selectivity can be engineered by exploiting the functional overlap between adenoviral, early onco-proteins, such as E1A, and tumor mutations in the Rb tumor suppressor pathway which drives deregulated cell cycle entry and pathological DNA replication (Poznic, M., J Biosci, 34(2): p. 305-12 (2009)). Adenovirus (Ad) is a self-replicating biological machine. It consists of a linear double-stranded 36 kb DNA genome sheathed in a protein coat. Ad requires a human host cell to replicate. It invades and hijacks the cellular replicative machinery to reproduce and upon assembly induces lytic cell death to escape the cell and spread and invade surrounding cells (FIG. 1). No ab initio system has come close to mimicking the autonomy and efficiency of Ad, however, Applicants have developed two new strategies to systematically manipulate the Ad genome to create novel adenoviruses as described in published application PCT/US2011/048006, which is herein incorporated in its entirety and for all purposes. Henceforth, with the ability to manipulate the Ad genome, Applicants can take the virus by the horns and redesign it to perform the functions of tumor-specific infection, replication, and cell killing. Currently, adenoviral vectors rely on a single cellular receptor for their uptake, which significantly limits their therapeutic potential. Ad5 infection is mediated primarily through interactions between the fiber protein on the outer viral capsid and the coxsackie and adenovirus receptor (CAR) on human epithelial cells. Unfortunately, many cancer cells do not express CAR, such as mesenchymal and deadly metastatic tumor cells. Since viral replication/killing will be limited by the ability to infect cells, Applicants need viruses that infect tumor cells via receptors other than CAR, ideally those specifically upregulated on tumor cells. Provided herein are genetically-encoded switchable targeting moieties that enable Ad5 to infect cancer cells regardless of their CAR-expression. Applicants used a known property of the cancer drug rapamycin (rap) to dimerize heterologous proteins with FKBP and FRB domains and engineered viruses that express a FRB-fiber capsid protein fusion together with retargeting ligands fused to FKBP. These viruses are induced to infect any cell type via multiple retargeting ligands upon rap treatment. This represents a rational and powerful combination of chemical and viral weapons as a novel cancer therapy. In addition, a major goal is to overcome tumor heterogeneity by engineering viruses that are able to infect tumor cells through more than one more mechanism and receptor. Applicants achieved this by using a known property of the cancer drug rapamycin (rap) to dimerize heterologous proteins with FKBP and FRB domains. Rapamycin inhibits the mTOR kinase and is used as an immunosuppressing agent and anti-cancer treatment. By engineering FRB mutations, rapalogs of rapamycin that do not inhibit cellular mTOR kinase activity can also be used to induce infection of any cell type upon administration of a rapalog. These viruses can be induced to infect any cell type via multiple retargeting ligands upon rap treatment. Cancer continues to be an intractable disease without safe and reliably effective treatments. In the last century, Applicants' knowledge about the origins of cancer and cancer biology has greatly advanced. However, despite Applicants' new understanding of cancer as a genetic disease, the standard of care for non-resectable disseminated disease remains genotoxic therapies, such as chemotherapy and irradiation, which often have intolerable and toxic side-effects. While drugs have been developed to target oncogenic proteins, Applicants have nothing to treat the genetic loss of tumor-suppressors. One approach to treat these cancers is oncolytic viral cancer therapy (FIG. 1) (Pesonen, S. et al., Molecular Pharmaceutics, 8(1): p. 12-28 (2010)). Adenovirus (Ad) has been studied for more than half a century, and has contributed significantly to Applicants' understanding of key mechanisms at the heart of mammalian cell biology such as splicing, critical growth regulatory hubs, transcription, and the cell cycle. Ad is a small double-stranded 36 kb DNA virus, sheathed in a protein capsid coat (FIG. 2). Ad particles primarily interact with host cells through protein interactions between the knob-domain of fiber on the surface of the capsid and a cell surface molecule (FIG. 2). Serotype 5 of adenovirus species C (Ad5) infects cells via fiber interactions with coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor (CAR), primarily found at epithelial cell junctions. Like all viruses, it is entirely dependent on host cells for its propagation. After depositing its genome into the host cell nucleus, a program is coordinated by virus proteins to activate the cell cycle in quiescent cells in order to replicate virus DNA. At the end of the Ad5 life cycle, after progeny virions have been assembled in the cell nucleus, the membranes of the cell are lysed, releasing the next generation of viruses. Manipulating Adenovirus Tropism Ad5 infection is mostly limited to cells that have CAR, which is expressed along with cadherin at epithelial cell tight junctions (Tomko, R. P. et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 94(7): p. 3352-3356 (2009); Bergelson, J. M., et al., Science, 275(5304): p. 1320-1323 (1997)). Unfortunately, it is metastases that kill most cancer patients, in which an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) results in downregulation of cadherin and CAR, instigating invasion and spread to distant sites (Anders, M., et al., Br J Cancer, 100(2): p. 352-9 (2009)). Thus, many malignant cells do not express CAR and are not susceptible to infection by Ad5 (Anders, M., et al., Br J Cancer, 100(2): p. 352-9 (2009); Dietel, M., et al., Journal of Molecular Medicine, 89(6): p. 621-630 (2011); Matsumoto, K., et al., Urology, 66(2): p. 441-446 (2005)). A number of approaches have been taken to retarget Ad5 to different cellular receptors, including: chemical modification of purified adenovirus particles and infection with recombinant divalent “bridging” proteins to form complexes between fiber and receptor (reviewed in (Rein, D. T., M. Breidenbach, and D. T. Curiel, Future Oncology, 2(1): p. 137-143 (2006))). The disadvantage of these approaches is the restriction to the first round of infection, since following virus replication the chemical/recombinant targeting moiety is lost. This drawback can be overcome by directly modifying the fiber gene to encode targeting sequences, however this approach is not systematic because Applicants cannot predict the folding of de novo sequences and the correct assembly with virus particles. To date, this approach has only been useful for the insertion of small peptides. Adsembly and AdSLIC are Enabling Technologies to Systematically Design New Optimized Adenoviruses From Libraries of Genomic Building Blocks and Heterologous Parts The potential of adenoviral vectors in several applications is hindered by the ability to engineer and combine multiple genetic modifications rapidly and systematically. To systematically re-design adenovirus as an oncolytic agent, Tools are needed to enable precise modification of its components. The 36 kb Ad5 genome is difficult to manipulate due to its size and abundance of restriction enzyme recognition (RER) sites. To date, a majority of recombinant Ads have been limited to the backbones that were digested and selected for fewer RER sites in the 1980s, and continue to remain due to the legacy of shuttle vectors. These backbones have accumulated a number of mutations distant from wild type sequences. Traditional cloning techniques with complex sequences are still time consuming and not systematic. To overcome the limitations of Ad5 and current methodologies, Applicants have developed two new technologies, named ‘Adsembly’ and ‘AdSlicR’, which enable the rapid de novo assembly of adenoviral genomes in vitro from genomic component parts and heterologous elements in a single hour. Using a bioinformatics approach, Applicants split the adenoviral genome (36 kb) into 5 units, based on evolutionarily conserved sequences between species, transcriptional and functional modules. Each of these 5 units comprise compatible sections of a genomic building “parts library”, the functions and diversity of which can be altered by engineering mutations or heterologous elements and further expanded by adding equivalent units from disparate adenovirus serotypes, mutants and species. In order to create a new adenovirus with unique properties, one of each of the units is selected from the library and rapidly reassembled into a complete genome in vitro using Adsembly or Ad-SlicR. Adsembly can be used to assemble a novel genome (in 1 hour) via multi-site specific recombination, which upon transfection, self-excises from a plasmid backbone and replicates to produce novel viruses. Ad-SlicR, which utilizes the same library genome building blocks, is a complementary strategy to erase inserted recombination sequences for more potent viral replication (if necessary) and clinical use. The ease of manipulation of multiple genomic fragments as small modular plasmid units and the systematic approach of these technologies now allows for rapid and precise construction of novel adenoviruses. Adenovirus Targeting: A Genetically Encoded Switch Oncolytic viral therapy has the potential to destroy a tumor mass of unlimited size, but only if the virus crosses the tumor vasculature and infection spreads from one cell to another. The fiber of Ad5 recognizes the epithelial cell junction molecule CAR (Tomko, R. P. et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 94(7): p. 3352-3356 (2009); Bergelson, J. M., et al., Science, 275(5304): p. 1320-1323 (1997)), which is expressed in variable levels on tumors (Rein, D. T., M. Breidenbach, and D. T. Curiel, Future Oncology, 2(1): p. 137-143 (2006); Dmitriev, I., et al., J. Virol., 72(12): p. 9706-9713 (1998); Bauerschmitz, G. J., S. D. Barker, and A. Hemminki, Int J Oncol, 21(6): p. 1161-74 (2002); Breidenbach, M., et al., Hum Gene Ther., 15(5): p. 509-18 (2004); Cripe, T. P., et al., Cancer Res, 61(7): p. 2953-60 (2001); Fechner, H., et al., Gene Ther, 7(22): p. 1954-68 (2000); Hemmi, S., et al., Hum Gene Ther, 9(16): p. 2363-73 (1998); Hemminki, A. and R. D. Alvarez, BioDrugs, 16(2): p. 77-87 (2002); Kanerva, A., et al., Clin Cancer Res, 8(1): p. 275-80 (2002); Li, Y., et al., Cancer Res, 59(2): p. 325-30 (1999); Miller, C. R., et al., Cancer Res, 58(24): p. 5738-48 (1998); Rein, D. T., et al., Int J Cancer, 111(5): p. 698-704 (2004)) and the loss of which is associated with increased metastasis (Anders, M., et al., Br J Cancer, 100(2): p. 352-9 (2009); Dietel, M., et al., Journal of Molecular Medicine, 89(6): p. 621-630 (2011); Matsumoto, K., et al., Urology, 66(2): p. 441-446 (2005)). Ad5 is not a naturally blood-borne virus and does not actively target and cross the vasculature. Both of these factors limit the potential of adenoviral vectors for gene expression and therapy. Attempts to retarget adenoviral uptake include the use of chemical adapters that link viral capsids to retargeting ligands. One example is fiber biotinylation to provide a chemical linker for high affinity binding to avidin-retargeting ligands (Liu, Y., P. Valadon, and J. Schnitzer, Virology Journal, 7(1): p. 316 (2010)). However, retargeting is only achieved with exogenous virus, since the chemical modifications are lost upon viral replication. Genetically encoding retargeting adapter fusions to viral coat proteins is desirable, but also more challenging. Unfortunately, the incorporation of large ligands in capsid proteins disrupts their folding/assembly (Belousova, N., et al., J. Virol., 76(17): p. 8621-8631 (2002)). To avoid misfolding, smaller polypeptides can be inserted into the fiber H1 loop (FIG. 6) (Belousova, N., et al., J Virol, 76(17): p. 8621-31 (2002)). For example, RGD peptides enhance integrin-assisted uptake, but are not sufficient to alter viral tropism. Fiber fusions to single chain antibodies (scFVs) are attractive as well, but the former require processing in the ER/cytosol while fiber assembles in the nucleus (Kontermann, R. E., Curr Opin Mol Ther, 12(2): p. 176-83 (2010)). Thus, despite ongoing efforts to retarget infection, in vivo studies and gains have been disappointing (Waehler, R., S. J. Russell, and D. T. Curiel, Nat Rev Genet, 8(8): p. 573-87 (2007)). An ideal virus would cross the blood/endothelium layer and infect tumor cells via disparate receptors. The ideal system would be a genetically encoded chemical adapter that could be used to switch viral tropism within the body via any multiple retargeting moieties, without compromising viral replication and safety. Provided herein is a novel, inducible, genetically encoded chemical adapter system that retargets infection to multiple cell types, and is not lost upon viral replication. The present invention therefore overcomes the limitations of prior approaches and has several advantages. Any unanticipated toxicities associated with receptor-retargeting can be stopped by drug withdrawal. In addition, multiple retargeting ligands can be expressed within a single virus to target tumor cell receptors (e.g. EGFR) and the vasculature (e.g. Von Willebrand factor/transferrin). Applicants retargeted the adenovirus viral coat protein fiber to alternate cellular receptors using a known property of the immunosuppressive and anti-tumor drug rapamycin (rap; FIG. 7). Rapamycin can be used to induce heterodimers of heterologous proteins if one is fused to FKBP domains (e.g. a retargeting ligand) and the other (e.g. fiber) to the FRB domain of mTOR (Chen, J., et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 92(11): p. 4947-51 (1995)). Upon treatment with rap, fiber will heterodimerize with the retargeting ligand enabling the virus to infect the cell type of choice. Rapamycin is a macrolide antibiotic that is FDA approved and has ideal pharmacokinetic profiles in mammals. The high affinity and stability of rap-induced heterodimerization has been used with great success in several applications including phage display of receptor-ligand complexes (de Wildt, R. M., et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 99(13): p. 8530-5 (2002)), transcriptional activation and reconstitution of bi-functional proteins (Clackson, T., Chem Biol Drug Des, 67(6): p. 440-2 (2006)). A novel application of this system is provided, which also takes advantage of Applicants' previous studies of rap as a rational combination with oncolytic viruses (O'Shea, C., et al., Embo J, 24(6): p. 1211-21 (2005)). Develop a Genetically Encoded Small Molecule-Controlled System for Retargeting Adenovirus to Tumor Cell Receptors The reliance of current adenoviral vectors on a single cellular receptor for their uptake limits their therapeutic potential via systemic delivery. To overcome this problem, Applicants designed novel Ads with the rapamycin-induced, genetically encoded FRB/FKBP heterodimer to enable retargeting of adenovirus to tumor cell receptors. Ultimately, this system enables targeting of receptors in angiogenic tumor vasculature to eliminate aggressive tumors (e.g. TEMs, TVMs), and upregulated markers in high-risk tumors such as breast cancer (e.g. EGFR, HER2, TfR). Insertion of FRB Domain Into Fiber H1 Loop The fiber protein which infers tropism to adenovirus is generally not permissible to large insertions or modifications, because the correct folding and assembly of fiber trimers into adenovirus particles are critical for viable progeny. To date, insertion of sequences in the C-terminal Ad5 fiber knob-domain has been effectively limited to peptides (Belousova, N., et al., J. Virol., 76(17): p. 8621-8631 (2002)). Using Adsembly (described in FIG. 5) the 90 amino acid FRB domain was inserted into the flexible H1 loop of fiber, which accommodates insertions of up to 100 amino acids without deleterious effects (Belousova, N., et al., J. Virol., 76(17): p. 8621-8631 (2002)). Experimental Approach The wild type E3 component plasmid, E3-001, (Table 1) from the genome parts library which Applicants designed was used as the template for insertion of the FRB sequence into the fiber gene. E3-001 was PCR amplified to generate a product with SLIC-compatible ends for insertion between fiber Thr546 and Pro567. The 90 aa FRB domain of mTOR (Glu2025-Gln2114) was PCR amplified from mTOR cDNA and combined via SLIC to generate E3-002 (FIG. 8). Wild-type E2, L3, and E4 components were combined with E3-002 and E1-009 (containing a CMV-driven GFP gene) using the Adsembly strategy to generate the Ad-122 genome (FIG. 8). Applicants transfected the Ad-122 genome into 293 E4 cells, and harvested virus. Unlike the insertion of many large ligands such as TfR, FRB did not inhibit viral replication or assembly and robust infection as evidenced by GFP fluorescence from the E1 reporter and observed cytopathic effect (CPE). I confirmed expression of FRB-fiber by Western blot as indicated by predicted migration of FRB-fiber (72.4 kDa) versus wt fiber (61.6 kDa; FIG. 9). Expression of FKBP Retargeting Moieties From Adenovirus Genome The expression of FKBP from the virus genome would ideally have similar timing and levels matching that of fiber, to enable efficient dimerization with fiber in the presence of rap. Applicants adopted several strategies to express FKBP from the genome as summarized in FIG. 10. Experimental Approach The E3-002 plasmid, carrying the FRB insertion in fiber, was used as the template to introduce the sequences necessary for the strategies summarized in FIG. 10. The first approach was to express FKBP from the adenovirus genome by co-translationally expressing it from the fiber transcript (FIG. 10C). The FKBP sequence was placed downstream of the fiber coding sequence following an inserted Furin-2a sequence. The Furin-2a sequence is an optimized Furin protease recognition site followed by the foot-and-mouth disease virus 2a auto-cleavage site (Fang, J., et al., Mol Ther, 15(6): p. 1153-1159 (2007)). It should generate two distinct polypeptides in equimolar amount; the FRB-Fiber molecule with a residual arginine on its C-terminus, and the FKBP protein with residual proline on its N-terminus. The sequence was cloned successfully, generating E3-016, and used the Adsembly strategy to create a full length genome with E1-009, E3-016 and wild type E2, L3, and E4. Similar to the preparation of Ad-122, the isolated supernatant was applied to 293 E4 cells, but there was no productive viral replication indicated by either fluorescence or CPE. Therefore, an alternative approach was used to express FKBP using an IRES element inserted on the 3′ end of the fiber gene before the polyA sequence used for the fiber transcript (FIG. 10D). The E3 component (E3-015) was cloned successfully, and generated a complete genome using E1-009, E3-015 and wildtype E2, L3, and E4 (FIG. 8). This virus was able to replicate in 293 E4 cells, however no FKBP expression could be detected by Western blot as late as 60 h p.i., indicating that the efficiency of an IRES on the fiber transcript is not ideal to express FKBP. The final approach was to utilize adenovirus transcriptional architecture to express FKBP. Since the genes in the E3 transcription unit of adenovirus are dispensable for virus replication in cell culture, the sequence on the E3B transcript encoding RIDα, RIDβ, and 14.7 k was replaced with FKBP. The E3 component (E3-048) was cloned and used Adsembly with E1-009, wild type E2, L3, and E4 to generate Ad-178 (FIG. 8). This virus was able to replicate in 293 E4 cells, as evidenced by fluorescence and CPE. Western blot analysis of infected cell lysates revealed that the FKBP protein accumulated in infected 293 E4 cells (FIG. 11). Therefore, this strategy was used to create novel viruses that express FRB-fiber and FKBP retargeting moieties. Targeting Moieties for Fusion to FKBP An ideal targeting protein for fusion to FKBP is a stable molecule with strong affinity for a specific cancer cell surface molecule. A number of approaches were explored including: BN peptide, EGF peptide, TGFα, anthrax toxin PA, Tf, F3 peptide, and VEGF (Table 3). As a proof of principle, VHHs, were first explored as described below. A similar experimental approach will be adapted for other retargeting moieties listed in Table 3. A class of proteins which best fits these criteria are the heavy chain domains (VHH) from single-domain antibodies (sdAbs). Camelids and sharks encode sdAbs which have specificity for their specific target from one variable chain domain, instead of the two (conventionally) that most other mammals have (e.g. rodents, humans) (Kontermann, R. E., Curr Opin Mol Ther, 12(2): p. 176-83 (2010)). Although small single-chain variable fragments (scFVs) have been more widely used, the smaller and more stable VHHs have the distinct advantage of not requiring post-translational disulfide bond formation to function. FKBP was fused to VHHs with specificity to cancer cell receptors to impart ideal adenovirus targeting. To demonstrate this effect with the rap-inducible retargeting system, recently identified VHHs with specificity to carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 5 (CEA also CEACAM5) (Vaneycken, I., et al., Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 51(7): p. 1099-1106 (2010); Behar, G., et al., FEBS Journal, 276(14): p. 3881-3893 (2009)), a biomarker for gastrointestinal, breast, lung and ovarian carcinomas (Duffy, M. J., Clin Chem, 47(4): p. 624-630 (2001)), and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) (Gainkam, L. O., et al., Journal of nuclear medicine: official publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine, 49(5): p. 788-95 (2008)), upregulated in many cancers of epithelial origin such as breast, head and neck, prostate, lung, and skin are used. Based on the structural modeling (FIG. 13), the VHH domains (CEAVHH, EGFRVHH) are fused to the N terminus of FKBP for the least steric hindrance for VHH/target interactions and the FKBP/rap/FRB dimerization interface. The gene sequences encoding CEAVHH and EGFRVHH were human codon optimized and synthesized by Blue Heron Biotechnologies based on protein sequences identified by Behar et al. and Roovers et al., respectively (Behar, G., et al., FEBS Journal, 276(14): p. 3881-3893 (2009); Roovers, R., et al., Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy, 56(3): p. 303-317 (2007)). Using SLIC, the VHH sequences were fused to the N-terminus of FKBP with an inserted GSGSGST linker sequence. These fusion proteins were cloned into E3 components with the approach described in herein to generate Ad-177 and Ad-178 (Table 1). FIG. 11 shows the expression the EGFRVHH-FKBP fusion protein from the Ad-178 infected cells, which is similar to CEAVHH-FKBP expression from Ad-177 (data not shown). The gene sequence encoding PA domain 4 were human codon optimized and synthesized by Blue Heron Biotechnologies based on Uniprot accession P13423. Using SLIC, the PA domain 4 was fused to the N-terminus of FKBP with an inserted GSGSGST linker sequence. This fusion protein was cloned into an E3 component with the approach described in herein to generate Ad-281 (Table 1). Immunofluorescence to Detect Rapamycin-Induced Colocalization of FRB-Fiber and VHH-FKBP Fusion Proteins Detection of the colocalization of proteins in cells by immunofluorescence or via fluorescently tagged proteins is one approach to evaluate if proteins have the potential for interaction. A difference of FKBP localization to FRB-fiber (or vice versa) in the presence of rap versus the absence would suggest that rap was inducing their association. 293 E4 cells grown on microscope slides for direct imaging of adenovirus expressed proteins are infected. FRB-fiber and VHH-FKBP fusion proteins are evaluated in cells which have 500 nM rap versus solvent control to evaluate any differences in localization due to presence of the drug. As controls, a virus with the Adsembly strategy is constructed that expresses CEAVHH-FKBP and wt fiber (Ad-199) as a control for FRB-dependent rap-induced colocalization of FKBP. Non-confocal IF imaging in infected 293 E4 cells shows colocalization of FRB-fiber and VHH-FKBP signals in the presence of rap (FIG. 14). Co-Immunoprecipitation (CoIP) of FRB-Fiber and VHH-FKBP Fusion Proteins Via Rapamycin Induced Heterodimerization CoIP of FRB-fiber through IP of FKBP (and vice versa) from the lysates of infected 293 E4 cells have been performed. Viruses used are the experimental group, Ad-177 or Ad-178, to evaluate rap-induced FRB-FKBP association; Ad-122 (no FKBP, FRB-fiber) to evaluate any background of endogenous FKBP heterodimerization, and Ad-199 (CEAVHH-FKBP, wt fiber) as a negative control (for complete virus list, see Table 1). 293 E4 cells are infected with a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 10, and media are replaced 4 hours after addition of virus. The cells are treated with 500 nM rap or solvent control (EtOH) at 24 h p.i., and are collected for lysis 36 h p.i. Total cell extract are used for IP. To demonstrate that the FRB/FKBP interaction is biologically relevant and occurring on the surface of adenovirus particles, CoIP of the VHH-FKBP through non-fiber adenovirus capsid proteins from the lysates of infected 293 E4 cells are performed. In addition, purification of Ad-177 and Ad-178 by CsCl gradient ultracentrifugation and anion exchange with and without rap is performed to see if the VHH-FKBP is (nonimmuno)precipitated/retained through these processes in the presence of rap. Rapamycin Induced Retargeting of Virus Tropism The dimerization induced by rap on FKBP-retargeted viruses should enable them to infect via disparate receptors based on the affinity of the targeting moiety to a cellular receptor. That principle is demonstrated with the Ad-177, Ad-178 viruses directed to CEA and EGFR respectively. Ad-177 and Ad-178 are used to infect 293 E4 cells and treated with 500 15 nM rap or solvent control. Viruses are harvested from the media 48 h p.i. and directly used to infect a panel of cancer cell lines. Cells were infected in duplicate and at different dilutions of the infectious media (i.e.: undiluted, 2-fold, 4-fold, etc.). Infection is determined by quantifying the number of GFP positive cells by FACS and high-throughput imaging. The FKBP-ligand fusion can also be expressed ectopically in infected cells to enable targeting of recombinant adenovirus with an inserted FRB-domain in the capsid. If an FKBP-ligand and dimerizing agent is present with the recombinant adenovirus, the targeted complex should assemble, even if the FKBP-ligand was not expressed from the adenovirus genome. We will transiently express EGFRVHH-FKBP ectopically (from a plasmid), then infect cells with Ad-122. Ad-122 alone was not targeted in the presence of rapamycin, but in the additional presence of EGFRVHH-FKBP, there was enhanced infection (FIG. 26). The ability to express the FKBP-ligand ectopically will enable rapid screening of ligand candidates or ligands in a library, without the need to assemble new recombinant adenovirus genomes. For example, in a multi-well format, each well of cells could transiently express a pool of ligand-FKBPs, each would be infected with Ad-122, and the resulting viral supes (supernatant) could be applied to cells in culture to quantify enhancement of targeting. The identity of the members in the ligand-FKBP pool can be further tested individually. Further, effective ligand-FKBP clones can be mutagenized and re-screened to enhance the effectiveness of targeted adenovirus infection. Validate Retargeting Specificity The effects observed from rapamycin-preparation of viruses should be confirmed that the interaction is gained via interaction with the VHH-targeting moiety to verify the system. In the cases of viruses that exhibit retargeting and different tropisms, specificity is verified by using different VHH fusions, by knocking down CAR and the cellular target of the VHH via shRNA (e.g. EGFR knockdown for Ad-178), or blocking the cellular target with exogenous antibodies or VHH (e.g. add excess exogenous EGFRVHH to block before Ad-178 infection). Alternative chemical-induced dimer systems such as orthogonal FRB/FKBP mutants that utilize rap analogs (rapalogs) may also be necessary if endogenous mTOR or FKBP interfere with virus component assembly. Alternatively other dimerization systems could be explored (Hubbard, K. E., et al., Genes & Development, 24(16): p. 1695-1708 (2010)). Rapalog Induced Retargeting of Virus Tropism Since rapamycin may exhibit undesirable biological effects, such as growth and proliferation arrest (Jacinto E, Hall M N. Tor signalling in bugs, brain and brawn. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2003;4(2):117-26), an biologically orthogonal molecule with the same heterodimerizing capability is used to retarget adenovirus infection. The rapalog AP21967 (FIG. 7) is able to form stable heterodimers with FKBP and a mutant FRB domain (mTOR mutation T2098L), but not with the wt FRB domain (Bayle J H, Grimley J S, Stankunas K, Gestwicki J E, Wandless T J, Crabtree G R. Rapamycin analogs with differential binding specificity permit orthogonal control of protein activity. Chem Biol. 2006;13(1):99-107). The recombinant adenovirus encoding EGFRVHH-FKBP and the mutant FRB-modified fiber (Ad-220) was assembled and tested for targeting using either rapamycin or AP21967. Both rapamycin and AP21967 were able to retarget Ad-220, while the control virus was only targeted with rapamycin and not AP21967. V. Material and Methods Adsembly Modified adenoviruses were made with the below referenced components. Gateway DONR vectors were employed. In the example of human Ad5, the E1 module was obtained by PCR and inserted into the vector pDONR P1P4 using SLIC. The pDONR P1P4 vector backbone including attL1 and attL4 recombination sites was amplified using PCR and combined with the Ad5 E1 module by SLIC. In order to generate an alternate counter-selection cassette, vector pDONR P1P4 was modified. This vector backbone including attP1 and attP4 recombination sites was amplified using PCR and combined with the PheSA294G mutations and a Tetracycline resistance cassette (the pLac-Tet cassette from pENTR L3-pLac-Tet-L2) to create a new DONR vector. The attR1-PheSA294GTet(r)-attR4 fragment from the new DONR vector was then amplified by PCR and inserted into the Adsembly DEST vector. See “MultiSite Gateway® Pro Plus”, Cat #12537-100; and Sone, T. et al. J Biotechnol. 2008 Sep. 10; 136(3-4):113-21. In the example of human Ad5, E3 module was inserted into the pDONR P5P3r vector by gateway BP reaction. The E4 module was inserted into pDONR P3P2 vector by gateway BP reaction. The attR5-ccdB-Cm(r)-attR2 fragment from the pDONR P5P2 vector was amplified by PCR and inserted into the Adsembly DEST vector. See “MultiSite Gateway® Pro Plus”, Cat #12537-100; and Sone, T. et al. J Biotechnol. 2008 Sep. 10; 136(3-4):113-21. The vector backbone for the Adsembly DEST vector is composed of parts from three different sources. The Amp(r) cassette and lacZ gene was amplified from plasmid pUC19. This was combined with the p15A origin of replication, obtained from plasmid pSB3K5452002, part of the BioBricksiGEM 2007 parts distribution. The p15A ori, which maintains plasmids at a lower (10-12) copy number is necessary to reduce E1 toxicity. Lastly, in order to create a self-excising virus, the mammalian expression cassette for the enzyme ISceI was PCR amplified from plasmid pAdZ5-CV5-E3+. This cassette was cloned into the vector backbone to create the vector called p15A-SceI. This is the vector used to start genome assembly. In the example of human Ad5, the gene modules were all obtained from either DNA purified from wild type Ad5 virus or the plasmid pAd/CMV/V5/DEST (Invitrogen). Regarding the DEST vector in the example of human Ad5, the E2 and L3 modules were inserted into plasmid p15A-SceI by 3-fragment SLIC. The counterselection marker expressing ccdB and Chlor(r) flanked by attR5 and attR2 sites was obtained by PCR from plasmid pDONR P5P2. The second counterselection marker (PheS-Tet), was obtained by PCR from the vector pDONR P1P4 PheSA294G-Tet (see above). The two counter-selection markers were inserted on the right (ccdB/Cm) and left (PheS/Tet) sides of p15A-SceI E2-L4 by SLIC after cutting with unique restriction enzymes engineered to the ends of the E2 and L4 modules to create the DEST vector (pDEST E2-L5). Regarding the multisite gateway entry vector containing adenoviral gene modules, in the example of human Ad5, the E1 module were inserted into pDONR P1P4 by SLIC. The E3 module was inserted into pDONR P5P3R by gateway BP reaction. The E4 module was inserted into pDONR P3P2 by gateway BP reaction. Regarding Amp(r) cassette: plasmid pUC19, the p15A ori: plasmid pSB3K5-I52002 was part of the BioBricksiGEM 2007 parts distribution. Regarding the adenoviral gene modules, either the DNA purified from Ad5 particles, or plasmid pAd/CMV/V5/DEST (Invitrogen). The DONR vectors pDONR P1P4, P5P2, P5P3R, P3P2 were received from Jon Chesnut (Invitrogen). The PheS gene was derived from DH5alpha bacterial genomic DNA and subsequently mutated by quick change to create the PheSA294G mutant. Regarding the Tet(r) gene, the plasmid pENTR L3-pLac-Tet-L2 was received from Jon Chesnut (Invitrogen). Regarding an embodiment of the Adsembly method, 20 fmol of a dual DEST vector, typically containing a core module flanked by two counterselection cassettes, is combined with 10 fmol of each remaining entry vector containing gene modules. In the example of Ad5, this includes combining 20 fmol of the E2-L3 dual DEST vector with 10 fmol each of an E1 module entry vector, an E3 module entry vector, and an E4 module entry vector. In some cases, increasing the amount of one or more of the entry vectors may increase efficiency (e.g. using 50 fmol of the E1 module entry vector for Ad5). These vectors are combined with 2 μl of LR Clonase II (Invitrogen) in a final volume of 10 μl. The reaction is incubated at 25° C. overnight (12-16 hours). The reaction is stopped by the addition of 1 μl of proteinase K (Invitrogen) and incubation at 37° C. for 10 minutes. Five μl of the reaction is then transformed into high competency bacteria (>1e9 cfu/μg) that are sensitive to the ccdB gene product and plated onto YEG-C1 agar plates (as described in Kast, P. Gene, 138 (1994) 109-114; when using PheSA294G counterselection) or other appropriate media for the counterselection used in the vector. Colonies are subsequently isolated and screened for complete genomes. Complete genomes are directly transfected into 293 E4 cells, resulting in infectious particles 5-9 days post-transfection. Regarding PCRs, all PCRs were performed using the Phusion enzyme (NEB). PCRs to obtain the ADENOVIRAL GENE modules from Ad5 were performed with 1×HF buffer, 200 μM each dNTP, 0.5 μM each primer, and 10 ng of template. For the E2-L2 module, 3% DMSO was also added. Template was either plasmid pAd/PL-DEST (Invitrogen; for E2-L2, L3-L4, and E4 modules) or Ad5 genomic DNA (for E1 and E3 modules). PCR conditions were as follows. E2-L2 and L3-L4: 98° C. 30 sec-10 cycles of 98° C. 10 sec, 65° C. 30 sec (decrease temp 1° C. every 2 cycles), 72° C. 7 min-29 cycles of 98° C. 10 sec, 60° C. 30 sec, 72° C. 8 min-72° C. 10 min-4° C. hold. E3: 98° C. 30 sec-10 cycles of 98° C. 10 sec, 70° C. 30 sec (decrease temp 0.5° C. every cycle), 72° C. 2 min 30 sec-25 cycles of 98° C. 10 sec, 68° C. 30 sec, 72° C. 2 min 30 sec-72° C. 10 min-4° C. hold. E4: 98° C. 30 sec-6 cycles of 98° C. 10 sec, 63° C. 30 sec (decrease temp 0.5° C. every cycle), 72° C. 2 min-29 cycles of 98° C. 10 sec, 60° C. 30 sec, 72° C. 2 min-72° C. 5 min-4° C. hold. Regarding obtaining viral genomic DNA from purified virus, up to 100 μl of purified virus is added to 300 μl of lysis buffer containing 10 mM Tris pH 8, 5 mM EDTA, 200 mM NaCl, and 0.2% SDS. Mix is incubated at 60° C. for 5 min, followed by addition of 5 μl of proteinase K stock (˜20 mg/mL) and further incubated at 60° C. for 1 hour. Samples are then placed on ice for 5 min, followed by spinning at 15K×g for 15 min. Supernatant is removed and added to an equal volume of isopropanol, mixed well, and spun at 15K×g for 15 min at 4° C. Pellet is washed with 70% ethanol and re-spun for 15 min at 4° C. The pellet is dried and resuspended for use. Regarding SLIC, linear fragments are exonuclease treated for 20 min at room temp in the following 20 μl reaction: 50 mM Tris pH 8, 10 mM MgCl2, 50 m/mL BSA, 200 mM Urea, 5 mM DTT, and 0.5 μl T4 DNA polymerase. The reaction is stopped by addition of 1 μl 0.5 M EDTA, followed by incubation at 75° C. for 20 min. An equal amount of T4-treated DNAs are then mixed to around 20 μl in volume in a new tube. For SLIC combining 2 fragments, 10 μl of each reaction is used. For SLIC combining 3 fragments, 7 μl of each reaction is used. Fragments are annealed by heating to 65° C. for 10 min, followed by a slow cool down decreasing the temperature 0.5° C. every 5 seconds down to 25° C. After annealing, 5 μl of the reaction is transformed and clones are screened. Retargeted Virus Preparation Regarding virus production, concentration and purification, 293 E4 cells are infected with infectious particles, and approximately 48 hours post-transfection when CPE is apparent, the cells are collected and isolated by centrifugation at 500×g for 5 minutes. The cells are lysed in TMN buffer (10 mM TrisCl pH 7.5, 1 mM MgCl2, 150 mM NaCl) via 3× freeze/thaws, and the cell debris was removed by two rounds of centrifugation at 3K×g and 3.5K×g for 15 minutes. A cesium chloride gradient (0.5 g/mL) is used to band virus particles via ultracentrifugation at 37K×g for 18-24 hours. The band is collected and dialyzed in a 10 k MWCO Slide-A-Lyzer® dialysis cassette (Thermo Scientific) in TMN with 10% glycerol overnight (12-18 h) at 4° C., then stored at −80° C. The titer of the purified virus is determined versus a titered wildtype standard by a cell-based serial dilution infection ELISA with anti-adenovirus type 5 primary antibody (ab6982, Abcam), and ImmunoPure anti-rabbit alkaline phosphatase secondary antibody (Thermo Scientific). Regarding insertion of the FRB domain of mTOR into the adenovirus fiber, the FRB domain was inserted into the H1-loop region of the fiber gene in the Adsembly entry vector pENTR E3-L5 by SLIC. The 90aa FRB domain of mTOR (amino acids Glu2025-Gln2114) was PCR amplified from pRK5 mTOR-myc (R. Shaw) for insertion into PCR amplified pENTR E3-L5 with ends flanking the adenovirus fiber H1-loop between Thr546 and Pro547 to generate the resulting vector, pENTR E3-L5 (FRB-Fiber). Regarding mutation of the FRB domain of mTOR to be specific for AP21967 binding, the FRB domain was mutated using standard techniques in the Adsembly entry vector pENTR E3-L5 (FRB-Fiber) and pENTR E3-L5 (ΔRID, EGFRVHH-FKBP, FRB-Fiber). The residue Thr2098 (mTOR numbering) was mutated to Leu. This resulted in the Adsembly entry vectors pENTR E3-L5 (FRB*-Fiber) and pENTR E3-L5 (ΔRID, EGFRVHH-FKBP, FRB*-Fiber). Regarding adenovirus-encoded fluorescent reporter for infection, the sequence for GFP was inserted 5′ of the adenovirus E1A gene to generate the fusion described by Zhao, L. J. et al. J Biol Chem. 2006 Dec. 1; 281(48):36613-23. The GFP gene was PCR amplified with the described C-linker sequence for insertion into PCR amplified pENTR E1 with ends flanking the start codon of adenovirus E1A to generate the resulting plasmid, pENTR E1 (GFP-E1A). Regarding expression of FKBP from virus genome, the FKBP sequence was inserted by SLIC into pENTR E3-L5, replacing the adenovirus RIDα, RIDβ, and 14.7K genes. The FKBP gene was PCR amplified from pcDNA-FKBP12-Crluc (S. Gambhir) for insertion into PCR amplified pENTR E3-L5 and pENTR E3-L5 (FRB-Fiber) lacking the sequence from the start codon of RIDα to the stop codon of 14.7 to generate the resulting vectors, pENTR E3-L5 (ΔRID, FKBP) and pENTR E3-L5 (ΔRID, FKBP, FRB-Fiber). Alternative FKBP insertion locations were constructed, but did not appear to lead to accumulation of FKBP during infection via immunoblot (C-term IRES-driven expression on E1 transcript, C-term IRES-driven expression on fiber transcript, or Fiber-Furin2A-FKBP autocleavage sequence). Regarding retargeting moiety genetic fusion with FKBP, 3D modeling in PyMol of FRB-Fiber in rapamycin-dependent complex with FKBP revealed an advantage to fuse the targeting moiety to the N-terminus of FKBP. In the case of the camelid antibody variable heavy chain (VHH) with EGFR binding specificity (EGFRVHH), EGFRVHH was gene synthesized by Blue Heron Biotech, and inserted at the N-terminus of FKBP in pENTR E3-L5 (ΔRID, FKBP) and pENTR E3-L5 (ΔRID, FKBP, FRB-Fiber) by SLIC with a GSGSGST linker sequence, to generate the plasmids pENTR E3-L5 (ΔRID, EGFRVHH-FKBP) and pENTR E3-L5 (ΔRID, EGFRVHH-FKBP, FRB-Fiber). Retargeting Experiments Regarding rapamycin-induced retargeting adenovirus infection via EGFR by EGFRVHH-FKBP, a virus was constructed using Adsembly with pENTR E1 (GFP-E1A), pENTR E3-L5 (ΔRID, EGFRVHH-FKBP, FRB-Fiber), pENTR E4, and pDEST E2-L5, referred to hereafter as Ad-178, to infect a panel of cancer cell lines. Ad-178 was used to infect 293 E4 cells at MOI 10. Twenty-four hours following the infection 50 nM rapamycin was added to the medium. The concentration of rapamycin was optimized by testing a range of rapamycin concentrations with Ad-178 to infect MDA MB 453. Forty-eight hours following infection, the media containing infectious particles was collected and filtered through a 0.22 μm pore filter. The filtered media was used in serial dilution to infect a panel of cancer cell lines in black-walled 96-well plates or 6-well plates, and virus similarly prepared without the addition of rapamycin was used to infect an identical set of cells in parallel as the control. The media was replace 3 hours post-infection. Regarding rapalog-induced retargeting adenovirus infection via EGFR by EGFRVHH-FKBP, a virus was constructed using Adsembly with pENTR E1 (GFP-E1A), pENTR E3-L5 (ΔRID, EGFRVHH-FKBP, FRB*-Fiber), pENTR E4, and pDEST E2-L5, referred to hereafter as Ad5-220. Ad5-220 was used to infect 293 E4 cells at MOI 10. Twenty-four hours following the infection 100 nM AP21967 was added to the medium. Forty-eight hours following infection, the media containing infectious particles was collected and filtered through a 0.22 μm pore filter. The filtered media was used to infect cancer cell lines in 12-well plates, and viruses similarly prepared with the addition of rapamycin or without the addition of AP21967 were used to infect an identical set of cells in parallel as controls. The media was replaced 1 hour post-infection. Regarding rapamycin-induced retargeting adenovirus infection with ectopically expressed ligand-FKBP, 293 E4 cells were transiently transfected with EGFRVHH-FKBP (or GFP as a control), and 24 hours following transfection, were infected with Ad-122 at MOI 10. Twenty-four hours following the infection 100 nM rapamycin was added to the medium. Forty-eight hours following infection, the media containing infectious particles was collected and filtered through a 0.22 μm pore filter. The filtered media was used to infect MDA MB 231 cells seeded on 12-well plates. The media was replaced 1 hour post-infection. Regarding quantification of the infection efficiency, 96-well plates were quantified by high-content imaging by counting % GFP-positive cells using IMAGEXPRESS™ software on an 25 IMAGEXPRESS™ Micro. The infection efficiency of 6-well or 12-well plates was quantified by counting % GFP-positive cells by FACS using a FACScan (BD Biosciences). Regarding the specificity of the EGFRVHH retargeted adenovirus to EGFR, the effective shRNA B sequence from Engelman, J. A. et al. J Clin Inv. 2006 Oct. 2; 116(10):2695-706 was cloned under the control of an H1 promoter in the pLentiX2 puro vector (Addgene), and used to generate lentivirus to mediate EGFR knockdown in MDA MB 453 breast cancer cells. MDA MB 453s were transduced with the anti-EGFR shRNA construct or a control lentivirus encoding an shRNA directed against the luciferase gene, and were selected under 2 μg/mL puromycin. Knockdown efficiency was quantified by immunoblotting for EGFR in total protein. The retargeting assay as described above was repeated on the selected MDA MB 453 in 6-well plates, and the infection efficiencies were quantified by FACS using a FACScan (BD Biosciences). VI. Tables TABLE 1 Summary of designed novel adenoviruses. Ad-Serotype Components Adenovirus E1 E2, E3 E4 L3 Ad-122 GFP- wt FRB-fiber wt (SEQ ID NO: 70) E1A Ad-177 GFP- wt ΔE3-RIDα, ΔE3-RIDβ, ΔE3- wt (SEQ ID NO: 71) E1A 14.7K replaced with CEAVHH- FKBP fusion; FRB-fiber Ad-178 GFP- wt ΔE3-RIDα, ΔE3-RIDβ, ΔE3- wt (SEQ ID NO: 72) E1A 14.7K replaced with EGFRVHH-FKBP fusion; FRB- fiber Ad-199 GFP- wt ΔE3-RIDα, ΔE3-RIDβ, ΔE3- wt (SEQ ID NO 67) E1A 14.7K replaced with CEAVHH- FKBP fusion; wt fiber Ad-200 GFP- wt ΔE3-RIDα, ΔE3-RIDβ, ΔE3- wt (SEQ ID NO: 68) E1A 14.7K replaced with EGFRVHH-FKBP fusion; wt fiber Ad-281 GFP- wt ΔE3-RIDα, ΔE3-RIDβ, ΔE3- wt (SEQ ID NO: 109) E1A 14.7K replaced with PA D4- FKBP fusion; FRB fiber Ad-220 GFP- wt ΔE3-RIDα, ΔE3-RIDβ, ΔE3- wt (SEQ ID NO: 110) E1A 14.7K replaced with EGFRVHH-FKBP fusion; FRB (mTOR T2098L) fiber TABLE 2 Examples of dimerizing agents (DA), dimerizing agent binders of the capsid dimerizing-agent binder conjugate (DABC) and dimerizing agent binders of the ligand- dimerizing agent binder conjugate (DABL). DA DABC DABL rapamycin FRB FKBP12 AP21967 FRB (with FKBP12 mTOR T2098L mutation) abscisic acid (ABA) PYL1 AB1 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (CFA) Tir1 IAA7 inositol hexakisphosphate (IHP) indole-3-acetic acid (Auxin/IAA) TABLE 3 Examples of ligands included in the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and corresponding cell surface receptors bound by such ligands. Retargeting Uniprot Accession Uniprot Accession Element Number\Sequence Receptor Number Receptor Notes apelin Q9ULZ1 APLNR P35414 Widely expressed in brain, glial cells, (SEQ ID NO: 73) (SEQ ID NO: 10) astrocytes, neuronal subpopulations, spleen, thymus, ovary, small intestine, and colon. bradykinin P01042 BDKRB1, P30411 BDKRB1 is expressed in tissue injury, at sites (SEQ ID NO: 74) B2 (SEQ ID NO: 11) of inflammation. B2 is ubiquitously expressed, P46663 widespread in normal smooth muscle and (SEQ ID NO: 12) neurons. calcitonin P01258 CALCR P30988 Receptor found on osteoclasts. (SEQ ID NO: 75) (SEQ ID NO: 13) conantokin e.g. P07231 NMDAR1, Q05586 Found upregulated in invasive tumor cells. peptides (SEQ ID NO: 76) 2A, 2B, 2C, (SEQ ID NO: 14) 2D Q12879 (SEQ ID NO: 15) Q13224 (SEQ ID NO: 16) Q14957 (SEQ ID NO: 17) O15399 (SEQ ID NO: 18) cholecystokinin P06307 CCKAR, P32238 Receptor found in CNS and gastrointestinal (SEQ ID NO: 77) CCKBR (SEQ ID NO: 19) tract, upregulated in some colorectal and P32239 pancreatic tumors. (SEQ ID NO: 20) EGF peptide, P01133 EGFR P00533 Receptor ubiquitously expressed, upregulated in TGFα (SEQ ID NO: 78) (SEQ ID NO: 21) numerous tumors. P01135 (SEQ ID NO: 79) endothelin P05305 EDNRA P25101 Receptors present in blood vessels, nerves, and (SEQ ID NO: 80) (ETA), (SEQ ID NO: 22) brain tissue. EDNRB P24530 (ETB) (SEQ ID NO: 23) F3 peptide KDEPQRRSARLSAK Nucleolin P19338 Receptor on cell surface of endothelial PAPPKPEPKPKKAP (SEQ ID NO: 24) cells. AKK (SEQ ID NO: 81) Factor XI P03951 F11 receptor Q9Y624 Receptor is an epithelial tight junction adhesion (SEQ ID NO: 82) (SEQ ID NO: 25) molecule. Fc fragment of FCAR P24071 Receptor present on the surface of myeloid IgA (CD98) (SEQ ID NO: 26) lineage cells such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and eosinophils. Fc fragment of FCER1A, P12319 Receptors bind alpha and gamma polypeptide IgE FCER1G (SEQ ID NO: 27) with respectively with high affinity. P20491 (SEQ ID NO: 28) Fc fragment of FCGR1A P12314 Receptor is monocyte/macrophage specific. IgG (CD64) (SEQ ID NO: 29) galanin P22466 GALR1, R2, P47211 Receptors expressd in CNS and some solid (SEQ ID NO: 83) R3 (SEQ ID NO: 30) tumors. O43603 (SEQ ID NO: 31) O60755 (SEQ ID NO: 32) gastric inhibitory P09681 GIPR P48546 Receptors found on beta cells in pancreas. polypeptide (SEQ ID NO: 84) (SEQ ID NO: 33) (GIP) gastrin releasing P07492 GRPR P30550 Highly expressed in pancreas, also in stomach, peptide (GRP), (SEQ ID NO: 85) (SEQ ID NO: 34) adrenal cortex, and brain. bombesin P21591 (SEQ ID NO: 86) glucagon (GCG) P01275 GCGR P47871 Receptor found on hepatocytes. (SEQ ID NO: 87) (SEQ ID NO: 35) LyP-1 peptide CGNKRTRGC C1QBP Q07021 Receptor normally found in mitochondria, but is (SEQ ID NO: 88) (SEQ ID NO: 36) on cell surface of lymphatic, myeloid, and cancer cells in tumors. neuromedin P08949 NMBR P28336 Found expressed and functional in lung (SEQ ID NO: 89) (SEQ ID NO: 37) carcinoma cells, related to GRPR. parathyroid P01270 PTH1R, 2R Q03431 Receptor in osteoblasts and kidney. hormone (SEQ ID NO: 90) (SEQ ID NO: 38) P49190 (SEQ ID NO: 39) poliovirus VP3, Q91UD0 PVR P15151 Receptor establishes cell-cell junctions between TIGIT (SEQ ID NO: 91) (CD155) (SEQ ID NO: 40) epithelial cells. Q495A1 (SEQ ID NO: 92) prolactin P01236 PRLR P16471 Receptors found in mammillary glands, ovaries, (SEQ ID NO: 93) (SEQ ID NO: 41) pituitary glands, heart, lung, thymus, spleen, liver, pancreas, kidney, adrenal gland, uterus, skeletal muscle, skin, and areas of CNS. protective antigen P13423 ANTXR1 P58335 TEM8 found in umbilical vein endothelial cells (domain 4) (SEQ ID NO: 94) (TEM8), R2 (SEQ ID NO: 42) and tumor endothelial cells. CMG2 in prostate, (CMG2) Q9H6X2 thymus, ovary, testis, pancreas, colon, heart, (SEQ ID NO: 43) kidney, lung, liver, peripheral blood leukocytes, placenta, skeletal muscle, small intestine, and spleen. Involved in angiogenesis. protein C P04070 EPCR Q9UNN8 Receptor found on endothelial cells. (PROC) (SEQ ID NO: 95) (SEQ ID NO: 44) ricin B-chain P02879 terminal Beta-D-galactopyranoside moieties on cell (SEQ ID NO: 96) galactose surface glycoproteins and glycolipids found on residues most cells. secretin P09683 SCTR P47872 Receptor ubiquitously expressed. (SEQ ID NO: 97) (SEQ ID NO: 45) shigatoxin B Q8HA13 CD77 Q9NPC4 Receptor found in renal epithelial tissues, CNS subunit (SEQ ID NO: 98) (SEQ ID NO: 46) neurons and endothelium, pancreas cancer, colon cancer. tachykinin P20366 NK1R, P25103 Receptor binds family of neuropeptides known peptides (SEQ ID NO: 99) K2R, K3R P21452 (SEQ ID NO: 47) as tachykinins. Q9UHF0 (SEQ ID NO: 48) (SEQ ID NO: 100) P29371 (SEQ ID NO: 49) tetanus toxin B- P04958 SV2A, 2B Q7L0J3 Receptors found on neuronal cells. (heavy) chain (SEQ ID NO: 101) (SEQ ID NO: 50) Q7L1I2 (SEQ ID NO: 51) thrombin (F2) P00734 F2R P25116 Receptor has high affinity for activated (SEQ ID NO: 102) (SEQ ID NO: 52) thrombin, and is found mostly in smooth muscle and heart. thrombospondin- P07996 CD36, P16671 CD36 found on platelets and 1 (TSP1) (SEQ ID NO: 103) CD47, (SEQ ID NO: 53) monocytes/macrophages. CD47 is broadly integrins Q08722 distributed, abundant in some epithelia and the (SEQ ID NO: 54) brain, and has been found in ovarian tumors. TSP1 can bind to fibrinogen, fibronectin, laminin, type V collagen and integrins alpha- V/beta-1, alpha-V/beta-3 and alpha-IIb/beta-3. Transferrin, TfR P02787 TFRC P02786 Receptor is found in endothelial cells and colon, binding peptides (SEQ ID NO: 104) (CD71), (SEQ ID NO: 55) and is constitutively endocytosed. It is TFR2 Q9UP52 upregulated by cancer drug arabinoside (SEQ ID NO: 56) cytosine. vasoactive P01282 VIPR1, R2 P32241 VPAC1 found in CNS, liver, lung, intestine, and intestinal peptide (SEQ ID NO: 105) (SEQ ID NO: 57) T-lymphocytes. VPAC2 found in CNS, P41587 pancreas, skeletal muscle, heart, kidney, adipose (SEQ ID NO: 58) tissue, testis, and stomach. VEGF P15692 VEGFR1, P17948 VEGFR1 found in normal lung, placenta, liver, (SEQ ID NO: 106) R2, R3 (SEQ ID NO: 59) kidney, heart, and brain. Specifically expressed P35968 in vascular endothelial cells and peripheral (SEQ ID NO: 60) blood monocytes. VEGFR3 is expressed in P35916 corneal epithelial cells and vascular smooth (SEQ ID NO: 61) muscle cells. von Willebrand P04275 (GPIbA, P07359 Receptor complex found on platelets. factor (SEQ ID NO: 107) GPIbB, (SEQ ID NO: 62) GP9, and P13224 GP5) in (SEQ ID NO: 63) concert P14770 (SEQ ID NO: 64) P40197 (SEQ ID NO: 65) scFvs Any* Can be designated by directed evolution of antibodies. VHH Any* Can be designated by directed evolution of antibodies. VII. Embodiments Embodiment 1. A recombinant nucleic acid encoding a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. Embodiment 2. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 1, wherein said capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate comprises a capsid protein and a dimerizing agent binder. Embodiment 3. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 2, wherein said capsid protein is operably linked to said dimerizing agent binder. Embodiment 4. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 3, wherein said capsid protein is an adenoviral capsid protein. Embodiment 5. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 4, wherein said adenoviral capsid protein is a fiber protein. Embodiment 6. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 3, wherein said dimerizing agent binder is a FRB protein. Embodiment 7. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 1, wherein said ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate comprises a ligand and a dimerizing agent binder. Embodiment 8. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 7, wherein said ligand is operably linked to said dimerizing agent binder. Embodiment 9. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 7, wherein said ligand is capable of binding a cell. Embodiment 10. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 9, wherein said cell is a tumor cell. Embodiment 11. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 7, wherein said ligand is an antibody. Embodiment 12. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 11, wherein said antibody is a single domain antibody. Embodiment 13. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 7, wherein said dimerizing agent binder is an immunophilin protein. Embodiment 14. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 13, wherein said immunophilin protein is a FKBP protein. Embodiment 15. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 14, wherein said FKBP protein is a human FKBP protein. Embodiment 16. The recombinant nucleic acid of embodiment 15, wherein said human FKBP protein is FKBP12. Embodiment 17. A recombinant adenovirus comprising a recombinant nucleic acid of one of embodiments 1-16. Embodiment 18. The recombinant adenovirus of embodiment 17, wherein said adenovirus is a replication incompetent adenovirus. Embodiment 19. The recombinant adenovirus of embodiment 17, wherein said adenovirus is a replication competent adenovirus. Embodiment 20. A recombinant adenovirus comprising a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. Embodiment 21. The recombinant adenovirus of embodiment 20, wherein said capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate is bound to a dimerizing agent. Embodiment 22. The recombinant adenovirus of embodiment 21, wherein said dimerizing agent is a compound. Embodiment 23. The recombinant adenovirus of embodiment 22, wherein said compound is rapamycin. Embodiment 24. The recombinant adenovirus of embodiment 21, wherein said dimerizing agent is an anti-cancer drug. Embodiment 25. The recombinant adenovirus of embodiment 21, wherein said dimerizing agent is further bound to a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. Embodiment 26. A cell comprising a recombinant adenovirus of any one of embodiments 20-25. Embodiment 27. A method of forming an adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct, said method comprising: (i) infecting a cell with a recombinant adenovirus of embodiment 17, thereby forming an adenoviral infected cell; (ii) allowing said adenoviral infected cell to express said recombinant nucleic acid, thereby forming a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a recombinant adenovirus comprising a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate; (iii) contacting said recombinant adenovirus and said ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate with a dimerizing agent; (iv) allowing said recombinant adenovirus and said ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate to bind to said dimerizing agent, thereby forming said adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct. Embodiment 28. A method of targeting a cell, said method comprising contacting a cell with a recombinant adenovirus of any one of embodiments 20-25. Embodiment 29. The method of embodiment 28, wherein said cell is a cancer cell. Embodiment 30. A method of targeting a cancer cell in a cancer patient, said method comprising: (i) administering to a cancer patient a recombinant adenovirus of embodiment 17; (ii) allowing said recombinant adenovirus to infect a cell in said cancer patient, thereby forming an adenoviral infected cell; (iii) allowing said adenoviral infected cell to express said recombinant nucleic acid, thereby forming a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a recombinant adenovirus comprising a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate; (iv) administering to said cancer patient a dimerizing agent; (v) allowing said recombinant adenovirus and said ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate to bind to said dimerizing agent, thereby forming an adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct; (vi) allowing said adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct to bind to a cancer cell, thereby targeting said cancer cell in said cancer patient. Embodiment 31. The method of embodiment 30, wherein said cell is a cancer cell. Embodiment 32. The method of embodiment 30, wherein said cell is a non-cancer cell. Embodiment 33. A method of targeting a cell, said method comprising: (i) contacting a first cell with a recombinant adenovirus of embodiment 17; (ii) allowing said recombinant adenovirus to infect said first cell, thereby forming an adenoviral infected cell; (iii) allowing said adenoviral infected cell to express said recombinant nucleic acid, thereby forming a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a recombinant adenovirus comprising a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate; (iv) contacting said ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and said recombinant adenovirus with a dimerizing agent; (v) allowing said recombinant adenovirus and said ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate to bind to said dimerizing agent, thereby forming an adenoviral cell targeting construct; (vi) allowing said adenoviral cell targeting construct to bind to a second cell, thereby targeting said cell. Embodiment 34. The method of embodiment 33, wherein said first cell and said second cell form part of an organism. Embodiment 35. The method of embodiment 33, wherein said first cell and said second cell form part of tissue culture vessel.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Cancer is a debilitating disease that accounts for more than half a million deaths each year. There is a profound need for more effective, selective and safe treatments for cancer. Existing treatments for this pervasive, life threatening disease, such as chemotherapy and surgery, rarely eliminate all malignant cells, and often exhibit deleterious side-effects that can outweigh therapeutic benefit. One approach that has the potential to address many of the shortcomings of current cancer treatments is oncolytic adenoviral therapy (Pesonen, S. et al., Molecular Pharmaceutics, 8(1): p. 12-28 (2010)). These viruses are designed to replicate specifically in cancer cells, but leave normal cells unharmed. One way to engineer tumor selectivity is to target adenovirus infection to receptors upregulated on tumor cells, for example EGFR family members (Zhang H, Berezov A, Wang Q, Zhang G, Drebin J, Murali R, et al. ErbB receptors: from oncogenes to targeted cancer therapies. J Clin Invest. 2007;117(8):2051-8. PMCID: 1934579), CEACAM (Li H J, Everts M, Pereboeva L, Komarova S, Idan A, Curiel D T, et al. Adenovirus tumor targeting and hepatic untargeting by a coxsackie/adenovirus receptor ectodomain anti-carcinoembryonic antigen bispecific adapter. Cancer Res. 2007;67(11):5354-61), EpCAM (Haisma H J, Pinedo H M, Rijswijk A, der Meulen-Muileman I, Sosnowski B A, Ying W, et al. Tumor-specific gene transfer via an adenoviral vector targeted to the pan-carcinoma antigen EpCAM. Gene Ther. 1999;6(8):1469-7), and HLA-A1/MAGE-A1 (de Vrij J, Uil T G, van den Hengel S K, Cramer S J, Koppers-Lalic D, Verweij M C, et al. Adenovirus targeting to HLA-A1/MAGE-A1-positive tumor cells by fusing a single-chain T-cell receptor with minor capsid protein IX. Gene Ther. 2008;15(13):978-89). For a review of various strategies of adenovirus targeting, see Noureddini S C and Curiel D T (Genetic targeting strategies for adenovirus. Mol Pharm. 2005;2(5):341-7; Nicklin S A, Wu E, Nemerow G R, Baker A H. The influence of adenovirus fiber structure and function on vector development for gene therapy. Mol Ther. 2005;12(3):384-93). Adenovirus (Ad) is a self-replicating biological machine. It consists of a linear double-stranded 36 kb DNA genome sheathed in a protein coat. Ad requires a human host cell to replicate. It invades and hijacks the cellular replicative machinery to reproduce and upon assembly induces lytic cell death to escape the cell and spread and invade surrounding cells ( FIG. 1 ). No ab initio system has come close to mimicking the autonomy and efficiency of Ad, however, Applicants have developed new strategies to systematically manipulate the Ad genome to create novel adenoviruses. Henceforth, with the ability to manipulate the Ad genome, Applicants can take the virus by the horns and redesign it to perform the functions of tumor-specific infection, replication, and cell killing. Currently, adenoviral vectors rely on a single cellular receptor for their uptake, which significantly limits their therapeutic potential. Ad5 infection is mediated primarily through interactions between the fiber protein on the outer viral capsid and the coxsackie and adenovirus receptor (CAR) on human epithelial cells. Unfortunately, many cancer cells do not express CAR, such as mesenchymal and deadly metastatic tumor cells. Since viral replication/killing is limited by the ability to infect cells, there is a need for viruses that infect tumor cells via receptors other than CAR, ideally those specifically upregulated on tumor cells. The present invention addresses these and other needs in the art by providing viral compositions and methods that chemically link viral capsids via chemical adapters to a broad variety of cellular receptors. Provided herein is a novel, inducible, genetically encoded chemical adapter system that retargets infection to multiple cell types, and is not lost upon viral replication. The compositions provided herein can be used to customize an oncolytic virus to target different cellular receptors over the course of infection.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In one aspect, a recombinant nucleic acid encoding a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are provided. In another aspect, a recombinant adenovirus including a recombinant nucleic acid provided herein including embodiments thereof is provided. In another aspect, a recombinant adenovirus including a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate is provided. In another aspect, a cell including a recombinant adenovirus provided herein including embodiments thereof is provided. In another aspect, a method of forming an adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct is provided. The method includes infecting a cell with a recombinant adenovirus provided herein, thereby forming an adenoviral infected cell. The adenoviral infected cell is allowed to express the recombinant nucleic acid, thereby forming a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a recombinant adenovirus including a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. The recombinant adenovirus and the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are contacted with a dimerizing agent. The recombinant adenovirus and the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are allowed to bind to the dimerizing agent, thereby forming the adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct. In another aspect, a method of targeting a cell is provided. The method includes contacting a cell with a recombinant adenovirus provided herein including embodiments thereof. In another aspect, a method of targeting a cancer cell in a cancer patient is provided. The method includes administering to a cancer patient a recombinant adenovirus provided herein. The recombinant adenovirus is allowed to infect a cell in the cancer patient, thereby forming an adenoviral infected cell. The adenoviral infected cell is allowed to express the recombinant nucleic acid, thereby forming a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a recombinant adenovirus including a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. The cancer patient is administered with a dimerizing agent. The recombinant adenovirus and the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are allowed to bind to the dimerizing agent, thereby forming an adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct. The adenoviral cancer cell targeting construct is allowed to bind to a cancer cell, thereby targeting the cancer cell in the cancer patient. In another aspect, a method of targeting a cell is provided. The method includes contacting a first cell with a recombinant adenovirus provided herein. The recombinant adenovirus is allowed to infect the first cell, thereby forming an adenoviral infected cell. The adenoviral infected cell is allowed to express the recombinant nucleic acid, thereby forming a ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and a recombinant adenovirus comprising a capsid-dimerizing agent binder conjugate. The ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate and the recombinant adenovirus are contacted with a dimerizing agent. The recombinant adenovirus and the ligand-dimerizing agent binder conjugate are allowed to bind to the dimerizing agent, thereby forming an adenoviral cell targeting construct. The adenoviral cell targeting construct is allowed to bind to a second cell, thereby targeting the cell.

A61K35761

20180123

20180531

64605.0

A61K35761

SINGH, ANOOP KUMAR

SELECTIVE CELL TARGETING USING ADENOVIRUS AND CHEMICAL DIMERS

SMALL

CONT-PENDING

A61K

PENDING

METHOD FOR DEPINNING THE FERMI LEVEL OF A SEMICONDUCTOR AT AN ELECTRICAL JUNCTION AND DEVICES INCORPORATING SUCH JUNCTIONS

An electrical device in which an interface layer is disposed in between and in contact with a conductor and a semiconductor.

1. An electrical junction, comprising a region in a semiconductor substrate, a metal electrical contact to said region, and an interface layer between said region and said metal electrical contact, said region being electrically connected to said metal electrical contact through said interface layer and said interface layer comprising a metal oxide in contact with said metal electrical contact and a semiconductor oxide in contact with said region in the semiconductor substrate. 2. The electrical junction of claim 1, wherein the semiconductor oxide comprises an oxide of the region in the semiconductor substrate. 3. The electrical junction of claim 2, wherein the semiconductor oxide has a thickness of approximately 0.1 nm to 5 nm. 4. The electrical junction of claim 1, wherein said region in the semiconductor substrate comprises a source or drain of a transistor. 5. The electrical junction of claim 1, wherein said interface layer has a thickness sufficient to depin a Fermi level of the metal electrical contact in a vicinity of the junction yet thin enough to provide the junction with a specific contact resistivity that is generally dependent on: a workfunction of the metal electrical contact, a Fermi energy of the semiconductor in the region, or both the workfunction of the metal electrical contact and the Fermi energy of the semiconductor in the region. 6. The electrical junction of claim 1, wherein said interface layer is configured to provide a specific contact resistivity between the metal electrical contact and the region in the semiconductor of less than 10 Ω-μm2. 7. The electrical junction of claim 1, wherein said metal electrical contact comprises an alloy of a metal. 8. The electrical junction of claim 1, wherein said metal oxide comprises an oxide of said metal electrical contact. 9. The electrical junction of claim 8, wherein said semiconductor oxide comprises an oxide of the region in the semiconductor substrate. 10. The electrical junction of claim 1, wherein said semiconductor oxide comprises an oxide of the region in the semiconductor substrate. 11. The electrical junction of claim 1, wherein said metal oxide comprises an oxide of titanium. 12. The electrical junction of claim 11, wherein said semiconductor oxide comprises an oxide of silicon. 13. The electrical junction of claim 12, wherein said semiconductor oxide comprises silicon dioxide. 14. The electrical junction of claim 12, wherein said region in the semiconductor substrate comprises an n-type doped source or drain of a transistor. 15. The electrical junction of claim 1, wherein said metal electrical contact comprises titanium. 16. The electrical junction of claim 1, wherein said metal electrical contact comprises tungsten. 17. An electrical junction, comprising: a source or drain of a transistor, said source or drain comprising a semiconductor, a metal electrical contact to said source or drain, and an interface layer disposed between and in contact with said source or drain and said metal electrical contact, said source or drain being electrically connected to said metal electrical contact through said interface layer and said interface layer comprising an oxide of titanium and an oxide of the semiconductor. 18. The electrical junction of claim 17, wherein said metal electrical contact includes titanium. 19. The electrical junction of claim 17, wherein said metal electrical contact includes tungsten. 20. The electrical junction of claim 17, wherein said semiconductor comprises silicon. 21. The electrical junction of claim 18, wherein said semiconductor comprises silicon. 22. The electrical junction of claim 19, wherein said semiconductor comprises silicon. 23. A semiconductor device, comprising: a semiconductor region, a metal electrical contact to said semiconductor region, and an interface layer disposed between and in contact with said semiconductor region and said metal electrical contact, said semiconductor region being electrically connected to said metal electrical contact through said interface layer and said interface layer comprising an oxide of titanium and an oxide of the semiconductor region. 24. The semiconductor device of claim 23, wherein said metal electrical contact includes titanium. 25. The semiconductor device of claim 23, wherein said metal electrical contact includes tungsten. 26. The semiconductor device of claim 23, wherein said semiconductor region comprises silicon. 27. The semiconductor device of claim 24, wherein said semiconductor region comprises silicon. 28. The semiconductor device of claim 25, wherein said semiconductor region comprises silicon. 29. An electrical junction, comprising: a source or drain of a transistor, said source or drain comprising a semiconductor, a metal electrical contact to said source or drain, and an interface layer disposed between and in contact with said source or drain and said metal electrical contact, said source or drain being electrically connected to said metal electrical contact through said interface layer and said interface layer being less than 1 nm thick and comprising an oxide of the semiconductor. 30. The electrical junction of claim 29, wherein the metal electrical contact comprises titanium.

RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is a CONTINUATION of U.S. patent application No. Ser. 15/728,002, filed Oct. 9, 2017, presently pending, which is a CONTINUATION of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/251,210, filed Aug. 30, 2016, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,812,542, which is a CONTINUATION of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/048,877, filed Feb. 19, 2016, which is a CONTINUATION of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/552,556, filed Jul. 18, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,425,277, which is a CONTINUATION of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/022,522, filed Feb. 7, 2011, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,431,469, which is a DIVISIONAL of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/197,996, filed Aug. 25, 2008, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,884,003, which is a DIVISIONAL of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/181,217, filed Jul. 13, 2005, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,462,860, which is a CONTINUATION of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/217,758, filed Aug. 12, 2002, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,084,423, which is related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/342,576, filed Jan. 14, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,833,556, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention elates generally to semiconductor processing and semiconductor devices. More particularly, the invention relates to a process for depinning the Fermi level of a semiconductor at a metal-interface layer-semiconductor junction and to devices that employ such a junction. BACKGROUND One of the most basic electrical junctions used in modern devices is the metal-semiconductor junction. In these junctions, a metal (such as aluminum) is brought in contact with a semiconductor (such as silicon). This forms a device (a diode) which can be inherently rectifying; that is, the junction will tend to conduct current in one direction more favorably than in the other direction. In other cases, depending on the materials used, the junction may be ohmic in nature (i.e., the contact may have negligible resistance regardless of the direction of current flow). Grondahl and Geiger first studied the rectifying form of these junctions in 1926, and by 1938 Schottky had developed a theoretical explanation for the rectification that was observed. Schottky's theory explained the rectifying behavior of a metal-semiconductor contact as depending on a barrier at the surface of contact between the metal and the semiconductor. In this model, the height of the barrier (as measured by the potential necessary for an electron to pass from the metal to the semiconductor) was postulated as the difference between the work function of the metal (the work function is the energy required to free an electron at the Fermi level of the metal, the Fermi level being the highest occupied energy state of the metal at T=0) and the electron affinity of the semiconductor (the electron affinity is the difference between the energy of a free electron and the conduction band edge of the semiconductor). Expressed mathematically: φB=φM−χS [1] where ΦB is the barrier height, ΦM is the work function of the metal and χS is the electron affinity of the semiconductor. Not surprisingly, many attempts were made to verify this theory experimentally. If the theory is correct, one should be able to observe direct variations in barrier heights for metals of different work functions when put in contact with a common semiconductor. What is observed, however, is not direct scaling, but instead only a much weaker variation of barrier height with work function than implied by the model. Bardeen sought to explain this difference between theoretical prediction and experimental observation by introducing the concept that surface states of the semiconductor play a role in determining the barrier height. Surface states are energy states (within the bandgap between the valence and conduction bands) at the edge of the semiconductor crystal that arise from incomplete covalent bonds, impurities, and other effects of crystal termination. FIG. 1 shows a cross-section of an un-passivated silicon surface labeled 100. The particular silicon surface shown is an Si(100) 2×1 surface. As shown, the silicon atoms at the surface, such as atom 110, are not fully coordinated and contain un-satisfied dangling bonds, such as dangling bond 120. These dangling bonds may be responsible for surface states that trap electrical charges. Bardeen's model assumes that surface states are sufficient to pin the Fermi level in the semiconductor at a point between the valence and conduction bands. If true, the barrier height at a metal-semiconductor junction should be independent of the metal's work function. This condition is rarely observed experimentally, however, and so Bardeen's model (like Schottky's) is best considered as a limiting case. For many years, the cause underlying the Fermi level pinning of the semiconductor at a metal-semiconductor junction remained unexplained. Indeed, to this day no one explanation satisfies all experimental observations regarding such junctions. Nevertheless, in 1984, Tersoff proposed a model that goes a long way towards explaining the physics of such junctions. See J. Tersoff, “Schottky Barrier Heights and the Continuum of Gap States,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 52 (6), Feb. 6, 1984. Tersoffs model (which is built on work by Heine and Flores & Tejedor, and see also Louie, Cheiikowsky, and Cohen, “Ionicity and the theory of Schottky barriers,” Phys. Rev. B 15, 2154 (1977)) proposes that the Fermi level of a semiconductor at a metal-semiconductor interface is pinned near an effective “gap center”, which is related to the bulk semiconductor energy band structure. The pinning is due to so-called metal induced gap states (MIGS), which are energy states in the bandgap of the semiconductor that become populated due to the proximity of the metal. That is, the wave functions of the electrons in the metal do not terminate abruptly at the surface of the metal, but rather decay in proportion to the distance from that surface (i.e., extending inside the semiconductor). To maintain the sum rule on the density of states in the semiconductor, electrons near the surface occupy energy states in the gap derived from the valence band such that the density of states in the valence band is reduced. To maintain charge neutrality, the highest occupied state (which defines the Fermi level of the semiconductor) will then lie at the crossover point from states derived from the valence band to those derived from the conduction band. This crossover occurs at the branch point of the band structure. Although calculations of barrier heights based on Tersoffs model do not satisfy all experimentally observed barrier heights for all metal-semiconductor junctions, there is generally good agreement for a number of such junctions. One final source of surface effects on diode characteristics is inhomogeneity. That is, if factors affecting the barrier height (e.g., density of surface states) vary across the plane of the junction, the resulting properties of the junction are found not to be a linear combination of the properties of the different regions. In summary then, a classic metal-semiconductor junction is characterized by a Schottky barrier, the properties of which (e.g., barrier height) depend on surface states, MIGS and inhomogeneities. The importance of the barrier height at a metal-semiconductor interface is that it determines the electrical properties of the junction. Thus, if one were able to control or adjust the barrier height of a metal-semiconductor junction, one could produce electrical devices of desired characteristics. Such barrier height tuning may become even more important as device sizes shrink even further. Before one can tune the barrier height, however, one must depin the Fermi level of the semiconductor. As discussed in detail below, the present inventors have achieved this goal in a device that still permits substantial current flow between the metal and the semiconductor. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present inventors have determined that for thin interface layers disposed between a metal and a silicon-based semiconductor (e.g., Si, SiC and. SiGe), so as to form a metal-interface layer-semiconductor junction, there exist corresponding minimum specific contact resistances. The interface layer thickness corresponding to this minimum specific contact resistance will vary depending upon the materials used, however, it is a thickness that allows for depinning the Fermi level of the semiconductor while still permitting current to flow between the metal and the semiconductor when the junction is biased (e.g., forward or reverse biased). By depinning the Fermi level, the present inventors mean a condition wherein all, or substantially all, dangling bonds that may otherwise be present at the semiconductor surface have been terminated, and the effect of MIGS has been overcome, or at least reduced, by displacing the semiconductor a sufficient distance from the metal. Minimum specific contact resistances of less than or equal to approximately 10 Ω-μm2 or even less than or equal to approximately 1 Ω-μm2 may be achieved for such junctions in accordance with the present invention. Thus, in one embodiment, the present invention provides an electrical device in which an interface layer is disposed between and in contact with a metal and a silicon-based semiconductor and is configured to depin the Fermi level of the semiconductor while still permitting current flow between the metal and the semiconductor when the electrical device is biased. The specific contact resistance of the electrical device is less than approximately 10 Ω-μm2 . The interface layer may include a passivating material (e.g., a nitride, oxide, oxynitride, arsenide, hydride and/or fluoride) and sometimes also includes a separation layer. In some cases, the interface layer may be essentially a monolayer (or several monolayers) of a semiconductor passivating material. In another embodiment, the interface layer is made up of a passivation layer fabricated by heating the semiconductor in the presence of nitrogenous material, for example ammonia (NH3), nitrogen (N2) or unbound gaseous nitrogen (N) generated from a plasma process. In such cases, the interface layer may be fabricated by heating the semiconductor while in a vacuum chamber and exposing the semiconductor to the nitrogenous material. A further embodiment of the present invention provides for depinning the Fermi level of a semiconductor in an electrical junction through the use of an interface layer disposed between a surface of the semiconductor and a conductor. The interface layer preferably (i) is of a thickness sufficient to reduce effects of MIGS in the semiconductor, and (ii) passivates the surface of the semiconductor. Despite the presence of the interface layer, significant current may flow between the conductor and the semiconductor because the thickness of the interface layer may be chosen to provide a minimum (or near minimum) specific contact resistance for the junction. As indicated above, the interface layer may include a passivating material such as a nitride, oxide, oxynitride, arsenide, hydride and/or fluoride. Further embodiments of the present invention provide a junction between a semiconductor and a conductor separated from the semiconductor by an interface layer configured to allow a Fermi level of the conductor to (i) align with a conduction band of the semiconductor, (ii) align with a valence band of the semiconductor, or (Hi) to be independent of the Fermi level of the semiconductor. In some or all of these cases, current may flow between the conductor and the semiconductor when the junction is biased because the interface layer has a thickness corresponding to a minimum or near minimum specific contact resistance for the junction. For example, specific contact resistances of less than or equal to approximately 2500 Ω-μm2, 1000 Ω-μm2, 100 Ω-μm2, 50 Ω-μm2, 10 Ω-μm2 or even less than or equal to 1 Ω-μm2 may be achieved. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention is illustrated by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 shows a cross-section of an un-passivated silicon surface containing surface silicon atoms with dangling bonds. FIG. 2 illustrates various energy levels for metals and semiconductors and is labeled to show the work function of a metal and the electron affinity of a semiconductor. FIG. 3 shows an energy band diagram for a conventional metal-n-type semiconductor junction and also illustrates the concept of a depletion region formed in the semiconductor when the materials are brought into contact with one another. FIG. 4 illustrates band bending at a conventional metal-n-type semiconductor junction. FIG. 5 shows a semiconductor device containing a semiconductor material having a surface across which electrical current flows during operation of the semiconductor device, and containing an interface layer formed on the surface according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 shows an electrical junction containing an interface layer that is disposed between a semiconductor and a conductor in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 7a, 7b, 7c and 7d show relationships between Fermi energy, conduction-band energy, and valence-band energy for an unpassivated Schottky diode, a passivated Schottky diode in which MIGS are not removed, an unpassivated Schottky diode in which MIGS are removed and a passivated Schottky diode in which MIGS are removed according to one embodiment of the present invention, respectively. FIG. 8 shows a curve of interface layer resistance versus interface layer thickness for an electrical junction containing an interface layer disposed between a semiconductor and a conductor in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Described herein are processes for depinning the Fermi level of a silicon-based semiconductor (e.g., Si, SiC or SiGe) at a metal-semiconductor junction as well as devices that use such a junction. As more fully discussed below, an interface layer is introduced between the semiconductor and the metal. The interface layer functions to passivate the semiconductor surface (that is, terminate dangling bonds that may otherwise be present at the semiconductor surface so as to assure chemical stability of the surface) and to displace the semiconductor from the metal so as to reduce the effect of MIGS. As discussed more fully below, the present inventors have determined that for thin interface layers disposed between a metal and a silicon-based semiconductor (e.g., Si, SiC and SiGe), so as to form a metal-interface layer-semiconductor junction, there exist corresponding minimum specific contact resistances. Indeed, minimum specific contact resistances of less than or equal to approximately 10 Ω-μm2 or even less than or equal to approximately 1 Ω-μm2 may be achieved for such junctions in accordance with the present invention. To achieve such low contact resistances, a metal that has a work function near the conduction band of the semiconductor for n-type semiconductors, or a work function that is near the valence band for p-type semiconductors, is selected. The Schottky barrier in such junctions is already minimized, meaning that it is much less than the Schottky barrier presented by a junction in which the Fermi level is pinned, generally near the middle of the semiconductor's bandgap. The current versus voltage (IV) characteristic of these junctions is non-linear, generally having a slope that increases as the voltage increases, such that the derivative of current with respect to voltage is increasing with voltage. This results in a decreasing differential resistance (dV/dI) and a decreasing resistance (V/I). Thus, a junction that has high resistance or high differential resistance near the origin of the IV characteristic (zero volts) may have significantly lower resistance or lower differential resistance at higher voltages. The present invention achieves low resistance and low differential resistance near the origin of the current-voltage characteristic for a metal-interface layer-semiconductor junction. Generally, the voltage around the origin should be less than about 100 mV, or more preferably less than about 10 mV for purposes of measuring, determining, or utilizing such junctions of low resistance. At higher voltages, the junction resistance will be even lower. It is thus a feature of the present invention to set an upper bound on the resistance of a contact, where the upper bound occurs at low voltages. It is further noted that in junctions where the Schottky barrier is minimized as described above, such that the Fermi level at the junction interface at zero volts lies at or near the conduction band edge or valence band edge (for n- and p-type semiconductors, respectively), the IV characteristic will be nearly symmetric, especially at low voltage. In this case, the term “forward bias” is not defined in the usual sense of a diode wherein forward bias corresponds to the direction of bias for which greater current flows. Thus, in determining or utilizing low resistance junctions of the present invention, the voltage may be either positive or negative. It is also possible (in accordance with a further embodiment of the present invention) to make junctions where the Schottky barrier is higher than it would be if the Fermi level at the junction interface were pinned, usually around mid-gap of the semiconductor. Such junctions are formed in the present invention between a metal with a workfunction near or substantially equal to the conduction band edge of a p-type semiconductor, or between a metal with a workfunction near or substantially equal to the valence band edge of an n-type semiconductor. These junctions are diodes, in that little current will flow if the n-type (p-type) semiconductor is biased positive (negative) with respect to the metal, and large currents will flow if the voltage is reversed. The low-current flow state is referred to as reverse bias, and the high-current flow state is referred to as positive bias. Low resistance in the case of a diode is only relevant in forward bias conditions. In junctions created in accordance with the present invention the resistance contribution of the interface layer is smaller than the resistance due to the Schottky barrier. That is, in forward bias conditions for junctions created in accordance with the present invention, the transport of charge is limited mainly by the thermal emission of carriers from the semiconductor over the barrier at the interface, and not by the tunneling through the interface dielectric. Thus, low resistance in the case of a diode refers to a resistance lower than the resistance presented by the Schottky barrier. In certain applications of diodes, the ability to withstand high reverse biases may be more desirable than high current flow in forward bias. These applications would be considered high voltage/low power applications. In such cases, a low resistance is not essential, and junctions created in accordance with still another embodiment of the present invention provide high-voltage diodes capable of withstanding voltages higher than could otherwise be achieved if the Fermi level of the semiconductor in the junction were pinned. The present invention is discussed below in terms of presently preferred embodiments thereof, however, this discussion is not meant to limit the scope of the invention. By studying t present disclosure, others of ordinary skill in the art may recognize equivalent procedures, materials or structures that can be substituted for those described herein to achieve the same effect. The reader is advised and reminded that the use of such equivalents is deemed to be within the scope of the present invention. For example, where the discussion refers to well-known structures and devices, block diagrams are used, in part to demonstrate the broad applicability of the present invention to a wide range of such structures and devices. I. Introduction and Definitions The present discussion makes use of terms that, although well known in the art, may not be familiar to all readers. Therefore, before beginning a detailed discussion of the present invention, it is helpful to define certain terms and concepts. To understand the properties of metal-semiconductor junctions and the impact of the present invention, one must refer to some important energy scales, which are shown graphically in FIG. 2. The so-called vacuum level (E0) represents the minimum energy that an electron needs to possess in order to completely free itself from a metal or semiconductor. For a metal, the Fermi level (EF) represents the highest occupied energy level for the material. That is, nearly all energy states below the Fermi level are filled, while nearly all states above the Fermi level are empty. The work function of the metal (ΦM) is then defined as the energy required to free an electron at the Fermi level and mathematically it is the difference between the vacuum level and the Fermi level. The work function is an invariant bulk property of the metal. As illustrated in the diagram, semiconductors also have a Fermi level (EF) and a work function (ΦS), however, the work function is not an invariant property of the semiconductor. Because the Fermi level varies depending on the doping level in the semiconductor (i.e., the relative amounts of impurities introduced into the semiconductor crystal which change the electron and hole carrier concentrations), a separate parameter, the electron affinity (χS), is defined. The electron affinity is an invariant property of the semiconductor and is the difference between the vacuum level and the conduction band edge of the semiconductor. In a semiconductor, almost all energy states are filled in the valence band (EV) while the conduction band (EC) is almost empty. Now consider a conventional junction between a metal and an n-type semiconductor that has a work function smaller than the work function of the metal (i.e., ΦS<ΦM). An n-type semiconductor is one in which electrons are the majority charge carriers (in p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority charge carrier). As shown in FIG. 3, because the Fermi level in the semiconductor is higher than the Fermi level in the metal, electrons transfer from the semiconductor 310 to the metal 320 when the materials are brought into contact. Thus, a depletion region (i.e., a region in which there are no free charge carriers) 330 forms near the junction interface 340. The formation of the depletion region gives rise to an electric field and so-called “band bending”, as one approaches the junction interface from the semiconductor side (see FIG. 4). The band bending creates an energy barrier (discussed above) that blocks further transfer of electrons into or out of the semiconductor. Similar barriers are formed for a junction between a metal and a p-type semiconductor when the work function of the metal is less than the work function of the semiconductor. However, in the case of a metal-n-type semiconductor junction in which the work function of the semiconductor is greater than that of the metal or a metal-p-type semiconductor junction in which the work function of the semiconductor is less than that of the metal, no such energy barriers are created and the contact is said to be ohmic in nature. As discussed above, although Schottky first postulated that the height of the energy barrier (Φb) formed at a metal-semiconductor junction was simply the difference between the work function of the metal and the electron affinity of the semiconductor, experiments have not verified this relationship. Instead a more complex explanation that takes into account the effects of surface defect states, inhomogeneities and MIGS appears to provide more accurate estimates of barrier heights by explaining the pinning of the Fermi level in the semiconductor. The present inventors have created a technique which is believed to depin the Fermi level of a Si-based semiconductor at a junction with a metal (and thus allow for control or tuning of the barrier height) by both passivating the semiconductor surface (to eliminate or at least reduce the effects of surface states and possibly inhomogeneities) and displacing the metal from the semiconductor (to eliminate or at least reduce the effects of MIGS). This depinning is achieved by introducing an interface layer between the semiconductor and the metal to create a semiconductor—interface layer—metal junction, which still permits significant current to flow between the metal and the semiconductor when the junction is forward biased. This latter point is important. As discussed further below, for contacts where the energy bands of the semiconductor and the conductor align (i.e., where the Fermi level of the conductor aligns with the conduction or valence band of the semiconductor depending on semiconductor type and/or contact application), if the interface layer is too thin, the specific contact resistance of the junction increases because of the presence of MIGS, resulting in an increased barrier height; thus, current flow is hampered. Conversely, if the interface layer is too thick, the specific contact resistance is again increased and one gets low current across the junction because of tunneling limitations. The present invention achieves an interface layer that is thick enough to reduce or eliminate the effect of MIGS, while still thin enough to permit significant current flow. II. Passivation of Semiconductor Surfaces A common processing operation performed during semiconductor device fabrication is silicon surface passivation. Surface passivation (whether by an oxide or another material) chemically neutralizes and physically protects the underlying silicon. For example, exposing a silicon surface to oxygen (under the appropriate conditions to grow a protective film of silicon dioxide) will allow the oxygen to react with the dangling bonds of the silicon surface to form covalent bonds that satisfy the surface silicon atoms' valency and render the surface fully coordinated. These covalent bonds provide chemical stability to the silicon surface. The covalent bonds also tie up unbound charges that exist on the silicon surface as a result of the discontinuation of the semiconductor crystal at the surface. However, passivation with silicon dioxide has several significant disadvantages. For example, silicon dioxide is a dielectric insulator that poses a significant barrier to the flow of current. Accordingly, a layer of silicon dioxide deposited or grown on a silicon surface may significantly reduce the ability for electrical current to flow through that surface. As a result, the use of silicon dioxide has been limited in practicality to surfaces external to the active region of semiconductor devices through which current passes during device operation (e.g., as a gate oxide layer). This disadvantage is compounded by the fact that the silicon dioxide grows very rapidly and readily on the silicon surface so that it is difficult to limit the growth to a thin layer. Silicon dioxide is also a poor diffusion barrier to semiconductor dopants such as boron. Instead of making use of silicon dioxide then, in one embodiment the present inventors utilize a nitrided semiconductor surface to provide chemical passivation. That is, a nitride layer is introduced to passivate the semiconductor surface by eliminating or at least reducing the effects of surface states and possibly inhomogeneities. The nitride layer also displaces the metal from the semiconductor and eliminates or at least reduces the effects of MIGS. The result of introducing the nitride layer as an interface between the semiconductor and the metal is a depinning of the Fermi level of the semiconductor. When the Fermi level of the semiconductor is depinned, the Fermi level of the metal at the interface will be that of the bulk metal, and will not be dependent upon the interface. In addition to the above, the present inventors propose techniques for providing non-insulating, passivated semiconductor surfaces using materials other than nitrogen; for example, oxides, hydrides, arsenides and/or fluorides. These developments have wide applicability in connection with the fabrication of Schottky diodes, Schottky-barrier transistors and other electrical components. For example, in Schottky diodes, the ability to control the energy barrier height at the diode junction is important if the device is to be tailored to specific applications. Use of the present techniques allows for tuning of the barrier height. Further, for other three-terminal devices with Schottky-barrier-isolated channels, control of device characteristics is made possible through the present invention by allowing n- and p-type devices to be fabricated without dopants, relying instead on the use of metals with different work functions. FIG. 5 shows a semiconductor device 510 that contains a semiconductor 530 and an interface layer 520 formed on a surface 540 of the semiconductor in accordance with the present invention. The terms semiconductor device, microelectronic device, monolithic device, chip, and integrated circuit are often used interchangeably in this field. Any or all such devices may each contain an interface layer formed on a semiconductor surface in accordance with the present invention. The semiconductor 530 contains a semiconductor material. The term semiconductor material refers to a material having a bandgap that is greater than about 0.1 eV and less than about 4 eV. The term bandgap refers to an energy gap of forbidden energy levels separating the conduction band, which is an upper energy band that is mostly devoid of electrons and wherein electrons can conduct, and the valence band, which is an energy band that is mostly filled with electrons and wherein electrons cannot conduct. The semiconductor material may have a wide range of doping levels including no doping at all. The semiconductor 530 has a surface 540 that is passivated by the interface layer 520. In this context (and as used elsewhere herein) the term passivation means the elimination or at least the reduction of the effects of surface states due to defects or dangling bonds of the semiconductor surface 540. Note that passivation does not, as a practical matter, require that all surface states be eliminated. Rather, it is the effect of surface states on the device properties that is limited or eliminated in passivation. Note further that the presence of MIGS may be regarded as a surface state, however, as used herein the term passivation is not meant to infer the elimination of MIGS (though in some cases, a passivation layer may have sufficient thickness to provide a separation layer between the semiconductor and the metal sufficient to reduce or eliminate MIGS). The semiconductor 530 is operable to be electrically coupled with a first voltage associated with the semiconductor device 510 and to conduct electrical current 550 across the passivated surface 540. The interface layer 520 is formed on the semiconductor 530 and may contain a passivation material that bonds to the semiconductor material by way of a covalent (or other) bond formed between the passivation material and the semiconductor material. For example, an atom of passivation material may covalently bond with a dangling bond of a surface silicon atom to fully coordinate the silicon atom and thereby help passivate the silicon atom. In some cases, the passivation material may be the sole component of the interface layer 520, while in other cases the interface layer 520 may be a compound layer that includes both a passivation layer and a separation layer. That is, the interface layer serves to (i) chemically passivate the semiconductor surface 540, and (ii) displace the semiconductor from the metal sufficiently to eliminate or at least reduce the effect of MIGS. As explained below, this may necessitate including a separation layer in addition to a passivation layer within the interface layer, depending on the passivation material selected. Of course, the combination of the passivation layer and the separation layer must be sufficiently thin to permit the low specific contact resistances described herein. Different passivation materials are contemplated. According to one embodiment, the interface layer 520 is formed using a material that is preferably selected from the group consisting of hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), arsenic (As), and fluorine (F) (that is, the interface layer 520 may include a nitride, an oxide, a hydride, an arsenide and/or a fluoride). Other materials having chemical characteristics or valences similar to these materials may also be used. Note that distinct separation layers (i.e., in addition to the passivation layer(s)) may be needed where H, As, or F passivation layers are used, as these tend to form monolayer coverage, rather than a layer of a compound with Si of process-dependent thickness. In contrast, passivation layers made using N and/or O may not require distinct separation layers, as these elements may form a layer of a compound of Si with a thickness that can be varied depending on processing. Different amounts of passivation material are contemplated to be useful for different embodiments of the present invention. Often, the interface layer 520 includes or is made up of a passivation layer with a thickness of between approximately 0.1 nm and about 5 nm. For example, depending upon the particular implementation, the thickness may be less than about 1 nm, less than about 0.5 nm, less than about 0.2 nm, may be the thickness corresponding to a single layer or monolayer of passivation material that is bonded to the semiconductor surface, or may even be the number of atoms of passivation material required to passivate substantially all the dangling bonds associated with the semiconductor surface 540. In some cases, passivation of the semiconductor surface 540 will include removing (or terminating) dangling bonds located proximate to the surface of the semiconductor material, including those at the surface as well as those within a few molecular dimensions from the surface. This process may stabilize the surface of the semiconductor material and may improve the controllability of subsequent fabrication operations. Passivation may also reduce the density of surface states that may exist at the semiconductor surface as a result of the discontinuation of the semiconductor crystal at the surface. This may improve consistency and performance of the semiconductor device, inasmuch as such states are known to interfere with proper device operation. For example, they may provide surface charge states that result in a pinning of the Fermi level. III. Forming Interface Layers Exemplary methods for forming interface layers to provide (i) passivation of semiconductor surfaces, and (ii) displacement of the semiconductor from the metal to eliminate or at least reduce of the effects of MIGS within the semiconductor when in the presence of the metal (collectively referred to herein as depinning the Fermi level of the semiconductor) with hydrogen, fluorine or nitrogen are presented below to further illustrate the concepts of the present invention. Other passivation materials may include arsenic, oxygen or an oxynitride, and in some cases such passivation layers are combined with separation layers (e.g., made of an oxide) to complete the interface layer. A. Hydrogen and Fluorine An interface layer may contain hydrogen, fluorine, or both hydrogen and fluorine (e.g., in the form of a hydride and/or a fluoride). One method for forming an interface layer on a semiconductor surface with hydrogen and fluorine includes cleaning the semiconductor substrate with a cleaning solution, immersing the cleaned substrate in a hydrogen fluoride solution (or other liquid containing hydrogen and fluorine ions) having an effective concentration typically between about 1%-50% by weight, waiting an effective period of time, typically between about several seconds and about 5 minutes, removing the substrate from the hydrogen fluoride solution, optionally rinsing the substrate in deionized water, and blow-drying the substrate with nitrogen. Such a method may form an interface layer containing hydrogen and fluorine that are bonded (e.g., covalently) to the semiconductor surface. It should be noted that long rinses in deionized water, generally longer than about 30 seconds, might remove the hydrogen passivation. Thus, deionized water rinses might advantageously be kept to less than about 30 seconds to maintain the hydrogen passivation of the surface. Also, the higher the concentration of the hydrogen fluoride during the immersion, the greater the concentration of fluorine passivation. Finally, methods are also contemplated where the ratio of hydrogen to fluorine passivation is altered by removing either the hydrogen or the fluorine. An interface layer formed in this fashion may be best suited for applications where a subsequent metal layer is deposited over the interface layer in a generally non-invasive fashion, for example using a thermally evaporated source. Experiments by the present inventors to date suggest that using other approaches (e.g., plasma deposition) may cause damage to the thin (e.g., monolayer thick) interface layer contemplated as part of the present invention. B. Nitrogen In a further embodiment, an interface layer may contain nitrogen (e.g., in the form of silicon nitride). One method for forming an interface over a semiconductor surface with nitrogen includes heating a substrate containing the semiconductor surface in the presence of a nitrogenous material (that is, a gas or other material containing nitrogen). For example, a substrate containing an exposed silicon surface may be annealed at a temperature between about 300° C. and about 750° C., which is lower than temperatures conventionally used for Rapid Thermal Nitridation (RTN), under a gaseous ambient having, for example, ammonia (NH3) at sonic effective partial pressure. By exposed, we mean a clean surface, free of everything except silicon. Such a method may form an interface layer containing nitrogen, often in the form of a nitride, bonded to the semiconductor surface. Note that the present inventors have observed indications suggesting that in these low temperature conditions interface layer growth is self-limiting, depending only on temperature. According to another embodiment, an interface layer that includes nitrogen may be formed on an exposed surface of a semiconductor material by a method that includes heating a semiconductor material to a substantially high temperature under vacuum and exposing the semiconductor material to a substantially small amount of a nitrogenous material, such as ammonia. The method may include placing a semiconductor having an exposed semiconductor surface in a heating chamber, pulling a vacuum of less than about one millionth of a Torr, or more favorably an ultra high vacuum of less than 10-9 Torr, and then heating the semiconductor in the heating chamber to a substantially high temperature. The higher the vacuum, the longer the substrate may be heated without growth of an oxide from residual oxygen or water in the chamber. Thus, the process may include heating the semiconductor to a temperature that is between about 900° C. and about 1000° C., or higher, in an inert ambient. As desired, the semiconductor may be exposed to hydrogen gas, or an equivalent, to reduce any native oxide on the semiconductor. These high temperatures may provide for greater passivation of the semiconductor surface as compared with results that may be achieved at lower temperatures. Then, the heated semiconductor may be exposed to a substantially small amount of a nitrogenous material, such as ammonia. This may include exposing the semiconductor surface to ammonia for a substantially short period of time. For example, the surface may be subjected to a burst or pulse of ammonia lasting for a time period between about 0.5 seconds and about 5 seconds. Alternatively, the surface may be exposed to a controlled, small amount of ammonia over an arbitrarily longer period of time. In this way, the substantially small amount of ammonia will react with the surface to form a nitrogenous interface layer, such as a nitride layer, thereon and then further growth of the interface layer will cease. Then the semiconductor may be cooled from the substantially high temperature to ambient temperature and removed from the heating chamber. Further annealing of the substrate and the grown nitride layer may also be performed in the vacuum chamber before removal, at a substantially elevated temperature between about 700° C. and 1000° C., or higher. Advantageously, it has been unexpectedly observed that a process such as that described above and incorporating substantially high temperature exposure for substantially short periods may be used to controllably form thin yet effective interface layers. That is, the present inventors have observed that in the creation of thin interface layers that include nitrogenous materials, temperature appears to be a dominant factor in controlling thickness. For example, by such methods effective interface layers may be formed having a thickness that is less than about 1 nm, less than about 0.5 nm, less than about 0.2 nm, or having a thickness that corresponds to essentially a single monolayer sufficient to passivate essentially all dangling bonds proximate the semiconductor surface. Further, thin interface layers may be advantageously grown on a semiconductor in the presence of nitrogen gas, or other inert nitrogen-containing gas. The reaction rate of a semiconductor such as silicon with nitrogen gas is significantly lower than that of a reactive nitrogen-containing gas such as ammonia. The slow growth rate may be desirable for better control of the growth of films of nitrogen on a semiconductor of a thickness of less than about 1 nm, less than about 0.5 nm, less than about 0.2 nm, or having a thickness that corresponds to essentially a single monolayer sufficient to passivate essentially all dangling bonds proximate the silicon surface. IV. Diodes Containing Passivated Semiconductor Surfaces Diodes made from Schottky barriers (i.e., asymmetric electrical potentials formed at a junction between a metal and a semiconductor) are widely used in rectifiers in power supply and control applications. As used herein, the terms Schottky diode, metal-semiconductor junction diode, diode, and rectifier are all related and appear in order from more specific at the left to more general at the right. Likewise, the terms Schottky barrier, metal-semiconductor barrier, conductor-semiconductor junction, and multi-material junction are all related and appear in order from more specific at the left to more general at the right. The term Schottky diode will be used to refer to a diode containing a Schottky barrier. As mentioned above, the present inventors have devised a scheme to control or adjust a Schottky barrier height by forming an interface layer (which includes or sometimes consists of a passivation layer that includes an oxide, oxynitride, nitride, arsenide, hydride, fluoride, or an equivalent) between a metal and a semiconductor. This scheme differs from past attempts by others to control barrier height, which attempts generally involved either using a silicide as a contact metal (and thus limiting the choices of available contact metals to those that can form silicides), or using esoteric substrates that exhibit wide bandgaps. Further, in previous devices the Fermi level of the semiconductor remains pinned, with the barrier height being virtually independent of the metal used. Finally, doping of substrates has also been attempted, however, it has not been shown to truly affect the barrier height of the substrate material. For example, PtSi contacts have reduced resistance due to high silicon doping such that the current across the junction is dominated by tunneling through the barrier. Doping may thus lead to cases where the top of the barrier may be so thin as to be essentially transparent to electrons, however, doping does not appear to allow actual tuning of the barrier height. FIG. 6 shows an example of a diode 600 containing, according to one embodiment of the present invention, an interface layer 620 disposed between and attached to both a semiconductor 610 and a conductor 630. The conductor and the semiconductor are operable to be electrically coupled with different voltages associated with the operation of the diode 600 and to pass electrical current through a passivated semiconductor surface formed at the junction between the semiconductor 610 and the interface layer 620. The conductor 630 contains a conductive material such as a metal or an alloy of a metal. The terms metal, conductive material, and conductor are all related and appear in order from specific at the left to general at the right. In general, the terms refer to a highly electrically conductive substance that has a Fermi energy level that sits in a partially filled band. Unless otherwise specified, conductors include metals (e.g., pure metals and alloys), and other conductors such as doped polysilicon (a nonporous silicon containing randomly oriented crystallites), doped single crystal silicon, and metal silicides. Note that alloys may have workfunctions different than their constituents and may be designed to have specific workfunctions though selective use of ratios of the constituent metals. Often, the conductor is a metal since metals may offer advantages over conductive semiconductors including lower resistance, higher carrier mobilities that provide superior high frequency performance and switching, favorable low power characteristics, and ease of manufacturing control. Use of metals may also avoid the need to perform semiconductor doping, which may simplify manufacturing and improve quality control. Metals that are contemplated include pure metals, alloys, refractory metals, metals that do not form silicides, metals physically deposited by substantially non-invasive processes such as by condensation of a thermally evaporated metal vapor, and metals having a predetermined work function. The use of non-invasively deposited metals may allow for forming the metal on a thin interface layer without disrupting the passivation properties of the layer. A metal having a predetermined work function may be a metal having a work function smaller or greater than that of the semiconductor, depending on the desired application. Often, the semiconductor will be silicon. In this case by the work function of a semiconductor or silicon we mean the energy in the middle of the semiconductor bandgap. Exemplary metals that have a work function smaller than silicon include Group 3A elements, aluminum (Al), indium (In), titanium (Ti), chromium (Cr), tantalum (Ta), cesium (Cs), magnesium (Mg), erbium (Er), ytterbium (Yb), manganese (Mn), lead (Pb), silver (Ag), yttrium (Y), and zinc (Zn). Exemplary metals that have a work function greater than silicon include platinum (Pt), gold (Au), tungsten (W), nickel (Ni), molybdenum (Mo), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), and palladium (Pd). The semiconductor-interface layer-conductor configuration illustrated in FIG. 6 defines what the present inventors have chosen to call a “passivated Schottky barrier”. The passivated Schottky barrier is a naturally formed electrical potential barrier to an electron or hole at the Fermi energy (the electrochemical potential) in the conductor due to a depletion region formed in the semiconductor adjacent the conductor. The passivated Schottky barrier may deviate in barrier height from a standard un-passivated Schottky barrier that would form naturally at a contact junction between the semiconductor and the conductor without the interface layer disposed therebetween. That is, the passivated Schottky barrier may have a barrier height that depends predominantly upon the bulk characteristics of the semiconductor and the conductor, rather than on surface properties, and may depend in part on the characteristics of the interface layer. Indeed, the present inventors have determined that changes in barrier height are approximately monotonic and continuous for variations in surface passivation thickness by nitridation of the semiconductor substrate. More specifically, experiments by the present inventors in a regime where the nitride layer is sufficiently thick to remove MIGS show that temperature of interface layer formation has the strongest effect on barrier height. In other regimes, thickness may be critical. Ideally, if all surface states are removed, barrier height should be controllable simply by the choice of metal used. To understand why thickness of the interface layer is important, refer briefly to FIG. 8 where a graph of interface-specific contact resistance versus interface thickness is shown. The graph is for a structure where the workfunction of the metal is the same as the electron affinity in the semiconductor, such that the Fermi level of the metal lines up with the conduction band of the semiconductor. At large thicknesses, the interface layer poses significant resistance to current. As thickness decreases, resistance falls due to increased tunneling current. However, there comes a point where even as the interface layer continues to get thinner, resistance increases. This is due to the effect of MIGS, which increasingly pull the Fermi level of the metal down towards mid-gap of the semiconductor, creating a Schottky barrier. The present inventors have discovered that this competition results in an optimum thickness, as shown in the illustration, where the resistance is a minimum. At this thickness the effect of MIGS has been sufficiently reduced to depin the metal and lower the Schottky barrier, and the layer is still sufficiently thin to allow significant current flow across the interface layer. Contact resistances of less than or equal to approximately 2500 Ω-μm2, 1000 Ωμm2, 100 Ωμm2, 50 Ω-μm2, 10 Ωμm2 or even less than or equal to 1 Ω-μm2 may be achieved. Characteristics that may be adjusted to provide a desired barrier height thus include the passivation material used (e.g., selection based on bandgap), the interface layer thickness (e.g., especially where the interface layer is a compound layer formed of a passivation layer and a separation layer), the method of forming the interface layer (e.g., control of parameters such as temperature), the interface layer thickness that is substantially similar to a penetration depth of MIGS formed at a metal interface, the metal used for the source and/or drain, and other characteristics. One advantage of the ability to adjust the Schottky barrier height with the introduction of interface layer 620 is the ability to form a substantially high barrier height. For example, an interface layer may be used to create a Schottky barrier having a barrier height that is greater than can be achieved through the use of metal silicides, greater than about 2.0 eV, or greater than about 2.5 eV (using a semiconductor with a bandgap at least this large), or nearly 1.0 V using silicon. Such high barrier heights imply the ability to withstand high voltages before breakdown occurs. Thus, Schottky barriers having such high barrier heights may be particularly useful in high-voltage Schottky diodes. Another advantage achieved through the use of the interface layer 620 is greater flexibility afforded in selecting a conductor 630. Typically, metals chosen for application in classic Schottky diodes are those that can form a silicide with a silicon semiconductor. The formation of the silicide helps to reduce surface states (resulting from dangling bonds), but not the effects of MIGS. Thus, the Fermi level at the semiconductor surface is still pinned. Using metals that form silicides upon contact with silicon may thus help to make the devices more reproducible in a manufacturing environment, but such devices still suffer from the drawback of having a barrier height that is fixed. According to one embodiment of the present invention, however, one may select a conductor that is not able (or not readily able) to form a silicide with the semiconductor. The metal silicide is not needed because the interface layer provided in accordance with the present invention passivates the semiconductor surface and also reduces or eliminates the effect of MIGS. This may allow for selection of a metal that has properties such as a desirable work function or Fermi level energy, even though that metal may not form a metal silicide. For example, to make large-barrier diodes, for an n-type doped silicon semiconductor, a metal may be selected that has a work function that is either substantially equal to the valence band energy of the semiconductor or that is within about 0.1 eV to about 0.3 eV of the valence band energy of the semiconductor. Similarly, for a p-type doped silicon semiconductor, a metal may be selected that has a work function substantially equal to the conduction band energy of the semiconductor. For Schottky diodes configured in accordance with the present invention, the Fermi level of the metal may lie anywhere in the bandgap of the semiconductor when an interface layer is disposed within the junction, resulting in diodes of various barrier heights. The Fermi level of the metal may also lie in the conduction or valence band of the semiconductor. The use of interface layer 620 thus provides a way to tune, adjust, or control the height of the barrier between the conductor and the semiconductor. Without the interface layer 620, the barrier height would be substantially un-tunable, un-adjustable, and fixed (as discussed above). The role played by interface layer 620 in tuning, adjusting, or controlling the height of the barrier between the conductor 630 and the semiconductor 610 may be understood as a depinning of the Fermi level of the semiconductor. That is, the interface layer may reduce surface states by bonding to the semiconductor material to consume dangling bonds. Additionally, the interface layer may reduce the formation of in the semiconductor by providing a thickness and bandgap that prevent the electron wave function (of the metal) from penetrating into the semiconductor. The electron wave function may instead penetrate into the interface layer and form MIGS within the interface layer at an energy related to the states of the interface layer material. As desired, the density of the MIGS and the depth of MIGS penetration into the interface layer may be reduced by choosing an interface layer material or materials having a larger bandgap or higher effective mass than the semiconductor. According to one embodiment of the present invention then, the interface layer 620 is incorporated into a device operable to pass current through the semiconductor surface and the interface layer during device operation. In such an embodiment, it may be desirable to use an interface layer having a thickness of a monolayer, or, for example between about 0.1 nm and about 0.3 nm, and also having a wide bandgap (as compared to that of the semiconductor) so that the interface layer both de-pins the Fermi level (so that the harrier height depends predominantly on bulk properties of the junction materials) and allows sufficient current transfer across it. Advantageously, such interface layers may be sufficiently thin to provide low impedance to current flow (due to the exponential dependence of direct tunneling on barrier thickness), which is desirable for many semiconductor devices, while also providing sufficient semiconductor surface passivation to allow an adjustable barrier height. That is, the interface layer may allow passivation of surface states and reduction (or elimination) of MIGS in the semiconductor to allow for an adjustable harrier height with a substantially thin layer that allows sufficient current to be transferred across the interface layer. There are several methods by which the barrier height can be made adjustable. For example, adjustment may be made by tuning the degree of Fermi level pinning. In other words, some embodiments may allow for a sufficiently thin interface layer so that not all of the effects of MIGS in the Si are eliminated. Further, the pinning may be varied by combinations of thickness of the interface layer and the choice of interface material. The metal in contact with the interface layer may be pinned by MIGS at different levels in different materials. Conversely, or in addition, the passivation may be left incomplete to allow for an effective level of unpassivated states. Complete depinning of the Fermi level (that is removal of all surface states in Si including MIGS) is another option, in which case one could tune the barrier height simply by choosing a pure metal or an alloy that possesses the desired workfunction. In that case, the harrier height is determined by Equation (1), which until now has been an unrealizable idealization. Note that the type of tuning being discussed here is adjustment of the barrier height by altering the structure of the junction at the time of manufacture, not by varying an externally applied condition during junction operation. FIG. 7a-7d show relationships between Fermi energy, conduction band energy, and valence band energy for various Schottky barriers containing a metal in contact with (or in close proximity to) a semiconductor, where the bandgap (Eg) of the semiconductor exists between the conduction band (Ec) and the valence band (Ev). In this example, the work function of the metal ΦM is chosen to be approximately equal to the electron affinity χS of the semiconductor. In FIG. 7a, an unpassivated Schottky barrier 700 is shown. In this example, the Fermi level (EF) of the metal 730 is pinned in the bandgap of the semiconductor 710. This results in a discontinuity in the vacuum level caused by a charged dipole at the interface. In FIG. 7b, the interface layer 720b is thick enough to passivate dangling bonds at the surface of the semiconductor 710, but not thick enough to eliminate or sufficiently reduce the effect of MIGS. As a result, the band structure is largely unaltered from that seen in the previous illustration. Similarly, in FIG. 7c, when the interface layer 720c is sufficiently thick to eliminate or reduce the effect of MIGS but not to passivate the semiconductor surface, little change in the energy band structure is observed. However, as shown in FIG. 7d, when the interface layer 720d is sufficient to both eliminate or reduce the effect of MIGS and to passivate the semiconductor surface, we see the Fermi level of the metal aligning with the conduction band of the semiconductor (i.e., the Fermi level of the semiconductor has been depinned and no longer lines up with the Fermi level of the metal). The vacuum level is now continuous as there is no charged dipole at the interface. Thus, the band structure of a device constructed in this fashion is a result of only bulk material properties, not properties of the surface. By way of example, the materials in such cases may be Al and Si, with a work function for Al of approximately ΦM=4.1 eV and the electron affinity for Si of approximately χS=4.05 eV. V. Transistors Containing Passivated Semiconductor Surfaces The interface layers described herein may be used in connection with a semiconductor surface of a channel in a field effect transistor. That is, an interface layer may be disposed between a source and a channel, a channel and a drain, or both of an insulated gate field effect transistor. Such use of an interface layer is described in detail in co-pending U.S. Pat. No. 6,833,556, issued Dec. 21, 2004, entitled “INSULATED GATE FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR HAVING PASSIVATED SCHOTTKY BARRIERS TO THE CHANNEL”, filed Jan. 14, 2003 by the present inventors, and assigned to the assignee of the present invention. The source and drain contacts at the channel of a field effect transistor are examples of a broader category of metal-interface layer-semiconductor contacts that make up the present invention. In the past, such contacts generally comprised a silicide-n+-Si junction, which formed a somewhat “leaky” Schottky diode, with a Fermi level of the semiconductor pinned at the midgap. In contrast, the present invention provides a contact wherein the Fermi level of the metal is aligned with the conduction band of the semiconductor (e.g., as shown in FIG. 7d). Note that in other cases, depending on the type of semiconductor material and conductors used, the Fermi level of the metal may align with the valence band of the semiconductor. Although both types of junctions (i.e., the new passivated Schottky barrier junction and the conventional silicide-semiconductor junction) permit tunneling currents, the present junction can be fabricated with a much thinner interface layer as compared to the thickness of the silicide layer used previously. Indeed, thickness of an order of magnitude less than the silicide thickness can be expected. In a conventional silicide—semiconductor junction a Schottky barrier is formed which is comprised of a depletion layer. The tunnel barrier presented by such a depletion layer may be an order of magnitude thicker than the dielectric tunnel barrier in the present invention. The thinner interface layers provided by the present invention permit higher current across the junction (i.e., lower junction specific contact resistance). Two other properties of the dielectric deserve mention. First is the property of the height of the barrier compared to the semiconductor conduction band (for electrons). In making the barrier thinner than a silicide barrier, the tradeoff may be a higher tunnel barrier (e.g., 2 eV for nitride, compared with about half the gap of 0.6 eV for silicide). Spacer layers may be used with lower harriers (e.g., TiO2 has a barrier of less than 1 eV). Nevertheless, even with the higher barrier to electrons, the present inventors have determined that the resistance can still be one hundred times lower than a contact to silicon with a silicide barrier. The second property is the effective mass of electrons in the dielectric. Larger mass electrons will not penetrate as far (i.e., because of their shorter wavelength) from the metal into the semiconductor. The less the electrons penetrate into the dielectric, the less the effect of MIGS in the dielectric. Thus, MIGS in the dielectric are reduced with larger bandgap and larger effective mass. In addition the junction of the present invention can be used in making contacts to source or drain implanted wells and will have the advantage of reducing the need for high doping levels (which are now reaching their limits of solid solubility). The high doping profiles were required in the past in order to keep the junction depletion layer relatively thin, so as to increase the tunneling current, thus reducing the junction resistance. However, it is becoming increasingly difficult to increase doping profiles in order to provide low resistance junctions. It may be possible to reach the same level of resistance with a lower doping concentration using the present invention. It may further be possible to achieve much lower resistance even with lower doping concentration. When the present invention is used with high doping levels, the resistance will be further reduced. Thus, methods and applications for semiconductor-interface layer-metal junctions have been described. Although described with reference to specific embodiments it should be remembered that various modifications and changes may be made to the techniques described herein without departing from the broader spirit and scope of the invention. The specification and drawings are accordingly to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense and the invention measured only in terms of the claims, which follow.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>One of the most basic electrical junctions used in modern devices is the metal-semiconductor junction. In these junctions, a metal (such as aluminum) is brought in contact with a semiconductor (such as silicon). This forms a device (a diode) which can be inherently rectifying; that is, the junction will tend to conduct current in one direction more favorably than in the other direction. In other cases, depending on the materials used, the junction may be ohmic in nature (i.e., the contact may have negligible resistance regardless of the direction of current flow). Grondahl and Geiger first studied the rectifying form of these junctions in 1926, and by 1938 Schottky had developed a theoretical explanation for the rectification that was observed. Schottky's theory explained the rectifying behavior of a metal-semiconductor contact as depending on a barrier at the surface of contact between the metal and the semiconductor. In this model, the height of the barrier (as measured by the potential necessary for an electron to pass from the metal to the semiconductor) was postulated as the difference between the work function of the metal (the work function is the energy required to free an electron at the Fermi level of the metal, the Fermi level being the highest occupied energy state of the metal at T=0) and the electron affinity of the semiconductor (the electron affinity is the difference between the energy of a free electron and the conduction band edge of the semiconductor). Expressed mathematically: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? φ B =φ M −χ S [1] in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? where Φ B is the barrier height, Φ M is the work function of the metal and χ S is the electron affinity of the semiconductor. Not surprisingly, many attempts were made to verify this theory experimentally. If the theory is correct, one should be able to observe direct variations in barrier heights for metals of different work functions when put in contact with a common semiconductor. What is observed, however, is not direct scaling, but instead only a much weaker variation of barrier height with work function than implied by the model. Bardeen sought to explain this difference between theoretical prediction and experimental observation by introducing the concept that surface states of the semiconductor play a role in determining the barrier height. Surface states are energy states (within the bandgap between the valence and conduction bands) at the edge of the semiconductor crystal that arise from incomplete covalent bonds, impurities, and other effects of crystal termination. FIG. 1 shows a cross-section of an un-passivated silicon surface labeled 100 . The particular silicon surface shown is an Si(100) 2×1 surface. As shown, the silicon atoms at the surface, such as atom 110 , are not fully coordinated and contain un-satisfied dangling bonds, such as dangling bond 120 . These dangling bonds may be responsible for surface states that trap electrical charges. Bardeen's model assumes that surface states are sufficient to pin the Fermi level in the semiconductor at a point between the valence and conduction bands. If true, the barrier height at a metal-semiconductor junction should be independent of the metal's work function. This condition is rarely observed experimentally, however, and so Bardeen's model (like Schottky's) is best considered as a limiting case. For many years, the cause underlying the Fermi level pinning of the semiconductor at a metal-semiconductor junction remained unexplained. Indeed, to this day no one explanation satisfies all experimental observations regarding such junctions. Nevertheless, in 1984, Tersoff proposed a model that goes a long way towards explaining the physics of such junctions. See J. Tersoff, “Schottky Barrier Heights and the Continuum of Gap States,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 52 (6), Feb. 6, 1984. Tersoffs model (which is built on work by Heine and Flores & Tejedor, and see also Louie, Cheiikowsky, and Cohen, “Ionicity and the theory of Schottky barriers,” Phys. Rev. B 15, 2154 (1977)) proposes that the Fermi level of a semiconductor at a metal-semiconductor interface is pinned near an effective “gap center”, which is related to the bulk semiconductor energy band structure. The pinning is due to so-called metal induced gap states (MIGS), which are energy states in the bandgap of the semiconductor that become populated due to the proximity of the metal. That is, the wave functions of the electrons in the metal do not terminate abruptly at the surface of the metal, but rather decay in proportion to the distance from that surface (i.e., extending inside the semiconductor). To maintain the sum rule on the density of states in the semiconductor, electrons near the surface occupy energy states in the gap derived from the valence band such that the density of states in the valence band is reduced. To maintain charge neutrality, the highest occupied state (which defines the Fermi level of the semiconductor) will then lie at the crossover point from states derived from the valence band to those derived from the conduction band. This crossover occurs at the branch point of the band structure. Although calculations of barrier heights based on Tersoffs model do not satisfy all experimentally observed barrier heights for all metal-semiconductor junctions, there is generally good agreement for a number of such junctions. One final source of surface effects on diode characteristics is inhomogeneity. That is, if factors affecting the barrier height (e.g., density of surface states) vary across the plane of the junction, the resulting properties of the junction are found not to be a linear combination of the properties of the different regions. In summary then, a classic metal-semiconductor junction is characterized by a Schottky barrier, the properties of which (e.g., barrier height) depend on surface states, MIGS and inhomogeneities. The importance of the barrier height at a metal-semiconductor interface is that it determines the electrical properties of the junction. Thus, if one were able to control or adjust the barrier height of a metal-semiconductor junction, one could produce electrical devices of desired characteristics. Such barrier height tuning may become even more important as device sizes shrink even further. Before one can tune the barrier height, however, one must depin the Fermi level of the semiconductor. As discussed in detail below, the present inventors have achieved this goal in a device that still permits substantial current flow between the metal and the semiconductor.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present inventors have determined that for thin interface layers disposed between a metal and a silicon-based semiconductor (e.g., Si, SiC and. SiGe), so as to form a metal-interface layer-semiconductor junction, there exist corresponding minimum specific contact resistances. The interface layer thickness corresponding to this minimum specific contact resistance will vary depending upon the materials used, however, it is a thickness that allows for depinning the Fermi level of the semiconductor while still permitting current to flow between the metal and the semiconductor when the junction is biased (e.g., forward or reverse biased). By depinning the Fermi level, the present inventors mean a condition wherein all, or substantially all, dangling bonds that may otherwise be present at the semiconductor surface have been terminated, and the effect of MIGS has been overcome, or at least reduced, by displacing the semiconductor a sufficient distance from the metal. Minimum specific contact resistances of less than or equal to approximately 10 Ω-μm 2 or even less than or equal to approximately 1 Ω-μm 2 may be achieved for such junctions in accordance with the present invention. Thus, in one embodiment, the present invention provides an electrical device in which an interface layer is disposed between and in contact with a metal and a silicon-based semiconductor and is configured to depin the Fermi level of the semiconductor while still permitting current flow between the metal and the semiconductor when the electrical device is biased. The specific contact resistance of the electrical device is less than approximately 10 Ω-μm 2 . The interface layer may include a passivating material (e.g., a nitride, oxide, oxynitride, arsenide, hydride and/or fluoride) and sometimes also includes a separation layer. In some cases, the interface layer may be essentially a monolayer (or several monolayers) of a semiconductor passivating material. In another embodiment, the interface layer is made up of a passivation layer fabricated by heating the semiconductor in the presence of nitrogenous material, for example ammonia (NH3), nitrogen (N2) or unbound gaseous nitrogen (N) generated from a plasma process. In such cases, the interface layer may be fabricated by heating the semiconductor while in a vacuum chamber and exposing the semiconductor to the nitrogenous material. A further embodiment of the present invention provides for depinning the Fermi level of a semiconductor in an electrical junction through the use of an interface layer disposed between a surface of the semiconductor and a conductor. The interface layer preferably (i) is of a thickness sufficient to reduce effects of MIGS in the semiconductor, and (ii) passivates the surface of the semiconductor. Despite the presence of the interface layer, significant current may flow between the conductor and the semiconductor because the thickness of the interface layer may be chosen to provide a minimum (or near minimum) specific contact resistance for the junction. As indicated above, the interface layer may include a passivating material such as a nitride, oxide, oxynitride, arsenide, hydride and/or fluoride. Further embodiments of the present invention provide a junction between a semiconductor and a conductor separated from the semiconductor by an interface layer configured to allow a Fermi level of the conductor to (i) align with a conduction band of the semiconductor, (ii) align with a valence band of the semiconductor, or (Hi) to be independent of the Fermi level of the semiconductor. In some or all of these cases, current may flow between the conductor and the semiconductor when the junction is biased because the interface layer has a thickness corresponding to a minimum or near minimum specific contact resistance for the junction. For example, specific contact resistances of less than or equal to approximately 2500 Ω-μm 2 , 1000 Ω-μm 2 , 100 Ω-μm 2 , 50 Ω-μm 2 , 10 Ω-μm 2 or even less than or equal to 1 Ω-μm 2 may be achieved.

H01L29456

20180123

20180614

97111.0

H01L2945

HARRISON, MONICA D

METHOD FOR DEPINNING THE FERMI LEVEL OF A SEMICONDUCTOR AT AN ELECTRICAL JUNCTION AND DEVICES INCORPORATING SUCH JUNCTIONS

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

H01L

PENDING

VIDEO ENCODING AND DECODING METHOD AND APPARATUS USING THE SAME

The present invention is related to a method for moving the position of a base view from an arbitrary GOP (Group Of Pictures) start position to implement an efficient encoding structure in multi-view video encoding. The existing multi-view video encoding method exhibits low encoding efficiency when correlation between the base view and a dependent view is low, since the base view is assumed to be fixed. Moreover, in case the view in a live broadcasting program desired by a producer changes from the base view to another, the user has to consume more bit streams and decoder complexity than those consumed when decoding is performed with respect to the base view. Therefore, to alleviate the drawbacks of the existing multi-view video encoding method, the present invention provides a method for designing syntax elements by which the base view can be moved, thereby supporting an efficient encoding structure.

1. A method for video decoding that supports multi-layer videos, the method comprising: analyzing a first layer dependency on a current layer based on a video parameter set (VPS) extension; analyzing a second layer dependency on a current slice in the current layer based on information encoded in a slice unit, wherein the analyzing the second layer dependency on the current slice comprises determining, for the current slice, whether to use the first layer dependency of the VPS extension or the second layer dependency of the slice unit; constructing a reference picture list for the current slice based on either one or both of the first layer dependency on the current layer and the second layer dependency on the current slice; predicting a current block included in the current slice by using at least one reference picture included in the reference picture list to generate a prediction block; generating a residual block of the current block; and reconstructing the current block by using the prediction block and the residual block, wherein the reference picture list comprises a temporal reference picture belonging to a same layer as the current slice and an inter-layer reference picture belonging to a different layer from the current slice, and wherein the inter-layer reference picture has a same picture order count (POC) value as the current slice. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the analyzing the first layer dependency on the current layer comprises deriving, based on information signaled from the VPS extension, layer dependency set information representing a structure of a layer dependency of the current layer. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the analyzing the second layer dependency on the current slice comprises: in response to determining that the second layer dependency of the slice unit is used for the current slice, analyzing the number of reference layers referenced by the current slice; analyzing identifying information of a reference layer referenced by the current slice as many times as the number of reference layers referenced by the current slice; and determining the inter-layer reference picture for the current slice based on the identifying information of a reference layer referenced by the current slice. 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the layer dependency set information comprises information about the number of reference layers referenced by the current layer and layer ID information specifying a layer ID of a reference layer. 5. A method for video encoding that supports multi-layer videos, the method comprising: encoding a first layer dependency on a current layer into a video parameter set (VPS) extension; encoding a second layer dependency on a current slice in the current layer into a slice unit, wherein the encoding the second layer dependency on the current slice comprises determining, for the current slice, whether to use the first layer dependency to be encoded into the VPS extension or the second layer dependency to be encoded into the slice unit; constructing a reference picture list for the current slice based on either one or both of the first layer dependency on the current layer and the second layer dependency on the current slice; predicting a current block included in the current slice by using at least one reference picture to be included in the reference picture list to generate a prediction block; generating a residual block of the current block by using the prediction block; and encoding the residual block, wherein the reference picture list comprises a temporal reference picture belonging to a same layer as the current slice and an inter-layer reference picture belonging to a different layer from the current slice, and wherein the inter-layer reference picture has a same picture order count (POC) value as the current slice. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the encoding the first layer dependency on the current layer comprises determining layer dependency set information representing a structure of a layer dependency of the current layer. 7. The method of claim 5, wherein the encoding the second layer dependency on the current slice comprises: in response to determining that the second layer dependency to be encoded into the slice unit is used for the current slice, determining one or more inter-layer reference pictures for the current slice; encoding the number of reference layers referenced by the current slice based on the one or more determined inter-layer reference pictures; and encoding identifying information of a reference layer referenced by the current slice as many times as the number of reference layers referenced by the current slice. 8. The method of claim 6, wherein the layer dependency set information comprises information about the number of reference layers referenced by the current layer and layer ID information specifying a layer ID of a reference layer. 9. A non-transitory computer-readable medium storing a bitstream that is generated by a method for video encoding that supports multi-layer videos, the method comprising: encoding a first layer dependency on a current layer into a video parameter set (VPS) extension; encoding a second layer dependency on a current slice in the current layer into a slice unit, wherein the encoding the second layer dependency on the current slice comprises determining, for the current slice, whether to use the first layer dependency to be encoded into the VPS extension or the second layer dependency to be encoded into the slice unit; constructing a reference picture list for the current slice based on either one or both of the first layer dependency on the current layer and the second layer dependency on the current slice; predicting a current block included in the current slice by using at least one reference picture to be included in the reference picture list to generate a prediction block; generate a residual block of the current block by using the prediction block; and encoding the residual block, wherein the reference picture list comprises a temporal reference picture belonging to a same layer as the current slice and an inter-layer reference picture belonging to a different layer from the current slice, and wherein the inter-layer reference picture has a same picture order count (POC) value as the current slice.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/483,124, filed on Apr. 10, 2017, which is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/141,685, filed on Dec. 27, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,693,055, issued Jun. 27, 2017, which claims the benefit of priority of Korean Patent Application No. 10-2012-0156373 filed on Dec. 28, 2012 and Korean Patent Application No. 10-2013-0165800 filed on Dec. 27, 2013, all of which are incorporated by reference in their entirety herein. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention The present invention is related to image encoding and decoding and more particularly, a method for changing a base view in multi-view video encoding and apparatus using the method. Discussion of the Related Art As broadcasting services provided in HD resolution are spread globally, more people are getting used to high resolution, high quality images, and many organizations are accelerating development of next-generation image devices. In addition to HDTVs, public attention to UHD (Ultra High Definition) TVs, which provide videos in a resolution more than four times the resolution of HDTV, is increasing; thus, demand for a technology capable of compressing images of higher resolution and higher quality is getting larger. To implement image compression, various technologies can be employed, including: inter-prediction technology estimating pixel values in a current picture by using the pictures located temporally before and/or after the current picture, intra-prediction technology estimating pixel values of a current picture by using pixel information of the current picture, and entropy coding technology assigning short code words to frequently appearing symbols but longer code words to those symbols appearing in low frequency. There are various kinds of image compression technologies, one of which provides constant network bandwidth in an operating environment constrained by limited hardware resources, not taking account of dynamic network environments. In order to deal with compression of image data in a network environment where bandwidth changes constantly, however, a new compression technology is highly required, and in this regard, a scalable video encoding/decoding method is an attractive solution. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a method for moving the position of a base view from an arbitrary GOP (Group Of Pictures) start position to implement an efficient encoding structure in multi-view video encoding and an apparatus using the method. The existing multi-view video encoding method exhibits low encoding efficiency when correlation between the base view and a dependent view is low, since the base view is assumed to be fixed. Moreover, in case the view in a live broadcasting program desired by a producer changes from the base view to another, the user has to consume more bit streams and decoder complexity than those consumed when decoding is performed with respect to the base view. Therefore, to alleviate the drawbacks of the existing multi-view video encoding method, the present invention provides a method for designing syntax elements by which the base view can be moved and an apparatus using the method. Accordingly, the present invention provides a method for supporting an efficient encoding structure and increasing encoding efficiency; and an apparatus using the method. The present invention provides a method for the user to decode the view intended by a producer in a more cost-effective way than existing methods in case the view is moved in a live broadcasting program according to the producer's intention and an apparatus using the method. According to one aspect of the present invention, a method for multi-view video decoding is provided. The method for multi-view video decoding comprises deriving layer dependency from a plurality of layers; in case a base view is moved, reconfiguring layer IDs for identifying layers and a view order in accordance with movement of the base view; and based on reconfigured layer IDs, constructing a reference picture list that a current picture references. The layer dependency can be composed of at least one reference layer set including the number of reference layers which the current layer references and identifying information of the reference layer. According to another aspect of the present invention, a method for multi-view video encoding is provided. The method for multi-view video encoding comprises deriving layer dependency from a plurality of layers; in case a base view is moved, reconfiguring layer IDs for identifying layers and a view order in accordance with movement of the base view; and based on reconfigured layer IDs, constructing a reference picture list that a current picture references. The layer dependency can be composed of at least one reference layer set including the number of reference layers which the current layer references and identifying information of the reference layer. According to a yet another aspect of the present invention, an apparatus for multi-view video decoding is provided. The apparatus for multi-view video decoding comprises deriving layer dependency from a plurality of layers; in case a base view is moved, reconfiguring layer IDs for identifying layers and a view order in accordance with movement of the base view; and based on reconfigured layer IDs, constructing a reference picture list that a current picture references. The layer dependency can be composed of at least one reference layer set including the number of reference layers which the current layer references and identifying information of the reference layer. According to one aspect of the present invention, an apparatus for multi-view video encoding is provided. The apparatus for multi-view video encoding comprises deriving layer dependency from a plurality of layers; in case a base view is moved, reconfiguring layer IDs for identifying layers and a view order in accordance with movement of the base view; and based on reconfigured layer IDs, constructing a reference picture list that a current video references. The layer dependency can be composed of at least one reference layer set including the number of reference layers which the current layer references and identifying information of the reference layer. According to one embodiment of the present invention, a method for moving the position of a base view from an arbitrary GOP start position to implement an efficient encoding structure in multi-view video encoding and an apparatus using the method are provided. The existing multi-view video encoding method exhibits low encoding efficiency when correlation between the base view and a dependent view is low, since the base view is assumed to be fixed. Moreover, in case the view in a live broadcasting program desired by a producer changes from the base view to another, the user has to consume more bit streams and decoder complexity than those consumed when decoding is performed with respect to the base view. Therefore, to alleviate the drawbacks of the existing multi-view video encoding method, one embodiment of the present invention provides a method for designing syntax elements by which the base view can be moved and an apparatus using the method. Accordingly, the present invention provides an image encoding/decoding method for supporting an efficient encoding structure and an apparatus using the method. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are included to provide a further understanding of the present invention and constitute a part of specifications of the present invention, illustrate embodiments of the present invention and together with the corresponding descriptions serve to explain the principles of the present invention. FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating the structure of an apparatus for video encoding according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating the structure of an apparatus for video decoding according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a conceptual drawing illustrating one embodiment of a multi-view based video coding structure to which the present invention can be applied; FIG. 4 illustrates the structure of a reference picture list for multi-view video; FIG. 5 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for moving a base view in multi-view video encoding according to the present invention; FIG. 6 illustrates a scalable reference layer set according to the present invention; and FIG. 7 illustrates a process of deriving a reference picture set according to the present invention. DETAILE DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In what follows, embodiments of the present invention will be described in detail with reference to appended drawings. In describing embodiments of the present invention, if it is determined that detailed description of a related structure or function known for those in the art obscures the technical principles of the present invention, the corresponding description will be omitted. If a component is said to be “linked” or “connected” to a different component, the component may be directly linked or connected to the different component, but a third component may exist to connect the two components. On the other hand, if a particular structure is said to be “included” in this document, it is not meant to exclude a structure other than the corresponding structure; rather, inclusion of the corresponding structure indicates that additional structures can be included in the embodiments or technical scope of the present invention. Terms such as first and second can be used for describing various structures but the structures should not be limited by the terms. The terms are introduced only for the purpose of distinguishing one structure from the others. For example, a first structure may be called a second structure without departing from the scope of the present invention and vice versa. Also, constituting units introduced in the embodiments of the present invention are described separately from each other to emphasize the distinctive functions thereof; it does not indicate that each constituting unit should be implemented by separate hardware or single software element. In other words, each constituting unit is described in its present form for the sake of convenience; at least two constituting units may comprise one constituting unit, or one constituting unit may be divided into multiple constituting units to perform a function. Both Integrated and separate embodiments of individual constituting units belong to the technical scope of the present invention as long as they do not depart from the technical principles of the present invention. Also, part of constituting elements may not be mandatory elements carrying out essential functions of the present invention, but may be introduced as optional elements only to improve performance. The present invention can be realized by using only the mandatory elements needed to implement the technical principles of the present invention without employing the optional elements introduced only for performance enhancement, and a structure comprising only mandatory elements excluding optional ones used only for improving performance also belongs to the technical scope of the present invention. FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating the structure of an apparatus for video encoding according to one embodiment of the present invention. A method or apparatus for scalable video encoding/decoding can be implemented by extension of a conventional method or apparatus for video encoding/decoding not providing multi-view videos, and the block diagram of FIG. 1 illustrates one embodiment of an apparatus for video encoding which can be a base of an apparatus for multi-view video encoding. With reference to FIG. 1, the apparatus for video encoding 100 comprises a motion prediction module 111, motion compensation module 112, intra-prediction module 120, switch 115, subtractor 125, transformation module 130, quantization module 140, entropy encoding module 150, inverse quantization module 160, inverse transformation module 170, adder 175, filter 180, and reference picture buffer 190. The apparatus for video encoding 100 can perform encoding of input pictures in the intra or inter mode and produce bit streams. Intra-prediction denotes in-picture prediction, while inter-prediction denotes inter-picture prediction. In the case of intra mode, the switch 115 is switched to intra mode, while in the case of inter mode, the switch 115 is switched to inter mode. The apparatus for video encoding 100 generates prediction blocks for input blocks of an input picture and encodes residuals between input blocks and prediction blocks. In the case of intra mode, the intra-prediction module 120 performs spatial prediction by using pixel values of already encoded/decoded blocks around a current block and generates prediction blocks. In the case of inter mode, during a motion prediction process, the motion prediction module 111 searches reference pictures stored in the reference picture buffer 190 for a region that best matches the input block and obtains a motion vector. The motion compensation module 112 can generate prediction blocks by carrying out motion compensation by using the motion vector and reference picture stored in the reference picture buffer 190. The subtractor 125 can generate residual blocks from residuals between input blocks and generated prediction blocks. The transformation module 130 transforms residual blocks and produces transform coefficients. And the quantization module 140 quantizes input transform coefficients according to quantization parameters and produces quantized coefficients. The entropy encoding module 150 performs entropy encoding on symbols according to a probability distribution based on the values calculated from the quantization module 140 or encoding parameters calculated from an encoding process and produces bit streams. An entropy encoding method receives symbols taking various values and removes statistical redundancy, representing the symbols as a decodable binary number. Here, a symbol denotes a syntax element to be encoded or decoded, coding parameter, residual signal, and so on. A coding parameter is a parameter required for encoding and decoding; and includes not only the information encoded in an encoding apparatus and transmitted to a decoding apparatus, such as the syntax element but also the information inferred during an encoding or decoding process. The coding parameter denotes the information required for encoding or decoding pictures. The coding parameter, for example, can include inter or inter prediction mode, movement or motion vector, reference picture index, coding block pattern, existence of residual signals, transform coefficients, quantized transform coefficients, quantized parameters, block size, and block segmentation information; or statistical equivalents thereof. Also, a residual signal may denote a difference between the original signal and prediction signal, a signal representing transformation of a difference between the original signal and prediction signal, or a signal representing transformation and quantization of a difference between the original signal and prediction signal. The residual signal may be called a residual block if interpreted in units of blocks. In case entropy encoding is applied, a small number of bits are allocated to a symbol with a high probability of occurrence while a large number of bits are allocated to a symbol with a low probability of occurrence; thus, the size of bit streams for target symbols to be encoded can be reduced. Therefore, compression performance of video encoding can be improved through entropy encoding. Encoding methods such as Exponential-Golomb, CAVLC (Context-Adaptive Variable Length Coding), and CABAC (Context-Adaptive Binary Arithmetic Coding) can be used for entropy encoding. For example, the entropy encoding module 150 can store a table used for carrying out entropy encoding, such as a variable length coding/code (VLC) table and perform entropy encoding by using the stored VLC table. Also, after deriving a binarization method for target symbols and a probability model of the target symbols or bins, the entropy encoding module 150 can perform entropy encoding by using the derived binarization method or probability model. The quantized coefficients are inversely quantized by the inverse quantization module 160 and inversely transformed by the inverse transformation module 170. The inversely quantized, inversely transformed coefficients are added to prediction blocks through the adder 175, and reconstructed blocks are generated. The reconstructed block passes through the filter 180, and the filter 180 can apply at least one or more of deblocking filter, SAO (Sample Adaptive Offset), and ALF (Adaptive Loop Filter) to the reconstructed block or reconstructed picture. The filter 180 may be called an adaptive in-loop filter. Reconstructed blocks which have passed through the filter 180 can be stored in the reference picture buffer 190. FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating the structure of an apparatus for video decoding according to one embodiment of the present invention. As described in detail with reference to FIG. 1, a method or apparatus for multi-view video encoding/decoding can be implemented by extension of a conventional method or apparatus for video encoding/decoding not providing multi-view video, and the block diagram of FIG. 2 illustrates one embodiment of an apparatus for video decoding which can be a base of an apparatus for multi-view video decoding. With reference to FIG. 2, the apparatus for video decoding 200 comprises an entropy decoding module 210, inverse quantization module 220, inverse transformation module 230, intra-prediction module 240, motion compensation module 250, filter 260, and reference picture buffer 270. The apparatus for video decoding 200 receives a bit stream output from the encoder, performs decoding in the intra or inter mode, and produces a restructured picture, namely reconstructed picture. In the case of intra mode, the switch is switched to intra mode, while in the case of inter mode, the switch is switched to inter mode. The apparatus for video decoding 200 obtains reconstructed residual blocks from the received bit streams, generates prediction blocks, and generates restructured blocks, namely reconstructed blocks by combining the reconstructed residual blocks and the prediction blocks. The entropy decoding module 210 can perform entropy decoding of received bit streams according to the probability distribution thereof and generate symbols including symbols in the form of a quantized coefficient. An entropy decoding method receives binary sequences and generates symbols therefrom. The entropy decoding method is similar to the entropy encoding method described above. Quantized coefficients are inversely quantized by the inverse quantization module 220 and inversely transformed by the inverse transformation module 230; as the quantized coefficients are inversely quantized/transformed, reconstructed residual blocks can be generated. In the case of intra mode, the intra-prediction module 240 performs spatial prediction by using pixel values of already decoded blocks around a current block and generates prediction blocks. In the case of inter mode, the motion compensation module 250 can generate prediction blocks by performing motion compensation by using motion vectors and reference pictures stored in the reference picture buffer 270. Reconstructed residual blocks and prediction blocks are combined by the adder 255, and the added blocks may pass through the filter 260. The filter 260 can apply at least one or more of deblocking filter, SAO, and ALF to the reconstructed block or reconstructed picture. The filter 260 produces a restructured picture, namely reconstructed picture. The reconstructed picture, being stored in the reference picture buffer 270, can be used for inter-prediction. From among the entropy decoding module 210, inverse quantization module 220, inverse transformation module 230, intra-prediction module 240, motion compensation module 250, filter 260, and reference picture buffer 270 included in the apparatus for video decoding 200, constituting elements related directly to decoding of video—for example, entropy decoding module 210, inverse quantization module 220, inverse transformation module 230, intra-prediction module 240, motion compensation module 250, and filter 260—can be called a decoding unit separately from other constituting elements. Also, the apparatus for video decoding 200 can further comprise a parsing unit (not shown) which parses information related to encoded video included in bit streams. The parsing unit may include the entropy decoding module 210, or vice versa. The parsing unit can also be implemented in the form of one constituting element of the decoding unit. FIG. 3 is a conceptual drawing illustrating one embodiment of a multi-view based video coding structure to which the present invention can be applied. In FIG. 3, View 1 represents a picture obtained by a camera positioned to the left of View 0, while View 2 represents a picture obtained by a camera positioned to the right of the View 0. Also, the View 1 and View 2 are used for inter-view prediction by making use of the View 0 as a reference picture, and to this end, the View 0 has to be encoded first before the View 1 and View 2. Since the View 0 can be encoded independently of the other Views, it is called an independent view or a base view. On the other hand, the View 1 and View 2 are called a dependent view since the View 1 and View 2 use the View 0 as a reference picture. An independent view can be encoded by using conventional two-dimensional video codec. Dependent views, however, needs inter-view prediction and can be encoded by using three-dimensional video codec including an inter-view prediction process. In the case of encoding and decoding of a multi-view video in a bit stream, namely multi-view video coding, multiple views are strongly correlated with each other; thus, if prediction is performed on the basis of the correlation, data redundancy can be removed, and performance of video encoding can be improved. Hereinafter, prediction of a current layer, which is the prediction target, based on the information of other views can be called inter-view prediction. In what follows, multi-view video coding conveys the same meaning as multi-view video encoding from the viewpoint of encoding, while the multi-view video coding can be interpreted as multi-view video decoding from the viewpoint of decoding. Multiple views may differ from each other at least in terms of resolution, frame rate, and color format; at the time of inter-view prediction, up-sampling or down-sampling can be carried out for adjustment of resolution. The multi-view coding method as described above can remove inter-layer redundancy by using inter-view texture information, inter-view motion information, residual signals, and so on, thereby increasing encoding/decoding performance. The conventional multi-view video encoding relies on a fixed base view. In case correlation between the base view and a dependent view becomes low, however, encoding efficiency may be degraded. Moreover, in case viewpoints in a live broadcasting program are changed according to the intention of a producer, to decode the video of particular views intended by the producer, the user has to decode more bit streams than the case of decoding base view pictures, and at the same time, complexity of the decoder is increased. Accordingly, the present invention introduces high-level syntax, with which position of a base view can be changed in units of GOP (Group Of Pictures) in multi-view video encoding, and introduces new inter-layer dependency to change inter-layer dependency, namely inter-view dependency in an efficient manner. Through the introduction of a new design as above, the present invention attempts to support an efficient encoding structure for multi-view video encoding. The present invention provides a method for the user to decode the view intended by a producer in a more cost-effective way than existing methods in case the view is moved in a live broadcasting program according to the producer's intention and an apparatus using the method. The following describe a decoding order and management of reference pictures in the conventional multi-view videos. First, inter-layer reference pictures are managed by inter-layer dependency determined in a video parameter set (hereinafter, VPS) extension. The decoding apparatus analyzes view_id[i] from the VPS extension, informing which layer corresponds to which view. The index i has a range as large as the total number of layers. Next, the decoding apparatus analyzes num_direct_ref_layers[layerID] from the VPS extension, informing how many layers each layer references, and analyzes ref_layer_id[i] informing of which layers each layer references. Through the above analysis, the decoding apparatus can figure out inter-layer dependency for each layer. In other words, it can be known that layers of which view are referenced by which layer. Meanwhile, the layer_id of the base view is always set to ‘0’, and the view_id of the base view is also set to ‘0’. In ref_layer_id[i], i can have a value ranging from ‘0’ to the value specified by num_direct_ref_layers which informs how many layers each layer references. After analyzing a current view of each layer, the decoding apparatus parses and analyzes view_order_Idx[i] which represents the encoding/decoding order at the time of signaling being included in a sequence parameter set (hereinafter, SPS). At this time, i can have a value as large as the number of total views. Once analysis about layers referenced by each layer is completed, the decoding apparatus adds RefPicSetIvCurr to the reference picture list as shown in FIG. 4. FIG. 4 illustrates the structure of a reference picture list for multi-view videos. With reference to FIG. 4, a reference picture list can comprise a long-term reference picture set referenced by a current picture (RefPicSetLtCurr), long-term reference picture set not referenced by the current picture (RefPicSetLtFoll), forward direction short-term reference picture set referenced by the current picture (Ref PicSetStCurrBefore), inverse direction short-term reference picture set referenced by the current picture (RefPicSetStCurrAfter), short-term reference picture set not referenced by the current picture (Ref PicSetStFoll), and inter-view reference picture set referenced by the current picture (Ref PicSetIvCurr). The reference picture set (RefPicSetivCurr) can include as many reference layers as the number of num_direct_ref_layers signaled from the VPS extension. The inter-view reference picture set (RefPicSetivCurr) can include a picture having the same layer identifier (layer_id) as the ref_layer_id[i] signaled from the VPS extension and having the same POC (Picture Order Count) as the current picture. Those pictures comprising the inter-view reference picture set (RefPicSetivCurr) are all marked as “used for long-term reference”. In what follows, a method for moving a base view in multi-view video encoding according to the present invention will be described. FIG. 5 is a flow diagram illustrating a method for moving a base view in multi-view video encoding according to the present invention. First of all, the encoder and decoder analyze layer dependency S510. Analyzing layer dependency indicates determining layer dependency for encoding or decoding, which can be regarded as a step of managing reference pictures to use pictures of other layers as reference pictures of a current layer during the process of encoding and decoding pictures. Layer dependency can be analyzed through the VPS extension of video and also through individual slices. First, from the viewpoint of the encoder, at the time of encoding layer dependency by using the VPS extension, the encoder can encode layer dependency by using only an existing method or by using either of the method for encoding the existing layer dependency and the method for predefining sets consisting of the number of reference layers referenced by a current layer and layer_ids (scalable reference layer sets, SRLSs) and using a desired one from among the sets. In case only the method for encoding an existing layer dependency is used, the encoder can encode layer dependency by using the existing method described with reference to FIG. 4. Similarly, in case the existing method and SRLS are employed, the encoder can encode a flag informing of which method has been used (for example, vps_srls_present_flag). In case the existing method is used to encode layer dependency, the existing syntax is encoded and transmitted. On the other hand, in case the SRLS is employed, the syntax informing of how many layer dependency sets (SRLSs) to use (num_scalable_ref_layer_sets) is encoded and transmitted, while the content of each set, namely reference pictures comprising the set are encoded in scalable_ref_layer_set() and transmitted. Meanwhile, in case the encoder performs encoding by using the existing method for representing layer dependency, the decoder can decode layer dependency according to the existing method without change of syntax. Similarly, in case either of the existing encoding method and SRLS is used to encode layer dependency, the decoder can decode syntax elements as shown in Table 1. With reference to Table 1, in case vps_srls_present_flag is 0, syntax is decoded according to the existing method; in case vps_srls_present_flag is 1, layer dependency is decoded according to the SRLS method. num_scalable_ref_layer_set represents the number of layer dependency sets (SRLSs). scalable_ref_layer_set() represents the structure of each layer dependency set. In case vps_srls_present_flag is 0, the decoder decodes syntax according to the existing method, while in case vps_srls_present_flag is 1, the decoder decodes layer dependency according to the SRLS method. The decoder analyzes num_scalable_ref_layer_set and determines the number of layer dependency sets (SRLSs); and figures out the structure of each layer dependency set (SRLS) through scalable_ref_layer_set() . FIG. 6 illustrates a scalable reference layer set according to the present invention. With reference to FIG. 6, M scalable reference layer sets can be defined, and each scalable reference layer set can comprise a plurality of layer IDs. The scalable reference layer set 1 comprises A layer IDs, scalable reference layer set 2 comprises B layer IDs, and scalable reference layer set M comprises K layer IDs. The layer IDs constituting a scalable reference layer set can be specified by a difference between current layer ID and reference layer ID. To encode scalable_ref_layer_set() , the encoder can encode a syntax element informing of the number of reference layers (for example, num_ref_layer), syntax element representing signs of the differences of layer_ids between the current layer and reference layers calculated as many times as the number of reference layers (for example, delta_layer_id_sign), and syntax element representing absolute value of the difference; and transmit the encoded syntax elements. Table 2 is a syntax table of scalable_ref_layer_set() understood by the decoder. With reference to Table 2, num_ref_layer represents the number of reference layers. The value of delta_srls_idx_minus1 added by 1 specifies a scalable reference layer set and represents a difference from the previous scalable reference layer set. delta_layer_id_sign represents a sign of the difference between a current layer and reference layer. abs_delta_layer_id[i] represents an absolute value of the difference between the current layer and reference layer. The decoder finds out the number of reference layers constructing a reference layer set through num_ref_layer and obtains differences of layer_ids between the current layer and reference layers through delta_layer_id_sign and abs_delta_layer_id[i] signaled as many times as the number of reference layers. According to another embodiment of the present invention, layer dependency can be analyzed through individual slices. In case layer dependency is signaled and determined through a slice, the encoder and decoder may use an existing method such as the one using/changing layer dependency in a current slice, where the layer dependency is analyzed in a VPS extension or a method for using/changing layer dependency in the current slice, where the layer dependency in a VPS extension is represented in the form of an SRLS. First, in case layer dependency is used and changed in a current slice, where the layer dependency in the VPS extension is analyzed according to the existing method, the encoder can determine whether not to use layer dependency for the current slice or whether to apply new layer dependency to the current slice; and can perform encoding of such information for each slice by using a flag (for example, slice_srls_present_flag). In case a method for applying new layer dependency to a current slice is used, the encoder can encode the number of layers that can be referenced by the current slice into syntax information (for example, num_scalable_ref_layer) and transmits the syntax information; and encode as many reference layers as the number of layers that can be referenced into syntax information (for example, scalable_ref_layer[i]) and transmits the syntax information. The new layer dependency can be applied within the range of inter-layer dependency established in the VPS extension. Meanwhile a syntax table as shown in Table 3 can be decoded if layer dependency is used and changed in a current slice, where the layer dependency is analyzed in a VPS extension according to the existing method. With reference to Table 3, slice_srls_present_flag is a flag indicating whether not to apply layer dependency to a current slice or whether to apply new layer dependency to the current slice. num_scalable_ref_layer represents the number of layers referenced by a current slice. scalable_ref_layer[i] represents layer_id of a layer to be referenced or information meant for identifying layers to be referenced. TABLE 4 if( nuh_layer_id > 0 && !all_ref_layers_active_flag && NumDirectRefLayers[ nuh_layer_id ] > 0 ) { slice_srls_present_flag u(1) if( inter_layer_pred_enabled_flag && NumDirectRefLayers[ nuh_layer_id ] > 1) { num_scalable_ref_layer u(v) if( NumActiveRefLayerPics != NumDirectRefLayers[ nuh_layer_id ] ) for( i = 0; i < NumActiveRefLayersPics; i++ ) scalable_ref_layer[i] u(v) } } Table 4 is an embodiment of the syntax of Table 3. With reference to Table 4, slice_srls_present_flag is a flag indicating whether not to apply layer dependency to a current slice or whether to apply new layer dependency to the current slice. For example, if slice_srls_present_flag is 1, it indicates that new layer dependency is applied to the current slice, whereas, if slice_srls_present_flag is 0, it indicates that layer dependency is not applied to the current slice. If slice_srls_present_flag is 0, num_scalable_ref_layer is set to 0, and the current slice does not use an inter-layer reference. slice_srls_present_flag can be analyzed when the following conditions are all met: a layer to be encoded currently is not the base layer; inter-layer dependency established in the VPS extension is not used at all; and with inter-layer dependency established in the VPS extension, the number of layers that can be referenced by the current layer is one or more. num_scalable_ref_layer represents the number of layers to be referenced by a current slice. num_scalable_ref_layer can be analyzed when slice_srls_present_flag is 1, and the number of layers that can be referenced from inter-layer dependency established in the VPS extension is two or more. num_scalable_ref_layer can have a value larger than 1 and smaller than the number of layers that can be referenced by a current layer from inter-layer dependency established in the VPS extension. In case the number of layers that can be referenced by the current layer from inter-layer dependency established in the VPS extension is 1, num_scalable_ref_layer is set to 1 without analyzing thereof. scalable_ref_layer[i] represents layer_id of a layer to be referenced or information with which a layer to be referenced can be identified. If the number of layers that can be referenced by a current layer from inter-layer dependency in the VPS extension is the same as num_scalable_ref_layer, scalable_ref_layer[i] is set as information with which a reference layer, specified by inter-layer dependency established in the VPS extension without analyzing scalable_ref_layer[i]. The decoder analyzes slice_srls_present_flag, and If slice_srls_present_flag is 1, new layer dependency is established in a current slice whereas, if slice_srls_present_flag is 0, layer dependency is not defined. In case new layer dependency signaled from a current slice is used, the decoder can find out the number of layers that can be referenced by the current slice by decoding num_scalable_ref_layer, and obtain layer_id of a layer to be referenced or information with which a layer to be referenced can be identified by decoding scalable_ref_layer[i] as many times as the number of layers to be referenced by the current slice. Meanwhile, one example of syntax illustrated in Table 5 can be signaled in case a method for using/changing layer dependency in a current slice is employed by using the layer dependency in the VPS extension represented in the form of an SRLS. The decoder encodes the flag, scalable ref_layer_set_vps_flag and signals whether to use layer dependency established in the VPS extension or whether to introduce new layer dependency to the current slice. At this time, the encoder can decide according to the flag (vps_srls_present_flag) signaled from the VPS extension whether a method for encoding layer dependency using an SRLS has been used or whether an existing method for encoding layer dependency has been used. The encoder can encode new layer dependency in a current slice according to scalable_ref_layer_set_vps_flag or can encode syntax information (scalable_ref_layer_set_ldx) informing of which layer dependency set to use from among layer dependency sets established in the VPS extension. If an existing method for encoding layer dependency has been used in the VPS extension, layer dependency to be used in a current slice according to scalable_ref_layer_set_vps_flag can be defined in the same way as the method to be described later (for example, a method for fixing the layer_id of the base view to ‘0’). Again referring to FIG. 5, after layer dependency is analyzed, the encoder and decoder analyze layer IDs and view order according to the movement of a base view S520. A method for analyzing layer IDs according to the movement of a base view can include a method for fixing the layer_id of the base view to ‘0’ and a method for changing the layer_id of the base view according to the base view. First, a method for fixing the layer_id of the base view to ‘0’ will be described. According to the present invention, to fix the layer_id of the base view to ‘0’, the encoder and decoder can use an existing method for representing layer dependency or a method for representing layer dependency by using an SRLS. In case an existing method for representing layer dependency is used, the encoder can encode syntax information meant for movement of the base view by preparing base_view_change() part in an SEI message. To define layer dependency again in accordance with movement of the base view, the encoder can encode active_vps_id and change layer dependency on the basis of the information of a target VPS extension. And by encoding active_sps_id, the encoder can change the view order on the basis of a target sequence parameter set. If the view order is changed on the basis of the sequence parameter set, the total number of layers can be known through the VPS extension, and syntax elements (layer_id[i]) can be encoded newly for the whole layers and layer IDs can be reconfigured. Also, a syntax element for each view ID (view_id[i]) can be encoded, and layer ID and view ID can be reconfigured for each layer. Next, the encoder can change layer dependency by using a syntax element view_dependency_change() Since the encoder can know the total number of views through an SPS (Sequence Parameter Set), the encoder can encode as many syntax elements (view order_Idx[i]) as the total number of views and reconfigure the view order. Meanwhile, in case an existing method for representing layer dependency is used, the decoder can obtain information meant for moving a base view by parsing and analyzing base_view_change() signaled being included in an SEI message. First, to activate a parameter set meant for moving a base view, the decoder decodes a video parameter set; and active_vps_id and active_sps_id meant for activation of the sequence parameter set. Based on the information included in the decoded active_vps_id and active_sps_id, information meant for moving the base view is determined. Next, the decoder analyzes layer_id[i] and view_id[i] by using as many corresponding IDs as the number of total layers and assigns new layer_id and view_id to each layer. Since the layer_id of the base view is always set to ‘0’, the new layer_id and view_id need to represent the change of the base view. Next, the decoder analyzes a syntax element view_dependency_change() and decides change of layer dependency. The decoder analyzes view_order_Idx[i] by using as many corresponding IDs as the total number of views and reconfigures a decoding order of the views. Table 6 is a syntax table used for a method for fixing layer_id of the base view to ‘0’ by using the existing representation of layer dependency. According to another embodiment of the present invention, the layer_id of the base view can be fixed to ‘0’ by using representation of layer dependency based on an SRLS. Table 7 shows a syntax structure signaled to this purpose. The encoder can encode a syntax element meant for moving the base view by incorporating the base_view_change() part into the SEI message. The encoder, to define layer dependency again in accordance with the movement of the base view, encodes active_vps_id and changes layer dependency on the basis of the information of a target VPS extension. And the encoder encodes active_sps_id and changes the view order on the basis of the target sequence parameter set. Next, the encoder checks the total number of layers from the activated VPS extension; and encodes a syntax element (layer_id[i]) meant for identifying the whole layer and reconfigures the layer ID again for each individual layer. And the encoder can reconfigure the layer ID and view ID for each layer by encoding the syntax element (view_id[i]) meant for view ID. Afterwards, the encoder can reconfigure the view order by encoding as many syntax elements (view_order_Idx[i]) as the total number of views determined from the activated SPS. In response to the reconfigured view order, the decoder can obtain information meant for moving the base view by analyzing base_view_change() signaled being included in the SEI message. First of all, the decoder decodes active_vps_id and active_sps_id meant for activation of a video parameter set and sequence parameter set to activate a parameter set intended for moving the base view. Based on the information included in the decoded active_vps_id and active_sps_id, information for movement of the base view is determined. Next, the decoder analyzes layer_id[i] and view_id[i] by using as many corresponding IDs as the total number of layers and assigns new layer IDs and view IDs to the respective layers. Since the layer_id of the base view is always set to ‘0’, the new layer_id and view_id need to represent the change of the base view. Next, the decoder, by analyzing view_order_Idx[i] by using as many corresponding IDs as the total number of views, can reconfigure a decoding order of the views. In what follows, among the methods for analyzing layer IDs in accordance with movement of a base view, described will be a method for changing the layer ID of the base view according to the view of the base view. Two different embodiments can be applied to implement the method for changing layer ID of the base view according to the view of the base view. To change the layer ID of the base view according to the view of the base view, the encoder and decoder can use the existing representation for layer dependency or representation of layer dependency using an SRLS. Table 8 shows syntax elements signaled to use the existing representation for layer dependency. In what follows, a process for the encoder to encode syntax elements will be described with reference to Table 8. The encoder can encode syntax elements meant for moving the base view by incorporating the base_view_change() into the SEI message. To define layer dependency again in accordance with movement of the base view, the encoder encodes active_vps_id and changes layer dependency on the basis of the information of a target VPS extension. And by encoding active_sps_id, the encoder changes the view order on the basis of a target sequence parameter set. The encoder encodes the syntax element base_layer_id to signal the layer_id of the changed base layer. Afterwards, the encoder reconfigures layer dependency for each of the remaining layers except for those with a layer ID encoded as base_layer_id among the whole layers. To this end, the encoder encode the syntax element ref_layer_disable_flag[i][j] meant for reconfiguring layer dependency. Next, the encoder determines the total number of layers from the activated VPS extension and encodes as many syntax elements (view_order_Idx[i]) related to the view order as the total number of views and reconfigures the view order. Since the layer ID of the base layer has been changed, the changed base layer should be able to reference the previous base layer for a predetermined time period (for example, until dependency on the previous GOP is gone). To this purpose, the encoder encodes a syntax element (temporary_ref_layer_id) representing the layer ID of a layer that can be referenced by the base layer for a predetermined time period. Meanwhile, syntax elements as shown in Table 8 are signaled, the decoder can change the layer ID of the base view by parsing syntax elements as shown below. The decoder can obtain information meant for moving the base view by analyzing base_view_change() signaled being included in the SEI message. First of all, the decoder decodes active_vps_id and active_sps_id meant for activation of a video parameter set and sequence parameter set to activate a parameter set intended for moving the base view. Based on the information included in the decoded active_vps_id and active_sps_id, information for movement of the base view is determined. Next, the decoder determines the base layer by parsing base_layer_id. And to determine layer dependency of the remaining layers except for the moved base layer among the whole layers, the decoder parses ref_layer_disable_flag[i][j] representing layer dependency. Next, the decoder determines the decoding order of views by parsing view_order_idx[i] representing the decoding order of the whole views. And the decoder can determine a reference layer of the base layer by analyzing temporary_ref_layer_id which can be referenced by the base layer for a predetermined time period. According to a yet another embodiment of the present invention, layer_id of the base view can be changed according to the view of the base view by using representation of layer dependency based on an SRLS. Table 9 shows syntax elements signaled to use representation of layer dependency based on an SRLS. In what follows, a process for the encoder to encode syntax elements will be described with reference to Table 9. The encoder can encode syntax elements meant for moving the base view by incorporating the base_view_change() into the SEI message. To define layer dependency again in accordance with movement of the base view, the encoder encodes active_vps_id and changes layer dependency on the basis of the information of a target VPS extension. And by encoding active_sps_id, the encoder changes the view order on the basis of a target sequence parameter set. The encoder encodes the syntax element base_layer_id to signal the layer_id of the changed base layer. Next, the encoder determines the total number of layers from the activated VPS extension and encodes as many syntax elements (view_order_Idx[i]) related to the view order as the total number of views and reconfigures the view order. Since the layer ID of the base layer has been changed, the changed base layer should be able to reference the previous base layer for a predetermined time period (for example, until dependency on the previous GOP is gone). To this purpose, the encoder encodes a syntax element (temporary_ref_layer_id) representing the layer ID of a layer that can be referenced by the base layer for a predetermined time period. Meanwhile, syntax elements as shown in Table 9 are signaled, the decoder can change the layer ID of the base view by parsing syntax elements as shown below. The decoder can obtain information meant for moving the base view by analyzing base_view_change() signaled being included in the SEI message. First of all, the decoder decodes active_vps_id and active_sps_id meant for activation of a video parameter set and sequence parameter set to activate a parameter set intended for moving the base view. Based on the information included in the decoded active_vps_id and active_sps_id, information for movement of the base view is determined. Next, the decoder determines the base layer by parsing base_layer_id. Next, the decoder determines the decoding order of views by parsing view_order_idx[i] representing the decoding order of the whole views. And the decoder can determine a reference layer of the base layer by analyzing temporary_ref_layer_id which can be referenced by the base layer for a predetermined time period. Afterwards, the encoder and decoder can refer to reference pictures by constructing a reference picture list S530. Dependency between inter-layer reference pictures can be determined from inter-layer dependency information specified in the VPS extension or slice header. The method specified in the step of S510 can analyze layer dependency by using the VPS extension and slice header. After each layer analyzes layers to be referenced, the encoder and decoder can add ScalableRefLayerSet as shown in FIG. 7 to a reference picture list at the time of constructing thereof. FIG. 7 illustrates a process of deriving a reference picture set according to the present invention. As shown in FIG. 7, to derive a reference picture set included in a current layer before decoding a current picture, five lists consisting of POC (Picture Order Count) values and one list used for inter-layer prediction can be constructed. The five lists are PocLtCurr, PocLtFoll, PocStCurrBefore, PocStCurrAfter, and PocStFoll. The individual lists include as many constituting elements (namely, POC values) as specified by NumPocStCurrBefore, NumPocStCurrAfter, NumPocStFoll, NumPocLtCurr, and NumPocLtFoll. PocLtCurr is a list used by a current picture and includes POC of a long-term reference picture, which is larger than the POC of the current picture; PocLtFoll is a list including the POC of a long-term reference picture not used by the current picture. PocLtCurr and PocLtFoll are used for constructing a long-term reference picture set. PocStCurrBefore is a list used by a current picture and includes POC of a short-term reference picture, which is smaller than the POC of the current picture. PocStCurrAfter is a list used by the current picture and includes POC of a short-term reference picture, which is larger than the POC of the current picture. PocStFoll is a list including POC of a short-term reference picture not used by the current picture. PocStCurrBefore, PocStCurrAfter, and PocStFoll are used to construct a short-term reference picture set. The encoder and decoder can generate a list (LayerIDScalableCurr) consisting of layer IDs for reference layer candidates comprising other layers supporting scalability. LayerIDScalableCurr is used to construct a scalable reference layer set, namely inter-layer reference layer set or inter-view reference layer set. The encoder or decoder can derive five reference picture sets from the five POC lists by checking the decoded picture buffer (DPB) which stores decoded pictures with respect to a current layer and construct a reference layer set (ScalableRefLayerSet) to be used for inter-view prediction from the LayerIDScalableCurr by checking the DPBs of other layers. The scalable reference layer set (ScalableRefLayerSet) can be constructed by using as many reference layers as the number of reference layers signaled from the VPS extension or slice header. In the scalable reference layer set (ScalableRefLayerSet), an picture having the same POC as the current picture can be designated by a reference layer having dependency signaled from the VPS extension or slice header. The pictures constituting the scalable reference layer set (ScalableRefLayerSet) are all indicated as being used for long-term reference. The encoder and decoder can derive a reference picture list on the basis of the reference picture set and inter-layer reference layer set; and perform prediction of pictures by using the reference picture list. As described above, in case the base view moves to another view in a multi-view video, for more efficient encoding and decoding, the present invention determines layer dependency by using layer dependency information that can be signaled from a video parameter set or slice; and provides a method for determining a view order in accordance with movement of the base view and an apparatus using the method. The present invention provides a method for the user to decode the view intended by a producer in a more cost-effective way than existing methods in case the view is moved in a live broadcasting program according to the producer's intention and an apparatus using the method. In the embodiments described above, although methods have been described through a series of steps or a block diagram, the present invention is not limited to the order of steps and some step can be carried out in a different order and as a different step from what has been described above, or some step can be carried out simultaneously with other steps. Also, it should be understood by those skilled in the art that those steps described in the flow diagram are not exclusive; other steps can be incorporated to those steps; or one or more steps of the flow diagram can be removed without affecting the technical scope of the present invention. The embodiments above include examples of various aspects. Though it is not possible to describe all of the possible combinations to illustrate various aspects, it should be understood by those skilled in the art that other combinations are possible. Therefore, it should be understood that the present invention includes all of the other substitutions, modifications, and changes belonging to the technical scope defined by appended claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides a method for moving the position of a base view from an arbitrary GOP (Group Of Pictures) start position to implement an efficient encoding structure in multi-view video encoding and an apparatus using the method. The existing multi-view video encoding method exhibits low encoding efficiency when correlation between the base view and a dependent view is low, since the base view is assumed to be fixed. Moreover, in case the view in a live broadcasting program desired by a producer changes from the base view to another, the user has to consume more bit streams and decoder complexity than those consumed when decoding is performed with respect to the base view. Therefore, to alleviate the drawbacks of the existing multi-view video encoding method, the present invention provides a method for designing syntax elements by which the base view can be moved and an apparatus using the method. Accordingly, the present invention provides a method for supporting an efficient encoding structure and increasing encoding efficiency; and an apparatus using the method. The present invention provides a method for the user to decode the view intended by a producer in a more cost-effective way than existing methods in case the view is moved in a live broadcasting program according to the producer's intention and an apparatus using the method. According to one aspect of the present invention, a method for multi-view video decoding is provided. The method for multi-view video decoding comprises deriving layer dependency from a plurality of layers; in case a base view is moved, reconfiguring layer IDs for identifying layers and a view order in accordance with movement of the base view; and based on reconfigured layer IDs, constructing a reference picture list that a current picture references. The layer dependency can be composed of at least one reference layer set including the number of reference layers which the current layer references and identifying information of the reference layer. According to another aspect of the present invention, a method for multi-view video encoding is provided. The method for multi-view video encoding comprises deriving layer dependency from a plurality of layers; in case a base view is moved, reconfiguring layer IDs for identifying layers and a view order in accordance with movement of the base view; and based on reconfigured layer IDs, constructing a reference picture list that a current picture references. The layer dependency can be composed of at least one reference layer set including the number of reference layers which the current layer references and identifying information of the reference layer. According to a yet another aspect of the present invention, an apparatus for multi-view video decoding is provided. The apparatus for multi-view video decoding comprises deriving layer dependency from a plurality of layers; in case a base view is moved, reconfiguring layer IDs for identifying layers and a view order in accordance with movement of the base view; and based on reconfigured layer IDs, constructing a reference picture list that a current picture references. The layer dependency can be composed of at least one reference layer set including the number of reference layers which the current layer references and identifying information of the reference layer. According to one aspect of the present invention, an apparatus for multi-view video encoding is provided. The apparatus for multi-view video encoding comprises deriving layer dependency from a plurality of layers; in case a base view is moved, reconfiguring layer IDs for identifying layers and a view order in accordance with movement of the base view; and based on reconfigured layer IDs, constructing a reference picture list that a current video references. The layer dependency can be composed of at least one reference layer set including the number of reference layers which the current layer references and identifying information of the reference layer. According to one embodiment of the present invention, a method for moving the position of a base view from an arbitrary GOP start position to implement an efficient encoding structure in multi-view video encoding and an apparatus using the method are provided. The existing multi-view video encoding method exhibits low encoding efficiency when correlation between the base view and a dependent view is low, since the base view is assumed to be fixed. Moreover, in case the view in a live broadcasting program desired by a producer changes from the base view to another, the user has to consume more bit streams and decoder complexity than those consumed when decoding is performed with respect to the base view. Therefore, to alleviate the drawbacks of the existing multi-view video encoding method, one embodiment of the present invention provides a method for designing syntax elements by which the base view can be moved and an apparatus using the method. Accordingly, the present invention provides an image encoding/decoding method for supporting an efficient encoding structure and an apparatus using the method.

H04N19597

20180124

20180531

63442.0

H04N19597

KIM, HEE-YONG

VIDEO ENCODING AND DECODING METHOD AND APPARATUS USING THE SAME

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04N

ACCEPTED

EL DISPLAY APPARATUS

An electroluminescent (EL) display apparatus and method are provided. A display screen includes pixels. A pixel circuit of each of pixel includes, in part: a first switch transistor on a path through which current flows from a power line through a driving transistor to an EL device; a second switch transistor to supply an image signal to the driving transistor; and a third switch transistor for initially resetting the pixel circuit before the second switch transistor supplies the image signal. A gate terminal of the first switch transistor is connected to a first gate driver circuit. Gate terminals of the second and third switch transistors are connected to a second gate driver circuit, which includes a second gate signal line connected to both the gate terminal of the second switch transistor of a Nth row and the gate terminal of the third switch transistor of a (N+1)th row.

1. An electroluminescent (EL) display apparatus, comprising: a display screen including pixels arranged in a matrix, each of the pixels including an EL device and a pixel circuit; a source signal line through which an analog image signal output from a source driver circuit is transmitted; and a gate driver circuit which includes a first gate driver circuit and a second gate driver circuit, first gate signal lines through which selection voltages and non-selection voltages output from the first gate driver circuit are transmitted, and second gate signal lines through which selection voltages and non-selection voltages output from the second gate driver circuit are transmitted; wherein the pixel circuit of each of the pixels includes: a driving transistor to supply a current to the EL device; a first switch transistor provided on a current path through which the current flows from a power line through the driving transistor to the EL device; a second switch transistor to supply, to the driving transistor, the analog image signal supplied from the source signal line; and a third switch transistor for initially resetting the pixel circuit before the second switch transistor supplies, to the driving transistor, the analog image signal supplied from the source signal line, a gate terminal of the first switch transistor is connected to the first gate driver circuit, a gate terminal of the second switch transistor and a gate terminal of the third switch transistor are connected to the second gate driver circuit, the second gate driver circuit includes a second gate signal line connected to both the gate terminal of the second switch transistor of a Nth row and the gate terminal of the third switch transistor of a (N+1)th row for simultaneously connecting the gate terminal of the second switch transistor of the Nth row and the gate terminal of the third switch transistor of the (N+1)th row, and the first switch transistor of the (N+1)th row is controlled in an OFF state by the first gate driver circuit when the third switch transistor initially resets the pixel circuit. 2. The EL display apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising: a source driver circuit connected to the source signal line, wherein the source driver circuit is configured to supply a signal voltage to a gate of the driving transistor to flow a current which is N times as large as a predetermined value to the EL device to achieve a gray scale display indicated by the analog image signal, and N is greater than one. 3. The EL display apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising: a precharge circuit or a discharge circuit which forcibly charges or discharges the source signal line. 4. The EL display apparatus according to claim 1, wherein, by the first gate driver circuit and the second gate driver circuit, the first switch transistor is independently on/off controlled from the second switch transistor and the third switch transistor. 5. The EL display apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the first gate driver circuit is configured to select a plurality of the first gate signal lines simultaneously. 6. The EL display apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the first gate signal lines are divided into a plurality of blocks, a plurality of first gate signal lines in one block is connected as one control line, and the first gate driver circuit is configured to select the plurality of first gate signal lines as a block simultaneously. 7. The EL display apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the third switch transistor initially resets a gate terminal of the driving transistor before the second switch transistor supplies, to the driving transistor, the analog image signal supplied from the source signal line. 8. The EL display apparatus according to claim 7, wherein the third switch transistor initially resets the gate terminal of the driving transistor by shorting the gate terminal of the driving transistor and a drain terminal of the driving transistor. 9. The EL display apparatus according to claim 7, wherein the third switch transistor initially resets the gate terminal of the driving transistor by shorting the gate terminal of the driving transistor and an initial reset voltage line. 10. The EL display apparatus according to claim 9, a voltage of the initial reset voltage line is a predetermined constant voltage. 11. The EL display apparatus according to claim 1, the first switch transistor of the Nth row is controlled in an OFF state by the first gate driver circuit. 12. The EL display apparatus according to claim 1, the first switch transistor, the second switch transistor, and third switch transistor are P channel transistors. 13. The EL display apparatus according to claim 1, the second gate driver circuit connecting the gate terminal of the third switch transistor of the Nth row, and sequentially connecting the gate terminal of the second switch transistor of the Nth row, are synchronized with a 1H synchronization signal. 14. The EL display apparatus according to claim 1, the second gate driver circuit connecting the gate terminal of the third switch transistor of the (N+1)th row, and sequentially connecting the gate terminal of the second switch transistor of the (N+1)th row, are synchronized with a 1H synchronization signal. 15. An electronic device, comprising: the EL display apparatus according to claim 1. 16. A method of controlling an electroluminescent (EL) display apparatus, the EL display apparatus comprising: a display screen including pixels arranged in a matrix, each of the pixels including an EL device and a pixel circuit; a source signal line through which an analog image signal output from a source driver circuit is transmitted; and a gate driver circuit which includes a first gate driver circuit and a second gate driver circuit, first gate signal lines through which selection voltages and non-selection voltages output from the first gate driver circuit are transmitted, and second gate signal lines through which selection voltages and non-selection voltages output from the second gate driver circuit are transmitted, the pixel circuit of each of the pixels including: a driving transistor to supply a current to the EL device; a first switch transistor provided on a current path through which the current flows from a power line through the driving transistor to the EL device; a second switch transistor to supply, to the driving transistor, the analog image signal supplied from the source signal line; and a third switch transistor for initially resetting the pixel circuit before the second switch transistor supplies, to the driving transistor, the analog image signal supplied from the source signal line, a gate terminal of the first switch transistor is connected to the first gate driver circuit, a gate terminal of the second switch transistor and a gate terminal of the third switch transistor are connected to the second gate driver circuit, the second gate driver circuit includes a second gate signal line connected to both the gate terminal of the second switch transistor of a Nth row and the gate terminal of the third switch transistor of a (N+1)th row for simultaneously connecting the gate terminal of the second switch transistor of the Nth row and the gate terminal of the third switch transistor of the (N+1)th row, the method comprising: programming, by the second gate driver circuit and during a period, a first pixel of the Nth row with a voltage by applying an on-voltage to the second gate signal line to turn on the second switch transistor of the first pixel; resetting, by the second gate driver circuit and during the period, a second pixel of the (N+1)th row by applying the on-voltage to the second gate signal line to simultaneously turn on the third switch transistor of the second pixel; and controlling the first switch transistor of the (N+1)th row in an OFF state by the first gate driver circuit when the third switch transistor initially resets the pixel circuit. 17. The method according to claim 16, wherein a gate terminal of the driving transistor is reset by the resetting of the second pixel. 18. The method according to claim 16, wherein the third switch transistor initially resets a gate terminal of the driving transistor before the second switch transistor supplies, to the driving transistor, the analog image signal supplied from the source signal line. 19. The method according to claim 18, wherein the gate terminal of the driving transistor is reset by shorting the gate terminal of the driving transistor and an initial reset voltage line. 20. The method according to claim 16, wherein the first gate signal lines are divided in a plurality of blocks, a plurality of first gate signal lines in one block is connected as one control line, and the method comprises: selecting, by the first gate driver circuit, the plurality of first gate signal lines as a block simultaneously.

RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/335,932, filed on Oct. 27, 2016, which is Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/341,620, filed on Jul. 25, 2014 and now U.S. Pat. No. 9,728,130 issued on Aug. 8, 2017, which is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/488,591, filed on Sep. 17, 2004 and now U.S. Pat. No. 8,823,606 issued on Sep. 2, 2014, which is a U.S. National Phase under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of International Application No. PCT/JP2002/009111, filed on Sep. 6, 2002, which in turn claims the benefit of Japanese Application Nos.: 2002-136117, filed on May 10, 2002; 2001-347014, filed on Nov. 13, 2001; 2001-291598, filed on Sep. 25, 2001; and 2001-271311, filed on Sep. 7, 2001, the entire disclosures of which Applications are incorporated by reference herein. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to an EL display apparatus employing an organic or inorganic electroluminescence (EL) device and, more particularly, to an EL display apparatus capable of feeding an EL device with a desired current, a method of driving the same, and an electronic apparatus provided with such an EL display apparatus. BACKGROUND ART In general, an active-matrix display apparatus has a multiplicity of pixels arranged in matrix and displays an image by controlling the intensity of light pixel by pixel in accordance with image signals given. When, for example, liquid crystal is used as an electro-optic substance, the transmittance of each pixel varies in accordance with the voltage applied to the pixel. The basic operation an active-matrix image display apparatus employing an organic electroluminescence (EL) material as an electro-optic converting substance is the same as in the case where liquid crystal is used. A liquid crystal display panel has pixels each functioning as a shutter and displays an image by turning on/off light from a back light with such a shutter, or a pixel. An organic EL display panel is a display panel of the self luminescence type having a light-emitting device in each pixel. Such a self-luminescence type display panel has advantages over liquid crystal display panels, including higher image visibility, no need for a back light, and higher response speed. The organic EL display panel controls the luminance of each light-emitting device (pixel) based on the amount of current. Thus, the organic EL display panel is largely different from the liquid crystal display panel in that its luminescent devices are of the current-driven type or the current-controlled type. Like the liquid crystal display panel, the organic EL display panel can have any one of a simple-matrix configuration and an active-matrix configuration. Though the former configuration is simple in structure, it has a difficulty in realizing a large-scale and high-definition display panel. However, it is inexpensive. The latter configuration can realize a large-scale and high-definition display panel. However, it has problems of a technical difficulty in control and of a relatively high price. Presently, organic EL display panels of the active-matrix configuration are being developed intensively. Such an active-matrix EL panel controls electric current passing through the light-emitting device provided in each pixel by means of a thin film transistor (TFT) located inside the pixel. An organic EL display panel of such an active-matrix configuration is disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. HEI 8-234683 for example. FIG. 62 shows an equivalent circuit of one pixel portion of this display panel. Pixel 216 comprises an EL device 215 as a light-emitting device, a first transistor 211a, a second transistor 211b, and a storage capacitor 219. Here, the EL device 215 is an organic electroluminescence (EL) device. In the present description, a transistor for feeding (controlling) current to an EL device is referred to as a driving transistor, while a transistor operating as a switch like the transistor 211b in FIG. 62 referred to as a switching transistor. EL device 215 has a rectification property in many cases and hence is called OLED (Organic Light-Emitting Diode) as the case may be. For this reason, the EL device 215 in FIG. 62 is regarded as an OLED and represented by the symbol of a diode. In the example shown in FIG. 62, the source terminal (S) of p-channel transistor 211a is connected to Vdd (power source potential), while the cathode (negative electrode) of the EL device 215 connected to ground potential (Vk). On the other hand, the anode (positive electrode) is connected to the drain terminal (D) of the transistor 211b. The gate terminal of the p-channel transistor 211b is connected to a gate signal line 217a, the source terminal connected to a source signal line 218, and the drain terminal connected to the storage capacitor 219 and the gate terminal (G) of the transistor 211a. In order to operate the pixel 216, first, the source signal line 218 is applied with an image signal indicative of luminance information with the gate signal line 217a turned into a selected state. Then, the transistor 211b becomes conducting and the storage capacitor 219 is charged or discharged, so that the gate potential of the transistor 211a becomes equal to the potential of the image signal. When the gate signal line 217a is turned into an unselected state, the transistor 211a is turned off, so that the transistor 211a is electrically disconnected from the source signal line 218. However, the gate potential of the transistor 211a is stably maintained by means of the storage capacitor 219. The current passing through the EL device 215 via the transistor 211a comes to assume a value corresponding to voltage Vgs across the gate and the source terminals of the transistor 11a, with the result that the EL device 215 keeps on emitting light at a luminance corresponding to the amount of current fed thereto through the transistor 211a. As described above, according to the prior art configuration shown in FIG. 62, one pixel comprises one selecting transistor (switching device) and one driving transistor. Another prior art configuration is disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. HEI 11-327637 for example. This publication describes an embodiment in which a pixel comprises a current mirror circuit. Meanwhile, the organic EL display panel is usually manufactured using a low temperature polysilicon transistor array. Since organic EL devices emit light based on current, the organic EL display panel involves a problem that display irregularities occur if there are variations in transistor characteristics. Further, a conventional EL display panel cannot sufficiently charge/discharge the parasitic capacitance which is present in the source signal line 18. For this reason there arises a problem that in some cases a desired current cannot be fed to pixel 16. DISCLOSURE OF INVENTION The present invention has been made in view of the foregoing circumstances. It is an object of the present invention to provide an EL display apparatus which is capable of realizing satisfactory image display by sufficiently charging/discharging the parasitic capacitance present in the source signal line. In order to attain this object, an EL display apparatus according to the present invention comprises: a plurality of gate signal lines and a plurality of source signal lines, which are arranged to intersect each other; EL devices arranged in a matrix pattern, each of the EL devices being operative to emit light at a luminance corresponding to a current fed thereto; a gate driver operative to output a gate signal to each of the gate signal lines; a source driver operative to output to each of the source signal lines a current which is higher than a current corresponding to an image signal inputted from outside; a transistor, provided for each of the EL devices, for outputting the current outputted from the source driver to the EL device; and a first switching device capable of feeding the current outputted from the source driver to the EL device by switching to bring the EL device and the transistor into and out of conduction thereacross in accordance with the gate signal fed thereto through the gate signal line, wherein the gate driver is configured to output the gate signal to the gate signal line in a manner to bring the EL device and the transistor into and out of conduction thereacross at least once in a one-frame period. With this construction, the source driver outputs a higher current than the current corresponding to the image signal to the source signal line and, hence, even if a parasitic capacitance is present in the source signal line, the parasitic capacitance can be charged/discharged. When such a high current is fed to the EL device, the EL device emits light at a higher luminance than a luminance corresponding to the image signal. By making the duration of current feed to the EL device shorter than the one-frame period, the time period for which the EL device emits light can be shortened, with the result that image display at a luminance equivalent to the luminance corresponding to the image signal is realized. In the EL display apparatus according to the above-described invention, the gate driver may be configured to output the gate signal to the gate signal line in a manner to bring the EL device and the transistor into and out of conduction thereacross plural times periodically in the one-frame period. With this feature, the so-called interlaced driving can be realized, which can provide for more satisfactory image display. The EL display apparatus according to the above-described invention may further comprise a second switching device capable of feeding the current outputted from the source driver to the transistor by switching to bring the source driver and the transistor into and out of conduction thereacross in accordance with the gate signal fed thereto through the gate signal line, wherein the gate driver is configured to bring the source driver and the transistor into conduction thereacross to program the transistor with the current outputted from the source driver while the EL device and the transistor are out of conduction thereacross and then output the gate signal to the gate signal line in a manner to bring the EL device and the transistor into and out of conduction thereacross at least once in the one-frame period. With this feature, display irregularities due to variations in transistor characteristics can be prevented, whereby satisfactory image display can be realized. In the EL display apparatus according to the above-described invention, the gate driver and the transistor may be formed in a same process. Specifically, the gate driver and the driver [sic] may be formed using the low temperature polysilicon technology for example. The formation of these components in this manner makes it possible to narrow the frame. In the EL display apparatus according to the above-described invention, the source driver may comprise a semiconductor chip. According to the present invention, there is also provided an EL display apparatus comprising: a plurality of gate signal lines and a plurality of source signal lines, which are arranged to intersect each other; EL devices arranged in a matrix pattern, each of the EL devices being operative to emit light at a luminance corresponding to a current fed thereto; a gate driver operative to output a gate signal to each of the gate signal lines; a source driver operative to output to each of the source signal lines a current which is higher than a current corresponding to an image signal inputted from outside; a switching device provided for each of the EL devices and capable of feeding the EL device with a current fed through the source signal line by switching to bring the EL device and the source signal line into and out of conduction thereacross in accordance with the gate signal fed thereto through the gate signal line; a plurality of dummy devices located in a region different from a region where the EL devices are formed, the dummy devices being of substantially no use in image display; and a second switching device provided for each of the dummy devices and capable of feeding the dummy device with the current fed through the source signal line by switching to bring the dummy device and the source signal line into and out of conduction thereacross in accordance with the gate signal supplied thereto through the gate signal line, wherein the gate driver is configured to output gate signals to the gate signal line associated with the EL device and the gate signal line associated with the dummy device at substantially the same timing, whereby the EL device and the dummy device are fed with the current fed through the source signal line dividedly therebetween. With this construction, the source driver outputs a higher current than the current corresponding to the image signal to the source signal line and, hence, even if a parasitic capacitance is present in the source signal line, the parasitic capacitance can be charged/discharged. Even when the source driver outputs the higher current than the current corresponding to the image signal to the source signal line, the EL device can be prevented from emitting light at a higher luminance than necessary because the current outputted from the source driver is divided into shares which are fed to the EL device and the dummy device, respectively. The EL display apparatus according to the above-described invention may have an arrangement wherein: the gate signal line associated with the dummy device is formed to extend adjacent the gate signal line associated with EL devices in a first or final row; and the gate driver is configured to output gate signals to gate signal lines associated with a series of adjacent rows at substantially the same timing series by series sequentially, whereby plural EL devices or the pair of the EL device and the dummy device are fed with the current fed through the source signal line dividedly therebetween. According to the present invention, there is also provided a method of driving an EL display apparatus having an EL device which is operative to emit light at a luminance corresponding to a current fed thereto, and a source driver operative to output a current to the EL device through a source signal line, the method comprising the steps of causing the source driver to output to the source signal line a current higher than a current corresponding to an image signal inputted from outside; and feeding the EL device with the current outputted to the source signal line for a part of a one-frame period to cause the EL device to emit light at a luminance corresponding to the current outputted to the source signal line for the part of the one-frame period. In the method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the above-described invention, the part of the one-frame period may be divided into plural periods. An electronic apparatus according to the present invention comprises an EL display apparatus as recited in claim 1 and an arrangement for outputting an image signal to the El display apparatus. According to the present invention, there is also provided an EL display apparatus comprising: EL devices arranged in a matrix pattern; a driving transistor operative to feed a current to each of the EL devices; a first switching device disposed between the EL device and the driving transistor; and a gate driver operative to on-off control the first switching device, wherein the gate driver is configured to control the first switching device in a manner to turn the first switching device off at least once within a one-frame period. In the EL display apparatus according to the above-described invention, the first switching device may be controlled in a manner to turn off plural times periodically within the one-frame period. According to the present invention, there is also provided an EL display apparatus comprising: a source driver circuit operative to output a programming current; EL devices arranged in a matrix pattern; a driving transistor operative to feed a current to each of the EL devices; a first switching device disposed between the EL device and the driving transistor; a second switching device forming a path for transmitting the programming current to the driving transistor; and a gate driver circuit operative to on-off control the first and second switching devices, wherein the gate driver is configured to control the first switching device in a manner to turn the first switching device on at least once and off at least once within a one-frame period. In the EL display apparatus according to the above-described invention, it is possible that the gate driver and the driving transistors are formed in a same process, while the source driver comprises a semiconductor chip. According to the present invention, there is also provided an EL display apparatus comprising: gate signal lines; source signal lines; a source driver operative to output a programming current; a gate driver; EL devices arranged in a matrix pattern; a driving transistor operative to feed a current to each of the EL devices; a first transistor disposed between the EL device and the driving transistor; and a second transistor forming a path for transmitting the programming current to the driving transistor, wherein: the source driver is operative to output the programming current to each of the source signal lines; the gate driver is connected to each of the gate signal lines; the second transistor has a gate terminal connected to the gate signal line, a source terminal connected to the source signal line, and a drain terminal connected to the drain terminal of the driving transistor; and the gate driver is configured to select plural ones of the gate signal lines to feed the programming current to the driving transistor of each of plural pixels and control the first transistor in a manner to turn the first transistor on at least once and off at least once within a one-frame period. In the EL display apparatus according to the above-described invention, it is possible that the gate driver and the driving transistors are formed in a same process, while the source driver comprises a semiconductor chip. According to the present invention, there is also provided an EL display apparatus comprising: a display region including I pixel rows (I is an integer not less than 2) and J pixel columns (J is an integer not less than 2); a source driver operative to apply video signals to source signal lines in the display region; a gate driver operative to apply on-voltage or off-voltage to gate signal lines in the display region; and a dummy pixel row formed in a region other than the display region, wherein the display region is formed with EL devices arranged in a matrix pattern, each of which is operative to emit light in accordance with the video signals from the source driver, while the dummy pixel row is configured such that the dummy pixel row fails to emit light or its light-emitting state is not recognized visually. In the EL display apparatus according to the above-described invention, the gate driver may be configured to select plural pixel rows at a time for the pixel rows selected to be applied with the video signals from the source driver in a manner that the dummy pixel row is selected when the first pixel row or the Ith pixel row is selected. According to the present invention, there is also provided a method of driving an EL display apparatus characterized by: feeding the EL device with a current that causes the EL device to emit light at a luminance higher than a predetermined luminance; and causing the EL device to emit light for a 1/N part of a one-frame period (N is less than 1). In the method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the above-described invention, the 1/N part of the one-frame period may be divided into plural periods. According to the present invention, there is also provided a method of driving an EL display apparatus adapted for programming of a current to pass through an EL device based on a current, characterized by: causing the EL device to emit light at a luminance higher than a predetermined luminance to provide a display in a 1/N (N>1) portion of a display region; and sequentially shifting the 1/N portion of the display region to another thereby causing the whole display region to display. According to the present invention, there is further provided an electronic apparatus characterized by comprising: an EL display apparatus as recited in claim 11, a receiver, and a speaker. The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 3 is an explanatory diagram illustrating an operation of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 4 is an explanatory chart illustrating an operation of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 5 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 6 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 7 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of manufacturing an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 9 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 10 is a sectional view of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 11 is a sectional view of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 12 is an explanatory chart illustrating an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 13 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 14 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 15 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 16 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 17 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 18 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 19 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 20 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 21 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 22 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 23 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 24 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 25 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 26 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 27 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 28 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 29 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 30 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 31 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 32 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 33 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 34 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 35 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 36 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 37 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 38 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 39 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 40 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 41 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 42 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 43 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 44 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 45 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 46 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 47 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 48 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 49 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 50 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 51 is a diagram illustrating a pixel of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 52 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 53 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 54 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 55 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 56 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 57 is an explanatory view illustrating a mobile phone according to the present invention. FIG. 58 is an explanatory view illustrating a view finder according to the present invention. FIG. 59 is an explanatory view illustrating a digital video camera according to the present invention. FIG. 60 is an explanatory view illustrating a digital still camera according to the present invention. FIG. 61 is an explanatory view illustrating a television set (monitor) according to the present invention. FIG. 62 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of a conventional EL display panel. BEST MODE FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION Hereinafter, embodiments of the present invention will be described with reference to the drawings. For easy understanding and/or illustration, each of the drawings in this description may have portions omitted and/or enlarged/reduced. For example, an encapsulating film 111 and the like are shown to be quite thick in the sectional view of a display panel at FIG. 11. On the other hand, an encapsulating cover 85 is shown to be thin in FIG. 10. There are omitted portions. For example, a display panel or the like according to the present invention needs to have a phase film such as a circularly polarizing plate for antireflection. However, such a phase film is omitted from the drawings used in this description. This holds true for other drawings. Like numerals, characters or the like designate parts having identical or similar forms, materials, functions or operations. It is to be noted that the details to be described with reference to the drawings may be combined with other embodiments and the like. For example, a touch panel or the like may be added to a display panel shown in FIG. 8 to form an information display apparatus illustrated in any one of FIGS. 19 and 59 to 61. Alternatively, a magnifying lens 582 may be attached to the display panel to form a view finder (see FIG. 58) for use in a video camera (see FIG. 59 and the like). Any one of the driving methods to be described with reference to FIGS. 4, 15, 18, 21 and 23 and like figures is applicable to any one of display apparatus or display panels according to the present invention. While driving transistors 11 and switching transistors 11 will be described to be thin film transistors in this description, they are not limited to thin film transistors. Each of the transistors 11 may comprise a thin film diode (TFD), ring diode, or the like. Further, each transistor 11 is not limited to such a thin film device but may comprise a device formed on a silicon wafer. Of course, any one of FET, MOS-FET, MOS transistors and a bipolar transistor can serve the purpose. These are basically thin film transistors. It is needless to say that other devices such as a varistor, thyrister, ring diode, photodiode, phototransistor, and PLZT device can serve the purpose. That is, each of the switching devices 11 and driving devices 11 may comprise any one of the devices mentioned above. As shown in FIG. 10, an organic EL display panel includes at least one organic functional layer (EL layer) 15 (15R, 15G and 15B) comprising an electron transport layer, a luminescent layer, hole transport layer and the like, and a metal electrode (reflective film) (cathode) 106, which are stacked on a glass plate 71 (array substrate) formed with a transparent electrode 105 as a pixel electrode. The organic functional layer (EL layer) 15 is caused to emit light by applying the anode consisting of the transparent electrode (pixel electrode) 105 and the cathode consisting of the metal electrode (reflective electrode) 106 with a positive voltage and a negative voltage, respectively; stated otherwise, by applying direct current across the transparent electrode 105 and the metal electrode 106. A high current passes through wiring for feeding current to the anode or the cathode (cathode wiring 86 or anode wiring 87 in FIG. 8). When the screen size of an EL display apparatus is 40 inches for example, a current of about 100 A passes therethrough. Therefore, such wiring needs to have a sufficiently low value of resistance. To solve this problem, the present invention firstly forms thin film wiring to the anode or the like (wiring for feeding EL devices with a luminescence-causing current). The thin film wiring is then thickened with an electrolytic plating technique or an electroless plating technique. Examples of metals for use in plating include chromium, nickel, gold, copper, and aluminum, or alloys, amalgams or laminated structures thereof. As the need arises, the wiring is added with identical wiring or metal wiring comprising wiring and copper foil. Alternatively; the wiring is thickened to have decreased wiring resistance by screen printing over the wiring with copper paste or the like to stack the paste or the like thereon. The wiring may be reinforced by superposition of additional wiring thereon using a bonding technique. As needs dictate, a grand pattern may be formed over the wiring to form a capacitor therebetween. To feed the anode or cathode wiring with a high current, a power wire for supply of a power having a low current and a high voltage is routed from current feeding means to a location in the vicinity of the anode wiring or the like and the power is converted into a power having a low voltage and a high current with a DCDC converter or the like before being fed to the anode wiring or the like. That is, a high-voltage and low-current wire is routed from the power source to a power-consuming target and the power fed therethrough is converted into a high-current and low-voltage power at a location short of reaching the power-consuming target. Examples of such converter means include a DCDC converter, and a transformer. Preferable materials for the metal electrode 106 include lithium, silver, aluminum, magnesium, indium and copper, or their respective alloys or like materials having low work functions. Particularly preferable is an Al—Li alloy for example. On the other hand, the transparent electrode 105 may comprise a conductor material having a high work function, such as ITO, or gold or the like. If gold is used as the electrode material, the resulting electrode is translucent. ITO may be substituted with another material such as IZO. This holds true for other pixel electrodes 105. In the vapor deposition of a thin film over the pixel electrode 105 or the like, it is convenient to form organic EL film 15 in an argon atmosphere. By forming a carbon film having a thickness not less than 20 nm and not more than 50 nm over ITO as the pixel electrode 105, an organic EL film can be formed which exhibits improved interface stability and satisfactory luminance and efficiency of luminescence. The process for forming the EL film 15 is not limited to vapor deposition. It is needless to say that the EL film 15 may be formed using an ink jet process. A desiccant 107 is placed in the space defined between the encapsulating cover 85 and the array substrate 71. This is because the organic EL film 15 is easily affected by humidity. The desiccant 107 absorbs moisture permeating through sealant thereby preventing the organic EL film 15 from deteriorating. FIG. 10 shows an arrangement of encapsulation with cover 85 of glass. Encapsulation may be achieved using a film (which may be a thin film, i.e., encapsulating thin film) 111 as shown in FIG. 11. An example of such an encapsulating film (encapsulating thin film) 111 is a film formed by vapor deposition of DLC (diamond-like carbon) on a film for use in electrolytic capacitors. This film has very poor water permeability (i.e. high moistureproofness) and hence is used as the encapsulating film 111. It is needless to say that an arrangement in which a DLC film or the like is vapor-deposited directly over the electrode 106 can serve the purpose. Alternatively, the encapsulating thin film may comprise a multi-layered film formed by stacking a resin thin film and a metal thin film on the other. The thickness of the thin film is preferably established so that n•d is not more than the dominant wavelength λ of light emitted from the EL device 15, wherein n represents the refractive index of the thin film (if plural thin films are stacked on each other, calculation is made with their respective refractive indexes totalized (n•d is calculated for each thin film), and d represents the thickness of the thin film (if plural thin films are stacked on each other, calculation is made with their respective refractive indexes totalized.) With this condition being satisfied, the efficiency in taking light out of EL device 15 is twice or more as high as that of the case where encapsulation is made with a glass substrate. An alloy, mixture or stack of aluminum and silver may be formed as the encapsulating thin film. Such encapsulation with encapsulating film 111 and without cover 85 as described above is referred to as thin film encapsulation. In the thin film encapsulation to be applied to the case where light is taken out from the substrate 71 side, which is referred to as downward takeout (see FIG. 10 in which the arrow indicates the light takeout direction), an aluminum film to be used as the cathode is formed over the EL film formed in advance. Subsequently, a resin layer to serve as a buffer layer is formed over the aluminum film. Examples of materials for the buffer layer include organic materials such as acrylic resin and epoxy resin. The thickness of the buffer layer is suitably not less than 1 μm and not more than 10 μm, more preferably not less than 2 μm and not more than 6 μm. Further, encapsulating film 74 is formed over the buffer film. Without the buffer layer, the structure of the EL film would collapse, causing streak-like defects to occur. As described above, the encapsulating film 111 comprises, for example, DLC (diamond-like carbon) or a layered structure for electrolytic capacitors (a multi-layered structure in which a dielectric thin film and an aluminum thin film are formed alternately by vapor deposition.) In the thin film encapsulation to be applied to the case where light is taken out from the EL layer 15 side, which is referred to as upward takeout (see FIG. 10 in which the arrow indicates the light takeout direction), an Ag—Mg film to be used as the cathode (or the anode) is formed to a thickness not less than 20 angstroms and not more than 300 angstroms over the EL film formed in advance. Subsequently, a transparent electrode comprising ITO or the like is formed over the AG-Mg film to lower the resistance, followed by the formation of a resin film as a buffer layer over the electrode film. Further, encapsulating film 111 is formed over the buffer film. A half of the amount of light emitted from the organic EL layer 15 is reflected by reflective film 106, passes through the array substrate 71, and is then emitted from the panel. However, undesired reflection occurs due to the reflective film 106 reflecting extraneous light, causing the display contrast to lower. As the measures to avoid this inconvenience, a λ/4 plate 108 and a sheet polarizer (polarizing film) 109 are disposed at the array substrate 71. These are generally called a circularly polarizing plate (circularly polarizing sheet). If the pixels comprise a reflective electrode, light generated from the EL layer 15 is emitted upward. It is therefore needless to say that the phase plate 108 and the sheet polarizer 109 are disposed on the light-emitting side in this case. Such reflective-type pixels can be obtained by forming pixel electrode 105 of aluminum, chromium, silver or the like. If the surface of the pixel electrode 105 is provided with projections (or projections and depressions), the interface with the organic EL layer 15 is enlarged, which increases the light-emitting area and improves the luminescence efficiency. It should be noted that when it is possible to form a reflective film to serve as cathode 106 (or anode 105) on a transparent electrode or reduce the reflectance to 30% or lower, the circularly polarizing plate is unnecessary. This is because undesired reflection of extraneous light is reduced to a large extent. Further, such an arrangement reduces interference of light and hence is desirable. Preferably, each transistor 11 employs a LDD (lightly doped drain) structure. Though the organic EL device (which is variously abbreviated as OEL, PEL, PLED, OLED or the like) 15 is exemplified as the EL device in this description, it is needless to say that an inorganic EL device is applicable to the present invention without limitation to the organic EL device. The active-matrix configuration used for the organic EL display panel has to satisfy the following two conditions: (1) the active-matrix configuration is capable of selecting a specified pixel and giving the pixel required information; and (2) the active-matrix configuration is capable of passing a current through each EL device throughout a one-frame period. To satisfy these two conditions, the pixel configuration of the conventional organic EL device shown in FIG. 62 uses first transistor 211b as a switching transistor for pixel selection and second transistor 211a as a driving transistor for feeding EL device (EL film) 215 with current. In causing this configuration to realize gray-scale display, the driving transistor 211a needs to be applied a voltage corresponding to a level of gray as a gate voltage. Accordingly, fluctuations of on-current in the driving transistor 211a are directly reflected in image display. The on-current in a transistor formed of single crystal is extremely invariant, whereas a low-temperature polycrystalline transistor, which is formed by the low temperature polysilicon technology which enables the formation of a transistor on an inexpensive glass substrate at 450° C. or lower, has a threshold voltage varying in the range from ±0.2 V to ±0.5 V. For this reason, the on-current passing through the driving transistor 211a fluctuates with variations in threshold voltage, resulting in display irregularities. Such irregularities occur due not only to variations in threshold voltage but also to variations in the mobility, gate insulator thickness or the like of the transistor. Also, the characteristics of the transistor 211 vary as the transistor 211 deteriorates. This phenomenon is possible to occur not only with the low temperature polysilicon technology but also with other technology including the high temperature polysilicon technology using a processing temperature of 450° C. or higher and the technology of forming a transistor using a semiconductor film resulting from solid phase (CGS) growth. As well, the phenomenon occurs with organic transistors and amorphous silicon transistors. Therefore, the present invention to be described below is directed to configurations or methods capable of taking measures depending on those technologies. In this description, however, transistors of the type formed by the low temperature polysilicon technology are described mainly. With the method of gray scale display by writing with voltage as shown in FIG. 62, device characteristics need to be controlled precisely for providing an invariant display. With the low temperature polysilicon transistor or the like presently available, however, the requirement of controlling variations in device characteristics to within predetermined ranges cannot be satisfied. In the pixel structure of the EL display apparatus according to the present invention, a unit pixel comprises four transistors 11 and an EL device, as specifically shown in FIG. 1. The pixel electrode is formed as overlapping the source signal lines. More specifically, source signal lines 18 are insulated by the formation of an insulating film or a planarizing film comprising an acrylic material over the source signal lines 18, and then pixel electrode 105 is formed on the insulating film. Such a structure that a pixel electrode overlaps at least a part of source signal lines is called a high aperture (HA) structure. This structure can be expected to reduce useless interference light and ensure favorable luminescence. When gate signal line (first scanning line) 17a is rendered active (applied with on-voltage) by outputting of a gate signal thereto, the source driver 14 feeds EL device 15 with a current having a value required by EL device 15 through driving transistor 11a and switching transistor 11c associated with the EL device 15. By rendering gate signal line 17a inactive (applying the gate signal line with on-voltage) in a manner to shortcircuit the gate and the drain of the transistor 11a, the transistor 11b is opened and, at the same time, the gate voltage (or the drain voltage) of the transistor 11a is stored in capacitor (storage capacitor or additional capacitor) 19 connected between the gate and the source of the transistor 11a (see FIG. 3(a).) The capacitor 19 intermediate the source (S) and the gate (G) of the transistor 11a preferably has a capacitance of 0.2 pF or more. A structure having capacitor 19 formed separately is exemplified as another structure. That is, the structure has a storage capacitor comprising a capacitor electrode layer, a gate insulator and gate metal. Such a separately-formed capacitor is preferable from the viewpoints of preventing a decrease in luminance due to leakage from the transistor 11c and stabilizing the display operation. The capacitor (storage capacitor) 19 preferably has a capacitance not less than 0.2 pF and not more than 2 pF, particularly preferably not less than 0.4 pF and not more than 1.2 pF. The capacitance of the capacitor 19 is determined in view of a pixel size. Assuming that Cs (pF) is the capacitance required for one pixel and Sp (square μm) is the area occupied by one pixel (not the effective aperture ratio), Cs and Sp preferably satisfy 500/Sp≤Cs≤20000/Sp, more preferably 1000/Sp≤Cs≤10000/Sp. Since the capacitance of the gate of the transistor is small enough, Q used here is the capacitance of the storage capacitor (capacitor) 19 alone. Preferably, the capacitor 19 is formed substantially in a non-display region located intermediate adjacent pixels. Generally, in the formation of full color organic EL devices 15, misalignment of a mask causes misregistration of organic EL layers to occur since the EL layers are formed using a vapor deposition process with a metal mask. Such misregistration might cause organic EL layers 15 (15R, 15G and 15B) for respective colors to overlap each other. For this reason, adjacent pixels for respective colors have to be spaced 10μ or more by the non-display region. This region does not contribute to luminescence. Therefore, the formation of storage capacitor 19 in this region is also effective means for improving the effective aperture ratio. Subsequently, gate signal line 17a is rendered inactive (applied with off-current) and gate signal line 17b rendered active, so that the current path is switched to the path including EL device 15 and transistor 11d connected to the first transistor 11a and the EL device 15, thereby causing the current stored in the aforementioned manner to pass through the EL device 15 (see FIG. 3(b).) This circuit has four transistors 11 in one pixel, the transistor 11a having its gate connected to the source of the transistor 11b. The gates of the respective transistors 11b and 11c are connected to gate signal line 17a. The drain of the transistor 11b is connected to the drain of the transistor 11c as well as the source of the transistor 11d. The source of the transistor 11c is connected to source signal line 18. The gate of the transistor 11d is connected to gate signal line 17b, while the drain of the transistor 11d connected to the anode of the EL device 15. All the transistors shown in FIG. 1 are p-channel transistors. The p-channel transistor is preferable because it has a high breakdown voltage and is hard to deteriorate, though the p-channel transistor exhibits slightly lower mobility than the n-channel transistor. However, the present invention does not limit the transistors used in the EL device configuration to p-channel transistors. It is possible to form the EL device configuration using the n-channel transistor exclusively. The EL device configuration may be formed using the n-channel transistor and the p-channel transistor both. In FIG. 1, it is preferable that the transistors 11c and 11b have the same polarity and are of the p-channel type while the transistors 11a and 11d are of the n-channel type. Generally the p-channel transistor is characterized in the features including higher reliability and less occurrence of kink current than the n-channel transistor. Therefore, use is very effective of the p-channel transistor as the transistor 11a associated with EL device 15 which is designed to obtain a desired intensity of luminescence by current control. Most preferably, all the transistors forming a pixel as well as incorporated gate driver 12 are of the p-channel type. By thus forming the array with exclusive use of p-channel transistors, the number of masks to be used is reduced to five, which can make the cost lower and the yield higher. For easy understanding of the present invention, description will be made of the EL device configuration according to the present invention with reference to FIG. 3. The EL device configuration of the present invention is controlled with two timings. The first timing is timing for storing a required current value. When transistors 11b and 11c are turned on at this timing, the equivalent circuit of the EL device configuration assumes the state shown in FIG. 3(a). Here, a predetermined current Iw is written through a signal line. By so doing, transistor 11a is turned into a state where the gate and the drain are connected to each other and current Iw passes through the transistor 11a and transistor 11c. Accordingly, the voltage across the gate-source of transistor 11a assumes a value such as to cause current Iw to pass. The second timing is timing for closing transistors 11b and 11c and opening transistor 11d. At this time, the equivalent circuit of the EL device configuration assumes the state shown in FIG. 3(b). The voltage across the source-gate of transistor 11a is held as it is. In this case transistor 11a operates within a saturation region at all times and, hence, the value of current assumes Iw constantly. These operations cause the display apparatus to be driven as shown in FIG. 5. Reference character 51a in FIG. 5(a) designates a pixel (row) of display screen 50 programmed with current at a certain time point (written pixel (row).) This pixel (row) 51a is a non-lighting (non-display) pixel row as shown in FIG. 5(b). Other pixels (rows) are display pixels (rows) 53. (That is, current is passing through EL devices 15 of the display pixels (rows) 53 and the EL devices 15 are emitting light.) In the case of the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 1, programming current Iw passes through source signal line 18 at the time of current-based programming. The current Iw passes through transistor 11a to make voltage setting (programming) of the capacitor 19 so that a voltage such as to cause the current Iw to pass is held. At this time transistor 11d is open (in off-state). In a period for allowing current to pass through EL device 15, transistors 11c and 11b are turned off while transistor 11d turned on, as shown in FIG. 3(b). Specifically, off-voltage (Vgh) is applied to gate signal line 17a to turn transistors 11b and 11c off. On the other hand, on-voltage (Vgl) is applied to gate signal line 17d to turn transistor 11d on. The chart of such timing is shown in FIG. 4. In FIG. 4 and the like, a parenthesized additional numeral (for example, (1)) indicates a row number given to a pixel row. Specifically, gate signal line 17a(1) indicates the gate signal line 17a of pixel row (1). *H (“*” represents any character or numeral indicative of the number of a horizontal scanning line), which appears in the uppermost section of FIG. 4, represents a horizontal scanning period. Specifically, 1H represents the first horizontal scanning period. These matters are for easy description and do not limit the number and the period of a one-H period, the sequence of pixel rows, and the like. As seen from FIG. 4, in each pixel row selected (the period for which the pixel row is in the selected state is 1H), gate signal line 17b is applied with off-voltage, while gate signal line 17a applied with on-voltage. In this period current does not pass through EL devices 15; that is, the EL devices 15 are in the non-lighting state. In each pixel row unselected, on the other hand, gate signal line 17a is applied with off-voltage, while gate signal line 17b applied with on-voltage. In this period current passes through EL devices 15; that is, the EL devices 15 are in the lighting state. The gate of transistor 11b and that of transistor 11c are connected to the same gate signal line 17a. However, they may be connected to different gate signal lines (the gate signal lines 17a and 17c in FIG. 32). In this case, the number of gate signal lines associated with one pixel is three. (The configuration shown in FIG. 1 has two gate signal lines for one pixel.) By individually controlling the on-off timing for the gate of transistor 11b and that for the gate of transistor 11c, fluctuations in the value of current passing through EL devices 15 due to variations in the characteristics of transistor 11a can further be reduced. If gate signal lines 17a and 17b formed into a common line and transistors 11c and 11d are rendered different from each other in conductivity type (i.e., n-channel type and p-channel type), it is possible to simplify the driving circuit and improve the effective aperture ratio of pixels. With such a configuration, the writing path from a relevant signal line becomes off at the operation timing according to present invention. If the path allowing current to pass therethrough is branched when a predetermined value of current is to be written, the value of current is not exactly stored in the capacitor located intermediate the source (S) and the gate (G) of transistor 11a. Where transistors 11c and 11d are rendered different in conductivity type from each other, an operation becomes possible such that transistor 11d is necessarily turned on after transistor 11c has been turned off at timing at which a scanning line is switched to another if each other's threshold value is controlled. Since the transistors require that each other's threshold value be controlled accurately in this case, sufficient care is necessary in the manufacturing process. Though the above-described circuit is feasible with at least four transistors, a configuration having more than four transistors in which transistor 11e is provided as cascade-connected as shown in FIG. 2 operates based on the same operating principle described above. Such a configuration with additional transistor 11e can cause a current as exact as programmed through transistor 11c to pass through EL device 15. Variations in the characteristics of transistor 11a are correlated with the size of the transistor 11a. For reduction of such variations in characteristics, the channel length of the first transistor 11a is preferably not less than 5 μm and not more than 100 μm, more preferably not less than 10 μm and not more than 50 μm. This is because when the channel length L is made longer, the grain boundary contained in the channel increases, which is presumed to relax the electric field and hence lower the kink effect. It is preferable that each of the transistors 11 forming a pixel comprises a polysilicon transistor formed through the laser recrystallization method (laser annealing) and the channels of all the transistors extend in the same direction with respect to the laser irradiation direction. Further, it is preferable that the laser scans the same portion twice or more to form a semiconductor film. An object of the present invention is to propose a circuit configuration which prevents variations in transistor characteristics from affecting image display. To attain this object, four or more transistors are necessary. In determining a circuit constant from the characteristics of these transistors, it is difficult to determine a suitable circuit constant unless the four transistors are made uniform in characteristics. A transistor having a channel formed to extend in a horizontal direction with respect to the longitudinal axis of laser irradiation is different in such transistor characteristics as threshold value and mobility from a transistor having a channel formed to extend in a vertical direction with respect to the longitudinal axis of laser irradiation. The extent of variations in one case is the same as that in the other. The transistor having the channel extending in the horizontal direction and the transistor having the channel extending in the vertical direction are different from each other in a mean value of mobility and a mean value of threshold. Thus, it is desirable that the channel directions of all the transistors forming a pixel be the same. Assuming that the capacitance of storage capacitor 19 is Cs(pF) and the value of off-current applied to the second transistor 11b is Ioff(pA), Cs and Ioff preferably satisfy the formula: 3<Cs/Ioff<24. More preferably, they satisfy the formula: 6<Cs/Ioff<18. The variation in the value of current passing through EL devices can be reduced to 2% or less by adjusting off-current Ioff of transistor 11b to 5 pA or lower. This is because charge stored between the gate and the source (opposite ends of the capacitor) cannot be maintained for a one-field period when voltage is not written. Therefore, with increasing storage capacitance of the capacitor 19, allowable off-current increases. The variation in the value of current passing through adjacent pixels can be reduced to 2% or less by satisfying the aforementioned formula. It is preferable that each of the transistors forming the active-matrix configuration comprises a p-channel polysilicon thin film transistor and transistor 11b has a multi-gated structure having at least dual gate. Since transistor 11b acts as a switch intermediate the source and the drain of transistor 11a, the highest possible on/off ratio is required of transistor 11b. By employing such a multi-gated structure having at least dual gate for the gate structure of transistor 11b, a high on/off ratio characteristic can be realized. It is a general practice to form a semiconductor film constituting transistors 11 of pixels 16 through low temperature polysilicon technology with laser annealing. Variations in laser annealing conditions result in variations in the characteristics of transistors 11. However, if there is uniformity in the characteristics of respective transistors 11 in one pixel, a configuration adapted for current-based programming as shown in FIG. 1 or the like is capable of operating so that a predetermined current may pass through EL device 15. This feature is an advantage which a voltage-based programming configuration does not have. The laser for use here is preferably an excimer laser. In the present invention, the process used to form the semiconductor film is not limited to the laser annealing process but may be a thermal annealing process or a process based on solid phase (CGS) growth. It is needless to say that the present invention can use not only the low temperature polysilicon technology but also the high temperature polysilicon technology. In order to solve the problem described above, annealing is performed in a manner that a laser irradiation spot (laser irradiation range) 72 extending parallel with source signal line 18 is irradiated with laser light. Further, the laser irradiation spot 72 is moved so as to coincide with one pixel column. Of course, there is no limitation to one pixel column. One pixel unit 16 comprising R,G and B may be irradiated with laser light (in this case three pixel columns are irradiated). It is possible to irradiate plural pixels at a time. It is needless to say that the laser irradiation range may be moved in an overlapping fashion. (Usually, moving laser irradiation range overlaps the preceding laser irradiation spot.) Three pixels for R, G and B are formed to constitute a square shape. Accordingly, each of the pixels for R, G and B is vertically elongated. Thus, annealing with vertically elongated laser irradiation spot 72 makes it possible to avoid the occurrence of variations in the characteristics of transistors 11 in one pixel. Further, the transistors 11 connected to one source signal line 18 can be rendered uniform in characteristics (mobility, Vt, S value and the like.) (That is, the transistors 11 connected to one source line 18 can be made substantially to agree to each other in characteristics, though there may be a case where the transistors 11 connected to one source signal line 18 are different in characteristics from those connected to an adjacent signal line 18.) Generally, the length of laser irradiation spot 72 is a fixed value, for example 10 inches. Since laser irradiation spot 72 moves, the panel needs to be positioned so that one laser irradiation spot 72 can move within a range allowing laser irradiation spot 72 to move therein. (That is, the panel needs to be positioned so as to prevent laser irradiation spots 72 from overlapping each other in a central portion of display region 50 of the panel.) In the arrangement shown in FIG. 7, three panels are formed as arranged vertically within a range corresponding to the length of laser irradiation spot 72. An annealing apparatus for irradiation of laser irradiation spot 72 recognizes positioning markers 73a and 73b provided on glass substrate 74 (automatic positioning based on pattern recognition) and moves laser irradiation spot 72. The positioning markers 73 are recognized by means of a pattern recognition device. The annealing apparatus recognizes the positioning markers 73 to find the position of a pixel column. (That is, the apparatus makes laser irradiation range 72 parallel with source signal line 18.) Sequential annealing is performed through irradiation of laser irradiation spot 72 positioned coinciding with the position of each pixel column. Use of the laser annealing method (of the type adapted for irradiation of a linear laser spot extending parallel with source signal line 18) described with reference to FIG. 7 is preferable particularly in manufacturing an organic EL display panel of the current-based programming type. This is because transistors 11 arranged parallel with a source signal line are uniform in characteristics. (That is, the characteristics of one pixel transistor are approximate to those of a vertically adjacent pixel transistor.) For this reason fluctuations in the voltage level of a source signal line which occur in current-based driving are small and, hence, insufficient writing with current is not likely to occur. In the case of white raster display for example, a current to be passed through transistor 11a of one pixel is substantially equal to a current to be passed through transistor 11a of an adjacent pixel and, therefore, the amplitude of a current outputted from source driver 14 varies little. If transistors 11a in FIG. 1 are uniform in characteristics and the values of currents for programming pixels of a pixel column are equal to each other, fluctuations in the potential of source signal line 18 do not occur. Accordingly, if the transistors 11a connected to one source signal line 18 are substantially uniform in characteristics, fluctuations in the potential of the source signal line 18 are small. This also holds true for other pixel configurations of the current-based programming type as shown in FIG. 38 and the like. (This means that use of the manufacturing method illustrated in FIG. 7 is preferable.) Uniform image display can also be realized by a configuration of the type adapted for writing to plural pixel rows at a time to be described with reference to FIG. 27 or 30 or the like. This is mainly because display irregularities due to variations in transistor characteristics are not likely to occur. Since the configuration shown in FIG. 27 or the like selects plural pixel rows at a time, driver circuit 14 can accommodate variations in the characteristics of transistors arranged vertically if the transistors of adjacent pixel rows are uniform. Though the source driver 14 is formed as comprising an IC chip as shown in FIG. 7, the formation of source driver 14 is not limited thereto. It is needless to say that source driver 14 may be formed together with pixels 16 in the same process. In the present invention, particularly, the threshold voltage Vth2 of transistor 11b is established so as not to be lower than the threshold voltage Vth1 of transistor 11a associated with transistor 11b in one pixel. For example, the gate length L2 of transistor 11b is made longer than the gate length L1 of transistor 11a so that Vth2 may not become lower than Vth1 even when the process parameters of these thin film transistors vary. By so doing, faint leakage current can be inhibited to occur. The above-described features are also applicable to the current mirror pixel configuration shown in FIG. 38. The configuration shown in FIG. 38 comprises driving transistor 11a allowing signal current to pass therethrough, driving transistor 11b for controlling driving current to be passed through a light-emitting device comprising EL device 15 or the like, take-in transistor 11c for connecting or disconnecting the pixel circuit to or from a data line (data) by control over gate signal line 17a1, switching transistor 11d for shortcircuiting the gate and the drain of transistor 11a during a writing period by control over gate signal line 17a2, storage capacitor 19 for holding a voltage across the gate and the source of transistor 11a even after completion of writing of the voltage, and EL device 15 as a light-emitting device. Though transistors 11c and 11d are n-channel transistors while other transistors are p-channel transistors in FIG. 38, this feature is a mere example and the configuration need not necessarily have this feature. Though the storage capacitor 19 has one terminal connected to the gate of transistor 11a and the other terminal connected to Vdd (power supply potential), the storage capacitor 19 may be connected to any fixed potential instead of Vdd. The cathode (negative electrode) of EL device 15 is connected to the ground potential. Description will be made of an EL display panel and an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 6 is an explanatory diagram mainly illustrating the circuit of the EL display apparatus. Pixels 16 are arranged or formed in a matrix pattern. Each pixel 16 is connected to source driver 14 adapted to output a current for current-based programming of each pixel 16. The source driver 14 has an outputting section formed with current mirror circuits corresponding to the number of bits of an image signal as gray scale data, as will be described later. For example, if there are 64 gray-levels, each source signal line is formed with 63 current mirror circuits. The source driver 14 is configured to be capable of applying a desired current to source signal line 18 by selecting a current mirror circuits count. The minimum output current of one current mirror circuit is set to be not more than 10 nA and not less than 50 nA. It is particularly preferable to set the minimum output current of one current mirror circuit to be not more than 15 nA and not less than 35 nA. This is because such setting can ensure correct functioning of the transistors forming the current mirror circuits in the source driver 14. The source driver 14 incorporates a precharge or discharge circuit for forcibly charging or discharging source signal line 18. The precharge or discharge circuit for forcibly charging or discharging source signal line 18 is preferably configured to be capable of setting output voltage (current) values for respective of R, G and B independently. This is because EL devices 15 for R, G and B have different threshold values. Organic EL devices are known to have high temperature dependence. In order to control variations in luminance intensity due to such temperature dependence, the current mirror circuits are provided with a nonlinear device, such as thermistor or posister, for varying the output current. A reference current is generated in an analog fashion by adjusting variations due to the temperature dependence by means of the thermistor or the like. In the present invention, source driver 14 comprises a semiconductor chip and is connected to terminals of source signal lines 18 on substrate 71 by the Chip On Glass (COG) technology. Metal wires of chromium, aluminum, silver or the like are used for wiring of signal lines including source signal lines 18. This is because such a wire offers a low resistance with a small wiring width. In the case where the pixels are of the reflection type, it is preferable that such wiring is made of the same material as the reflective film of the pixels and formed at the same time with the formation of the reflective film. By so doing, the process can be simplified. The technology for use in mounting source driver 14 is not limited to the COG technology. It is possible that the source driver 14 is mounted by the Chip On Film (COF) technology and connected to signal lines of the display panel. A drive IC may comprise three chips, with a power supply IC 82 being formed separately. On the other hand, the gate driver 12 is formed by the low temperature polysilicon technology. This means that the gate driver 12 is formed along with the transistors of the pixels by the same process. This is because the gate driver 12 has a simple internal structure and a low working frequency as compared to the source driver 14. Therefore, the gate driver 12 can be formed easily even by the low temperature polysilicon technology, which leads to the frame made narrower. Of course, it is needless to say that the gate driver 12 may comprise a silicon chip and may be mounted on the substrate 71 by utilizing the COG technology. The gate driver, switching devices including a pixel transistor, and like components may be formed by the high temperature polysilicon technology, or they may be formed using an organic material (organic transistor). The gate driver 12 incorporates a shift register circuit 61a for gate signal line 17a, and a shift register circuit 61b for gate signal line 17b. Each shift register 61 is controlled using clock signals of positive and negative phases (CLKxP and CLKxN) and start pulse (STx). Preferably, there are additionally used an enable signal (ENABL) for controlling outputting/non-outputting from gate signal lines and an up-down (UPDOWN) signal for reversing the shifting direction up and down. It is also preferable to provide an output terminal or the like for checking whether the start pulse has been shifted by the shift register and outputted therefrom. The timing for shifting by the shift register is controlled using a control signal from control IC 81. The gate driver 12 further incorporates a level shifting circuit for shifting an extraneous data level, and an inspection circuit. Since the shift register circuit 61 has a low buffer capacity, the shift register circuit 61 cannot directly drive gate signal lines 17. For this reason, at least two inverter circuits 62 are formed between the output of the shift register 61 and an associated output gate 63 adapted to drive gate signal line 17. Similarly, in the case where the source driver 14 is formed directly on the substrate 71 by such polysilicon technology as the low temperature polysilicon technology, plural inverter circuits are formed between an analog switch gate such as a transfer gate for driving source signal line 18 and a shift register of the source driver 14. The source driver and the gate driver share the following feature (i.e., the feature related to an inverter circuit provided between the output of a shift register and an outputting section (including an output gate or a transfer gate)) adapted to drive signal lines. Though an output of the source driver 14 is shown to connect directly to source signal line 18 in FIG. 6 for example, actually the output of the shift register of the source driver is connected to multiple inverter circuits, the outputs of which are connected to analog switch gates such as transfer gates. Each inverter circuit 62 comprises a p-channel MOS transistor and an n-channel MOS transistor. As described above, an output terminal of shift register 61 of the gate driver 12 is connected to multiple inverter circuits 62 and the output of the final inverter circuit is connected to associated output gate circuit 63. Each inverter circuit 62 may comprise transistors of p-channel type only. In this case, inverter circuit 62 may serve as a mere gate circuit but not as an inverter. FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating an arrangement for supply of signals and voltage in the display apparatus or the configuration of the display apparatus according to the present invention. Signals from control IC 81 are fed to source driver 14a (power supply wiring, data wiring or the like) through flexible board 84. In FIG. 8, control signals for gate driver 12 are generated at control IC 81, level-shifted at source driver 14 and then applied to gate driver 12. Since the driving voltage of source driver 14 ranges from 4 to 8 (V), a control signal having an amplitude of 3.3 (V) can be converted into a signal having an amplitude of 5 (V), which can be received by gate driver 12. Source driver 14 is preferably provided therein with image memory. The image memory may store image data previously subjected to an error diffusion process or a dither process. Such an error diffusion process or dither process can convert 260,000-color display data into, for example, 4096-color display data, thereby contributing to a reduction in the capacity of the image memory. The error diffusion process or the like can be achieved with error diffusion controller 81. Image data may be subjected to the dither process and then further subjected to the error diffusion process. The matter described above holds true for a reverse error diffusion process. Though the component 14 in FIG. 8 or the like is referred to as the source driver, the component 14 may incorporate not only a mere driver circuit but also a power supply circuit, buffer circuit (including such a circuit as a shift register), data converter circuit, latch circuit, command decoder, shift circuit, address translator circuit, image memory or the like. It is needless to say that a three-side-free arrangement (structure) and a driving method, which will be described with reference to FIG. 9 and the like, are applicable to the configuration described with reference to FIG. 8. For the display panel to be used in an information display apparatus such as a mobile phone, it is preferable that source driver (circuit) 14 and gate driver (circuit) 12 are mounted (formed) on one side of the display panel. (It should be noted that an arrangement such that driver ICs (circuits) are mounted (formed) on one side of a panel is referred to as a three-side-free arrangement (structure). It has been a conventional practice to mount gate driver 12 and source driver 14 on X-side and Y-side, respectively, of a display region.) The three-side-free arrangement allows the center line of screen 50 to coincide with the center line of the display apparatus easily and makes the mounting of driver ICs easy. The gate driver may be formed in a three-side-free arrangement by the high temperature or low temperature polysilicon technology. (That is, at least one of source driver 14 and gate driver 12 shown in FIG. 9 is formed directly on substrate 71 by the polysilicon technology.) The term “three-side-free arrangement” is meant to include not only an arrangement having ICs mounted or formed directly on substrate 71 but also an arrangement in which a film attached with source driver (circuit) 14, gate driver (circuit) 12 and the like (by TCP or TAB technology) is bonded to one side (or essentially one side) of substrate 71. That is, the term “three-side-free arrangement” is meant to include any arrangement or disposition having two sides on which any IC is not mounted or fitted as well as all arrangements similar thereto. When gate driver 12 is disposed beside source driver 14 as shown in FIG. 9, gate signal lines 17 need to be arranged along side C. The portion indicated by thick solid line in FIG. 9 and the like is a portion in which gate signal lines are formed side by side. Accordingly, the portion designated by reference character b (lower portion in the figure) is formed with parallel gate signal lines 17 in the number shown, while the portion designated by reference character a (an upper portion in the figure) is formed with one gate signal line 17. The pitch at which gate signal lines 17 are formed on C side is not less than 5 μm and not more than 12 μm. If the pitch is less than 5 μm, noise occurs at an adjacent gate signal line by the influence of parasitic capacitance. According to an experiment, the influence of parasitic capacitance becomes significant when the pitch is 7 μm or less. When the pitch further decreases to a value less than 5 μm, image noise such as beat noise occurs vigorously on the display screen. Particularly, noise occurs differently between the right-hand side and the left-hand side of the screen and it is difficult to reduce such image noise as beat noise. On the other hand, if the pitch exceeds 12 μm, the frame width D of the display panel becomes so large that the display panel cannot be put to practical use. The aforementioned image noise can be reduced by providing a ground pattern (which is a conductive pattern set to have a fixed voltage or a stabilized potential as a whole) as a layer underlying or overlying the portion formed with gate signal lines 17. Alternatively, a separately-formed shielding plate or foil (which is a conductive pattern set to have a fixed voltage or a stabilized potential as a whole) should be placed over gate signal lines 17. Though the gate signal lines 17 formed on side C in FIG. 9 may comprise an ITO electrode each, each of them preferably comprise a stack of ITO film and metal thin film so as to have decreased resistance. Alternatively, each gate signal line preferably comprises a metal film. In stacking metal thin film on ITO, a titanium film is formed over ITO and then a thin film of aluminum or of alloy comprising aluminum and molybdenum is formed over the titanium film. Alternatively, a chromium film is formed over ITO. In the case where each gate signal line comprises metal film, the metal film comprises an aluminum thin film or a chromium thin film. The matters described above hold true for other embodiments of the present invention. There is no limitation to the arrangement shown in FIG. 9 or the like in which gate signal lines 19 are disposed (or formed) on one side of display region 50. Gate signal lines 19 may be disposed (or formed) on opposite sides of display region 50. For example, it is possible that gate signal lines 17a are disposed (or formed) on the right-hand side of display region 50 while gate signal lines 17b disposed (or formed) on the left-hand side of display region 50. The matter thus described hold true for other embodiments. Source driver 14 and gate driver 12 may be formed into a single chip. With such a single chip, it is sufficient to mount a single IC chip on the display panel. Accordingly, the mounting cost can be reduced. In addition, different voltages to be used in the single chip driver IC can be generated at a time. There is no limitation to the above-described feature that source driver 14 and gate driver 12 are each formed from a semiconductor wafer such as silicon and then mounted on the display panel. It is needless to say that they may be formed directly on display panel 82 by the low temperature polysilicon technology or the high temperature polysilicon technology. In the configuration shown in FIG. 1 or the like, EL device 15 is connected to Vdd potential through transistor 11a. Such a configuration, however, involves a problem of different driving voltages to be applied to organic EL devices for developing respective colors. For example, when a current of 0.01 (A) is allowed to pass per unit cm2, the terminal voltage of EL device for blue (B) assumes 5 (V) while that of each of EL devices green (G) and red (R) assumes 9 (V). That is, G and R are different from B in terminal voltage. Therefore, B is different from G and R in the source-drain voltage (SD voltage) of transistor 11a to be held. For this reason, the transistors associated with respective color EL devices have different off-leak currents due to different source-drain voltages (SD voltages). When such off-leak currents occur with a difference in off-leak characteristic between EL devices for respective colors, a complicated display state results where flicker occurs with the colors being out of balance and the gamma characteristic deviates in accordance with the correlation with the color of emitted light. To deal with this problem, an arrangement is employed such that the potential at the cathode of at least one of R, G and B devices is made different from that at the cathode of each of the other devices. Alternatively, another arrangement may be employed such that the Vdd potential of at least one of R, G and B devices is made different from that of each of the other devices. It is needless to say that terminal voltages of EL devices for R, G and B are preferably made as equal to each other as possible. Materials and structures needs to be selected so that the terminal voltages of R, G and B devices assume respective values not higher than 10 (V) on condition that the devices each exhibits a white peak luminance and the color temperatures of the respective devices are in the range not lower than 7000 K and not higher than 12,000 K. Further, the difference between the maximum terminal voltage and the minimum terminal voltage of the EL devices for R, G and B need be not more than 2.5 (V), preferably not more than 1.5 (V). While the foregoing embodiment uses the colors of R, G and B, there is no limitation to these colors. This will be described later. While the pixels are adapted to develop the three primary colors, namely R, G and B, they may be adapted to develop three colors, namely cyan, yellow and magenta. It is possible to use two colors, namely B and yellow. Of course, it is possible to use a monochromatic color. It is possible to use six colors, namely R, G, B, cyan, yellow and magenta. It is also possible to use five colors, namely R, G and B, cyan and magenta. These colors offer widened color reproducible ranges of natural colors and hence are capable of realizing favorable display. Another possible combination of colors includes four colors, namely R, G, B and white. Yet another possible combination of colors includes seven colors, namely R, G, B, cyan, yellow, magenta, black and white. It is possible that white light emitting pixels are formed (or made) throughout display region 50 and R, G and B color filters are provided on the pixels to realize a three-primary-color display. In this case it is sufficient to stack light-emitting materials for respective colors on EL layers. Alternatively, each pixel is dividedly painted with B and yellow for example. As described above, the El display apparatus according to the present invention is not limited to color display based on the R, G and B three primary colors. Three major methods can be used in causing an organic EL display panel to realize color display, and the color conversion method is one of them. According to this method, it is sufficient to form a single luminescent layer for blue and the other colors, namely green and red, required for full color display are produced by color conversion from blue light. Accordingly, there is no need to provide layers painted into R, G and B separately. This method has an advantage that there is no need to provide a set of organic EL materials for respective of R, G and B. The color conversion method is free of a decrease in production yield, which is essential to the separately painting method. Either method is applicable to the EL display panel and the like according to the present invention. In addition to the pixels for the three primary colors, white-light-emitting pixels may be formed. Such a white-light-emitting pixel can be realized by stacking light-emitting structures for R, G and B on each other. A set of pixels comprises pixels for the R, G and B three primary colors and a white-light-emitting pixel 16W. The formation of such a white-light-emitting pixel makes it easy to develop a white light peak luminance. Thus, brilliant image display can be realized. In forming a set of pixels for the R, G and B three primary colors or like colors, the pixels for the respective colors are preferably made to have respective pixel electrodes having different areas. Of course, the pixel electrodes may have equal areas if the emission efficiencies of the respective colors are well-balanced and the color purities of the respective colors are also well-balanced. If one or plural colors are ill-balanced, it is preferable to adjust the light-emitting surface areas of the respective pixel electrodes. The light-emitting surface areas of the pixel electrodes for the respective colors should be determined based on their current densities. Specifically, on condition that white balance is adjusted in a state where the color temperatures are within the range not lower than 7000 K (Kelvin) and not higher than 12,000 K, the difference in current density between the pixel electrodes for the respective colors is adjusted to within ±30%, preferably ±15%. If the current density of the pixel electrode for one color is 100 A/m2 for example, the current density of the pixel electrode for any one of the three primary colors is made to assume a value not less than 70 A/m2 and not more than 130 A/m2, more preferably not less than 85 A/m2 and not more than 115 A/m2. Organic EL device 15 is a self-luminescent device. When light of luminescence becomes incident on a transistor serving as a switching device, a photoconductor phenomenon occurs. The photoconductor phenomenon is a phenomenon that leakage at a switching device, such as a transistor, in an off state (off-leak) increases due to optical excitation. To deal with this problem, the present invention forms a light-shielding film underlying gate driver 12 (source driver 14 in some cases) and pixel transistors 11. The light-shielding film comprises a metal thin film such as chromium and has a thickness not less than 50 nm and not more than 150 nm. If the film thickness is too small, the film has a poor light-shielding effect. On the other hand, if the film thickness is too large, unevenness occurs, which makes the patterning of overlying transistors 11a difficult. A planarization film having a thickness not less than 20 nm and not more than 100 nm, which comprises an inorganic material, is formed over the light-shielding film. One electrode of storage capacitor 19 may be formed using the layer of this light-shielding film. In this case the planarization film is preferably made as thin as possible so that the storage capacitor has a larger capacitance. Alternatively, it is possible that the light-shielding film is formed from aluminum and a silicon oxide film is formed over the surface of the light-shielding film by utilizing the anodic oxidation technique for use as a dielectric film of storage capacitor 19. On the planarization film are formed pixel electrodes of a high aperture (HA) structure. The driver circuit 12 and the like should inhibit penetration of light not only from the reverse side but also from the obverse side. This is because malfunction of such a circuit is caused by the influence of the photoconductor phenomenon. For this reason, in the present invention, when the cathode comprises a metal film, the drivers 12 and the like are formed with such a cathode electrode covering the surface thereof to serve as the light-shielding film. However, the formation of such a cathode over the drivers 12 possibly causes a malfunction of the drivers due to an electric field produced from the cathode or an electric contact between the cathode and the driver circuit. To deal with this problem, the present invention forms at least one organic EL film layer, preferably a plurality of organic EL film layers over the driver circuits 12 and the like at the same time with the formation of the organic EL film over pixel electrodes. Since such an organic EL film is basically an insulator, the formation of the organic EL film over the drivers isolates the drivers from the cathode, thus overcoming the aforementioned problem. When shortcircuiting occurs between terminals of one or more transistors 11 or between a signal line and a transistor 11, EL device 15 associated therewith lights constantly and such a pixel may become a luminescent spot. Since this luminescent spot is visually prominent, the luminescent spot needs to be turned into a black spot (or turned into the non-lighting state.) The pixel 16 constituting such a luminescent spot is detected and then the capacitor 19 of the pixel 16 is irradiated with laser light so that the terminals thereof are shortcircuited. By so doing, the capacitor 19 becomes incapable of holding charge and, hence, the transistor 11a cannot allow current to pass therethrough any more. It is desirable that the cathode film situated in a region to be irradiated with laser light be removed in advance in order to prevent a terminal electrode of the capacitor 19 from shortcircuiting with the cathode film. A defect of transistor 11 of pixel 16 affects the driver circuit 14 or the like. For example, when a source-drain (SD) shortcircuit 562 occurs at driving transistor 11a as shown in FIG. 56, the source driver 14 is applied with Vdd voltage of the panel. For this reason, the supply voltage of the source driver 14 is preferably set equal to or higher than the supply voltage Vdd of the panel. It is preferable to employ an arrangement capable of controlling the reference current to be used in the source driver 14 by means of an electron volume 561. When SD shorcircuit 562 occurs at transistor 11a, an excessive current passes through EL device 15. This causes the EL device 15 to light constantly (to become a luminescent spot). Such a luminescent spot is visually prominent as a defect. In FIG. 56 for example, when a source-drain (SD) shortcircuit occurs at transistor 11a, current from the Vdd voltage keeps on passing through the EL device 15 (while the transistor 11d is on.) Accordingly, the EL device 15 becomes a luminescent spot. Further, such a SD shorcircuit at the transistor 11a causes the Vdd voltage to be applied to source signal line 14, hence, to the source driver 14 while the transistor 11c is on. If the supply voltage of the source driver 14 is lower than Vdd, the source driver 14 might be broken down due to a voltage exceeding the withstand voltage. For this reason, the supply voltage of the source driver 14 is preferably set equal to or higher than the Vdd voltage (which is the higher voltage applied to the panel.) The SD shortcircuit or a like defect at transistor 11a may result in the breakdown of the source driver of the panel as well as a spot defect. A luminescent spot, which is visually prominent, makes the panel faulty. For this reason, it is necessary to turn such a luminescent spot into a black defect by cutting off the wiring interconnecting transistor 11a and EL device 15. Optical means such as laser light may be used to cut off the wiring. Though wiring is cut off in the above embodiment, the means for changing a luminescent spot into a black display spot is not limited thereto. As can be understood from FIG. 1 for example, a modification may be made so that the supply voltage Vdd for transistor 11a is constantly applied to the gate (G) terminal of the transistor 11a. For example, if the opposite terminals of the capacitor 19 are shortcircuited, the Vdd voltage is applied to the gate (G) terminal of transistor 11a. Accordingly, the transistor 11a is kept in complete off-state and hence does not allow current to pass through the EL device 15 any more. This can be easily realized through laser irradiation of capacitor 19, which can shortcircuit the capacitor electrodes. Further, since the Vdd wiring actually underlies the pixel electrode, the display condition of the pixel can be controlled (or modified) through irradiation of the Vdd wiring and the pixel electrode with laser light. Additionally, turning a luminescent spot into a black defect can also be realized by making open the channel between the source and the drain of the transistor 11a. Briefly, the transistor 11a is irradiated with laser light to make the channel thereof open. Similarly, the channel of the transistor 11d may be opened. When the channel of the transistor 11b is opened, the associated pixel 16 cannot be selected and hence becomes a black display. In order to turn pixel 16 into a black display, the EL device 15 may be deteriorated. For example, laser light is applied to the EL layer 15 to deteriorate the EL layer physically or chemically, thereby making the EL layer 15 incapable of luminescence (constant black display.) Irradiation with laser light can heat the EL layer 15 thereby deteriorating it easily. Use of an excimer laser can cause a chemical change of the EL layer 15 to take place easily. While the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 1 is exemplified in the above-described embodiment, the present invention is not limited thereto. It is needless to say that the art of making wiring or electrodes open or shortcircuited by the use of laser light is applicable to other current-driven pixel configurations such as a current mirror circuit configuration and voltage-driven pixel configurations as shown in FIG. 62 or 51 or the like. A method of driving the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 1 will be described below. As shown in FIG. 1, gate signal line 17a assumes a conducting state during a row selecting period, while gate signal line 17b assumes a conducting state during an unselecting period. (Here, application of a low-level voltage causes gate signal line 17 to assume the conducting state since the transistors 11 in FIG. 1 are p-channel transistors.) Parasitic capacitance (not shown) is present in source signal line 18. Such parasitic capacitance is produced due to a capacitance at each of the intersections of source signal line 18 and gate signal lines 17, a channel capacitance at each of transistors 11b and 11c, or the like. Time t required for the value of current at source signal line 18 to vary is found from the equation: t=C•V/I, where C represents the value of parasitic capacitance. V represents a voltage applied to source signal line 18 and I represents a current passing through source signal line 18. Accordingly, the time t required for the value of current to vary can be shortened to nearly 1/10 by increasing current to a 10-fold value. The equation also indicates that even when the parasitic capacitance in source signal line 18 increases to a 10-fold value, the value of current can be varied to a predetermined value. Therefore, increasing the value of current is effective in writing a predetermined current value within a short horizontal scanning period. In order to charge/discharge the parasitic capacitance of source signal line 18, a current having value I satisfying the formula: I>(C•V)/t should be passed through source signal line 18. If the input current is increased 10 times, the output current is also increased 10 times. In this case the luminance of the EL device is also raised 10 times, which means that a predetermined luminance cannot be obtained. In this respect, the present invention realizes the predetermined luminance by providing settings such that the conducting period of transistor 17d in FIG. 1 is set to 1/10 of the conventional conducting period and the light-emitting period of EL device 15 set to 1/10 of the conventional light-emitting period. That is, in order to program transistor 11a of pixel 16 with a predetermined current value after sufficient charge/discharge of the parasitic capacitance of source signal line 18, source driver 14 needs to output a relatively high current. However, when such a high current is passed through source signal line 18, the pixel is programmed with the value of this current undesirably, with the result that the EL device 15 is fed with a higher current than the predetermined current. For example, if programming is made with a 10-fold current, naturally a 10-fold current passes through EL device 15, thus causing the EL device 15 to emit light at a 10-fold luminance. To obtain the predetermined luminance of emission, the time period for which the EL device 15 is fed with the current should be shortened to 1/10. Such a driving method is capable of sufficiently charging/discharging the parasitic capacitance of source signal line 18 and obtaining the predetermined luminance of emission. The above-described feature that a 10-fold current value is written to transistor 11a of a pixel (more exactly, the terminal voltage of capacitor 19 is set to a predetermined value) and the on-time of EL device 15 is shortened to 1/10, is an mere example. In some cases it is possible that a 10-fold current value is written to transistor 11a of a pixel and the on-time of EL device 15 is shortened to ⅕. Alternatively, as the case may be, it is possible that a 10-fold current value is written to transistor 11a of a pixel and the on-time of EL device 15 is shortened to ½. The present invention is characterized by a driving method in which a current to be written to a pixel is set to have a value different from the predetermined value while EL device 15 is fed with a current intermittently. For easy explanation, the driving method is herein described as having a feature that a current N times as high as the predetermined current is written to transistor 11 of a pixel while the on-time of EL device 15 is set 1/N times the predetermined time period. However, the present invention is not limited to this feature. It is needless to say that it is possible that an N fold current is written to transistor 11 of a pixel while the on-time of EL device 15 is 1/N2 times as large as the predetermined time period, (where N and N2 are different from each other.) The “predetermined current”, as used herein, means a current required to realize a gray scale display corresponding to an image signal. The predetermined current has a current value varying depending on the specifications of the EL display apparatus. For example, the current value ranges from about 0.25 μA to about 0.75 μA when a luminance of 150 nt is to be realized. Therefore, if N=4, a current value of from about 1 μA to about 3 μA is to be written to transistor 11. Similarly, if N=8, the current value to be written ranges from about 2 μA to about 6 μA. If N=2, the current value to be written ranges from about 0.5 μA to about 1.5 μA. The intervals at which the intermittent passage of current is performed are not limited to equal intervals. For example, random intervals are possible (provided the display period or the non-display period, as a whole, has a predetermined value (fixed ratio).) The intervals may differ depending on R, G and B. That is, each of R, G and B display periods or non-display periods should be adjusted to a predetermined value (fixed ratio) so as to optimize the white balance. For easy explanation, the on-time is described to be 1/N of 1F (one field or one frame period), 1F being used as a reference. However, a time period required for selection of one pixel row and programming with a current value (which is usually one horizontal scanning period) should be taken into account. In addition, errors may occur depending on the scanning conditions. Thus, the above description is merely provided for convenience in making the explanation easy and there is no limitation thereto. For example, it is possible that pixel 16 is programmed with a 10-fold current (N=10) and EL device is caused to light for a ⅕ period. In this case EL device 15 lights at a two-fold luminance (10/5=2). Alternatively, it is possible that pixel 16 is programmed with a two-fold current (N=2) and EL device 15 is caused to light for a ¼ period. In this case EL device 15 lights at a 0.5-fold luminance (2/4=0.5). That is, according to the present invention, a pixel is programmed with an N-fold current (N is not equal to 1) and a display which is not in a constant lighting state (i.e. 1/1, which does not means intermittent driving) is realized. In a wider sense, the present invention provides a driving method which includes cutting off feeding of current to EL device 15 at least once in a one-frame (or one-field) period. The present invention also provides a driving method which includes programming pixel 16 with a current higher than the predetermined value while performing intermittent display necessarily. Organic (or inorganic) EL display apparatus involve a problem essential to their display method which is basically different from the display method applied to such display apparatus as a CRT adapted to display an image as an aggregate of line displays provided by means of an electron gun. Since such an EL display apparatus is configured to hold a current (or a voltage) written to a pixel for a one-F (one-field or one-frame) period. This configuration gives rise to a problem of a blurred outline of an image if it is displayed in a motion picture display state. According to the present invention, EL device 15 is fed with a current for only a 1F/N period of a one-frame period and is not fed with a current for the rest of the frame period (1F(N−1)/N). Consideration is given to the case where one spot of the screen driven according to this driving method is observed. In this display state, a display based on image data and a black display (non-lighting state) alternate with each other on a 1F basis. That is, such a display based on image data appears at time intervals (intermittent display). When a display based on motion picture data is realized by such intermittent display driving, the image has no blurred outline, which means that a display of high quality is realized. Thus, the intermittent display method can realize a motion picture display close to that realized by a CRT. Further, since the main clock used in the circuit is a conventional one in spite of intermittent display, no increase occurs in the power consumption of the circuit. In the case of a liquid crystal display panel, image data (voltage) based on which light modulation is performed is held in the liquid crystal layer. Therefore, data applied to the liquid crystal layer needs to be rewritten in order to insert a black display. For this reason, it is required that the value of the clock for operating source driver 14 be made higher while source signal line 18 applied with image data and black display data alternately. Accordingly, the value of the main clock of the circuit needs to be raised in order to realize insertion of black (intermittent display of a black display or the like.) In addition, image memory for extending the time axis is also needed. In a pixel configuration of the EL display panel of the present invention as shown in FIG. 1, 2 or 38 or the like, image data is held in the capacitor 19. A current corresponding to the terminal voltage of this capacitor 19 is passed through EL device 15. Thus, image data is not held in a light modulation layer as in the liquid crystal display panel. According to the present invention, the current to be passed through EL device 15 is controlled by merely turning on/off switching transistor 11d or 11e or the like. That is, even when the current Iw passing through EL device 15 is cut off, image data is held as it is in the capacitor 19. Therefore, when the switching device 11d or the like is turned off at the next timing to feed EL device 15 with a current, this current has a current value equal to that of the current passed just before. The present invention does not need to raise the main clock of the circuit even when insertion of black (intermittent display of a black display or the like) is to be made. Nor does the present invention need to extend the time axis and, hence, image memory therefor is not needed either. Organic EL device 15 requires a shortened time for the device 15 to emit light from the time when it is fed with current and hence is responsive at a high speed. For this reason, the present invention is suitable for motion picture display and is capable of solving the motion picture display problem which is essential to display panels of the conventional data holding type (liquid crystal display panel, EL display panel, and the like) by intermittent display. In the case of a large-sized display apparatus having an increased source capacitance, the source current should be increased 10 times or more. Generally, when the source current value is increased N times, it is sufficient to set the conducting period for gate signal line 17b (transistor 11d) to 1F/N. By so doing, the present invention is applicable to television sets, monitoring display apparatus, and the like. The driving method according to the present invention will be described more specifically with reference to the drawings. The parasitic capacitance of source signal line 18 is produced due to the coupling capacitance between adjacent source signal lines 18, the capacitance of the buffer output of source driver IC (circuit), the capacitance at a crossing point between gate signal line 17 and source signal line 18, and the like. Such a parasitic capacitance is usually 10 pF or more. In the case of voltage-based driving, driver IC 14 applies a voltage to source signal line 18 with a low impedance and, hence, some increase in the parasitic capacitance does not raise any driving problem. However, in the case of current-based driving, image display of a black level, in particular, requires programming of capacitor 19 of a pixel with a faint current of 20 nA or lower. For this reason, when the parasitic capacitance takes place as having a value more than a predetermined value, the parasitic capacitance cannot be charged/discharged within the time required for one pixel row to be programmed. (The time required is usually a 1H period or shorter but is not limited thereto since two pixel rows may be programmed at a time.) If charge/discharge is impossible within a 1H period, writing to a pixel is insufficient and, hence, display with a desired resolution cannot be realized. In the case of the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 1, a programming current Iw passes through source signal line 18 during current-based programming as shown in FIG. 3(a). The current Iw is passed through transistor 11a to set (program) a voltage of capacitor 19 so that the voltage for causing the current Iw to pass is held. At this time transistor 11d is in an open state (off-state). In turn, transistors 11c and 11b are turned off and transistor 11d operates in the period for feeding EL device 15 with a current as shown in FIG. 3(b). Specifically, off-voltage (Vgh) is applied to gate signal line 17a to turn transistors 11b and 11c off. On the other hand, on-voltage (Vgl) is applied to gate signal line 17b to turn transistor 11d off. Now, assuming that the current Iw is 10 times as high as a current (of a predetermined value) to be passed conventionally, a current passing through EL device 15 in FIG. 3(b) is also 10 times as high as the predetermined value. Accordingly, EL device 15 emits light at a luminance 10 times as high as a predetermined value. That is, the display luminance B of the display panel becomes higher with increasing magnification N, as shown in FIG. 12. Therefore, the luminance and the magnification are proportional to each other. With 1/N driving, on the other hand, the luminance and the magnification are inverse proportion to each other. If transistor 11d is caused to assume on-state for only 1/N of the time period for which transistor 11 assumes on-state conventionally and to assume off-state for the rest ((N−1)/N) of the time period, the mean luminance throughout 1F becomes a predetermined luminance. This display state is close to a display state of a screen scanned with an electron gun in a CRT. The difference therebetween resides in that the region displaying an image or the lighting region is 1/N of the whole screen (which is equal to 1.) (The lighting region in the CRT corresponds to one pixel row (one pixel in a strict sense).) In the present invention, 1F/N image display region 53 shifts from the upper side to the lower side of screen 50, as shown in FIG. 13(b). EL device 15 is fed with current for only a 1F/N period and is not fed with current for the rest (1F•(N−1)/N) of the period. Therefore, each pixel displays intermittently. However, the image is seen to be retained at human eyes through afterimage and, hence, the whole screen is seen to display uniformly. It should be noted that written pixel row 51a forms a non-lighting display 52a, as shown in FIG. 13. However, this occurs in the pixel configurations shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. Such a written pixel row 51a may assume a lighting state in the current mirror pixel configuration shown in FIG. 38 or the like. In the present description, however, the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 1 is mainly exemplified for easy explanation. The method illustrated in FIG. 13 or 16 or the like, which includes programming with a current higher than the predetermined driving current Iw and intermittent driving, will be referred to as an N-fold pulse driving method. In this display state, a display based on image data and a black display (non-lighting state) alternate with each on a 1F basis. That is, such a display based on image data appears at time intervals (intermittent display). Since liquid crystal display panels (and EL display panels other than the EL display panels of the present invention) are configured to hold data at pixels for a 1F period, an image on a motion picture display cannot keep up with image data changing, resulting in blurred motion picture (blurred image outline). According to the present invention, however, an image is displayed intermittently and, hence, satisfactory display state with no blurred outline can be realized. Thus, the intermittent display method can realize a motion picture display close to that realized by a CRT. The timing chart of such intermittent display is shown in FIG. 14. The pixel configuration shown in FIG. 1 is exemplified in the present invention unless otherwise particularly specified. As seen from FIG. 14, in each selected pixel row (selecting period is 1H), gate signal line 17b is under application of off-voltage (Vgh) (see FIG. 14(b)) while gate signal line 17a is being applied with on-voltage (Vgl) (see FIG. 14(a).) During this period, EL device 15 is not fed with current (in a non-lighting state). In an unselected pixel row, on the other hand, gate signal line 17a is under application of off-voltage (Vgh) and gate signal line 17b is under application of on-voltage (Vgl). During this period, EL device 15 is fed with current (in a lighting state). In the lighting state, EL device lights at a luminance N times as high as a predetermined value (N•B) for a time period of 1F/N. Thus, a means display luminance of the display panel throughout a 1F period can be found from the equation: (N•B)×(1/N)=B (predetermined luminance). FIG. 15 illustrates an embodiment in which the operation illustrated in FIG. 14 is applied to pixel rows. Specifically, voltage waveforms to be applied to respective gate signal lines 17 are shown. Each voltage waveform comprises off-voltage Vgh (H level) and on-voltage Vgl (L level). Additional numerals such as (1) and (2) indicate the row numbers of selected pixel rows. In FIG. 15, when gate signal line 17a(1) is selected (at voltage Vgl), a programming current is passed through source signal line 18 from transistor 11a of the selected pixel row toward source driver 14. This programming current is N times as high as a predetermined value. (Description is made with N=10 for easy explanation. Since the predetermined value is the value of a data current causing an image to be displayed, the predetermined value is not a fixed value unless white raster display is given.) Accordingly, capacitor 19 is programmed so that a 10-fold current will pass through transistor 11a. When pixel row (1) is in the selected state, gate signal line 17b(1) of the pixel configuration of FIG. 1 is under application of off-voltage (Vgl), thus preventing current from passing through EL device 15. After lapse of 1H, gate signal line 17a(2) is selected (at voltage Vgl) and a programming current is passed through source signal line 18 from transistor 11a of the selected pixel row toward source driver 14. This programming current is N times as high as a predetermined value. (Description is made with N=10 for easy explanation.) Accordingly, capacitor 19 is programmed so that a 10-fold current will pass through transistor 11a. When pixel row (2) is in the selected state, gate signal line 17b(2) of the pixel configuration of FIG. 1 is under application of off-voltage (Vgl), thus preventing current from passing through EL device 15. On the other hand, the preceding pixel row (1) assumes a lighting state because gate signal line 17a(1) and gate signal line 17b(1) of pixel row (1) are applied with off-voltage (Vgh) and on-voltage (Vgl), respectively. After lapse of another 1H, gate signal line 17a(3) is selected and gate signal line 17b(3) is applied with off-voltage (Vgh) to prevent current from passing through EL device 15 of pixel row (3). On the other hand, the preceding pixel rows (1) and (2) assume the lighting state because gate signal lines 17a(1) and 17a(2) thereof are applied with off-voltage (Vgl) and gate signal lines 17b(1) and 17b(2) thereof are applied with on-voltage (Vgl). The above-described operation is synchronized with a 1H synchronizing signal. With the driving method of FIG. 15, however, a 10-fold current passes through El device 15 and, accordingly, display screen 50 displays an image at a luminance having about a 10-fold value. Of course, it is needless to say that the programming current should be decreased to 1/10 in order to realize a display at the predetermined luminance. With such a 1/10 current, however, insufficient writing occurs due to parasitic capacitance and the like. The basic concept of the present invention is that programming is made with a high current to avoid such insufficient writing while black display 52 is inserted to obtain the predetermined luminance. An important feature of the driving method of the present invention resides in that a current higher than the predetermined current is caused to pass through EL device 15 thereby sufficiently charging/discharging the parasitic capacitance of source signal line 18. Therefore, EL device 15 need not necessarily be fed with a current N times as high as the predetermined current. For example, a configuration may be employed such that a current path is formed in parallel with EL device 15 (specifically, a dummy EL device is formed which has been subjected to such processing as to prevent the dummy EL device from emitting light, for example, formation of a light-shielding film thereover) and a current is dividedly fed to the dummy EL device and EL device 15. When the signal current is 0.2 μA for example, the programming current adjusted to 2.2 μA is passed through transistor 11a. Of this current, the signal current of 0.2 μA is fed to EL device 15 while the remaining current of 2.0 μA fed to the dummy EL device. Such a driving method is exemplified. That is, dummy pixel row 281 shown in FIG. 27 is made constantly selected. The dummy pixel row is made to fail to emit light or formed with a light-shielding film to prevent emission of light from being recognized visually. With such an arrangement, programming can be made so that a current N times as high as the predetermined current will pass through driving transistor 11a by increasing the current to pass through source signal line 18 N times, while at the same time a current sufficiently lower than the N-fold current can be passed through EL device 15. The above-described method does not need to provide non-lighting region 52 shown in FIG. 5 and hence can allow the whole display region 50 to be used as image display region 53. FIG. 13(a) illustrates a written state of display screen 50. Reference character 51a used in FIG. 13(a) designates a written pixel row. Source driver 14 feeds the programming current to each source signal line 18. In FIG. 3 or the like, writing is made to a single pixel row in a 1H period. However, there is no particular limitation to 1H but it is possible to employ a 0.5H period or a 2H period. Though the programming current is written to source signal line 18 according to the above description, the present invention is not limited to such a current-based programming method but may employ a voltage-based programming method (illustrated in FIG. 62 or the like) in which source signal line 18 is written with a voltage. In FIG. 13(a), when gate signal line 17a is selected, transistor 11a is programmed with a current passing through source signal line 18. At that time, gate signal line 17b is applied with off-voltage and, as a result, EL device 15 is not fed with a current. This is because when transistor 11d is in on-state, a capacitance component of EL device 15 is seen from source signal line 18 and capacitor 19 cannot sufficiently accurately be programmed with current because of the influence of the capacitance. Accordingly, in the configuration of FIG. 1 for example, a pixel row written with current forms non-lighting region 52, as shown in 13(b). If programming is made with an N-fold current (here, N=10 as described earlier), the luminance of the screen is increased 10 times. Therefore, non-lighting region 52 should cover 90% of display region 50. Specifically, if an image display region has 220 horizontal scanning lines (S=220) in Quarter Common Intermediate Format (QCIF), 22 lines should form display region 53, with the rest (220−22=198) forming non-display region 52. Generally speaking, if the number of horizontal scanning lines (the number of pixel rows) is S, an S/N region is used as display region 53 which is caused to emit light at an N-fold luminance. This display region 53 is scanned vertically of the screen. Thus, the remaining S(N−1)/N region is used as non-lighting region 52. This non-lighting region forms a black display (luminescenceless region.) Such a luminescenceless region 52 is realized by turning transistor 11d off. Though the display region 53 has been described to light at an N-fold luminance, it is needless to say that the value of N can be controlled by brightness adjustment or gamma adjustment, as a matter of course. In the above-described embodiment, non-lighting region 52 should cover 90% of display region 50 because if programming is made with an N-fold current, the luminance of the screen is increased 10 times. However, this feature is not limited to an arrangement where R, G and B pixels form non-lighting regions 52 in the same manner. For example, the proportion of non-display region 52 may be varied depending on R, G and B; for example, R pixel provides non-lighting region 52 covering ⅛ of display region 50, G pixel provides non-lighting region 52 covering ⅙ of display region 50, and B pixel provides non-lighting region 52 covering 1/10 of display region 50. Alternatively, it is possible to employ an arrangement such as to adjust non-lighting region 52 (or lighting region 53) in individual R, G and B pixels. To realize these arrangements, gate signal lines 17b for respective of R, G and B need to be provided. By making individual adjustment of R, G and B possible, it becomes possible to control white balance as well as to ease color balance adjustment at each gray level (see FIG. 41.) As shown in FIG. 13(b), pixel rows including written pixel row 51a form non-lighting region 52, while an S/N region (which is 1F/N in terms of time) in a screen portion above written pixel row 51a forms lighting region 53. (In the case of scanning upwardly from the lower side of the screen, lighting region 53 is situated on the opposite side.) In this image display state, band-like display region 53 shifts downwardly from the upper side of the screen. In the display shown in FIG. 13, one display region 53 shifts downwardly from the upper side of the screen. If the frame rate is low, shifting of display region 53 is visually recognized. This is likely particularly when the viewer blinks his or her eyes or moves his or her face up and down. To solve this problem, display region 53 should be split into plural sections as shown in FIG. 16. If the total sum of the areas of the sections is equal to the area of an S(N−1)/N region, the brightness of this display is equal to that of the display shown in FIG. 13. Display region 53 need not necessarily be split equally. Similarly, sections of non-display region 52 split need not necessarily be uniform. By thus splitting display region 53 into plural sections, the screen provides a display with reduced flitter. Thus, favorable image display free of flicker can be realized. Display region 53 may be split into smaller sections. However, with finer splitting, the motion picture display performance lowers. FIG. 17 shows a voltage waveform applied to each gate signal line 17 and the luminance of the EL device emitting light. As can be clearly seen from FIG. 17, the (1F/N) period for which gate signal line 17b is applied with Vgl is divided into plural subperiods (the number of subperiods is K.) That is, gate signal line 17b is applied with Vgl for a 1F/(K·N) period K times. Such a control can inhibit the occurrence of flicker and realize image display with a low frame rate. It is also preferable to employ such an arrangement as to allow the number of such image divisions to be varied. For example, an arrangement is possible such as to detect a change resulting from depressing of a brightness adjuster switch or turning of a brightness adjuster volume and then vary the value of K. Another possible arrangement allows the user to adjust the luminance. Yet another possible arrangement allows the user to vary the number of K depending on the details of or data on an image to be displayed manually or is capable of varying the number of K automatically. While description has been made of the feature that the (1F/N) period for which gate signal line 17b is applied with Vgl is divided into plural subperiods (the number of subperiods is K) and gate signal line 17b is applied with Vgl for a 1F/(K·N) period K times, there is no limitation to this feature. Gate signal line 17b may be applied with Vgl for the 1F/(K·N) period L times (L≠K). Thus, the present invention has the feature that an image is displayed by controlling the period (time) for which EL device 15 is fed with current. Therefore, the art of repeating the 1F/(K·N) period L times (L≠K) is included in the technical concept of the present invention. The luminance of image 50 can be varied digitally by varying the value of L. For example, the difference between L=2 and L=3 corresponds to a 50% change in luminance (contrast). In splitting display region 53, the period for which gate signal line 17b is applied with Vgl is not necessarily constant. The above-described embodiment is an embodiment in which display screen 50 is turned on/off (into lighting state/non-lighting state) by cutting of the current to be passed through EL device or passing the current through EL device. That is, the embodiment is configured to pass generally equal current through transistor 11a plural times by the charge held in capacitor 19. However, the present invention is not limited thereto. The present invention may employ such a configuration as to turn display screen 50 on/off (into lighting state/non-lighting state) by charging/discharging capacitor 19. FIG. 18 shows a voltage waveform applied to each gate signal line 17 for realizing the image display state shown in FIG. 16. The difference between FIG. 18 and FIG. 15 resides in the operation of gate signal line 17b. Gate signal line 17b is turned on/off (with Vgl or Vgh) plural times, the number of times corresponding to the number of split sections of the screen. Since other features are the same as the corresponding features of FIG. 15, description thereof will be omitted. Since the EL display apparatus assumes a completely non-lighting state to provide a black display, a drop in contrast, which is essential to intermittent display performed by a liquid crystal display panel, does not occur. With the configuration shown in FIG. 1, intermittent display can be realized by merely on-off controlling transistor 11d. With each of the configurations shown in FIGS. 38 and 51, intermittent display can be realized by merely on-off controlling transistor 11e. This is because capacitor 19 stores image data. (The number of gray levels is infinite since such stored image data is an analog value.) Specifically, each pixel 16 stores image data for a 1F period. Whether or not EL device 15 is to be fed with a current corresponding to image data stored in each pixel 16 is controlled by control over transistors 11d and 11e. Thus, the above-described driving method is applicable not only to the current-driven configuration but also to the voltage-driven configuration. Stated otherwise, the driving method can realize intermittent driving of a configuration where each pixel is adapted to store a current to be passed through EL device 15 by turning on/off the driving transistor 11 on the current path between EL devices 15. It is critical to maintain the terminal voltage of capacitor 19. This is because when the terminal voltage of capacitor 19 varies (i.e., capacitor 19 is charged/discharged) during a one-field (frame) period, the luminance of the screen varies, which results in flitter (flicker or the like) when the frame rate is lowered. It is required that the current to be passed through EL device 15 during a one-frame (field) period should not lower to 65% or less. The value of 65% means that assuming the first current written to pixel 16 and passed through EL device 15 is 100%, the current to be passed through EL device 15 just before writing to the pixel 16 in the next frame (or field) is set to 65% or more. In the configuration shown in FIG. 1, the number of transistors 11 forming one pixel is not varied irrespective of whether or not intermittent display is realized. That is, satisfactory current-based programming is realized by eliminating the influence of the parasitic capacitance of source signal line 18 without changing the pixel configuration. In addition, picture motion display close to that provided by a CRT can be realized. Since the clock for operating gate driver 12 is sufficiently slow as compared to the clock for operating source driver 14, the main clock of the circuit does not rise. Further, the value of N can be varied easily. It is possible that the image displaying direction (image writing direction) at the first field (frame) is the direction from the upper side to the lower side of the screen while the image displaying direction at the second field (frame) is the direction from the lower side to the upper side of the screen. That is, the downwardly displaying direction and the upwardly displaying direction may alternate with each other repeatedly. It is also possible that the image displaying direction at the first field (frame) is the direction from the upper side to the lower side of the screen and after the whole screen has been temporarily turned into a black display (into a non-display state), the image displaying direction is switched to the direction from the lower side to the upper side of the screen at the subsequent second field (frame). The whole screen may present a black display once. Though the aforementioned driving method has been described to perform the writing to the screen in the direction from the upper side to the lower side of the screen or from the lower side to the upper side of the screen, there is no limitation to this feature. It is possible that the direction of writing to the screen from the upper side to the lower side or from the lower side to the upper side is fixed whereas non-display region 52 shifts in the direction from the upper side to the lower side of the screen at a first field (frame) while shifting in the direction from the lower side to the upper side of the screen at a subsequent second field. It is also possible that one frame is divided into three fields, the first, second and third ones of which are allocated to R, B and G, respectively, and, hence, three fields constitute one frame. It is also possible that R, G and B are switched one to another on a one horizontal scanning period (1H) basis. The above-described matters hold true for other embodiments of the present invention. Non-display region 52 need not necessarily assume a completely non-lighting state. There arises no practical problem even when faint luminescence or faint image display occurs. Such faint luminescence or faint image display should be construed as a region having a lower display luminance than image display region 53. The “non-display region 52” is meant to include even the case where one or two of R,G and B image display pixels are in the non-display state. Basically speaking, with the luminance (brightness) of display region 53 being maintained to a predetermined value, the luminance of screen 50 rises with increasing area of display region 53. For example, with display region 53 having a luminance of 100 (nt), an increase in the proportion of display region 53 relative to the whole screen 50 from 10% to 20% raises the screen luminance twice. Thus, the display luminance of the screen can vary with varying area of display region 53 in the whole screen 50. The area of display region 53 can be set as desired by controlling data pulse (ST2) to be fed to shift register 61. Further, the display state shown in FIG. 16 and the display state shown in FIG. 13 can be switched to each other by varying the data pulse input timing and the data pulse input cycle. An increase in the number of data pulses per 1F period causes screen 50 to become brighter, whereas a decrease in the number of data pulses causes screen 50 to become darker. Continuous application of data pulses results in the display state shown in FIG. 13, while intermittent inputting of data pulses results in the display state shown in FIG. 16. FIG. 19(a) illustrates a method of brightness adjustment applicable to the case where display region 53 is continuous as shown in FIG. 13. The screen 50 at FIG. 19(a1) has the highest display luminance. The display luminance of the screen 50 at FIG. (a2) is next to the highest, whereas that of the screen 50 at FIG. (a3) is the lowest. The change in state from FIG. 19(a1) to FIG. 19(a3) and vice versa can be easily realized by control over the shifter register 61 of gate driver 12 and the like as described above. At that time, the voltage Vdd in FIG. 1 need not be varied. That is, the luminance of display screen 50 can be varied without varying the supply voltage. The gamma characteristic of the screen does not vary at all with the change in state from FIG. 19(a1) to FIG. 19(a3). Thus, the contrast and the gray scale characteristic of a displayed image are maintained irrespective of the luminance of screen 50. This is an effect characteristic of the present invention. With the conventional screen luminance adjustment, the gray scale performance is low when the luminance of screen 50 is low. Specifically, though a 64-level gray scale display can be realized at a high luminance display, the number of displayable gray levels is decreased to a half or less at a low luminance display in most cases. In contrast, the driving method of the present invention is capable of realizing the maximum 64-level gray scale display without dependence on the display luminance of the screen. FIG. 19(b) illustrates a method of brightness adjustment applicable to the case where display region 53 is dispersed as shown in FIG. 16. The screen 50 at FIG. 19(b1) has the highest display luminance. The display luminance of the screen 50 at FIG. (b2) is next to the highest, whereas that of the screen 50 at FIG. (b3) is the lowest. The change in state from FIG. 19(b1) to FIG. 19(b3) and vice versa can be easily realized by control over the shifter register 61 of gate driver 12 and the like as described above. If display region 53 is dispersed as shown in FIG. 19(b), flicker does not occur even at a low frame rate. In order to further lessen the occurrence of flicker at a low frame rate, display region 53 should be dispersed more finely as shown in FIG. 19(c). In this case, however, the motion picture display performance lowers. Therefore, the driving method illustrated in FIG. 19(a) is suitable for motion picture display. The driving method illustrated in FIG. 19(c) is suitable for the case where a stationary image is displayed with low power consumption demanded. Switching from the FIG. 19(a) method to the FIG. 19(c) method can be easily realized by control over shift register 61. FIG. 20 is an explanatory view illustrating another embodiment for increasing the current to be fed to source signal line 18. This embodiment is a method of significantly improving insufficient writing with current, which basically comprises selecting plural pixel rows at a time and charging/discharging the parasitic capacitance of source signal line 18 and the like with a current which is the sum of currents required by the plural pixel rows. Since plural pixel rows are selected at a time, the current for driving one pixel can be decreased. Hence, the current to be fed to EL device 15 can be decreased. Here, for easy explanation, the case of N=10 (in which a 10-fold current is passed through source signal line 18) will be described as an example. As shown in FIG. 20, K pixel rows are selected according to the present invention. Source signal line 18 is applied with a current N times as high as a predetermined current from source driver 14. Each pixel is programmed with a current N/K times as high as the current to be passed through the EL device 15. The time period for which the EL device 15 is fed with the current is set to K/N of a one-frame (field) period. Such a driving method makes it possible to charge/discharge the parasitic capacitance of source signal line 18 sufficiently as well as to obtain satisfactory resolution and a predetermined luminance of emission. Specifically, EL device 15 is fed with current for K/N of a one-frame (field) period and is not fed with current for the rest (1F(N−1)K/N) of the one-frame period. In this display state, a display based on image data and a black display (non-lighting state) alternate with each other repeatedly 1F by 1F. That is, such a display based on image data appears at time intervals (intermittent display). Thus, a motion picture display of high quality with no blurred outline can be realized. Further, since source signal line 18 is driven with an N-fold current, the parasitic capacitance does not affect the display and, hence, the driving method of the present invention is applicable to high-resolution display panels. FIG. 21 is an explanatory diagram of driving voltage waveforms used for realizing the driving method illustrated in FIG. 20. In this figure, a signal waveform comprises off-voltage Vgh (H level) and on-voltage Vgl (L level). The numeral added to each signal line, such as (1), (2) or (3), indicates the row number of each pixel row. It should be noted that a QCIF display panel has 220 rows while a VGA panel has 480 rows. In FIG. 21, when gate signal line 17a(1) is selected (at voltage Vgl), a programming current is passed through source signal line 18 from transistor 11a of the selected pixel row toward source driver 14. For easy explanation, description will be made of the case where pixel row 51a to be written is the first pixel row. The programming current to be passed through source signal line 18 is N times as high as a predetermined value. (Description is made with N=10 for easy explanation. Since the predetermined value is the value of a data current causing an image to be displayed, the predetermined value is not a fixed value unless a white raster display is provided.) Further, description will be made of the case where five pixel rows are to be selected at a time (K=5.) Accordingly, the capacitor 19 of one pixel is programmed so that, ideally, a 2-fold current (N/K=10/5=2) will pass through transistor 11a. When the written pixel row is the first pixel row (1), gate signal lines 17a(1) to 17a(5) are in the selected state. That is, the switching transistors 11b and 11c of each of pixels rows (1) to (5) are in on-state. Also, gate signal line 17b is in reversed phase with gate signal line 17a. Accordingly, the switching transistor 11d of each of the pixel rows (1) to (5) is in off-state, thus preventing current from passing through EL devices 15 of the associated pixel row. That is, these EL devices are in the non-lighting state 52. Ideally, the transistors 11a of five pixels each pass a current of Iw×2 through source signal line 18. (That is, a current of Iw×2×N=Iw×2×5=Iw×10 is passed through source signal line 18. Therefore, assuming that the current to be passed through source signal line 18 in the case where the N-fold pulse driving method of the present invention is not employed is the predetermined current Iw, a current 10 times as high as Iw is to be passed through source signal line 18.) The operation (driving method) described above causes the capacitor 19 of each pixel 16 to be programmed with a 2-fold current. Here, description is made on the assumption that transistors 11a are uniform in characteristics (Vt and S value) for easy understanding. Since the number of pixel rows selected at a time is five (K=5), five driving transistors 11a operate. That is, a 2-fold (10/5=2) current passes through transistor 11a per pixel. Source signal line 18 is fed with a current as the sum of programming currents for the five transistors 11a. For example, assuming that the current to be conventionally passed through pixel row 51a to be written is Iw, a current of Iw×10 is to be passed through source signal line 18 according to the present invention. Pixel rows 51b to be written with image data after writing to pixel row (1) are now used as auxiliary pixel rows for increasing the amount of current to be fed to source signal line 18. However, there arises no problem because the pixel rows 51b will be written with correct image data thereafter. Therefore, the four pixel rows 51b provide the same display as the pixel row 51a during a 1H period. For this reason, at least the written pixel row 51a and the pixel rows 51b selected for increasing the current are made to assume the non-lighting state 52. However, such pixel rows in a current mirror pixel configuration as shown in FIG. 38 or other pixel configurations adapted for voltage-based programming may be made to assume the lighting state. After lapse of 1H, gate signal line 17a(1) assumes the unselected state while gate signal line 17b is applied with on-voltage (Vgl). At the same time, gate signal line 17a(6) is selected (applied with Vgl voltage) and transistor 11a of the selected pixel row (6) passes the programming current through source signal line 18 toward source driver 14. Such an operation allows pixel row (1) to hold regular image data. After lapse of another 1H, gate signal line 17a(2) assumes the unselected state while gate signal line 17b is applied with on-voltage (Vgl). At the same time, gate signal line 17a(7) is selected (applied with Vgl voltage) and transistor 11a of the selected pixel row (7) passes the programming current through source signal line 18 toward source driver 14. Such an operation allows pixel row (2) to hold regular image data. By performing the above-described operation with scanning shifting pixel row by pixel row, one screen is wholly rewritten. With the driving method of FIG. 20, each pixel is programmed with a 2-fold current (voltage) and, hence, ideally the EL device 15 of each pixel emits light at a 2-fold luminance. Therefore, the luminance of the display screen is twice as high as the predetermined value. In order for the display screen to display at the predetermined luminance, a region including written pixel row 51 and occupying ½ of display region 50 should be used as non-display region 52. As in the case of FIG. 13, when one display region 53 shifts downwardly from the upper side of the screen as shown in FIG. 20, the shifting of display region 53 is visually recognized if the frame rate is low. This is likely particularly when the viewer blinks his or her eyes or moves his or her face up and down. To solve this problem, display region 53 should be split into plural sections as shown in FIG. 22. If the total sum of the areas of these sections is equal to the area of an S(N−1)/N region, the brightness of this display is equal to that of the display provided without splitting of display region 53. FIG. 23 shows a voltage waveform applied to each gate signal line 17. The difference between FIG. 21 and FIG. 23 resides in the operation of gate signal line 17b. Gate signal line 17b is turned on/off (with Vgl and Vgh) plural times, the number of times corresponding to the number of split sections of the screen. Since other features are substantially the same as or analogous to the corresponding features of FIG. 21, description thereof will be omitted. By thus splitting display region 53 into plural sections, the screen provides a display with reduced flitter. Thus, satisfactory image display free of flicker can be realized. Display region 53 may be split into smaller sections. With finer splitting, flicker can be more reduced. Since the responsiveness of EL device 15 is particularly high, the display luminance will not lower even if EL device 15 is turned on/off at a time interval shorter than 5 μsec. In the driving method of the present invention, EL device 15 can be on-off controlled by turning on/off the signal to be applied to gate signal line 17b. For this reason, such control can be achieved with a clock having a low frequency on the KHz order. Further, image memory or the like is not needed for inserting a black display (i.e., non-display region 52). Therefore, the driving circuit or method of the present invention can be implemented with reduced cost. FIG. 24 illustrates the case where the number of pixel rows to be selected at a time is two. According to the results of study made by the inventors et al., the method including selection of two pixel rows at a time realized practical display uniformity when applied to display panels formed by the low temperature polysilicon technology. Presumably, this is because driving transistors 11a of adjacent pixels were very uniform in their characteristics. Good results were obtained by performing striped laser irradiation parallel with source signal line 18 in laser annealing. This is because portions of a semiconductor film in a region annealed at the same time are uniform in characteristics. Stated otherwise, this is because a semiconductor film is formed uniformly in a striped region irradiated with laser light and transistors formed using this semiconductor film are substantially uniform in Vt and mobility. Thus, pixels arranged along source signal line 18 (i.e., a pixel column extending vertically of the screen) are made substantially uniform in characteristics by irradiation with striped laser shot in parallel with the source signal line 18 forming direction and shifting the irradiating position. Therefore, when plural pixel rows are turned on at a time so as to be programmed with current, the plural pixel rows selected at a time are programmed with a substantially equal current having a value which is the quotient obtained by dividing the programming current by the number of the selected pixel rows. Thus, it is possible to realize current-based programming with a current value close to a target value, hence, realize a uniform display. For this reason, the laser shot direction and the driving method illustrated in FIG. 24 or the like provide a synergetic effect. As described above, transistors 11a of vertically arranged pixels are made substantially uniform in characteristics by making the direction of laser shot substantially coincident with the direction in which source signal line 18 is formed, thus resulting in satisfactory current-based programming. (In this case, transistors 11a of horizontally arranged pixels need not necessarily be uniform in characteristics.) The operation thus described is performed, while the position of pixel rows to be selected is shifted one pixel row by one pixel row or plural pixel rows by plural pixel rows in synchronism with 1H (one-horizontal period). Though the laser shot direction described is made parallel with source signal line 18 according to the above description, the present invention is not limited to the laser shot direction parallel with source signal line 18. This is because irradiation with laser shot in an oblique direction with respect to source signal line 18 allows transistors 11a of vertically arranged pixels along one source signal line 18 to be made substantially uniform in characteristics. Therefore, the “irradiation with laser shot parallel with source signal line” is meant to form any adjacent pixels to be arranged along the wiring direction of source signal line 18 (in the vertical direction) in a manner to locate them within one laser irradiation region. The “source signal line 18” generally means wiring for transmission of programming currents or voltages serving as image signals. According to the above-described embodiment of the present invention, the position of pixel rows to be written is shifted 1H by 1H. However, the present invention is not limited to this feature. It is possible to shift the position 2H by 2H or on the basis of more pixel rows. Alternatively, shifting may be performed based on any unit time. The shifting time interval may be varied with varying position on the screen. For example, it is possible that the shifting time interval is shortened at a central portion of the screen and prolonged at upper and lower portions of the screen. Also, the shifting time interval may be varied frame by frame. The present invention is not limited to selection of plural pixel rows arranged adjacent to each other. For example, it is possible to select pixel rows located across one intervening pixel row. Specifically, a driving method may be employed such that the first and third pixel rows are selected in the first horizontal scanning period, the second and fourth pixel rows selected in the second horizontal scanning period, the third and fifth pixel rows selected in the third horizontal scanning period, and the fourth and sixth pixel rows selected in the fourth horizontal scanning period. Of course, the technical scope of the present invention includes a driving method such as to select the first, third and fifth pixel rows in the first horizontal scanning period. It is, of course, possible to select pixel row positions across plural intervening pixel rows. It is needless to say that the combination of the feature of the laser shot direction setting and the feature of the simultaneous selection of plural pixel rows is applicable not only to the pixel configurations shown in FIGS. 1, 2 and 32 but also to other current-driven pixel configurations as shown in FIGS. 38, 42 and 50 including the current mirror pixel configuration shown in FIG. 38. The combination is also applicable to voltage-driven pixel configurations as shown in FIGS. 43, 51, 54 and 62. This is because if the transistors of pixels arranged adjacent to each other vertically are uniform in characteristics, satisfactory voltage-based programming can be realized with a voltage applied to a common source signal line 18. When the first pixel row is written in the configuration shown FIG. 24, gate signal lines 17a(1) and 17a(2) are selected (see FIG. 25.) That is, the switching transistors 11b and transistors 11c of pixel rows (1) and (2) are in on-state. Each gate signal line 17b is in reversed phase with each gate signal line 17a. Accordingly, the switching transistors 11d of at least the pixel rows (1) and (2) are in off-state, thus preventing current from passing through EL devices 15 of the associated pixel rows. That is, these pixel rows are in the non-lighting state 52. It should be noted that in the arrangement shown in FIG. 24, display region 53 is split into five sections in order to reduce the occurrence of flicker. Ideally, the transistors 11a of two pixels (pixel rows) each pass a current of Iw×5 (N=10) through source signal line 18. (That is, since K=2, a current of Iw×K×5=Iw×10 is passed through source signal line 18.) Therefore, the capacitor 19 of each pixel 16 is programmed with a 5-fold current. Since the number of pixel rows selected at a time is two (K=2), two driving transistors 11a operate. That is, a 5-fold (10/2=5) current passes through each transistor 11a. Source signal line 18 is fed with a current as the sum of programming currents for the two transistors 11a. For example, pixel row 51a to be written is fed with current Id, which is to be conventionally fed to pixel row 51a, while source signal line 18 is fed with a current of Iw×10. However, there arises no problem because the pixel row 51b will be written with regular image data thereafter. The pixel row 51b provides the same display as the pixel row 51a during a 1H period. For this reason, at least the written pixel row 51a and the pixel row 51b selected for increasing the current are made to assume the non-lighting state 52. After lapse of 1H, gate signal line 17a(1) assumes the unselected state while gate signal line 17b is applied with on-voltage (Vgl). At the same time, gate signal line 17a(3) is selected (applied with Vgl voltage) and the transistor 11a of the selected pixel row (3) passes the programming current through source signal line 18 toward source driver 14. Such an operation allows pixel row (1) to hold regular image data. After lapse of another 1H, gate signal line 17a(2) assumes the unselected state while gate signal line 17b is applied with on-voltage (Vgl). At the same time, gate signal line 17a(4) is selected (applied with Vgl voltage) and the transistor 11a of the selected pixel row (4) passes the programming current through source signal line 18 toward source driver 14. Such an operation allows pixel row (2) to hold regular image data. By performing the above-described operation with scanning shifting pixel row by pixel row, one screen is wholly rewritten. (Of course, scanning may be shifted plural pixel rows by plural pixel rows. For example, a pseudo-interlaced driving method will shift scanning two rows by two rows. In terms of image display, there will be some cases where the same image is written to plural pixel rows.) Similarly to the case of FIG. 16, the driving method illustrated in FIG. 24 programs each pixel with a 5-fold current (voltage) and, hence, ideally the EL device 15 of each pixel emits light at a 5-fold luminance. Therefore, the luminance of display region 53 is 5 times as high as the predetermined value. In order for the display region 53 to display at the predetermined luminance, a region including written pixel rows 51 and occupying ⅕ of display screen 50 should be used as non-display region 52. As shown in FIG. 27, two pixel rows to be written 51 (51a and 51b) are selected and such selection is made sequentially from the upper side to the lower side of screen 50. (See FIG. 26 also. In FIG. 26, pixel rows 16a and 16b are selected.) When selection is made down to the lower side of the screen, pixel row 51b to be written disappears, though pixel row 51a to be written is present. That is, only one pixel row is left for selection. For this reason, the current applied to source signal line 18 is wholly written to pixel row 51a. Accordingly, pixel row 51 to be written now is undesirably programmed with a current twice as high as the current with which the preceding pixel rows 51a have been priorly programmed. In order to solve this problem, the present invention uses a dummy pixel row 281 formed (located) on the lower side of screen 50, as shown in FIG. 27(b). Therefore, when selection of pixel rows to be written reaches the lower side of screen 50, the final pixel row on screen 50 and the dummy pixel row 281 are selected. For this reason, the final pixel row shown in FIG. 27(b) is written with the regular current. Though the dummy pixel row 281 is shown to locate adjacent to the upper or lower edge of display region 50, there is no limitation to this arrangement. The dummy pixel row 281 may be formed at a location spaced apart from display region 50. The dummy pixel row 281 need not be formed with switching transistor 11d, EL device 15 and the like shown in FIG. 1. The absence of these components enables the dummy pixel row 281 to be reduced in size. FIG. 28 illustrates the state shown in FIG. 27(b). As apparent from FIG. 28, when selection of pixel rows reaches pixel 16c on the lower side of screen 50, the final pixel row 281 on screen 50 is selected. The dummy pixel row 281 is located outside display region 50. That is, the dummy pixel row 281 is configured to fail to light or not to be allowed to light, or not to be seen as a display even when it lights. This can be made by, for example, elimination of the contact hole between the pixel electrode and transistor 11 or failure to form EL film at the dummy pixel row. Though the dummy pixel (row) 281 is provided (formed or located) on the lower side of screen 50 in the arrangement shown in FIG. 27, there is no limitation to this arrangement. For example, in the case where scanning is performed from the lower side to the upper side of screen 50 (reverse scanning) as shown in FIG. 29(a), dummy pixel row 281 should be formed also on the upper side of screen 50, as shown in FIG. 29(b). That is, the upper side and the lower side of screen 50 are formed (provided) with respective dummy pixel rows 281. Such an arrangement can accommodate to vertical reversal of scanning over the screen. The above-described embodiment is configured to select two pixel rows at a time. However, the present invention is not limited to this configuration but may employ a configuration for selection of, for example, five pixel rows at a time (see FIG. 23.) That is, where five pixel rows are driven at a time, four dummy pixel rows 281 should be formed. The dummy pixel row configuration or the dummy pixel row driving method according to the present invention is of the type using at least one dummy pixel row. Of course, it is preferable to combine the dummy pixel row driving method with the N-fold pulse driving method. With the driving method in which plural pixel rows are selected at a time, it becomes more difficult to accommodate variations in the characteristics of transistors 11a as the number of pixel rows to be selected at a time increases. However, with increasing number of pixel rows to be selected, the programming current for each pixel becomes higher and, hence, a higher current is to be passed through EL device 15. If the current passing through EL device 15 is high, EL device 15 is easy to deteriorate. The method illustrated in FIG. 30 is capable of solving this problem. The basic concept of the method illustrated in FIG. 30 according to the present invention is a combination of a method such as to select plural pixel rows at a time in a 1/2H period (½ of a horizontal scanning period), similarly to the methods described in relation to FIGS. 22 and 29, and a method such as to select one pixel row in the subsequent 1/2H period (½ of a horizontal scanning period), similarly to the methods described in relation to FIGS. 5 and 13. Such a combination accommodates variations in the characteristics of transistors 11a and hence is capable of making the responsiveness high and the in-plane uniformity satisfactory. For easy explanation, description will be made of such a combined method including selecting five pixel rows at a time in a first period and then selecting one pixel row in a second period. In the first period (the first 1/2H), five pixel rows are selected at a time as shown in FIG. 30(a1). Since this operation has already been described with reference to FIG. 22, description thereof will be omitted. The current to be passed through source signal line 18 is, for example, 25 times as high as the predetermined value. Accordingly, the transistor 11a of each pixel (in the case of the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 1) is to be programmed with a 5-fold current (25/5 pixel rows=5.) Since source signal line 18 is to be fed with a 25-fold current, the parasitic capacitance occurring in source signal line 18 and the like can be charged/discharged in a very short time. Therefore, the potential of source signal line 18 becomes a target potential in a short time and the capacitor 19 of each pixel 16 is programmed to have such a terminal voltage as to pass the five-fold current. The period for which the 25-fold current is applied is the first 1/2H (½ of one horizontal scanning period.) As a matter of course, since five pixel rows are to be written with the same image data, the transistors 11d of these five pixel rows are made to assume off-state so that the five pixel rows do not display. Thus, the resulting display state is as shown in FIG. 30(a2). In the latter 1/2H period, one pixel row is selected and current-based (voltage-based) programming is performed. This state is illustrated in FIG. 30(b1). The pixel row 51a written is programmed with a current (voltage) so that a 5-fold current will pass as in the first period. The current to be passed through each pixel in the case of FIG. 30(a1) and that in the case of FIG. 30(b1) are equalized to each other because a variation in the terminal voltage of capacitor 19 is reduced to allow a current of a target value to pass more promptly. Specifically, in the operation illustrated in FIG. 30(a1), plural pixels are fed with a current so that the terminal voltage of each capacitor 19 can rapidly reach a value causing an approximate current to pass. At this first step, programming is made at plural transistors 11a and, hence, errors in regard to a target value occur due to variations in the characteristics of the transistors. At the subsequent second step, only the pixel row to be written with data and hold the data is selected so that programming is completed with a current having the predetermined target value varied from the approximate target value. Since the operation of scanning non-lighting region 52 as well as pixel row 51a to be written downwardly of the screen is the same as in the case of FIG. 13 or the like, description thereof will be omitted. FIG. 31 shows driving waveforms for realizing the driving method illustrated in FIG. 30. As can be seen from FIG. 31, a 1H period (one horizontal scanning period) comprises two phases. Switching between these two phases is made using ISEL signal, which is shown in FIG. 31. Reference is first made to such ISEL signal. The driver circuit 14 for carrying out the method illustrated in FIG. 30 has first and second current output circuits. These first and second current output circuits each comprise a DA circuit for DA conversion of 8-bit gray scale data, an operational amplifier, and the like. In the embodiment of FIG. 30, the first current output circuit is configured to output a 25-fold current, while the second current output circuit configured to output a 5-fold current. Outputs of the respective first and second current output circuits are applied to source signal line 18 by control over a switching circuit formed (located) in a current output section with the ISEL signal. Each source signal line is provided with the first and second current output circuits. When the ISEL signal assumes an L level, the first current output circuit adapted to output a 25-fold current is selected so that source driver 14 absorbs the current from source signal line 18 (more exactly, the first current output circuit formed in source driver 14 absorbs the current.) The magnitude of the current to be outputted from each of the first and second current output circuits can be adjusted to a 25-fold value, 5-fold value or the like easily, because each current output circuit can be formed using plural resistors and an analog switch. When the pixel row to be written is the first pixel row (see the column of 1H in FIG. 30) as shown in FIG. 30, gate signal lines 17a(1) to 17a(5) are in the selected state (in the case of the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 1.) That is, the switching transistors 11b and transistors 11c of pixels rows (1) to (5) are in on-state. Since the ISEL is assuming the L level, the first current output circuit for outputting a 25-fold current is selected and connected to source signal line 18. Further, gate signal line 17b is under application of off-voltage (Vgh). Accordingly, the switching transistors 11d of the pixel rows (1) to (5) are in off state, thus preventing current from passing through the EL devices 15 of the respective pixel rows. That is, these EL devices are in the non-lighting state 52. Ideally, the transistors 11a of five pixels each pass a current of Iw×2 through source signal line 18. Then, the capacitor 19 of each pixel 16 is programmed with a 5-fold current. Here, description is made on the assumption that transistors 11a are uniform in characteristics (Vt and S value) for easy understanding. Since the number of pixel rows selected at a time is five (K=5), five driving transistors 11a operate. That is, a 5-fold (25/5=5) current passes through transistor 11a per pixel. Source signal line 18 is fed with a current as the sum of programming currents for the five transistors 11a. For example, assuming that the current to be passed through pixel row 51a to be written is Iw according to the conventional driving method, a current of Iw×25 is passed through source signal line 18. Pixel rows 51b to be written with image data after writing to pixel row (1) are now used as auxiliary pixel rows for increasing the amount of current to be fed to source signal line 18. However, there arises no problem because the pixel rows 51b will be written with regular image data thereafter. Therefore, the pixel rows 51b each provide the same display as the pixel row 51a during a 1H period. For this reason, at least the written pixel row 51a and the pixel rows 51b selected for increasing the current are made to assume the non-lighting state 52. In the subsequent 1/2H period (½ of the horizontal scanning period), only pixel row 51a to be written is selected. That is, only the first pixel row is selected. As apparent from FIG. 31, only gate signal line 17a(1) is applied with on-voltage (Vgl) while gate signal lines 17a(2) to 17a(5) applied with off-voltage (Vgh). Therefore, the transistor 11a of pixel row (1) is in an operating state (the state feeding current to source signal line 18), while the switching transistors 11b and transistors 11c of the pixel rows (2) to (5) are in off-state, or in the unselected state. Since the ISEL signal is assuming an H level, the current output circuit B for outputting a 5-fold current is selected and connected to source signal line 18. The state of gate signal line 17b is not changed from the state assumed in the first 1/2H period and hence is under application of off-voltage (Vgh). Accordingly, the switching transistors 11d of the pixel rows (1) to (5) are in off-state, thus preventing current from passing through the EL devices 15 of the respective pixel rows. That is, these pixel rows are in the non-lighting state 52. The above-described operation causes the transistor 11a of the pixel row (1) to pass a current of Iw×5 through source signal line 18. Then, the capacitor 19 of each pixel row (1) is programmed with the 5-fold current. In the next horizontal scanning period, the pixel row to be written is shifted by one pixel row. That is, the pixel row to be written is changed to pixel row (2). In the first 1/2H period, when the pixel row to be written is the second pixel row as shown in FIG. 31, gate signal lines 17a(2) to 17a(6) are in the selected state. That is, the switching transistors 11b and transistors 11c of pixels rows (2) to (6) are in on-state. Since the ISEL is assuming the L level, the first current output circuit for outputting a 25-fold current is selected and connected to source signal line 18. Further, gate signal line 17b is under application of off-voltage (Vgh). Accordingly, the switching transistors 11d of the pixel rows (2) to (6) are in off-state, thus preventing current from passing through the EL devices 15 of the respective pixel rows. That is, these pixel rows are in the non-lighting state 52. On the other hand, since the gate signal line 17b(1) of the pixel row (1) is under application of voltage Vgl, the transistor 11d of the pixel row (1) is in on-state and the EL device 15 of the pixel row (1) is in the lighting state. Since the number of pixel rows selected at a time is five (K=5), five driving transistors 11a operate. That is, a 5-fold (25/5=5) current passes through transistor 11a per pixel. Source signal line 18 is fed with a current as the sum of programming currents for the five transistors 11a. In the subsequent 1/2H period (½ of the horizontal scanning period), only pixel row 51a to be written is selected. That is, only the second pixel row is selected. As apparent from FIG. 31, only gate signal line 17a(2) is applied with on-voltage (Vgl) while gate signal lines 17a(3) to 17a(6) applied with off-voltage (Vgh). Therefore, the transistors 11a of the pixel rows (1) and (2) is in the operating state (the state where the pixel row (1) passes current through EL device 15 while the pixel row (2) feeds current to source signal line 18), while the switching transistors 11b and transistors 11c of the pixel rows (3) to (6) are in off-state, or in the unselected state. Since the ISEL signal is assuming the H level, the second current output circuit for outputting the 5-fold current is selected. The state of gate signal line 17b is not changed from the state assumed in the first 1/2H period and hence is under application of off-voltage (Vgh). Accordingly, the switching transistors 11d of the pixel rows (2) to (6) are in off-state, thus preventing current from passing through the EL devices 15 of the respective pixel rows. That is, these pixel rows are in the non-lighting state 52. The above-described operation causes the transistor 11a of the pixel row (2) to pass a current of Iw×5 through source signal line 18. Then, the capacitor 19 of the pixel row (2) is programmed with the 5-fold current. Display over one whole screen can be made by sequentially performing the above-described operations. According to the driving method described in relation to FIG. 30, G pixel rows (G is 2 or more) are selected in the first period and each of the pixel rows is programmed so that an N-fold current will pass therethrough. In the second period subsequent to the first period, B pixel rows (B is not less than 1 and less than G) are selected and each of the pixel rows is programmed so that the N-fold current will pass therethrough. However, another way is possible. G pixel rows (G is 2 or more) are selected in the first period and programming is made so that the total sum of currents to pass through the respective pixel rows assumes the N-fold value. In the second period subsequent to the first period, B pixel rows (B is not less than 1 and less than G) are selected and programming is made so that the total sum of currents to pass through the respective pixel rows assumes the N-fold value. (When one pixel row is selected, programming is made so that the current to pass therethrough assumes the N-fold value.) For example, five pixel rows are selected at a time in FIG. 30(a1) and a 2-fold current is passed through the transistor 11a of each pixel. By so doing, source signal line 18 is fed with a 10-fold (5×2) current. In the subsequent second period, one pixel row is selected in FIG. 30(b1). The 10-fold current is passed through transistor 11a of this pixel row. In the foregoing description related to FIG. 31, the period for selecting plural pixel rows at a time is set to 1/2H and the period for selecting one pixel row set to 1/2H. However, the present invention is not limited thereto. It is possible that the period for selecting plural pixel rows at a time is set to 1/4H and the period for selecting one pixel row set to 3/4H. Further, the sum of the period for selecting plural pixel rows at a time and the period for selecting one pixel row is set to 1H. However, the present invention is not limited thereto. For example, the sum of these periods may be set to a 2H period or a 1.5H period. In the method of FIG. 30, it is possible that the period for selecting five pixel rows at a time is set to 1/2H and two pixel rows are selected at a time in the subsequent second period. In this case also, image display without no practical trouble can be realized. In the foregoing description related to FIG. 30, two stages are provided consisting of the first period for selecting five pixel rows at a time, which is set to 1/2H, and the second period for selecting one pixel row, which is set to 1/2H. However, the present invention is not limited thereto. For example, three stages may be provided consisting of the first period for selecting five pixel rows at a time, the second period for selecting two of the five pixel rows, and the third period for selecting one pixel row. That is, it is possible to write image data to a pixel row at plural stages. The above-described N-fold pulse driving method according to the present invention applies the same waveform to gate signal lines 17b of respective pixel rows while shifting the scanning at 1H intervals. Such a manner of scanning makes it possible to shift a pixel row to light to another sequentially with the lighting duration of each EL device 15 set to 1F/N. Such application of the same waveform to gate signal lines 17b of respective pixel rows and shifting of the scanning, can be easily realized. This is because it is sufficient to control data ST1 and data ST2 to be applied to shift register circuits 61a and 61b, respectively, shown in FIG. 6. Assuming that Vgl is outputted to gate signal line 17b when inputted ST2 assumes L level while Vgh is outputted to gate signal line 17b when inputted ST2 assumes H level, ST2 to be applied to shift register 17b is inputted at L level for a 1F/N period and at H level for the rest of the period. ST2 thus inputted should be shifted with clock CLK2 synchronizing to 1H. The on-off cycle of EL device 15 needs to be set to 0.5 msec or longer. If this cycle is too short, complete black display is not realized due to human eyes having the afterimage property and, hence, the image displayed is seen to blur as if the resolution is lowered. Such a display state is the same as the display state of a display panel of the data holding type. On the other hand, if the on-off cycle is set to 100 msec or longer, the resulting display is seen to blink. For this reason, the on-off cycle of EL device 15 has to be not less than 0.5 msec and not more than 100 msec, more preferably not less than 2 msec and not more than 30 msec, much more preferably not less than 3 msec and not more than 20 msec. As described earlier, satisfactory motion picture display can be realized when the number by which black display screen 152 is divided (split) is one. However, flitter is likely seen on the screen. Therefore, it is preferable to split an inserted black display portion into plural blocks. However, too much increase in the number of such blocks results in a blurred motion picture. The number of blocks resulting from splitting has to be not less than 1 and not more than 8, preferably not less than 1 and not more than 5. It is preferable to employ an arrangement capable of varying the number of split blocks of a black display depending on whether a stationary image or a motion picture image is to be displayed. When N=4, a black display occupies 75% of the screen and an image display occupies 25% of the screen. In this case, when the number of split blocks is one, the black display portion occupying 75% is scanned vertically of the screen so as to be viewed as a black band occupying 75%. When the number of split blocks is 3, scanning is made so that a black display occupying 25% of the screen is split into three black display blocks each occupying 25/3% of the screen. The number of split blocks is increased for stationary image display, whereas it is decreased for motion picture display. Switching may be made either automatically in accordance with images inputted (through detection of a motion picture image or the like) or by a manual operation by the user. Alternatively, it is possible to employ an arrangement capable of switching in accordance with input contents corresponding to types of video images to be displayed by the display apparatus. In a mobile phone for example, the number of split blocks is 10 or more when the screen is in a wallpaper display state or in an input screen state. (In an extreme case, on/off may be made 1H by 1H. In NTSC motion picture display, the number of split blocks is not less than 1 and not more than 5. It is preferable to employ an arrangement capable of changing the number of split blocks in multiple stages, the number of which is 3 or more. For example, the number of blocks is changed stepwise like 0, 2, 4, 8. The proportion of a black display relative to the whole display screen which is assumed to be 1 is preferably not less than 0.2 and not more than 0.9 (i.e., not less than 1.2 and not more than 9 in the units of N), particularly preferably not less than 0.25 and not more than 0.6 (i.e., not less than 1.25 and not more than 6 in the units of N.) If it is less than 0.20, the effect of improving motion picture display is low. If it is more than 0.9, the display portion exhibits an increased luminance and, hence, the vertical shifting of the display portion is easy to recognize visually. The number of frames per second is preferably not less than 10 and not more than 100 (i.e., not less than 10 Hz and not more than 100 Hz), more preferably not less than 12 and not more than 65 (i.e., not less than 12 Hz and not more than 65 Hz.) If the number of frames is too small, screen flitter becomes conspicuous, while if it is too large, writing from the driver circuit 14 or the like becomes difficult, which results in a degraded resolution. Anyway, the present invention is capable of varying the brightness of an image by control over gate signal line 17. It is needless to say that the brightness of an image may be varied with varying current (voltage) to be applied to source signal line 18. Also, it is needless to say that the control over gate signal line 17 described earlier (with reference to FIG. 33 or 35 or the like) may be combined with the art of varying the current (voltage) to be applied to source signal line 18. It is needless to say that the above-described matters are applicable to the current-based programming pixel configurations shown in FIG. 38 and the like and the voltage-based programming pixel configurations shown in FIGS. 43, 51 and 54 and the like. It is sufficient for the transistor 11d in each of FIGS. 38, 43 and 51 to be on-off controlled. By thus turning on/off the wiring for feeding EL device 15 with current, the N-fold pulse driving method according to the present invention can be realized easily. Application of Vgl to gate signal line 17b for a 1F/N period may start at any time point in a 1F period (which is not limited and may be any unit period.) This is because the purpose of such application is to obtain a predetermined mean luminance by making EL device 15 assume on-state for a predetermined period of a unit time. However, EL device 15 had better be caused to emit light by application of Vgl to gate signal line 17b immediately after lapse of a current-based programming period (1H). This is because EL device 15 becomes less susceptible to the influence from the current holding characteristic of capacitor 19 in FIG. 1. It is also preferable to employ an arrangement capable of varying the number by which an image is to be split. For example, when the user depresses a brightness adjustor switch or turns a brightness adjustor volume, the value of K is varied depending on this change detected. Alternatively, it is possible to employ an arrangement such as to vary the number either manually or automatically in accordance with the particulars of or data on an image to be displayed. Such an arrangement for varying the value of K (i.e., the number by which image display portion 53 is to be split) can be realized easily. This is because it is sufficient to provide an arrangement capable of controlling or varying the timing at which data is applied to ST in FIG. 6 (i.e., the timing at which ST is made to assume L level in a 1F period.) While description in relation to FIG. 16 and the like has been made of the feature that a (1F/N) period for which gate signal line 17b is applied with Vgl is divided into plural subperiods (the number of subperiods is K) and gate signal line 17b is applied with Vgl for a 1F/(K·N) period K times, there is no limitation to this feature. Gate signal line 17b may be applied with Vgl for a 1F/(K·N) period L times (L≠K). That is, the present invention has the feature that image 50 is displayed by controlling the period (time) for which EL device 15 is fed with current. Therefore, the art of repeating the 1F/(K·N) period L times (L≠K) is included in the technical concept of the present invention. The luminance of image 50 can be varied digitally with a variation in the value of L. For example, the difference between the case of L=2 and the case of L=3 corresponds to a 50% change in luminance (contrast). It is needless to say that these controls are applicable to other embodiments of the present invention. (Of course, they are applicable to embodiments of the present invention to be described hereinafter.) Such controls are included in the scope of the N-fold pulse driving method according to the present invention. The foregoing embodiments are each configured to cause the display of screen 50 to be turned on/off by controlling transistor 11d serving as a switching device located (or formed) between EL device 15 and driving transistor 11a. This driving method solves the problem of insufficient writing with current in a black display state of a current-based programming configuration, thereby realizing a satisfactory resolution or black display. That is, the current-based programming is highly advantageous in that a satisfactory black display can be realized. The driving method to be described next is a method capable of realizing a satisfactory black display by resetting driving transistor 11a. Hereinafter, this embodiment will be described with reference to FIG. 32. The pixel configuration shown in FIG. 32 is basically the same as that shown is FIG. 1. In the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 32, current Iw as programmed is passed through EL device 15 to cause EL device 15 to emit light. That is, driving transistor 11a becomes capable of holding the ability to pass the current when programmed. The driving method applied to the FIG. 32 configuration is a method which utilizes the ability to pass current to reset (or turn off) transistor 11a. Hereinafter, this type of driving will be referred to as “reset driving”. In order to realize the reset driving with the pixel configuration of FIG. 1, an arrangement capable of on-off controlling transistors 11b and 11c independently of each other is needed. Specifically, such an arrangement is capable of controlling gate signal line 17a (gate signal line WR) for on-off controlling transistor 11b and signal line 17c (gate signal line EL,) for on-off controlling transistor 11c, independently of each other. Controls over gate signal lines 17a and 17c can be achieved using two independent shift registers 61 as shown in FIG. 6. The driving voltage for gate signal line WR and that for gate signal line EL preferably are made different from each other. The amplitude of the driving voltage for gate signal line WR (the difference between on-voltage and off-voltage) is made smaller than that of the driving voltage for gate signal line EL. Basically, if the amplitude of the driving voltage for a gate signal line is large, a punch-through voltage across the gate signal line and the pixel becomes high, which causes black in relief to occur. The amplitude of the driving voltage for a gate signal line WR can be adjusted by controlling the potential of source signal line 18 not to be applied (or to be applied in the selected state) to pixel 16. Since fluctuations in the potential of source signal line 18 are small, the amplitude of the driving voltage for gate signal line WR can be decreased. On the other hand, gate signal line EL is required to on-off control the EL device. Therefore, the amplitude of the driving voltage for gate signal line EL is large. As a measure to deal with this inconvenience, the output voltages of the respective shift registers 61a and 61b are made different from each other. In the case where each pixel comprises p-channel transistors, the off-voltages Vgh of the respective shift registers 61a and 61b are substantially equalized to each other, while the on-voltage Vgl of shift register 61a is made lower than that of shift register 61b. Hereinafter, the reset driving method will be described with reference to FIG. 33. FIG. 33 is an explanatory diagram illustrating the principle of the reset driving method. First, as shown in FIG. 33(a), transistors 11c and 11d are turned off, while transistor 11b turned on. Then, the drain terminal (D) and the gate terminal (G) of driving transistor 11a are shortcircuited, thus allowing current Ib to pass therethrough. Generally transistor 11a has been programmed with current in the immediately preceding field (frame) and hence has the ability to pass current. When transistors 11d and 11b assume off-state and on-state, respectively, with transistor 11a in that condition, driving current Ib is passed to the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11a, so that the potential at the gate terminal (G) and that at the drain terminal (D) are equalized to each other, thus resetting transistor 11a (to a state not allowing current to pass therethrough). The reset state (the state not allowing current to pass) of transistor 11a is equivalent to an offset voltage holding state of a voltage offset canceller configuration, which will be described later with reference to FIG. 51 and the like. That is, in the state shown in FIG. 33(a), an offset voltage is held across the terminals of capacitor 19. This offset voltage has a voltage value which varies with variations in the characteristics of transistor 11a. Therefore, when the operation illustrated in FIG. 33(a) is performed, transistor 11a does not pass current to capacitor 19 of each pixel 19. (That is, a black display current (substantially equal to zero) is held.) It is preferable to perform an operation of turning transistors 11b and 11c off and transistor 11d on to pass the driving current through driving transistor 11a prior to the operation illustrated in FIG. 33(a). Preferably, this operation is completed in a very short time. This is because current might pass through EL device 15 to cause it to light thereby causing the display contrast to lower. The time period for this operation is preferably not less than 0.1% and not more than 10% of a 1H period (one horizontal scanning period), more preferably not less than 0.2% and not more than 2% of a 1H period. Stated otherwise, the time period is preferably not less than 0.2 μsec and not more than 5 μsec. The aforementioned operation (the operation to be performed before the operation of FIG. 33(a)) may be performed on all the pixels 16 present in the whole screen collectively. The operations described above can cause the drain terminal (D) voltage of driving transistor 11a to lower thereby allowing current Ib to pass smoothly in the state shown in FIG. 33(a). The above-described matters are applicable to other reset driving methods of the present invention. As the state shown in FIG. 33(a) continues for a longer time, the terminal voltage of capacitor 19 tends to become lower due to passage of current Ib. Therefore, the time period for which the state shown in FIG. 33(a) continues needs to be fixed. According to the experiment and study conducted by the inventors et al, the time period for which the state shown in FIG. 33(a) continues is preferably not less than 1H and not more than 5H. Preferably, this period is varied depending on R, G and B pixels. This is because these different color pixels employ different EL materials, which are different in threshold voltage and the like from each other. The optimum periods for the respective R, G and B pixels are established depending on the respective EL materials. Though this period is set not less than 1H and not more than 5H in this embodiment, it is needless to say that the period may be set to 5H or more in a driving method based mainly on insertion of a black display (writing of a black display to the screen.) It should be noted that the black display state of each pixel becomes better as this period becomes longer. After the state shown in FIG. 33(a) continued for the time period not less than 1H and not more than 5H, the pixel configuration is turned into the state shown in FIG. 33(b). In the state shown in FIG. 33(b), transistors 11c and 11b are in on-state, while transistor 11d in off-state. As described earlier, the state shown in FIG. 33(b) is a state where current-based programming is being performed. That is, source driver 14 outputs (or absorbs) programming current Iw to driving transistor 11a. Driving transistor 11a is programmed to have such a gate terminal (G) potential as to cause current Iw to pass. (The potential thus set is held in capacitor 19.) If the programming current Iw is 0 (A), transistor 11a is kept in the state shown in FIG. 33(a) which does not allow current to pass, thus realizing a satisfactory black display. In the case of current-based programming for a white display by the state shown in FIG. 33(b), perfect current-based programming can be achieved from the offset voltage providing a black display even when there are variations in the characteristics of driving transistors of pixels. Therefore, the times required for respective driving transistors to be programmed with a target value are equalized to each other for each gray level. For this reason, there occurs no gray scale error due to variations in the characteristics of transistors 11a and, hence, satisfactory image display can be realized. After the current-based programming in the state shown in FIG. 33(b), transistors 11b and 11c are turned off and transistor 11d turned on to cause driving transistor 11a to pass programming current Iw (=Ie) through EL device 15, thereby causing EL device 15 to emit light. Description of the details of the state shown in FIG. 33(c) will be omitted since similar description has bee made earlier with reference to FIG. 1 and the like. The driving method (reset driving) illustrated in FIG. 33 comprises: a first operation in which driving transistor 11a and EL device 15 are disconnected from each other (or turned into a state preventing current from passing therebetween), while the drain terminal (D) and the gate terminal (G) of driving transistor 11a (alternatively, the source terminal (S) and the gate terminal (G) of driving transistor 11a; in more general term, two terminals of driving transistor 11a including the gate terminal (G)) are shortcircuited; and a second operation in which driving transistor 11a is programmed with current (voltage) after the first operation. It is at least required that the second operation be performed after the first operation. For the reset driving to be effected, it is necessary to provide an arrangement capable of controlling transistors 11b and 11c independently of each other as shown in FIG. 32. The image display state changes as follows (provided instantaneous changes can be observed.) First, a pixel row to be programmed with current is turned into a reset state (i.e., black display state). After lapse of 1H, current-based programming is performed. (At this time, image display is still in the black display state because transistor 11d is in off-state.) Subsequently, each EL device 15 is fed with current, so that the pixel row emits light at a predetermined luminance (with a current as programmed). Specifically, it should be seen that the pixel row displaying black moves downwardly of the screen and the image displayed is rewritten at a position that the pixel row has just passed. Though the current-based programming is performed 1H after the resetting according to the above description, the period between the programming and the resetting may be about 5H or less. This is because a relatively long time is required for the resetting operation shown in FIG. 33(a) to be completed. If this period is set to 5H, five pixel rows will display black. (If the pixel row programmed with current is taken into account, six pixel rows will display black.) There is no limitation to the feature that resetting is made pixel row by pixel row, but a set of plural pixel rows may be reset at a time; that is, resetting may made plural pixel rows by plural pixel rows. Alternatively, it is possible to perform resetting plural pixel rows by plural pixel rows while performing overlapped scanning. For example, if four pixel rows are to be reset at a time, an exemplary manner of driving is as follows: pixel rows (1) to (4) are reset in the first horizontal scanning period (one unit); subsequently, pixel rows (3) to (6) reset in the second horizontal scanning period; subsequently, pixel rows (5) to (8) reset in the third horizontal scanning period; and then, pixel rows (7) to (10) reset in the fourth horizontal scanning period. Of course, the driving operations shown in FIGS. 33(b) and 33(c) are performed in synchronism with the driving operation shown in FIG. 33(a). It is needless to say that the driving operations shown in FIGS. 33(b) and 33(c) may be performed after all of the pixels present in one screen have been reset either at a time or in a scanned fashion. It is also needless to say that interlaced driving (scanning every other pixel row or every other set of plural pixel rows) may be effected to reset every other pixel row or every other set of plural pixel rows. Random resetting is also possible. The reset driving according to the present invention described above is a method adapted to operate pixel rows. (That is, control is made vertically of the screen.) The concept of the reset driving is not limited to the control in the direction in which pixel rows are arranged. It is needless to say that the reset driving may be performed in the direction in which pixel columns are arranged for example. The reset driving method illustrated in FIG. 33 can realize better image display if combined with the N-fold pulse driving method or a like method according to the present invention or with the interlaced driving method. The method illustrated in FIG. 22, in particular, can easily realize an intermittent N/K-fold pulse driving method. (This is a driving method including providing plural lighting regions on one screen. This driving method can be easily practiced if gate signal line 17b is controlled so as to turn transistor 11d on/off. This feature has been described earlier.) Therefore, satisfactory image display free of flicker can be realized. This is an excellent characteristic of the method illustrated in FIG. 22 or its variations. It is also needless to say that the reset driving method can realize much better image display if combined with other driving methods including, for example, the reverse bias driving method, precharge driving method and punch-through voltage driving method to be described later. Thus, it is needless to say that the reset driving method can be implemented in combination with other embodiments herein described. FIG. 34 is a diagram showing the configuration of a display apparatus for realizing the reset driving. Gate driver 12a controls gate signal lines 17a and 17b of FIG. 32. Application of on-voltage and off-voltage to gate signal line 17a allows transistor 11b to be on-off controlled. Application of on-voltage and off-voltage to gate signal line 17b allows transistor 11d to be on-off controlled. Gate driver 12b controls gate signal line 17c of FIG. 32. Application of on-voltage and off-voltage to gate signal line 17c allows transistor 11c to be on-off controlled. Thus, gate signal lines 17a and 17c are operated by gate drivers 12a and 12b, respectively. For this reason, it is possible to freely control the timing at which transistor 11b is turned on to reset driving transistor 11a and the timing at which transistor 11c is turned on to program driving transistor 11a with current. Reference character 341a in FIG. 34 designates the circuit of an output section. Since other features and the like are identical with or similar to the features described earlier, description thereof will be omitted. FIG. 35 is a timing chart of the reset driving. When transistor 11a is reset by applying on-voltage to gate signal line 17a to turn transistor 11b on, transistor 11d is turned off by application of off-voltage to gate signal line 17b. Thus, the configuration assumes the state shown in FIG. 32(a). During this period, current Ib is passed. According to the timing chart of FIG. 35, reset time is set to 2H (during which gate signal line is under application of on-voltage and hence transistor 11b is in on-state.) However, there is no limitation to this feature, but the reset time may be 2H or more. In the case where resetting can be made very rapidly, the rest time may be less than 1H. The reset time can be varied to any desired H period easily by varying the pulse period of DATA (ST) to be inputted to gate driver 12. For example, if DATA to be inputted to ST terminal assumes H level for a 2H period, the reset time outputted from each gate signal line 17a is a 2H period. Similarly, if DATA to be inputted to ST terminal assumes H level for a 5H period, the reset time outputted from each gate signal line 17a is a 5H period. After the reset state for a 1H period, gate signal line 17c(1) of pixel row (1) is applied with on-voltage. When transistor 11c is turned on, driving transistor 11a is written with the programming current applied to source signal line 18 via transistor 11c. After the current-based programming, gate signal line 17c of pixel row (1) is applied with off-voltage to turn transistor 11c off, thereby disconnecting each pixel from source signal line 18. At the same time, gate signal line 17a is also applied with off-voltage to release driving transistor 11a from the reset state. (In this period, the expression “current-based programmed state” is more proper than the expression “reset state”.) Further, gate signal line 17b is applied with on-voltage to turn transistor 11d on, thereby causing the current programmed at driving transistor 11a to be passed through EL device 15. Since the operation on pixel row (2) and the succeeding pixel rows is the same as that on pixel row (1) and since that operation is obvious from FIG. 35, description thereof will be omitted. In FIG. 35, the reset period is a 1H period. FIG. 36 illustrates an embodiment having a reset period of 5H. The reset period can be varied to any desired H period easily by varying the pulse period of DATA (ST) to be inputted to gate driver 12. FIG. 36 is directed to the embodiment having settings such that DATA to be inputted to ST1 terminal of gate driver 12a assumes H level for a 5H period and the reset period outputted from each gate signal line 17a is a 5H period. As the reset period becomes longer, more perfect resetting is achieved, thus realizing better black display. However, the display luminance is lowered by a degree corresponding to the proportion of the reset period. In the embodiment of FIG. 36, the reset period is set to 5H and the reset state is continuous. However, there is no limitation to such a continuous reset state. For example, it is possible to turn on/off the signal outputted from each gate signal line 17a on a 1H basis. Such an on-off operation can be easily realized by operating an enabling circuit (not shown) formed in the output section of the shift register or controlling the DATA (ST) pulse to be inputted to gate driver 12. The circuit configuration shown in FIG. 34 requires at least two shift register circuits (one for controlling gate signal line 17a and the other for controlling gate signal line 17b.) For this reason, there arises a problem of gate driver 12a having an increased circuit scale. FIG. 37 shows an embodiment wherein gate driver 12a has a single shift register. The timing chart of output signals in the operation of the circuit of FIG. 37 is as shown in FIG. 35. Attention should be given to FIGS. 35 and 37 which use different signs to designate each of gate signal lines 17 extending from gate drivers 12a and 12b. As can be clearly understood from the configuration of FIG. 37 which additionally includes OR circuit 371, OR is taken from the output of the current stage and the output of the preceding stage of shift register circuit 61a and outputted to each gate signal 17a. That is, gate signal line 17a outputs on-voltage for a 2H period. On the other hand, the output of shift register 61a, as it is, is outputted to gate signal line 17c. Therefore, gate signal line 17c is under application of on-voltage for a 1H period. For example, when an H level signal is outputted to the second stage of shift register circuit 61a, on-voltage is outputted to gate signal line 17c of pixel 16(1), thus making pixel 16(1) programmed with current (or voltage). At the same time, on-voltage is also outputted to gate signal line 17a of pixel 16(2) to turn on transistor 11b of pixel 16(2), thus resetting driving transistor 11a of pixel 16(2). Similarly, when an H level signal is outputted to the third stage of shift register circuit 61a, on-voltage is outputted to gate signal line 17c of pixel 16(2), thus making pixel 16(2) programmed with current (or voltage). At the same time, on-voltage is also outputted to gate signal line 17a of pixel 16(3) to turn on transistor 11b of pixel 16(3), thus resetting driving transistor 11a of pixel 16(3). That is, gate signal line 17a continues to output on-voltage for a 2H period, while gate signal line 17c continues to be applied with on-voltage for a 1H period. Transistors 11b and 11c assume on-state (see FIG. 33(b)) at the same time when each pixel is programmed (see FIG. 33(b)). For this reason, if transistor 11c is turned into off-state prior to transistor 11b in switching the pixel to an unprogrammed state, transistor 11a assumes the reset state shown in FIG. 33(b) undesirably. To avoid this inconvenience, transistor 11c needs to be turned off after the turning-off of transistor 11b. Accordingly, it is required that control be performed so that gate signal line 17a can be applied with on-voltage prior to the application of on-voltage to gate signal line 17c. The foregoing embodiment is applied to the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 32 (basically FIG. 1). However, the present invention is not limited thereto. For example, this embodiment is applicable to a current mirror pixel configuration as shown in FIG. 38. With the pixel configuration of FIG. 38, the N-fold pulse driving method as illustrated in FIG. 13 or 15 or the like can be practiced by on-off control over transistor 11e. FIG. 39 is an explanatory diagram illustrating an embodiment based on the current mirror pixel configuration shown in FIG. 38. Hereinafter, a reset driving method applied to the current mirror pixel configuration will be described with reference to FIG. 39. As shown in FIG. 39(a), transistors 11c and 11e are turned off, while transistor 11d turned on. Then, the drain terminal (D) and the gate terminal (G) of current-based programming transistor 11b are shortcircuited, thus allowing current Ib to pass therethrough. Generally transistor 11b has been programmed with current in an immediately preceding field (frame) and hence has the ability to pass current. (This is natural because the gate potential is held by capacitor 19 for a 1F period to perform image display. However, current is not passed in the case of perfect black display.) When transistors 11e and 11d assume off-state and on-state, respectively, with transistor 11b in that condition, driving current Ib is passed toward the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11a. (That is, gate terminal (G) and drain terminal (D) become shortcircuited.) Accordingly, the potential at the gate terminal (G) and that at the drain terminal (D) are equalized to each other, thus resetting transistor 11a (to a state not allowing current to pass). Since the gate terminal (G) of driving transistor 11b and that of current-based programming transistor 11a are common, driving transistor 11b is also reset. Each of the reset states (the state not allowing current to pass) of respective transistors 11a and 11b is equivalent to an offset voltage holding state of the voltage offset canceller configuration, which will be described later with reference to FIG. 51 and the like. That is, in the state shown in FIG. 39(a), an offset voltage is held across the terminals of capacitor 19. (The offset voltage is an initiating voltage causing current to start passing. Application of a voltage having an absolute value equal to or larger than the absolute value of the offset voltage causes current to pass through transistor 11.) This offset voltage has a voltage value which is variable in accordance with the characteristics of transistors 11a and 11b. Therefore, when the operation illustrated in FIG. 39(a) is performed, transistors 11a and 11b do not pass current to capacitor 19 of each pixel. (That is, a black display current (substantially equal to zero) state is kept; stated otherwise, resetting to the initiating voltage causing current to start passing is made.) As in the case of FIG. 33(a), as the reset state shown in FIG. 39(a) continues for a longer time, the terminal voltage of capacitor 19 tends to become lower due to passage of current Ib. Therefore, the time period for which the state shown in FIG. 39(a) continues needs to be fixed. According to the experiment and study conducted by the inventors et al., the time period for which the state shown in FIG. 33(a) continues is preferably not less than 1H and not more than 10H (10 horizontal scanning periods), more preferably not less than 1H and not more than 5H. Specifically, the time period is preferably not less than 20 μsec and not more than 2 msec. This holds true for the driving method illustrated in FIG. 33. As in the case of FIG. 33(a), when the operation is performed so that the reset state shown in FIG. 39(a) synchronizes to the current-based programmed state shown in FIG. 39(a), the time period required for the current-based programmed state shown in FIG. 39(b) to be reached from the reset state shown in FIG. 39(a) has a fixed value (constant value) and, therefore, there arises no problem. That is, the time period from the reset state shown in FIG. 33(a) or 39(a) to the current-based programmed state shown in FIG. 33(b) or 39(b) is preferably not less than 1H and not more than 10H (10 horizontal scanning periods), more preferably not less than 1H and not more than 5H. Specifically, the time period is preferably not less than 20 μsec and not more than 2 msec. If this time period is too short, driving transistor 11 is not completely reset, while if it is too long, driving transistor 11 assumes complete off-state, which in turn results in the current-based programming taking a longer time. In addition, the luminance of screen 50 is lowered. Subsequently to the state shown in FIG. 39(a), the pixel configuration is turned into the state shown in FIG. 39(b) where transistors 11c and 11b are in on-state, while transistor 11d in off-state. The state shown in FIG. 39(b) is a state where current-based programming is being performed. That is, source driver 14 outputs (or absorbs) programming current Iw and passes the programming current Iw to driving transistor 11a. Capacitor 19 is programmed with the gate terminal (G) potential of driving transistor 11b so that current Iw will pass through driving transistor 11a. If the programming current Iw is 0 (A) (black display), transistor 11b is kept in the state shown in FIG. 33(a) which does not allow current to pass, thus realizing a favorable black display. In the case of current-based programming for white display by the state shown in FIG. 39(b), perfect current-based programming can be achieved from the offset voltage providing a black display (the initiating voltage causing the current set in accordance with the characteristics of driving transistors to start passing) even when there are variations in the characteristics of driving transistors of respective pixels. Therefore, the times required for respective driving transistors to be programmed with a current of a target value are equalized to each other for each gray level. For this reason, there occurs no gray scale error due to variations in the characteristics of transistors 11a or 11b and, hence, satisfactory image display can be realized. After the current-based programming in the state shown in FIG. 39(b), transistors 11b and 11c are turned off and transistor 11e turned on to cause driving transistor 11b to pass programming current Iw (=Ie) through EL device 15, thereby causing EL device 15 to emit light. Description of the details of the state shown in FIG. 39(c) will be omitted since similar description has bee made earlier. The driving method (reset driving) illustrated in FIG. 33 or 39 comprises: a first operation in which driving transistor 11a or 11b and EL device 15 are disconnected from each other (or turned into a state preventing current from passing therebetween by transistor 11e or 11d), while the drain terminal (D) and the gate terminal (G) of the driving transistor (alternatively, the source terminal (S) and the gate terminal (G) of the driving transistor, more generally, two terminals of the driving transistor including gate terminal (G)) are shortcircuited; and a second operation in which the driving transistor is programmed with current (or voltage) after the first operation. It is at least required that the second operation be performed after the first operation. The operation of disconnecting driving transistor 11a or 11b and EL device 15 from each other is not necessarily indispensable. Even if the first operation of shortcircuiting the drain terminal (D) and the gate terminal (G) of the driving transistor is performed without disconnecting driving transistor 11a or 11b and EL device 15 from each other, it is possible that variations in the reset state are not so serious in some cases. Whether driving transistor 11a or 11b is to be disconnected from EL device 15 or not is decided based on examination of the transistor characteristics of the array manufactured. The current mirror pixel configuration shown in FIG. 39 is a driving method including resetting the current-based programming transistor 11a, which results in the resetting of the driving transistor 11b. With the current mirror pixel configuration of FIG. 39, the operation of disconnecting driving transistor 11b and EL device 15 from each other need not necessarily be performed in the reset state. Thus, the driving method comprises: a first operation in which the drain terminal (D) and the gate terminal (G) of the current-based programming transistor (alternatively, the source terminal (S) and the gate terminal (G) of the current-based programming transistor, more generally, two terminals of the current-based programming transistor or the driving transistor including gate terminal (G)) are shortcircuited; and a second operation in which the current-based programming transistor is programmed with current (or voltage) after the first operation. It is at least required that the second operation be performed after the first operation. The image display state changes as follows (provided instantaneous changes can be observed.) First, a pixel row to be programmed with current is turned into a reset state (i.e., black display state). After lapse of 1H, current-based programming is performed. Specifically, it should be seen that the pixel row displaying black moves downwardly of the screen and the image displayed is rewritten at a position that the pixel row has just passed. Though the foregoing description of the embodiment is directed mainly to the current-based programming pixel configuration, the reset driving according to the present invention is applicable to voltage-based programming pixel configurations. FIG. 43 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a pixel configuration (panel configuration) according to the present invention for practicing a reset driving method with a voltage-based programming pixel configuration. In the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 43, there is formed transistor 11e for causing driving transistor 11a to be reset. When gate signal line 17e is applied with on-voltage to turn transistor 11e on, which causes the gate terminal (G) and the drain terminal (D) of driving transistor 11a to become shortcircuited. The pixel configuration is also formed with transistor 11d for cutting off the current path between EL device 15 and driving transistor 11d. Hereinafter, the reset driving method applied to the voltage-based programming pixel configuration will be described with reference to FIG. 44. As shown in FIG. 44(a), transistors 11b and 11c are turned off, while transistor 11e turned on. Then, the drain terminal (D) and the gate terminal (G) of driving transistor 11a become shortcircuited, thus allowing current Ib to pass as shown. Accordingly, the potential at the gate terminal (G) and that at the drain terminal (D) of driving transistor 11a are equalized to each other, thus resetting transistor 11a (to a state not allowing current to pass therethrough.) Before the resetting of transistor 11a, current has been made passing through transistor 11a by initially turning transistors 11d and 11e on and off, respectively, in synchronism with an HD synchronizing signal, as described with reference to FIG. 33 or 39. Thereafter, the operation illustrated in FIG. 44 is performed. Each of the reset states (the state not allowing current to pass) of respective transistors 11a and 11b is equivalent to the offset voltage holding state of the voltage offset canceller configuration described in relation to FIG. 41 or the like. That is, in the state shown in FIG. 44(a), an offset voltage (reset voltage) is held across the terminals of capacitor 19. This offset voltage has a voltage value which is variable in accordance with the characteristics of transistor 11a. Therefore, when the operation illustrated in FIG. 44(a) is performed, transistor 11a does not pass current to capacitor 19 of each pixel. (That is, a black display current (substantially equal to zero) state is kept; stated otherwise, resetting to the initiating voltage causing current to start passing is made.) As in the current-based programming pixel configuration, as the reset state shown in FIG. 44(a) of the voltage-based programming pixel configuration continues for a longer time, the terminal voltage of capacitor 19 tends to become lower due to passage of current Ib. Therefore, the time period for which the state shown in FIG. 44(a) continues needs to be fixed. This time period is preferably not less than 0.2H and not more than 5H (five horizontal scanning periods), more preferably not less than 0.5H and not more than 4H. Specifically, the time period is preferably not less than 2 μsec and not more than 400 μsec. It is preferable that gate signal line 17e and the gate signal line 17a of an antecedent pixel row form a common line. That is, gate signal line 17e is formed as shortcircuited to gate signal line 17 a of the antecedent pixel row. This configuration is referred to as “antecedent gate control method”. The antecedent gate control method uses a waveform applied to the gate signal line of a pixel row having been selected at least 1H before the selection of a pixel row concerned. Therefore, the antecedent pixel row is not limited to the immediately preceding pixel row. For example, transistor 11a of a pixel row concerned may be reset by using the signal waveform applied to the gate signal of the pixel row next to the immediately preceding pixel row. More specifically, the antecedent gate control method is as follows. It is assumed that: a pixel row concerned is the (N)th pixel row having gate signal lines 17e(N) and 17a(N); a pixel row selected 1H before is the (N−1)th pixel row having gate signal lines 17e(N−1) and 17a(N−1); and a pixel row to be selected 1H after the selection of the pixel row concerned is the (N+1)th pixel row having gate signal lines 17e(N+1) and 17a(N+1). In the (N−1)th H period, when gate signal line 17a(N−1) of the (N−1)th pixel row is applied with on-voltage, gate signal line 17e(N) of the (N)th pixel row is also applied with on-voltage. This is because gate signal line 17e(N) is formed as shortcircuited to gate signal line 17a(N−1) of the antecedent pixel row. Accordingly, transistor 11b(N−1) of each pixel of the (N−1)th pixel row is turned on to write the voltage of source signal line 18 to the gate terminal (G) of driving transistor 11a(N−1). At the same time, transistor 11e(N) of the (N)th pixel row is turned on to shortcircuit the gate terminal (G) and the drain terminal (D) of driving transistor 11a(N), thereby resetting driving transistor 11a(N). In the (N)th period following the (N−1)th H period, when gate signal line 17a(N) of the (N)th pixel row is applied with on-voltage, gate signal line 17e(N+1) of the (N+1)th pixel row is also applied with on-voltage. Accordingly, transistor 11b(N) of each pixel of the (N)th pixel row is turned on to write the voltage applied to source signal line 18 to the gate terminal (G) of driving transistor 11a(N). At the same time, transistor 11e(N+1) of each pixel of the (N+1)th pixel row is turned on to shortcircuit the gate terminal (G) and the drain terminal (D) of driving transistor 11a(N+1), thereby resetting driving transistor 11a(N+1). A similar operation proceeds for the following pixel rows. In the (N+1)th H period following the (N)th H period, when gate signal line 17a(N+1) of the (N+1)th pixel row is applied with on-voltage, gate signal line 17e(N+2) of the (N+2)th pixel row is also applied with on-voltage. Accordingly, transistor 11b(N+1) of each pixel of the (N+1)th pixel row is turned on to write the voltage applied to source signal line 18 to the gate terminal (G) of driving transistor 11a(N+1). At the same time, transistor 11e(N+2) of each pixel of the (N+2)th pixel row is turned on to shortcircuit the gate terminal (G) and the drain terminal (D) of driving transistor 11a(N+2), thereby resetting driving transistor 11a(N+2). With the antecedent gate control method according to the present invention, driving transistor 11a is reset for a 1H period, followed by voltage-based programming. As in the case of FIG. 33(a), when the operation is performed so that the reset state shown in FIG. 44(a) synchronizes to the current-based programmed state shown in FIG. 44(a), the time period required for the current-based programming state shown in FIG. 44(b) to be reached has a fixed value (constant value) and, therefore, there arises no problem. If this time period is too short, driving transistor 11a is not completely reset, while if it is too long, driving transistor 11a assumes complete off-state, which in turn results in the current-based programming taking a longer time. Further, the luminance of screen 12 is lowered. Subsequently to the state shown in FIG. 44(a), the pixel configuration is turned into the state shown in FIG. 44(b) where transistors 11b is in on-state, while transistors 11e and 11d in off-state. The state shown in FIG. 44(b) is a state where current-based programming is being performed. That is, source driver 14 outputs the programming current, which is then written to the gate terminal (G) of driving transistor 11a (i.e., capacitor 19 is programmed with the potential of the gate terminal (G) of driving transistor 11a.) In the case of voltage-based programming, transistor 11d need not necessarily be turned off at the time of voltage-based programming. Transistor 11e will not be needed if the combination with the N-fold pulse driving method as shown in FIG. 13 or 15 or the like is unnecessary or if the intermittent N/K pulse driving method does not need to be practiced. (The intermittent NK-fold pulse driving method is a driving method including providing plural lighting regions on one screen. This driving method can be easily practiced if transistor 11e is caused to turn on/off.) Since this feature has been described earlier, description thereof will be omitted. In the case where a white display is provided by voltage-based programming using the configuration shown in FIG. 43 or the driving method illustrated in FIG. 44, perfect voltage-based programming can be achieved from the offset voltage providing a black display (the initiating voltage causing the current set in accordance with the characteristics of driving transistors to pass) even when there are variations in the characteristics of driving transistors of respective pixels. Therefore, the times required for respective driving transistors to be programmed with a target value are equalized to each other for each gray level. For this reason, there occurs no gray scale error due to variations in the characteristics of transistors 11a and, hence, satisfactory image display can be realized. After the voltage-based programming illustrated in FIG. 44(b), transistors 11b is turned off and transistor 11d turned on to cause driving transistor 11a to pass the programming current through EL device 15, thereby causing EL device 15 to emit light. Thus, the reset driving method based on the voltage-based programming illustrated in FIG. 43 comprises: a first operation in which transistor 11d is turned on and transistor 11e turned off in synchronism with an HD synchronizing signal to pass current to transistor 11a; a second operation in which driving transistor 11a and EL device 15 are disconnected from each other, while the drain terminal (D) and the gate terminal (G) of the driving transistor 11a (alternatively, the source terminal (S) and the gate terminal (G) of the driving transistor 11a, more generally, two terminals of the driving transistor including gate terminal (G)) are shortcircuited; and a third operation in which the driving transistor 11a is programmed with voltage after the second operation. In the embodiment described above, transistor 11d is on-off controlled to control the current to be passed from driving transistor 11a (in the case of the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 1) to EL device 15. In order for transistor 11d to be on-off controlled, gate signal lines 17b need to be scanned. Such scanning requires shift register 61 (gate circuit 12). Since shift register 61 is large in size, use of shift register 61 for control over gate signal lines 17b will prevent the frame from being narrowed. The method to be described with reference to FIG. 40 solves this problem. Though the present invention is described by reference mainly to examples of current-based programming pixel configuration as shown in FIG. 1 and the like, the present invention is not limited to these examples. It is needless to say that the present invention is applicable even to other current-based programming pixel configurations (including a current mirror pixel configuration) as described with reference to FIG. 38 and the like. It is also needless to say that the technical concept of on-off control on a block-by-block basis is applicable to voltage-based programming pixel configurations as shown in FIG. 41 and the like. Since the present invention is directed to a method of intermittently passing current through EL device 15, it is needless to say that the present invention can be combined with a method of application of reverse bias voltage to be described with reference to FIG. 50 or the like. Thus, the present invention can be practiced in combination with other embodiments. FIG. 40 illustrates an embodiment of a block driving method. For easy explanation, it is assumed that gate driver 12 is formed directly on substrate 71 or gate driver 12 in a silicon chip form is mounted on substrate 71. Further, source driver 14 and source signal lines are omitted from the figure to avoid complicated drawing. In FIG. 40, gate signal line 17a is connected to gate driver 12. On the other hand, gate signal line 17b associated with each pixel is connected to lighting control line 401. In FIG. 40, four gate signal lines 17b are connected to one lighting control line 401. Though four gate signal lines 17b form one block in the configuration, there is no limitation thereto but it is needless to say that one block may consist of more than four gate signal lines 17b. Generally, display region 50 is preferably divided into 5 or more, more preferably 10 or more, much more preferably 20 or more. If the number by which display region 50 is divided is too small, flicker is likely to become conspicuous. On the other hand, if the number is too large, the number of lighting control lines 401 becomes large, which makes it difficult to layout such control lines 401. Since a QCIF display panel has 220 vertical scanning lines, these lines need to be divided into blocks by at least 5 (i.e., 220/5=44), preferably 10 or more (220/10=11). There are some cases where two blocks are sufficient because less flicker occurs in display region 50 which is divided into two blocks, one consisting of odd number rows, the other consisting of even number rows. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 40, lighting control lines 401a, 401b, 401c, 401d, . . . , 401n are sequentially applied with on-voltage (Vgl) or off-voltage (Vgh) to turn EL devices 15 on/off block by block. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 40, gate signal line 17b and lighting control line 401 do not cross each other. Therefore, the embodiment is free from such a failure that gate signal line 17b and lighting control line 401 become shortcircuited. Further, since there is no capacitive coupling between gate signal line 17b and lighting control line 401, a very small capacitance is added when the gate signal line 17d side is viewed from lighting control line 401. Therefore, lighting control line 401 can be driven easily. Gate driver 12 is connected to gate signal line 17a. When gate signal line 17a is applied with on-voltage, the pixel row associated therewith is selected and transistors 11b and 11c of each of the selected pixels are turned on to program capacitor 19 of each pixel with the current (voltage) applied to source signal line 18. On the other hand, gate signal line 17b is connected to the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11d of each pixel. Accordingly, when lighting control line 401 is applied with on-voltage (Vgl), a current path is formed between driving transistor 11a and EL device 15, whereas when it is applied with off-voltage (Vgh), the anode terminal of EL device 15 is opened. It is preferable that the control timing at which on-voltage and off-voltage are applied to lighting control line 401 and the timing at which gate driver 12 outputs pixel row selecting voltage (Vgl) to gate signal line 17a synchronize to one horizontal scanning clock (1H). However, there is not limitation thereto. The signal to be applied to lighting control line 401 merely on-off controls the current to be passed to EL device 15. That signal need not synchronize to image data to be outputted from source driver 14. This is because the signal to be applied to lighting control line 401 functions to control the current programmed at capacitor 19 of each pixel 16. Therefore, this signal need not necessarily synchronize to the pixel row selecting signal. Even if they synchronize to each other, the clock is not limited to 1H but may be 1/2H or 1/4H. In the case of the current mirror pixel configuration shown in FIG. 38, transistor 11e can be on-off controlled if gate signal line 17b is connected to lighting control line 401. Thus, the block driving can be realized. The pixel configuration shown in FIG. 32 can realize the block driving if gate signal line 17a is connected to lighting control signal 401 and the reset driving is performed. In this case, the block driving method according to the present invention is a driving method in which plural pixel rows are turned into the non-lighting state (or the black display state) at a time using one control line. The embodiment described above has an arrangement where one pixel row selecting gate signal line is provided (formed) for each pixel row. The present invention is not limited to this arrangement but may have such an arrangement that one selecting gate signal line is provided (formed) for each set of plural pixel rows. FIG. 41 illustrates an embodiment of that arrangement. For easy explanation, the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 1 will be mainly exemplified. In FIG. 41, gate signal line 17a is designed to select three pixels (16R, 16G and 16B) at a time. The signs “R”, “G” and “B” are meant to relate to red pixel, green pixel and blue pixel, respectively. Accordingly, selection of gate signal line 17a causes pixels 16R, 16G and 16B to be selected and written with data at a time. Pixel 16R writes data from source signal line 18R to capacitor 19R, pixel 16G writes data from source signal line 18G to capacitor 19G, and pixel 16B writes data from source signal line 18B to capacitor 19B. Transistor 11d of pixel 16R is connected to gate signal line 17bR. Similarly, transistor 11d of pixel 16G is connected to gate signal line 17bG, while transistor 11d of pixel 16B is connected to gate signal line 17bB. Accordingly, EL device 15R of pixel 16R, EL device 15G of pixel 16G and EL device 15B of pixel 16B can be on-off controlled independently of each other. That is, EL device 15R, EL device 15G and EL device 15B can be individually controlled as to their lighting time and lighting cycle by individual control over gate signal lines 17bR, 17bG and 17bB. In realizing this operation, it is suitable that the configuration shown in FIG. 6 is formed (provided) with the four shift register circuits: shift register circuit 61 for scanning gate signal line 17a, shift register circuit 61 for scanning gate signal line 17bR, shift register circuit 61 for scanning gate signal line 17bG, and shift register circuit 61 for scanning gate signal line 17bB. In spite of the foregoing description of the feature that a current N times as high as the predetermined current is passed through source signal line 18 to feed EL device 15 with the current N times as high as the predetermined current for a 1/N period, this feature cannot be realized practically. This is because actually the signal pulse applied to gate signal line 17 punches through capacitor 19 thereby making it impossible to set a desired voltage value (or current value) at capacitor 19. Generally, a voltage value (or current value) lower than a desired voltage value (or current value) is set at capacitor 19. For example, even when driving is performed so as to set a 10-fold current value, a current having about 5-fold value at most can be set at capacitor 19. Even when N=10, EL device 15 is actually fed with a current equal to the current that is fed thereto when N=5. Thus, the present invention is directed to a driving method including setting an N-fold current value so that EL device can be fed with a current that is proportional to or corresponding to the N-fold value, or a driving method including application of a current in a pulse form having a value higher than a desired value to EL device 15. The present invention is also directed to the driving method including: programming driving transistor 11a (in the case of FIG. 1) with a current (or a voltage) having a value higher than a desired value (i.e., a current such as to cause EL device 15 to exhibit a luminance higher than a desired luminance when the current, as it is, is continuously passed through EL device 15); and intermittently feeding the current to EL device 15 to cause EL device to emit light at the desired luminance. It should be noted that a circuit compensating for the punch-through voltage reaching capacitor 19 is incorporated in source driver 14. This feature will be described later. It is preferable that switching transistors 11b and 11c of FIG. 1 each comprise an n-channel transistor. This is because the punch-through voltage reaching capacitor 19 can be lowered by such an arrangement. Further, since off leakage at capacitor 19 is reduced, this arrangement is applicable to a low frame rate not higher than 10 Hz. In some pixel configurations, the punch-through voltage may act to increase the current to be fed to EL device 15. In such cases, white peak current increases thereby to make the contrast of image display higher. Thus, it is possible to realize satisfactory image display. Conversely, such a method is effective as to improve black display by using a p-channel transistor for each of switching transistors 11b and 11c to allow punch through to occur. In this case, voltage Vgh is used to turn p-channel transistor 11b off. For this reason, the terminal voltage of capacitor 19 slightly shifts toward the Vdd side. Thus, the gate terminal (G) voltage of transistor 11a rises, thus leading to a more satisfactory black display. Further, since the value of current for realizing a first-level gray scale display can be increased (i.e., a given base current can be passed until gray level 1 is reached), the occurrence of insufficient writing with current in current-based programming can be reduced. Other effective arrangements include an arrangement in which capacitor 19b is intentionally formed between gate signal line 17a and the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11a to increase punch-through voltage (see FIG. 42(a).) This capacitor 19b preferably has a capacitance not less than 1/50 and not more than 1/10 as large as the capacitance of the regularly-provided capacitor 19a. More preferably, this value is set not less than 1/40 and not more than 1/15 as large as the capacitance of the regularly-provided capacitor 19a or not less than 1 and not more than 10 times as large as the capacitance of the source-gate (SG) (or source-drain (SD) or gate-drain (GD)) of transistor 11b. Much more preferably, the value of the capacitance is set not less than 2 and not more than 6 times as high as the capacitance of SG. The capacitor 19b may be formed or located between one terminal of capacitor 19a (or gate terminal (G) of transistor 11a) and the source terminal (S) of transistor 11d. The aforementioned value of capacitance holds true for this case. The capacitance (Cb (pF)) of capacitor 19b for generating punch-through voltage has a relationship with the capacitance (Ca (pF)) of capacitor 19a for storing charge, gate terminal (G) voltage Vw (V) of transistor 11a at which white peak current is passed (or at which a white raster display having the highest luminance of image display is provided), and gate terminal (G) voltage Vb (V) at which a current for providing a black display (which current assumes a value of substantially 0 for a black display in image display) is passed. Preferably, the relationship satisfies the condition: Ca/(200Cb)≤|Vw−Vb|≤Ca/(8Cb) wherein |Vw−Vb| is the absolute value of the difference between a terminal voltage of the driving transistor providing a white display and a terminal voltage of the driving transistor providing a black display (that is, a varying amplitude of voltage.) More preferably, the relationship satisfies the condition: Ca/(100Cb)≤|Vw−Vb|≤Ca/(10Cb). Transistor 11b should comprise a p-channel transistor which is at least double-gated, more preferably triple-gated or more, much more preferably quadruple-gated or more. It is preferable to form or locate capacitors in parallel, each of the capacitors having a capacitance not less than 1 and not more than 10 times as large as the capacitance of the source-gate SG (or gate-drain (GD)) of transistor 11b (in on-state.) The feature described above is effective for not only the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 1 but also other pixel configurations. For example, in the case of a current mirror pixel configuration as shown in FIG. 42(b), a capacitor for causing punch through is located or formed between gate signal line 17a or 17b and the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11a. In this case, the n-channel of switching transistor 11c is double-gated or more. Alternatively, switching transistors 11c and 11d each comprise a p-channel transistor which is triple-gated or more. In the case of the voltage-based programming configuration shown in FIG. 41, a capacitor 19c for causing punch through is formed or located between gate signal line 17c and the gate terminal (G) of driving transistor 11a. Further, switching transistor 11c is triple-gated or more. The capacitor 19c for causing punch through may be located between the drain terminal (D) of transistor 11c (on the capacitor 19b side) and gate signal line 17a. Alternatively, the capacitor 19c for causing punch through may be located between the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11a and gate signal line 17a. Yet alternatively, the capacitor 19c for causing punch through may be located between the drain terminal (D) of transistor 11c (on the capacitor 19b side) and gate signal line 17c. A satisfactory black display can be realized by an arrangement which satisfies the condition: 0.05 (V)≤(Vgh−Vgl)×(Cc/Ca)≤0.8 (V) wherein Ca (pF) is the capacitance of capacitor 19a for storing charge, Cc (pF) is the source-gate capacitance of switching transistor 11c or 11d (Cc is the sum of the source-gate capacitance and the capacitance of a capacitor for causing punch through if the capacitor is present), Vgh (V) is the high-voltage signal to be applied to a gate signal line, and Vgl (V) is the low-voltage signal to be applied to the gate signal line. Preferably, the condition: 0.1 (V)≤(Vgh−Vgl)×(Cc/Ca)≤0.5 (V) is satisfied. The feature described above is also effective for the pixel configurations shown in FIG. 43 and the like. In the case of the voltage-based programming pixel configuration shown in FIG. 43, a capacitor 19b for causing punch through is formed or located between the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11a and gate signal line 17a. The capacitor 19b for causing punch through is formed of source wiring and gate wiring. However, since the capacitor 19b is formed by superposition of gate signal line 17 and widened source signal line of transistor 11 on each other, the capacitor cannot be separated distinctively from the transistor in some practical cases. An arrangement in which switching transistors 11b and 11c (in the case of the configuration shown in FIG. 1) are each formed to have a larger size than necessary as if capacitor 19b for causing punch through is apparently formed thereby, is also included in the scope of the present invention. In many cases, switching transistors 11b and 11c are each formed to have a channel width W/channel length ratio of 6/6 μm. The capacitor 19b for causing punch through can also be formed by increasing the ratio of W to L. For example, the W:L ratio is set not less than 2:1 and not more than 20:1, more preferably not less than 3:1 and not more than 10:1. Preferably, the capacitor 19b for causing punch through has a magnitude (capacitance) varying depending on R, G and B modulated by pixels. This is because EL devices 15 for R, G and B are different from each other in driving current and in cut-off voltage. For this reason, the gate terminals (G) of respective driving transistors 11a associated with these EL devices 15 are programmed with different voltages (currents). For example, when the capacitor 11bR of R pixel has a capacitance of 0.02 pF, the capacitors 11bG and 11bB of pixels for other colors (G pixel and B pixel) are each set to have a capacitance of 0.025 pF. When the capacitor 11bR of R pixel has a capacitance of 0.02 pF, the capacitor 11bG of G pixel and the capacitor 11bB of B pixel are set to have a capacitance of 0.03 pF and a capacitance of 0.025 pF, respectively. In this way, the offset driving current can be adjusted for each of R, G and B by varying the capacitance of capacitor 11b depending on R, G and B pixels. Thus, it is possible to optimize the black display level of each of R, G and B pixels. While it has been described that the capacitance of the capacitor 19b for generating punch-through voltage is varied, the punch-through voltage is generated due to the relativity between the capacitance of capacitor 19a for storing charge and that of capacitor 19b for generating punch-through voltage. Therefore, there is no limitation to the feature that the capacitance of capacitor 19b is varied depending on R, G and B pixels. The capacitance of storage capacitor 19a may be varied. For example, when the capacitor 11aR of R pixel has a capacitance of 1.0 pF, the capacitor 11aG of G pixel and the capacitor 11aB of B pixel are set to have a capacitance of 1.2 pF and a capacitance of 0.9 pF, respectively. In this case, the capacitors 19b of the respective R, G and B pixels are set to have capacitances of equal value. Thus, according to the present invention, at least one of R, G and B pixels is made different from the others in the capacitance ratio between storage capacitor 19a and capacitor 19b for generating punch-through voltage. It is to be noted that both the capacitance of storage capacitor 19a and that of capacitor 19b for generating punch-through voltage may be varied depending on R, G and B pixels. It is also possible to vary the capacitance of capacitor 19b for generating punch-through voltage as the screen extends laterally Since the gate signal rises rapidly at each pixel 16 located close to gate driver 12 (because the through rate is high), the punch-through voltage becomes high. At the pixel located (formed) at the end of each gate signal line 17, on the other hand, the signal waveform becomes dulled (due to the capacitance of gate signal line 17.) This is because the punch-through voltage becomes low due to the gate signal rising slow (because of a low through rate.) For this reason, the capacitance of capacitor 19b for generating punch-through voltage is made low at each pixel close to the connection side of gate driver 12. On the other hand, the capacitance of capacitor 19b is made high at the end of each gate signal line 17. For example, a variation of about 10% in the capacitance of capacitor is provided between the right-hand extremity and the left-hand extremity of the screen. The punch-through voltage to be generated is determined from the capacitance ratio between storage capacitor 19a and capacitor 19b for generating punch-through voltage. Therefore, there is no limitation to the aforementioned feature that the capacitance of capacitor 19b for generating punch-through voltage is varied as the screen extends laterally. It is possible that the capacitance of storage capacitor 19a is varied depending on the lateral position of capacitor 19a on the screen with the capacitance of capacitor 19b for generating punch-through voltage being fixed in the lateral direction of the screen. It is needless to say that both the capacitance of capacitor 19b for generating punch-through voltage and that of storage capacitor 19a may be varied as the screen extends laterally. The N-fold pulse driving method according to the present invention has a problem that the current to be applied to EL device 15 becomes N times as high as in the prior art though this phenomenon is instantaneous. In some cases, such a high current shortens the lifetime of EL device 15. Application of reverse bias voltage Vm to EL device 15 is effective in solving the problem. In EL device 15, electrons are injected into the electron transport layer through the cathode, while at the same time positive holes injected into the positive hole transport layer through the anode. The electrons and positive holes thus injected travel to the opposite poles. At that time, they are trapped in the organic layer and carriers are accumulated due to an energy level difference at the interface with the luminescent layer. It is known that when space-charge is accumulated in the organic layer, molecules are oxidized or reduced to produce unstable radical anionic molecules and radical cationic molecules, which deteriorate the film quality thereby lowering the luminance and causing a rise in driving voltage during constant-current driving. An example of means to prevent this phenomenon is a modification of the device structure for reverse voltage to be applied. When reverse bias voltage is applied, reverse current is applied, which causes the electrons and positive holes injected to be withdrawn toward the cathode and the anode, respectively. Thus, the generation of space-charge in the organic layer is cancelled, whereby electrochemical deterioration of molecules can be inhibited, which ensures the EL device having a prolonged lifetime. FIG. 45 plots a variation in reverse bias voltage Vm with varying terminal voltage of EL device 15. The “terminal voltage”, as used here, is a voltage generated when EL device 15 is fed with a rated current. The variation shown in FIG. 45, which resulted from the case where the current passed through EL device 15 had a current density of 100 A/m2, had a tendency having little difference from that of the case where the current passed through EL device 15 had a current density of from 50 to 100 A/m2. Therefore, the reverse bias voltage application method is estimated to be effective over a wide range of current density. The ordinate represents the ratio of the terminal voltage of EL device 15 resulting 2,500 hours after the starting of application of current to the initial terminal voltage of EL device 15. Assuming, for example, that the terminal voltage resulting at the time 0 hour after the starting of application of a current having a current density of 100 A/m2 is 8 (V) while the terminal voltage resulting at the time 2,500 hours after the starting of application of the current having a current density of 100 A/m2 is 10 (V), the terminal voltage ratio is 10/8=1.25. The abscissa represents the ratio of rated terminal voltage V0 to the product of reverse bias voltage Vm by time t1 for which reverse bias voltage was applied in one cycle. For example, if the time for application of reverse bias voltage Vm of 60 Hz (60 Hz has no particular meaning) is ½ (a half), t1 is equal to 0.5. Assuming that the terminal voltage resulting at the time 0 hour after the starting of application of a current having a current density of 100 A/m2 is 8 (V) while reverse bias voltage is 8 (V), it follows that | reverse bias voltage×t1|/(rated terminal voltage×t2)=|−8(V)×0.5|/(8(V)×0.5)=1.0. According to FIG. 45, when | reverse bias voltage×t1|/(rated terminal voltage×t2) is 1.0 or more, the terminal voltage ratio does not vary (that is, the terminal voltage does not vary from the initial terminal voltage.) Application of reverse bias voltage works effectively. However, when | reverse bias voltage×t1|/(rated terminal voltage×t2) is 1.75 or more, the terminal voltage ratio tends to rise. Accordingly, the magnitude of reverse bias voltage Vm and the application time ratio t1 (or t2, or the ratio between t1 and t2) should be determined so that | reverse bias voltage×t1|/(rated terminal voltage×t2) may assume 1.0 or more. Preferably, the magnitude of reverse bias voltage Vm, the application time ratio t1 and the like are determined so that | reverse bias voltage×t1|/(rated terminal voltage×t2) may assume 1.75 or less. Such a bias driving method requires alternate application of reverse bias voltage and rated current. In the case of FIG. 46, in order to equalize the mean luminance of sample A and that of sample B per unit time, a current that instantaneously becomes higher than in the case where there is no application of reverse bias voltage Vm, has to be passed in the case where there is application of reverse bias voltage Vm. For this reason, the terminal voltage of EL device 15 also becomes higher in the case where there is application of reverse bias voltage Vm (sample A of FIG. 46.) However, even in the driving method including application of reverse bias voltage, the rated terminal voltage V0 of FIG. 45 is such a terminal voltage as to satisfy the mean luminance (that is, such a terminal voltage as to cause EL device 15 to light.) (According to the specific example mentioned herein, the rated terminal voltage V0 is a terminal voltage resulting when a current having a current density of 200 A/m2 is applied. Since the duty ratio is 1/2, the mean luminance throughout one cycle is a luminance at a current density of 200 A/m2. The matter described above lies on the assumption that EL device 15 is caused to provide a white raster display (i.e., EL device 15 is fed with a maximum current.) When the EL display apparatus displays a picture image, it performs gray scale display since the picture image is a natural image. Therefore, a white peak current is not constantly passed through EL device 15. (The white peak current is a current passing at a maximum white display. In the case of the specific example mentioned herein, the white peak current is a current having a mean current density of 100 A/m2.) In the case of picture image display, in general, the current to be applied to (passed through) each EL device 15 is about 0.2 times as high as the white peak current. (The white peak current is a current passing under application of the rated terminal voltage. According to the specific example mentioned herein, the white peak current is a current having a current density of 100 A/m2.) Accordingly, when a picture image is displayed with the embodiment shown in FIG. 45, any value on the abscissa needs to be multiplied by 0.2. Thus, the magnitude of reverse bias voltage Vm and the application time ratio t1 (or t2, or the ratio between t1 and t2) should be determined so that | reverse bias voltage×t1|/(rated terminal voltage×t2) may assume 0.2 or more. Preferably, the magnitude of reverse bias voltage Vm, the application time ratio t1 and the like are determined so that | reverse bias voltage×t1|/(rated terminal voltage×t2) may assume 0.35 (=1.75×0.2) or less. That is, a value of 1.0 on the abscissa (| reverse bias voltage×t1|/(rated terminal voltage×t2) in FIG. 45 needs to be changed to 0.2. Accordingly, when the display panel displays a picture image (this state of use seems to be usual because a white raster display seems not to be performed usually), reverse bias voltage Vm should be applied for predetermined time t1 so that | reverse bias voltage×t1|/(rated terminal voltage×t2) may assume 0.2 or more. Even when the value of | reverse bias voltage×t1|/(rated terminal voltage×t2) increases, the increase in the terminal voltage ratio is not very large, as seen from FIG. 45. In view of the case where white raster display is performed, the upper limit value of | reverse bias voltage×t1|/(rated terminal voltage×t2) should be adjusted to 1.75 or less. Hereinafter, the reverse bias method according to the present invention will be described with reference to the relevant drawings. The method of the present invention is based on application of reverse bias voltage Vm (or current) during a time period in which current is not passed through EL device 15. However, there is no limitation thereto. For example, it is possible to apply reverse bias voltage Vm forcibly while current is passing through EL device 15. This case will result in the current fed to EL device 15 stopped, hence, EL device 15 turned into the non-lighting state (black display state.) Though the method of the present invention will be described focusing mainly on the feature that a current-based programming pixel configuration is applied with reverse bias voltage, there is no limitation to this feature. In a pixel configuration adapted for reverse bias driving, transistor 11g is an n-channel transistor as shown in FIG. 47. Of course, transistor 11g may be a p-channel transistor. In FIG. 47, when gate potential control line 473 is applied with a voltage higher than the voltage applied to reverse bias line 471, transistor 11g(N) is turned on to apply reverse bias voltage Vm to the anode of EL device 15. In the pixel configuration of FIG. 47 or the like, gate potential control line 473 may be operated with its potential always fixed. For example, when voltage Vk in FIG. 47 is 0 (V), the potential of gate potential control line 473 is fixed to 0 (V) or more (preferably 2 (V) or more). This potential is indicated at Vsg. With gate potential control line 473 in this state, when the potential of reverse bias line 471 is adjusted to reverse bias voltage Vm (0 (V) or lower, preferably a voltage lower than Vk by 5 (V) or more), transistor 11g(N) is turned on to apply reverse bias voltage Vm to the anode of EL device 15. When the voltage of reverse bias line 471 is made higher than the voltage of gate potential control line 473 (that is, the gate terminal (G) voltage of transistor 11g), transistor 11g is turned off to stop application of reverse bias voltage Vm to EL device 15. Of course, it is needless to say that reverse bias line 471 may assume a high-impedance state (open state or the like) at that time. As shown in FIG. 48, gate driver 12c for controlling reverse bias line 471 may be formed or disposed separately. Like gate driver 12a, gate driver 12c operates shiftingly in sequence, so that the position to be applied with reverse bias voltage is shifted synchronously with this shifting operation. The driving method described above is capable of applying reverse bias voltage Vm to EL device 15 by merely varying the potential of reverse bias line 471 with the gate terminal (G) voltage of transistor 11g fixed. Thus, application of reverse bias voltage Vm can be controlled easily. Further, the driving method can lower the voltage to be applied across the gate terminal (G) and the source terminal (S) of transistor 11g. This holds true for the case where transistor 11g is a p-channel transistor. Application of reverse bias voltage Vm is performed when EL device 15 is not fed with current. Therefore, it is sufficient for transistor 11g to be turned on while transistor 11d is off. That is, gate potential control line 473 should be applied with voltage in a manner reverse of the on-off logic of transistor 11d. For example, it is sufficient for gate signal line 17b to be connected to the gate terminals (G) of respective transistors 11d and 11g. Since transistor 11d is of the p-channel type while transistor 11g is of the n-channel type, their respective on-off operations are opposite to each other. FIG. 49 is a timing chart of the reverse bias driving method. In the chart, an additional number such as (1) or (2) indicates the number of a pixel row. For easy explanation, it is assumed that the first pixel row is indicated at (1) and the second pixel row indicated at (2). However, there is no limitation thereto but it may be considered that (1) indicates the Nth pixel row and (2) indicates the (N+1)th pixel row. This holds true for other embodiments unless otherwise specified. Though the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 49 and the like will be described by reference to the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 1 for example, there is no limitation thereto. For example, the driving method is applicable to the pixel configurations shown in FIGS. 41, 38 and the like. When gate signal line 17a(1) of the first pixel row is under application of on-voltage (Vgl), gate signal line 17b(1) of the first pixel row is under application of off-voltage (Vgh). That is, transistor 11d is off and EL device 15 is not fed with current. Reverse bias line 471(1) is applied with voltage Vsl (which causes transistor 11g to turn on.) Accordingly, transistor 11g is turned on to apply reverse bias voltage to EL device 15. After lapse of a predetermined time period (a time period of 1/200 or more of 1H, or 0.5 μsec) from application of off-voltage (Vgh) to gate signal line 17b, reverse bias voltage is applied. The predetermined time period (a time period of 1/200 or more of 1H, or 0.5 μsec) before application of on-voltage (Vgl) to gate signal line 17b, application of reverse bias voltage is stopped. This operation is to avoid the transistors 11d and 11g turning on at the same time. In the next horizontal scanning period (1H), off-voltage (Vgh) is applied to gate signal line 17a to select the second pixel row. That is, on-voltage is applied to gate signal line 17b(2). On the other hand, on-voltage (Vgl) is applied to gate signal line 17b to turn transistor 11d on. Accordingly, transistor 11a passes current through EL device 15 to cause EL device 15 to emit light. At the same time, off-voltage (Vsh) is applied to reverse bias line 471(1) so that EL device 15 of the first pixel row (1) will not be applied with reverse bias voltage. On the other hand, reverse bias line 471(2) of the second pixel row is applied with voltage Vsl (reverse bias voltage). An image displayed over one screen is rewritten by repeating the sequential operations described above. The embodiment described above has the feature that application of reverse bias voltage is performed during the period in which each pixel is programmed. However, the present invention is not limited to the circuit configuration shown in FIG. 48. It is apparent that plural pixel rows can be consecutively applied with reverse bias voltage. It is also apparent that the reverse bias driving method can be combined with block driving (see FIG. 40), N-fold pulse driving, reset driving, dummy pixel driving, or a like driving method. There is no limitation to the feature that application of reverse bias voltage is performed during image display. Such an arrangement is possible that reverse bias voltage is applied for a predetermined time period after the powering-off of the EL display apparatus. Though the embodiment described above is applied to the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 1, it is needless to say that the embodiment is applicable to configurations adapted for application of reverse bias voltage as shown in FIGS. 38 and 41. For example, the embodiment is applicable to the current-based programming pixel configuration shown in FIG. 50. FIG. 50 illustrates a current mirror pixel configuration. Transistor 11c is a pixel selecting device. When on-voltage is applied to gate signal line 17a1, transistor 11c is turned on. Transistor 11d is a switching device having a resetting function and a function of shortcircuiting the drain terminal (D)-gate terminal (G) of driving transistor 11a. Transistor 11d is turned on when gate signal line 17a2 is applied with on-voltage. Transistor 11d is turned on 1H (one horizontal scanning period, i.e, one pixel row), preferably 3H, before the selection of the associated pixel. If it is 3H, transistor 11d is turned on 3H before to shortcircuit the gate terminal (G) and the drain terminal (D) of transistor 11a, thus turning transistor 11a off. Accordingly, transistor 11b is turned into a state not allowing current to pass therethough, so that EL device 15 assumes the non-lighting state. When EL device 15 is in the non-lighting state, transistor 11g is turned on to apply reverse bias voltage to EL device 15. Therefore, EL device 15 is under application of reverse bias voltage for a time period for which transistor 11d is on. For this reason, transistors 11d and 11g are turned on at the same time in terms of logic. The gate terminal (G) voltage of transistor 11g is fixed by application of voltage Vsg. When reverse bias line 471 is applied with a reverse bias voltage that is sufficiently lower than Vsg, transistor 11g is turned on. Thereafter, when the horizontal scanning period in which an image signal is applied (written) to the pixel of concern comes, on-voltage is applied to gate signal line 17a1 to turn transistor 11c on. Accordingly, the image signal voltage outputted from source driver 14 to source signal line 18 is applied to capacitor 19 (with transistor 11d being kept in the on-state.) When transistor 11d is turned on, a black display is provided. As the on-time of transistor 11d grows longer in a one-field (one frame) period, the proportion of the black display period becomes higher. Therefore, in order to adjust the means luminance throughout one field (on frame) to a desired value notwithstanding the black display period included, the display luminance during a display period needs to be raised. That is, it is required that EL device 15 be fed with a higher current in the display period. This operation is the N-fold pulse driving according to the present invention. Therefore, an operation characteristic of the present invention is to combine the N-fold pulse driving operation and the driving operation of turning transistor 11d on to provide a black display. Also, application of reverse bias voltage to EL device 15 in the non-lighting state is a feature characteristic of the present invention. The embodiment described above is of the type which includes application of reverse bias voltage to a pixel assuming the non-lighting state in image display. The method of application of reverse bias voltage is not limited to this type. If application of reverse bias voltage is performed when an image is not displayed, it is not necessary to provide reverse bias transistor 11g for every pixel. The “non-lighting state”, as used here, means a state where reverse bias voltage is applied before and after use of the display panel. In the pixel configuration of FIG. 1, for example, pixel 16 is selected (by turning transistors 11b and 11c on), while source driver (circuit) 14 outputs voltage V0 (for example, voltage GND) as low as the source driver can output and applies voltage V0 to the drain terminal (D) of driving transistor 11a. With transistor 11a in this state, turning transistor 11d on causes the anode of EL device 15 to be applied with voltage V0. At the same time, the cathode Vk of EL device 15 is applied with voltage Vm which is lower than voltage V0 by a value from 5 to 15 (V), whereby reverse bias voltage is applied to EL device 15. Transistor 11a is also turned into off-state when applied with a voltage lower than voltage V0 by a value from 0 to 5 (V) as voltage Vdd. By thus causing source driver 14 to output voltage and controlling gate signal line 17, it is possible to apply reverse bias voltage to EL device 15. The N-fold pulse driving method is capable of passing a predetermined current (a current programmed by the voltage held at capacitor 19) through EL device 15 again even after a black display has been provided once within a one-field (one-frame) period. With the configuration of FIG. 50, however, once transistor 11d is turned on, capacitor 19 discharges (the meaning of which includes “reduce”) electric charge held thereat and, hence, it is not possible to feed EL device 15 with the predetermined current (the current programmed.) Nevertheless, the circuit of FIG. 50 has a characteristic advantage that it can operate easily. The embodiment described above is applied to the current-based programming pixel configuration. However, the present invention is not limited to this embodiment but may be applied to other current-based pixel configurations as shown in FIGS. 38 and 50. The present invention is also applicable to voltage-based programming pixel configurations as shown in FIGS. 51, 54 and 62. FIG. 51 shows a voltage-based programming pixel configuration which is simplest in a general sense. Transistor 11b is a selective switching device, while transistor 11a a driving transistor for feeding current to El device 15. In this configuration, transistor (switching device) 11g for application of reverse bias voltage is located (formed) on the anode side of EL device 15. In the pixel configuration of FIG. 51, the current to be passed through EL device 15 is fed to source signal line 18 and then fed to the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11a upon selection of transistor 11b. The basic operation of the configuration shown in FIG. 51 will be described with reference to FIG. 52 for explanation of this configuration. The pixel shown in FIG. 51 is of the configuration called “voltage offset canceller” and performs a four-step operation comprising an initializing operation, a resetting operation, a programming operation, and light-emitting operation. Following a horizontal synchronizing signal (HD), the initializing operation is performed. On-voltage is applied to gate signal line 17b to turn transistor 11g on. Also, on-voltage is applied to gate signal line 17a to turn transistor 11c on. At that time, source signal line 18 is applied with voltage Vdd. Accordingly, terminal a of capacitor 19b is applied with voltage Vdd. In this state, driving transistor 11a assumes on-state to pass a feeble current through EL device 15. This current causes the drain terminal (D) voltage of driving transistor 11a to have an absolute value larger than at least the operating point of transistor 11a. Subsequently, the resetting operation is performed. Off-voltage is applied to gate signal line 17b to turn transistor 11e off. On the other hand, on-voltage is applied to gate signal line 17c for a time period T1 to turn transistor 11b on. This time period T1 is a resetting period. Also, gate signal line 17a is continuously applied with on-voltage for a 1H period. The time period T1 is preferably not less than 20% and not more than 90% of a 1H period. Stated otherwise, the time period T1 is preferably not less than 20 μsec and not more than 160 μsec. The ratio of the capacitance of capacitor 19b (Cb) to that of capacitor 19a (Ca), i.e., Cb:Ca, is preferably not less than 6:1 and not more than 1:2. In the resetting period, transistor 11b is turned on to shortcircuit the gate terminal (G) and the drain terminal (D) of driving transistor 11a. Accordingly, the gate terminal (G) voltage and the drain terminal (D) voltage of driving transistor 11a become equal to each other, thus rendering transistor 11a into an offset state (i.e., reset state: a state not allowing current to pass therethrough). The reset state is a state where the gate terminal (G) voltage of transistor 11a assumes a value close to the initiating voltage at which current starts passing. This gate voltage for keeping the reset state is held at terminal b of capacitor 19b. Accordingly, capacitor 19 holds offset voltage (resetting voltage). In the subsequent programming operation, off-voltage is applied to gate signal line 17c to turn transistor 11b off. On the other hand, source signal line 18 is applied with DATA voltage for a time period Td. Accordingly, the gate terminal (G) of driving transistor 11a is applied with a voltage as the sum of DATA voltage and offset voltage (resetting voltage.) For this reason, driving transistor 11a becomes able to pass the current programmed. After the programming period, off-voltage is applied to gate signal line 17a to render transistor 11c into off-state thereby disconnecting driving transistor 11a from source signal line 18. Also, gate signal line 17c is applied with off-voltage to render transistor 11b into off-state which is kept for a 1F period. On the other hand, gate signal line 17b is applied with on-voltage and off-voltage periodically. When combined with the N-fold driving method as shown in FIG. 13 or 15 or the like or with the interlaced driving method, this driving method can realize better image display. According to the driving method illustrated in FIG. 52, capacitor 19 in the reset state holds the initiating voltage for causing current to start passing through transistor 11a (offset voltage or resetting voltage). For this reason, when the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11a is under application of the resetting voltage, the pixel is in the darkest black display state. However, black in relief (a drop in contrast) occurs due to the coupling between source signal line 18 and pixel 16, punch-through voltage reaching to capacitor 19 or punch through at transistors. Therefore, the driving method illustrated in FIG. 52 cannot raise the display contrast. Transistor 11a needs to be turned off in order to apply reverse bias voltage Vm to EL device 15. Shortcircuiting the Vdd terminal and the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11a is sufficient to turn transistor 11a off. This feature will be described later with reference to FIG. 53. Alternatively, voltage Vdd or a voltage for causing transistor 11a to turn off may be applied to source signal line 18 to turn transistor 11b on, thereby applying such a voltage to the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11a. This voltage turns transistor 11a off (or into a state allowing little current to pass therethrough (i.e., a substantially off-state in which transistor 11a has a high impedance). Thereafter, transistor 11g is turned on to apply reverse bias voltage to EL device 15. The application of reverse bias voltage Vm may be performed on all the pixels at a time. Specifically, source signal lines 18 are each applied with the voltage for causing transistor 11a to turn substantially off thereby turning on transistors 11b of all (plural) pixel rows. Accordingly, transistors 11a are turned off. Subsequently, transistors 11g are turned on to apply reverse bias voltage to EL devices 15. Thereafter, the pixel rows are sequentially applied with image signal, whereby the display apparatus displays an image. The following description is directed to a reset driving method applied to the pixel configuration shown in FIG. 51. FIG. 53 illustrates an embodiment of the reset driving method. As shown in FIG. 53, gate signal line 17a connected to the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11c of pixel 16a is also connected to the gate terminal (G) of resetting transistor 11b of pixel 16b of the succeeding row. Similarly, gate signal line 17a connected to the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11c of pixel 16b is also connected to the gate terminal (G) of resetting transistor 11b of pixel 16c of the succeeding row. Accordingly, when on-voltage is applied to gate signal line 17a connected to the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11c of pixel 16a, pixel 16a is programmed with voltage, while at the same time the resetting transistor 11b of pixel 16a of the succeeding row is turned on to reset driving transistor 11a of pixel 16b. Similarly, when on-voltage is applied to gate signal line 17a connected to the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11c of pixel 16b, pixel 16b is programmed with current, while at the same time the resetting transistor 11b of pixel 16c of the succeeding row is turned on to reset driving transistor 11a of pixel 16c. In this way, reset driving based on the antecedent gate control method can be realized easily. Further, the number of gate signal lines routed from each pixel can be decreased. More specific description follows. It is assumed that gate signal lines 17 are applied with respective voltages as shown in FIG. 53(a); that is, gate signal line 17a of pixel 16a is applied with on-voltage, while gate signal lines 17a of other pixels 16 applied with off-voltage. It is also assumed that gate signal lines 17b of pixels 16a and 16b are applied with off-voltage, while gate signal lines 17b of pixels 16c and 16d applied with on-voltage. Under these conditions, pixel 16a is in a state programmed with voltage and in the non-lighting state; pixel 16b is in a reset state and in the non-lighting state; pixel 16c is in a state holding the programming current and in the lighting state; and pixel 16d is in a state holding the programming current and in the lighting state. After lapse of 1H, data in shift register circuit 61 of control gate driver 12 shifts by one bit, so that the state shown in FIG. 53(b) results. Specifically, the state shown in FIG. 53(b) is such that: pixel 16a is in a state holding the programming current and in the lighting state; pixel 16b is in a state programmed with current and in the non-lighting state; pixel 16c is in a reset state and in the non-lighting state; and pixel 16d is in a state holding the programming current and in the lighting state. As can be understood from the above description, the voltage applied to gate signal line 17a of each pixel of a row of concern resets driving transistor 11a of each pixel of the succeeding row thereby rendering the pixel of the succeeding row ready for voltage-based programming in the next horizontal period. Thus, voltage-based programming is performed on pixel rows sequentially. The antecedent gate control method can be implemented even with the voltage-based programming pixel configuration shown in FIG. 43. FIG. 54 shows an embodiment in which the pixel configuration of FIG. 43 has connections adapted for the antecedent gate control method. As shown in FIG. 54, gate signal line 17a connected to the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11b of pixel 16a is also connected to the gate terminal (G) of resetting transistor 11e of pixel 16b of the succeeding row. Similarly, gate signal line 17a connected to the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11b of pixel 16b is also connected to the gate terminal (G) of resetting transistor 11e of pixel 16c of the succeeding row. Accordingly, when on-voltage is applied to gate signal line 17a connected to the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11b of pixel 16a, pixel 16a becomes programmed with voltage, while at the same time resetting transistor 11e of pixel 16b of the succeeding row is turned on to reset driving transistor 11a of pixel 16b. Similarly, when on-voltage is applied to gate signal line 17a connected to the gate terminal (G) of transistor 11b of pixel 16b, pixel 16b becomes programmed with current, while at the same time resetting transistor 11e of pixel 16c of the succeeding row is turned on to reset driving transistor 11a of pixel 16c. In this way, reset driving based on the antecedent gate control method can be realized easily. More specific description follows. It is assumed that gate signal lines 17 are applied with respective voltages as shown in FIG. 55(a); that is, gate signal line 17a of pixel 16a is applied with on-voltage, while gate signal lines 17a of other pixels 16 applied with off-voltage. It is also assumed that all the reverse bias transistors 11g are off. Under these conditions, pixel 16a is in a state programmed with voltage; pixel 16b is in a reset state; pixel 16c is in a state holding the programming current; and pixel 16d is in a state holding the programming current. After lapse of 1H, data in shift register circuit 61 of control gate driver 12 shifts by one bit, so that the state shown in FIG. 55(b) results. Specifically, the state shown in FIG. 55(b) is such that: pixel 16a is in a state holding the programming current; pixel 16b is in a state programmed with current; pixel 16c is in a reset state; and pixel 16d is in a state holding the programming current. As can be understood from the above description, the voltage applied to gate signal line 17a of each pixel of a row of concern resets driving transistor 11a of each pixel of the succeeding row thereby rendering the pixel of the succeeding row ready for voltage-based programming in the next horizontal period. Thus, voltage-based programming is performed on pixel rows sequentially. When perfect black display is performed with a current-based driving method, the current programmed at the driving transistor 11 of each pixel is 0. That is, no current is passed from source driver 14. With no current, it is impossible to charge/discharge the parasitic capacitance produced in source signal line 18 as well as to vary the potential of source signal line 18. Accordingly, the gate potential of the driving transistor does not vary and, hence, capacitor 19 keeps on holding the potential as built one frame (field) (1F) before. For example, if a white display is given one frame before, the white display is maintained in the next frame even when a perfect black display is desired in the next frame. In order to solve this problem, the present invention has an arrangement such as to write source signal line 18 with a black-level voltage in the beginning of a one-horizontal scanning period (1H) and then output the programming current to source signal line 18. Assuming, for example, that picture image data has a gray level of from 0th to 7th which is close to the black level, a voltage corresponding to the black level is written for a predetermined time period in the beginning of a one-horizontal period. In this way, it becomes possible to reduce the burden on current-based driving and compensate for insufficient writing. Here, it is assumed that a 64-level gray scale display has the 0th level corresponding to a perfect black display and the 63rd level corresponding to a perfect white display. The level at which precharge is to be performed has to be limited to within a black display range. Specifically, image data to be written is judged as to whether it has a level within the black display range (low luminance range, that is, the range in which the writing current is low (feeble) in the current-based driving method) and then the black range level is selected for precharge (selective precharge.) If precharge is performed for all levels of gray scale data, a drop in luminance (which means that a target luminance is not reached) occurs in the white display range. In addition, vertical streaks appear in the image displayed. Preferably, selective precharge is performed within a 1/8 range from level 0 of gray scale data. (For example, if the gray scale data has 64 levels, precharge is performed for image data having a level ranging from the 0th to the 7th before the writing of the image data.) More preferably, selective precharge is performed within a 1/16 range from level 0 of gray scale data. (For example, if the gray scale data has 64 levels, precharge is performed for image data having a level ranging from the 0th to the third before the writing of the image data.) In raising the contrast with a black display in particular, a method including detection of level 0 only for precharge is also effective. This method provides a very good black display. The problem essential to this method is that the screen is observed to have black in relief when the whole screen is of level 1 or 2. Thus, the selective precharge is performed within a 1/8 range from level 0 of gray scale data and within a fixed range. It is also effective to vary the precharge voltage and the gray scale level range depending on R, G and B. This is because EL devices 15 for R, G and B are different from each other in luminescence initiating voltage and luminance of emission. For example, in the case of R, the selective precharge is performed within a 1/8 range from level 0 of gray scale data. (For example, if the gray scale data has 64 levels, precharge is performed for image data having a level ranging from the 0th to the 7th before the writing of the image data.) In the case of the other colors (G and B), control is made so that the selective precharge will be performed within a 1/16 range from level 0 of gray scale data. (For example, if the gray scale data has 64 levels, precharge is performed for image data having a level ranging from the 0th to the third before the writing of the image data.) Also, if the precharge voltage for R is 7 (V), a voltage of 7.5 (V) is written to source signal line 18 as the precharge voltage for the other colors (G and B). The optimum precharge voltage often varies depending on production lots of EL display panel. Therefore, it is preferable to employ an arrangement capable of adjusting the precharge voltage by means of an external volume or the like. Such an adjustment circuit can be realized easily by the use of an electronic volume circuit. Next, description will be made of an embodiment of an electronic apparatus incorporating the EL display panel of the present invention. FIG. 57 is a plan view of a mobile phone as an example of a personal digital assistant. The mobile phone shown includes a receiver and a speaker. Casing 573 is provided with an antenna 571, a numeric key pad 572 and the like. Keys 572a to 572e include a display color switching key, a power on-off key and a frame rate changing key. A sequence may be formed such that depressing the display color switching key once will turn the display into a 8-color mode, depressing the same key again subsequently will turn the display into a 256-color mode, and further depressing the same key will turn the display into a 4096-color mode. The key is a toggle switch operative to change the display color mode upon every depression. Change keys corresponding to display colors may be provided separately. In this case, there are three (or more) display color switching keys. The display color switching key may be another mechanical switch, such as a slide switch, instead of a push switch. Alternatively, it is possible to employ an arrangement for switching the display color based on voice recognition. Such an arrangement is possible that the display color on the display screen 50 of a display panel is changed in response to a voice inputting of, for example, “4096-color display”, “high-definition display”, “256-color mode” or “low display color mode” to the receiver. This arrangement can be realized easily by utilizing the current voice recognition technology. The switching of display color may be made using an electrical switch or a touch panel for the user to select a desired item from a menu displayed in the display section 21 of the display panel by touching. Alternatively, it is possible to employ such an arrangement that the display color is changed as the number of depressions on the switch varies or as the rotation and the direction vary like a click ball. Instead of the aforementioned display color switching key, a key for changing the frame rate or the like may be used. A key for switching between motion picture display and stationary image display may be used. It is possible to employ such an arrangement as to change plural conditions such as the frame rates of motion picture display and stationary image display. Also, it is possible to employ such an arrangement as to gradually vary the frame rate by being continuously depressed. This arrangement can be realized by using a variable resistor or an electronic volume for resistor R of an oscillator comprising capacitor C and the resistor R, or by using a trimmer capacitor for the capacitor C. Such an arrangement may be realized using a circuit in which one or more capacitors selected from plural capacitors formed on a semiconductor chip are connected in parallel. The technical concept of varying the frame rate based on the display color is applicable not only to mobile phones but also to various apparatus of the type having a display screen such as palm-top computers, notebook PCs, desktop PCs and portable clocks. This concept is applicable not only to organic EL display panels but also to liquid crystal display panels, transistor panels, PLZT panels, CRTs and the like. Though not shown in FIG. 57, the mobile phone according to the present invention has a CCD camera on the rear side of the casing 573. An image taken by this CCD camera can be immediately displayed on display screen 50 of the display panel. The data on the image taken by the CCD camera can be displayed on display screen 50. The image data taken by the CCD camera can be displayed in different display color modes such as 24-bit mode (16,700,000 colors), 18-bit mode (260,000 colors), 16-bit mode (65,000 colors), 12-bit mode (4,096 colors), and 8-bit mode (256 colors), which can be switched one from another by inputting through the key 572. When the display data is data of 12 bits or more, the error diffusion process is performed before it is display. That is, when image data from the CCD camera exceeds the capacity of internal memory, image processing including the error diffusion process and the like is performed so that the number of colors to be displayed will correspond to a capacity lower than the capacity of the internal image memory. Now, reference is made to the case where source driver 14 is provided with internal RAM adapted for 4,096 colors (4 bits for each of R, G and B) per screen. In the case where image data fed from outside of the module is 4,096-color data, the data is stored directly into the internal image RAM and then read out of the internal image RAM for the image to be displayed on display screen 50. In the case where image data is 260,000-color data (16-bit data comprising 6 bits for G and 5 bits for each of R and B), the image data is temporarily stored into the operational memory of an error diffusion controller while, at the same time, being subjected to the error diffusion process or dither process performed by an operational circuit. Such an error diffusion process or the like converts the 16-bit image data into 12-bit data, the number of bits of which is equal to that of the internal image RAM. The data thus converted is transferred to source driver 14, which in turn outputs image data having 4 bits for each of R, G and B (4,096 colors) to display the image on display screen 50. An embodiment employing the EL display panel or EL display apparatus or the driving method according to the present invention will be described with reference to the drawings. FIG. 58 is a sectional view of a view finder according to the embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 58 illustrates the view finder schematically for easy explanation. In this figure there are portions enlarged or reduced in scale, or omitted. For example, an eyepiece cover is omitted from FIG. 58. This holds true for other figures. Body 573 has a reverse surface in a dark or black color. This is for preventing stray light emitted from EL display panel (display apparatus) 574 from diffuse reflection at an internal surface of body 573. On the light-emitting side of the display panel are located phase plate (λ/4 plate or the like) 108, sheet polarizer 109 and the like. These components have been described with reference to FIGS. 10 and 11. Magnifying lens 582 is fitted to eyepiece ring 581. The observer adjusts the position of the eyepiece ring 581 inserted in the body 573 so that image 50 displayed by the display panel 574 may be brought into focus. If convex lens 583 is disposed on the light-emitting side of the display panel 574 when need arises, a principal ray incident on the magnifying lens 582 can be converged. Therefore, it is possible to reduce the diameter of the magnifying lens 582, hence, downsize the view finder. FIG. 59 is a perspective view of a digital video camera. The video camera includes shooting (image pickup) lens section 592 and a digital video camera body 573, the shooting lens section 592 and the view finder section 573 being positioned back to back. The view finder 573 (see FIG. 58 also) is fitted with an eyepiece cover. The observer (user) observes display section 50 of the display panel 574 from the eyepiece cover section. The display section 50, which is the EL display panel of the present invention, is also used as a display monitor. The angle of the display section 50 can be adjusted about a fulcrum 591 as desired. When not in use, the display section 50 is put in a storage section 593. A switch 594 is a change-over switch or a control switch for implementing the following functions. The switch 594 is a display mode change-over switch. It is preferable to provide a mobile phone or the like with switch 594. Description will be made of this display mode change-over switch 594. One of the driving methods according to the present invention includes feeding EL device 15 with an N-fold current for 1/M of a 1F period thereby causing EL device 15 to light for a 1/M period. The brightness of EL device 15 can be varied digitally by varying this lighting period. If N=4 for example, EL device 15 is fed with a 4-fold current. If the 1/M lighting period is varied by varying the value of M from 1 up to 4, the brightness can be varied from 1-fold brightness up to 4-fold brightness. It is possible to employ an arrangement capable of varying the value of M in such a manner as M=1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The above-described change-over operation is utilized for an arrangement such as to make display screen 50 very bright when the mobile phone is powered on and, after lapse of a fixed time, lower the display luminance to save the power. The change-over operation may also be utilized as a function which allows the user to set his or her desired brightness. For example, when in use outdoors, the screen is made very bright, otherwise the screen is difficult to view due to the surrounding which is bright outdoors. However, if such a high-luminance display is continued, EL device will deteriorate rapidly. For this reason, if such a very bright display is provided, an arrangement is employed such as to resume the normal luminance in a short time. Further, if a high-luminance display is needed, an arrangement is employed which allows the user to raise the display luminance by his or her depressing a button. Thus, it is preferable to employ an arrangement which allows the user to vary the brightness of the screen by button 594, an arrangement which is capable of automatically varying the brightness of the screen according to preset modes, or an arrangement which is capable of detecting the brightness of extraneous light and automatically varying the brightness of the screen depending on the result of detection. Also, it is preferable to employ an arrangement which allows the user or the like to set the display luminance to any value, for example, 50%, 60% or 80%. Preferably, display screen 50 provides a Gaussian distribution display. The Gaussian distribution display is a display having a central portion made to exhibit a higher luminance and a peripheral portion made relatively dark. Visually, a display having a bright central portion appears to be wholly bright even when the peripheral portion is dark. According to subjective evaluation, the peripheral portion appears not to be visually inferior to the central portion as far as the peripheral portion maintains 70% of the luminance of the central portion. Not so serious a problem arises even when the luminance of the peripheral portion is further lowered to 50% of the luminance of the central portion. In the display panel of the self-luminescence type according to the present invention, a Gaussian distribution is provided vertically of the screen from the upper side to the lower side thereof by utilizing the N-fold pulse driving method (which includes feeding EL device 15 with an N-fold current for 1/M of a 1F period.) Specifically, the value of M is increased for the upper and lower portions of the screen and decreased for the central portion. This can be realized by modulating the operation speed of the shift register of gate driver 12. The modulation of the brightness of the screen in the lateral direction is made based on multiplication of table data and image data by each other. When the peripheral luminance is lowered to 50% (with an angle of view of 0.9), the operation described above makes it possible to attain about 20% reduction in power consumption as compared to the case of 100% display luminance. When the peripheral luminance is lowered to 70% (with an angle of view of 0.9), the above-described operation makes it possible to attain about 15% reduction in power consumption as compared to the case of 100% display luminance. It is preferable to provide a change-over switch or the like for turning on/off such a Gaussian distribution display. This is because the peripheral portion of the screen giving the Gaussian distribution display becomes invisible when the apparatus is used outdoors for example. For this reason, it is preferable to employ an arrangement which allows the user to turn on/off the Gaussian distribution display by a button, an arrangement which is capable of automatically switching between on and off according to preset modes, or an arrangement which is capable of detecting the brightness of extraneous light and automatically switching between on and off depending on the result of detection. It is also preferable to employ an arrangement which allows the user to set the luminance of the peripheral portion to any value, for example, 50%, 60% or 80%. Liquid crystal display panels, in general, use a back light to cause a fixed Gaussian distribution to occur. Therefore, such a Gaussian distribution cannot be turned on/off. The ability to turn on/off a Gassian distribution is the advantage characteristic of self-luminescence type display devices. In the case where the frame rate is predetermined, it is possible that flicker occurs due to interference between the panel and a lighting state of a fluorescent lamp located indoors or the like. When EL display device 15 operates at a frame rate of 60 Hz while a fluorescent lamp is lighting with an alternating current of 60 Hz, there occurs slight interference, which might make the viewer feel the screen blinking slowly. To avoid this inconvenience, varying the frame rate is sufficient. According to the present invention, the function of varying the frame rate is additionally provided. Further, the N-fold pulse driving method (which includes feeding EL device 15 with an N-fold current for 1/M of a 1F period) according to the present invention is capable of varying the value of N or M. The above-described functions can be implemented by switch 594. When depressed plural times, switch 594 realizes switching between the above-described functions according to a menu provided on display screen 50. It is needless to say that the feature described above is applicable not only to mobile phones but also to television sets, monitors and the like. It is preferable that the display screen is provided with icons for the user to be capable of immediately recognizing what display state the current display state is. The matters described above hold true for the matters to be described below. The EL display apparatus and the like according to this embodiment are applicable not only to a digital video camera but also to a digital still camera as shown in FIG. 60. The display apparatus is used as a monitor 50 attached to a camera body 601. The camera body 601 is fitted with a shutter 603 as well as switch 594. Though the foregoing description is directed to cases where the display region of a display panel is relatively small, display screen 50 as large as 30 inches or more is likely to warp. To deal with this inconvenience, the present invention provides the display panel with an outer frame 611 fitted therearound and a fixing member 614 for hanging the outer frame 611, as shown in FIG. 61. The display panel is fitted on wall or the like by means of this fixing member 614. However, the weight of the display panel increases with increasing screen size. For this reason, a leg-mounting portion 613 is provided under the display panel so that plural legs mounted thereon can support the weight of the display panel. The legs 612 are movable laterally as indicated by arrow A and are expandable/contractible in directions indicated by arrow B. For this reason, the display apparatus can be easily installed even in a narrow place. A television set shown in FIG. 61 has a screen covered with a protective film (which may be a protective plate.) One object of such coverage is to prevent damage to the surface of the display panel due to a body hitting the surface. The protective film has an obverse surface formed with an AIR coat and embossed to inhibit unwanted reflection of external scene (extraneous light) by the display panel. A fixed space is provided between the protective film and the display panel by dispersing beads or the like therebetween. Further, the protective film has a reverse surface formed with fine projections for retaining the space between the display panel and the protective film. By thus retaining the space, an impact is inhibited to transfer from the protective film to the display panel. It is also effective to dispose or inject a light coupling agent such as alcohol or ethylene glycol in a liquid state, an acrylic resin in a gel state, or an epoxy resin which is a solid resin between the protective film and the display panel. This is because interfacial reflection can be prevented and because the light coupling agent functions also as a shock absorber. Examples of such protective films include polycarbonate film (plate), polypropylene film (plate), acrylic film (plate), polyester film (plate), and PVA film (plate). It is needless to say that besides these films, engineering resin films (such as ABS) can be used. The protective film may be formed from an inorganic material such as strengthened glass. A similar effect will be produced if the surface of the display panel is coated with epoxy resin, phenolic resin, acrylic resin or the like to a thickness of not less than 0.5 mm and not more than 2.0 mm instead of the provision of the protective film. Embossing the surface of such a resin coat or a like process is also effective. It is also effective that the surface of the protective film or coating layer is coated with fluorine. This is because such a fluorine coat allows stain thereon to be removed easily with a detergent. The protective film may be formed thicker so that a front light may share the protective film. It is needless to say that combining the display panel according to the embodiment of the present invention with the three-side-free arrangement. The three-side-free arrangement is effective particularly when the pixels are manufactured utilizing the amorphous silicon technology. With the panel formed utilizing the amorphous silicon technology, process control for controlling variations in the characteristics of transistors is impossible. Hence, it is preferable to apply the N-fold pulse driving method, reset driving method, dummy pixel driving method or the like according to the present invention to such a panel. Thus, the transistors used in the present invention may be formed by the amorphous silicon technology without limitation to those formed by the polysilicon technology. The N-fold pulse driving methods (see FIGS. 13, 16, 19, 20, 22, 24 and 30 and the like) and like methods according to the present invention are effective for display panels of the type having transistors 11 formed by the amorphous silicon technology as well as for display panels of the type having transistors 11 formed by the low temperature polysilicon technology. This is because adjacent transistors 11 formed using amorphous silicon substantially agree to each other in characteristics. Accordingly, driving currents for individual transistors are each substantially equalized to the target value even when the panel is driven with the sum of currents. (The N-fold pulse driving methods illustrated in FIGS. 22, 24 and 30 are particularly effective for pixel configurations of the type having transistors formed utilizing amorphous silicon.) The technical concept described by way of the embodiments of the present invention is applicable to digital video cameras, projectors, stereoscopic television, projection television, and the like. The concept is also applicable to view finders, mobile phone monitors, PHSs, personal digital assistants and their monitors, and digital still cameras and their monitors. Also, the technical concept is applicable to electrophotographic systems, head-mounted displays, direct viewing monitors, notebook PCs and desktop PCs. Further, the concept is applicable to monitors for cash dispensers, and public telephones, video phones and watches and their displays. It is needless to say that the technical concept of the present invention can be utilized in or applied to development of display monitors for household appliances, pocket-size game machines and their monitors, back lights for display panels, lighting instruments for home use or industrial use, and the like. A lighting instrument is preferably configured to be capable of varying the color temperature. The color temperature can be varied by adjustment of currents to be fed to R, G and B pixels if these pixels are arranged in a striped pattern or a dot-matrix pattern. The technical concept is also applicable to display apparatus for displaying advertisements or posters, RGB signals, warning display lights, and the like. The organic EL display panel is effective as a light source of a scanner. In this case, a dot matrix comprising R, G and B pixels is used as the light source to illuminate a subject with light in reading the image of the subject. Of course, it is needless to say that such a light source may be designed to emit monochromatic light. Such a light source may be of a simple matrix configuration without limitation to an active matrix configuration. The image reading precision will improve if the color temperature can be controlled. Also, the organic EL display apparatus is effective as the back light of a liquid crystal display device. The color temperature can be varied by adjustment of currents to be fed to R, G and B pixels of the EL display apparatus (back light) if these pixels are arranged in a striped pattern or a dot-matrix pattern. In this case, the brightness can also be controlled easily. Moreover, since the EL display apparatus is a surface-emitting light source, it can easily realize a Gaussian distribution in which a central portion of the screen is made relatively bright whereas a peripheral portion of the screen made relatively dark. The EL display apparatus is also effective as the back light of a liquid crystal display panel of the field sequential type which performs scanning with R, G and B rays alternately. The EL display apparatus can also be used as the back light of a liquid crystal display panel or the like adapted for motion picture display if black is inserted even when the back light blinks. It should be noted that EL device 15 is regarded as an OLED in the present invention and represented using the symbol of diode in the drawings such as FIG. 1. However, EL device 15 according to the present invention is not limited to the OLED but may be of any type which controls its luminance based on the amount of current passing through EL device 15. An example of such a device is an inorganic EL device. Other examples include a white light emitting diode comprising a semiconductor, and a common light-emitting diode. A light-emitting transistor can serve the purpose. Device 15 does not necessarily call for rectification. Therefore, device 15 may be a bidirectional diode. It will be apparent from the foregoing description that many improvements and other embodiments of the present invention occur to those skilled in the art. Therefore, the foregoing description should be construed as an illustration only and is provided for the purpose of teaching the best mode for carrying out the present invention to those skilled in the art. The details of the structure and/or the function of the present invention can be modified substantially without departing from the spirit of the present invention. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The EL display apparatus according to the present invention is useful as the display section of a thin television set, digital video camera, digital still camera, mobile phone or the like.

<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>In general, an active-matrix display apparatus has a multiplicity of pixels arranged in matrix and displays an image by controlling the intensity of light pixel by pixel in accordance with image signals given. When, for example, liquid crystal is used as an electro-optic substance, the transmittance of each pixel varies in accordance with the voltage applied to the pixel. The basic operation an active-matrix image display apparatus employing an organic electroluminescence (EL) material as an electro-optic converting substance is the same as in the case where liquid crystal is used. A liquid crystal display panel has pixels each functioning as a shutter and displays an image by turning on/off light from a back light with such a shutter, or a pixel. An organic EL display panel is a display panel of the self luminescence type having a light-emitting device in each pixel. Such a self-luminescence type display panel has advantages over liquid crystal display panels, including higher image visibility, no need for a back light, and higher response speed. The organic EL display panel controls the luminance of each light-emitting device (pixel) based on the amount of current. Thus, the organic EL display panel is largely different from the liquid crystal display panel in that its luminescent devices are of the current-driven type or the current-controlled type. Like the liquid crystal display panel, the organic EL display panel can have any one of a simple-matrix configuration and an active-matrix configuration. Though the former configuration is simple in structure, it has a difficulty in realizing a large-scale and high-definition display panel. However, it is inexpensive. The latter configuration can realize a large-scale and high-definition display panel. However, it has problems of a technical difficulty in control and of a relatively high price. Presently, organic EL display panels of the active-matrix configuration are being developed intensively. Such an active-matrix EL panel controls electric current passing through the light-emitting device provided in each pixel by means of a thin film transistor (TFT) located inside the pixel. An organic EL display panel of such an active-matrix configuration is disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. HEI 8-234683 for example. FIG. 62 shows an equivalent circuit of one pixel portion of this display panel. Pixel 216 comprises an EL device 215 as a light-emitting device, a first transistor 211 a, a second transistor 211 b, and a storage capacitor 219 . Here, the EL device 215 is an organic electroluminescence (EL) device. In the present description, a transistor for feeding (controlling) current to an EL device is referred to as a driving transistor, while a transistor operating as a switch like the transistor 211 b in FIG. 62 referred to as a switching transistor. EL device 215 has a rectification property in many cases and hence is called OLED (Organic Light-Emitting Diode) as the case may be. For this reason, the EL device 215 in FIG. 62 is regarded as an OLED and represented by the symbol of a diode. In the example shown in FIG. 62 , the source terminal (S) of p-channel transistor 211 a is connected to Vdd (power source potential), while the cathode (negative electrode) of the EL device 215 connected to ground potential (Vk). On the other hand, the anode (positive electrode) is connected to the drain terminal (D) of the transistor 211 b. The gate terminal of the p-channel transistor 211 b is connected to a gate signal line 217 a, the source terminal connected to a source signal line 218 , and the drain terminal connected to the storage capacitor 219 and the gate terminal (G) of the transistor 211 a. In order to operate the pixel 216 , first, the source signal line 218 is applied with an image signal indicative of luminance information with the gate signal line 217 a turned into a selected state. Then, the transistor 211 b becomes conducting and the storage capacitor 219 is charged or discharged, so that the gate potential of the transistor 211 a becomes equal to the potential of the image signal. When the gate signal line 217 a is turned into an unselected state, the transistor 211 a is turned off, so that the transistor 211 a is electrically disconnected from the source signal line 218 . However, the gate potential of the transistor 211 a is stably maintained by means of the storage capacitor 219 . The current passing through the EL device 215 via the transistor 211 a comes to assume a value corresponding to voltage Vgs across the gate and the source terminals of the transistor 11 a, with the result that the EL device 215 keeps on emitting light at a luminance corresponding to the amount of current fed thereto through the transistor 211 a. As described above, according to the prior art configuration shown in FIG. 62 , one pixel comprises one selecting transistor (switching device) and one driving transistor. Another prior art configuration is disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. HEI 11-327637 for example. This publication describes an embodiment in which a pixel comprises a current mirror circuit. Meanwhile, the organic EL display panel is usually manufactured using a low temperature polysilicon transistor array. Since organic EL devices emit light based on current, the organic EL display panel involves a problem that display irregularities occur if there are variations in transistor characteristics. Further, a conventional EL display panel cannot sufficiently charge/discharge the parasitic capacitance which is present in the source signal line 18 . For this reason there arises a problem that in some cases a desired current cannot be fed to pixel 16 .

<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 3 is an explanatory diagram illustrating an operation of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 4 is an explanatory chart illustrating an operation of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 5 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 6 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 7 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of manufacturing an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 9 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 10 is a sectional view of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 11 is a sectional view of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 12 is an explanatory chart illustrating an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 13 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 14 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 15 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 16 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 17 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 18 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 19 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 20 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 21 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 22 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 23 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 24 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 25 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 26 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 27 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 28 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 29 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 30 is an explanatory view illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 31 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 32 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 33 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 34 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 35 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 36 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 37 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 38 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 39 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 40 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 41 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 42 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 43 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 44 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 45 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 46 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 47 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 48 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 49 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 50 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 51 is a diagram illustrating a pixel of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 52 is an explanatory chart illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 53 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 54 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of an EL display panel according to the present invention. FIG. 55 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 56 is an explanatory diagram illustrating a method of driving an EL display apparatus according to the present invention. FIG. 57 is an explanatory view illustrating a mobile phone according to the present invention. FIG. 58 is an explanatory view illustrating a view finder according to the present invention. FIG. 59 is an explanatory view illustrating a digital video camera according to the present invention. FIG. 60 is an explanatory view illustrating a digital still camera according to the present invention. FIG. 61 is an explanatory view illustrating a television set (monitor) according to the present invention. FIG. 62 is a diagram illustrating a pixel configuration of a conventional EL display panel. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?

G09G33241

20180125

20180612

20180614

95221.0

G09G33241

BOGALE, AMEN W

EL DISPLAY APPARATUS

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

G09G

PENDING

PASSIVE MULTI-PORT ENTRY ADAPTER AND METHOD FOR PRESERVING DOWNSTREAM CATV SIGNAL STRENGTH WITHIN IN-HOME NETWORK

A cable television (CATV) entry adapter interfaces to a CATV network and serves as a hub in an in-home network for passively communicating multimedia content or information from the CATV network and between subscriber devices connected to the ports of the CATV entry adapter, using CATV signals in a CATV frequency band and network signals in a different in-home network band.

1. A cable television (CATV) entry adapter for conducting downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at least one subscriber device at a subscriber premises and for conducting in-home network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network, the CATV signals occupying a CATV frequency band that is different from an in-home network frequency band occupied by the in-home network signals, the CATV entry adapter comprising: a CATV entry port configured to communicate with a CATV network; a plurality of network ports each configured to communicate with one of a plurality of subscriber devices; a signal splitter having an input terminal and at least two output terminals, wherein each of the at least two output terminals is configured to communicate with one of the plurality of network ports; a downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device configured to allow downstream and upstream CATV signals to be communicated to the plurality of network ports and block in-home network signals from being communicated to the CATV network; wherein the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device is connected between the CATV entry port and the input terminal of the signal splitter; wherein the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device includes a low pass terminal that is configured to communicate with the CATV entry port, a high pass terminal that is configured to communicate with the signal splitter, and a common terminal that is configured to communicate with one of the plurality of network ports; wherein the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device is configured to allow both upstream and downstream CATV signals to communicate with the plurality of network ports; wherein the plurality of network ports comprises a primary port configured to communicate with a server network interface and a secondary port configured to communicate with a client network interface; wherein the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device is configured to conduct only the downstream and upstream CATV signals between the entry port and the primary port; wherein the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device is configured to allow all upstream and downstream CATV signals to be conducted through the low pass terminal, instead of allowing downstream CATV signals to be conducted to the client network interface, and instead of allowing upstream CATV signals to be conducted from the client network interface through the secondary port and to the entry port; wherein the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device is configured to allow downstream CATV signals to reach the server network interface with substantially no reduction in signal strength; wherein the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device is configured to allow the downstream CATV signals to be conducted between the entry port and the primary port without being split; wherein the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device is configured to allow the server network interface to deliver a higher quality network signal to the client network interface over the in-home network even when the network signals are passed through the signal splitter; wherein the secondary port comprises a plurality of secondary ports, and the signal splitter comprises a multiple-way splitter having a plurality of output terminals each configured to communicate with one of the plurality of secondary ports; wherein the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device is configured to only communicate CATV signals in a predetermined high frequency band range through the high frequency band terminal; and wherein the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device is configured to only communicate CATV signals in a predetermined low frequency band range through the low frequency band terminal. 2. A cable television (CATV) entry adapter for allowing two-way, downstream and upstream CATV signals to be conducted between a CATV network and a client device, allowing client signals to be conducted in a client-server network, and preventing the client signals from being conducted to the CATV network, the CATV entry adapter comprising: an entry port configured to communicate with a CATV network; a primary port configured to communicate with a server interface in the client-server network; a secondary port configured to communicate with a client interface in the client-server network; a frequency band blocking device configured to block client signals from being conducted to the CATV network, while allowing two-way, downstream and upstream CATV signals to be communicated between the CATV network and a client device in the client-server network; wherein the frequency band blocking device is configured to be connected between the entry port and a signal splitter; wherein the frequency band blocking device includes a low pass terminal, a high pass terminal, and a common terminal; wherein the frequency band blocking device is configured to allow both upstream and downstream CATV signals to communicate with the primary port; wherein the frequency band blocking device is configured to conduct only the downstream and upstream CATV signals between the entry port and the primary port; wherein the frequency band blocking device is configured to allow all upstream and downstream CATV signals to be conducted through the low pass terminal, instead of allowing downstream CATV signals to be conducted to the client interface, and instead of allowing upstream CATV signals to be conducted from the client interface; wherein the frequency band blocking device is configured to only communicate CATV signals in a predetermined high frequency band range through the high frequency band terminal; and wherein the frequency band blocking device is configured to only communicate CATV signals in a predetermined low frequency band range through the low frequency band terminal. 3. An entry adapter for allowing downstream and upstream external signals to be conducted between an external network and a client device, allowing client signals to be conducted in an internal client-server network, and preventing the client signals from being conducted to the external network, the entry adapter comprising: a first port configured to allow downstream and upstream external signals to be received by the entry adapter; a second port configured to allow downstream and upstream external signals to be conducted to a server interface of an internal client-server network; a third port configured to allow the downstream and upstream external signals to be conducted to a client interface of the internal client-server network; a frequency band separation and blocking device configured to separate downstream and upstream external signals that are in a first frequency band range into low frequency band external signals and high frequency band external signals, only allow low frequency band external signals to be conducted through the second port to the server interface, only allow high frequency band external signals to be conducted through the third port to the client interface, and block all client signals that are in a second frequency band range from being conducted to the external network; and wherein the first frequency band range is about 5 to 1002 megahertz, and the second frequency band range is about 1125 megahertz to at least about 1525 megahertz. 4. The CATV entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the server network interface is configured to convert multimedia content from downstream CATV signals into network signals to the client network interface, the client network interface is configured to communicate information constituting upstream CATV signals to the server network interface, and the server network interface is configured to convert the information constituting upstream CATV signals communicated from the client network interface into converted upstream CATV signals and allow the converted upstream CATV signals to be communicated to the common terminal of the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-hone network frequency band blocking device. 5. The CATV entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the signal splitter and the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device are passive electronic components. 6. The CATV entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the only power received by the entry adapter is received through the CATV signals or the in-home network signals. 7. The CATV entry adapter of claim 1, wherein downstream and upstream CATV signals pass respectively from and to the CATV network through the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device without substantial attenuation. 8. The CATV entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device is configured to block in-home network signals within the in-home network signal frequency band of about 1125-1525 megahertz, and pass CATV signals within the CATV signal frequency band of 5-1002 mega hertz. 9. The CATV entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device comprises a diplexer configured to conduct downstream and upstream CATV signals in the CATV frequency band between the common terminal and the low frequency terminal, and block in-home network signals in the in-home network signal frequency band from being conducted between the common terminal and the low frequency terminal. 10. The CATV entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the CATV entry port is directly connected to the low frequency terminal of the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device without any intermediate components, the high frequency terminal of the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device is directly connected to the input terminal of the signal splitter without any intermediate components, and the common terminal of the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device is directly connected to the primary port without any intermediate components. 11. The CATV entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the in-home network signals are in the predetermined high frequency band range, and not in the predetermined low frequency band range, and the downstream and upstream CATV signals are in the predetermined low frequency band range, and not in the predetermined high frequency band range. 12. The CATV entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the downstream and upstream CATV signals and the in-home network signals are both made available to the server and client network interfaces so that the subscriber device is configured to interact with not only the downstream and upstream CATV signals, but also the in-home network signals, and the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device is configured to separate high and low frequency bands of signals so as to prevent high frequency in-home network signals from reaching the CATV network. 13. The entry adapter of claim 12, wherein the server network interface is configured to store downstream CATV signals and supply network signals to the client network interface based on the stored downstream CATV signals. 14. The entry adapter of claim wherein the predetermined low frequency band range comprises a downstream frequency band range and an upstream frequency band range, the downstream frequency band range comprises 54 MHz to 1002 MHz, wherein the upstream frequency band range comprises 5 MHz to 42 MHz, and the predetermined high frequency band range comprises an in-home frequency band range comprising 1125 MHz to at least 1525 MHz. 15. The CATV entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the downstream and upstream CATV signals and the client signals are both made available to the server and client interfaces so that the client device is configured to interact with not only the downstream and upstream CATV signals, but also the client signals, and the frequency band blocking device is configured to separate high and low frequency bands of signals so as to prevent high frequency client signals from reaching the CATV network. 16. The CATV entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the frequency band blocking device is configured to allow downstream CATV signals to reach the server interface with substantially no reduction in signal strength. 17. The CATV entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the frequency band blocking device is configured to allow the downstream CATV signals to be conducted between the entry port and the primary port without being split. 18. The CATV entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the frequency band blocking device is a passive electronic component, and wherein the only power received by the entry adapter is received through the CATV signals or the client signals. 19. The CATV entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the frequency band blocking device comprises a diplexer configured to conduct downstream and upstream CATV signals between the common terminal and the low frequency terminal, and block client signals in the client-server network signal frequency band from being conducted between the common terminal and the low frequency terminal. 20. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking device includes a low pass terminal, a high pass terminal, and a common terminal, the frequency band separation and blocking device is configured to only allow downstream and upstream external signals in a predetermined high frequency band range to be conducted through the high frequency band terminal, the frequency band separation and blocking device is configured to only allow downstream and upstream external signals in a predetermined low frequency band range to be conducted through the low frequency band terminal, and the frequency band separation and blocking device is configured to allow all upstream and downstream external signals to be conducted through the low pass terminal, instead of allowing downstream external signals to be conducted to the client interface, and instead of allowing upstream external signals to be conducted from the client interface.

This invention relates to cable television (CATV) and to in-home entertainment networks which share existing coaxial cables within the premises for CATV signal distribution and in-home network communication signals. More particularly, the present invention relates to a new and improved passive entry adapter between a CATV network and the in-home network which minimizes the CATV signal strength reduction even when distributed among multiple subscriber or multimedia devices within the subscriber's premises or home. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION CATV networks use an infrastructure of interconnected coaxial cables, signal splitters and combiners, repeating amplifiers, filters, trunk lines, cable taps, drop lines and other signal-conducting devices to supply and distribute high frequency “downstream” signals from a main signal distribution facility, known as a “headend,” to the premises (homes and offices' of subscribers to the CATV services. The downstream signals transfer multimedia content to subscriber equipment, such as television sets, telephone sets and computers. In addition, most CATV networks also transmit “upstream” signals from the subscriber equipment back to the headend of the CATV network. For example, the subscriber uses a set top box to select programs for display on the television set. As another example, two-way communication is essential when using a personal computer connected through the CATV infrastructure to the public Internet. As a further example, voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone sets use the CATV infrastructure and the public Internet as the communication medium for transmitting two-way telephone conversations. To permit simultaneous communication of upstream and downstream CATV signals and the interoperability of the subscriber equipment and the equipment associated with the CATV network infrastructure outside of subscriber premises, the downstream and upstream CATV signals are confined to two different frequency bands. The downstream frequency band is within the range of 54-1002 megahertz (MHz) and the upstream frequency band is within the range of 5-42 MHz, in most CATV networks. The entire CATV frequency band is therefore 5-1002 MHz. The downstream signals are delivered from the CATV network infrastructure to the subscriber premises at a CATV entry adapter, which is also commonly referred to as an entry device, terminal adapter or a drop amplifier. The CATV entry adapter is usually a multi-port device which provides a multiplicity of ports or connectors for connecting coaxial cables. A separate coaxial cable is connected to each of the ports and extends within the subscriber premises to the location of the subscriber equipment. Some homes have coaxial cables extending to cable outlets in almost every room, because of the many different types of subscriber equipment used in different rooms. For example, television sets are commonplace throughout the home. The multiple ports of the CATV entry adapter deliver downstream CATV at each cable outlet and conduct upstream CATV signals back through the premises coaxial cables to the CATV entry adapter, which delivers the upstream CATV signals to the CATV network. In addition to television sets, computers and telephones, a relatively large number of other entertainment and multimedia devices are available for use in homes. For example, a digital video recorder (DVR) is used to store broadcast programming, still photography and moving pictures in a memory medium so that the content can be replayed on a display or television set at a later time selected by the user. As another example, computer games are also played at displays or on television sets. Such computer games may be obtained or played over the Internet from the CATV network or from media played on play-back devices or game consoles connected to displays or television sets. As a further example, receivers which receive satellite-broadcast signals may be distributed for viewing or listening throughout the home. These types of devices, including the more-conventional television sets, telephone sets and devices connected to the Internet by the CATV network, are generically referred to as multimedia devices. The desire to use multimedia devices at multiple different locations within the home or subscriber premises has led to the creation of the Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA). MoCA has developed specifications for products to create an in-home entertainment network for interconnecting presently-known and future multimedia devices. The MoCA in-home network uses the subscriber premise or in-home coaxial cable infrastructure originally established for distribution of CATV signals within the subscriber premises, principally because that cable infrastructure already exists in most homes and is capable of carrying much more information than is carried in the CATV frequency band. A MoCA network is established by connecting MoCA interface devices at the cable outlets in the rooms of the subscriber premises. The MoCA network is used to transmit multimedia content from one MoCA interface device to another. The MoCA interface devices implement a MoCA communication protocol which encapsulates the multimedia content normally sent and received by the multimedia devices within MoCA packets and then communicates these MoCA packets between selected ones of the other MoCA interfaces devices connected at other cable outlets. The receiving MoCA interface device removes the encapsulated multimedia content, and delivers it to the connected computer, digital television or set-top box or other multimedia device from which then presents that multimedia content. Each MoCA interface device is capable of communicating with every other MoCA interface device in the MoCA network to deliver the multimedia content throughout the home or subscriber premises. The entertainment or multimedia content that is available from one multimedia device can be displayed, played or otherwise used at a different location within the home, without having to physically relocate the multimedia device from one location to another within the home. The in-home network communication of multimedia content is considered beneficial in more fully utilizing the multimedia devices present in modern homes. The MoCA interface devices also pass the upstream and downstream CATV signals between the CATV entry adapter and the subscriber devices. Since the MoCA network may function simultaneously with the normal operation of the CATV services, the MoCA signals communicated between MoCA interface devices utilize a frequency range of 1125-1525 MHz, which is outside of the frequency band of CATV signals. This so-called band of MoCA signals is divided into eight different frequency ranges, D1-D8, and these eight different D frequency ranges are used to assure communication between the selected MoCA interface devices. For example, the D-1 band at 1125-1175 MHz may be used to communicate CATV television programming content between a MoCA interface device connected to a set-top box in a main room of the house and another MoCA interface device connected to a television set in bedroom of the house, while a MoCA interface device connected to a computer gaming multimedia device in a basement room of the house simultaneously communicates computer game content over the D-6 band at 1375-1425 MHz to a computer located in a recreation room of the house. The MoCA frequency band also includes other frequency ranges outside of the CATV frequency band, but the D band is used to establish connections and communicate content between the MoCA interface devices. Using the in-home coaxial cable as the principal communication medium substantially simplifies the implementation of the MoCA network, but there are certain disadvantages in doing so. The D band MoCA frequencies have the capability of passing through the CATV entry adapter and entering the CATV network where they may then enter a nearby subscriber's premises. The presence of the MoCA signals at the nearby subscriber's premises compromises the privacy and security of the information originally intended to be confined within the original subscriber premises. The MoCA signals from the original subscriber premises which enter through the CATV network to the nearby subscriber premises also have the potential to adversely affect the performance of a MoCA network in nearby subscriber's premises. The conflict of the MoCA signals from the original and nearby subscriber premises may cause the MoCA interface devices to malfunction or not operate properly on a consistent basis. Another undesirable aspect of using a MoCA for communication between the various multimedia devices is that a relatively large MoCA network with many cable outlet ports has the effect of deteriorating the strength of the downstream CATV signal. Because in-home multimedia devices frequently require access to the CATV network in order to send upstream CATV signals as well is to receive downstream CATV signals, the in-home coaxial cable infrastructure must commonly connect all of the CATV cables and CATV ports within the home to a common connection with the drop cable that supplies the CATV signal and services to the home. The common connection is usually achieved in the CATV entry adapter, which provides output ports that connect to the coaxial cables extending within the home to each separate location or room. A splitter within the CATV entry adapter divides the CATV downstream signals into two or more reduced-power copies of the input signal, and supplies each copy to a separate outlet port. Similarly, upstream signals from the subscriber equipment connected to each of the coaxial cables are combined in the splitter and then passed upstream through the CATV entry adapter into the CATV network. The typical splitter is passive, which means that the power of the input signal is divided among the copies of the output signals split from the input signal. Each copy of the signal therefore has diminished power or strength, and the lower strength copies will not have the same quality as the input signal. In general terms, the quality is the strength of the signal relative to the strength of the inherent ambient noise. Since the inherent ambient noise generally cannot be diminished and is usually a constant, lowering the strength of the signal relative to the noise reduces the signal-to-noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio is a recognized measure of the quality of a signal. A lower signal-to-noise ratio represents a lesser quality signal. Because many homes require a relatively large number of cable outlet ports, for example six or more, the downstream CATV signal must be split into a comparable relatively large number of copies. The greater number of signal splitters required to generate the requisite number of separate copies of the downstream CATV signal diminishes the strength of the downstream signal copies. The quality of CATV service available in an in-home network with a relatively large number of cable output ports therefore suffers, because the strength of the CATV signal available at each of these ports is substantially diminished due to the extent of signal splitting required. On the other hand, Upstream CATV signals from the subscriber equipment do not occur as frequently as downstream CATV signals. Furthermore, upstream signals are generally of a higher power because they are generated immediately by the subscriber equipment within the home. Consequently, the reduction in CATV signal strength applies principally to downstream CATV signals, which of course provide the multimedia content to the subscriber. It is the quality of the multimedia content observed by the subscriber that forms the basis for the subscriber's opinion of quality of service. To compensate for downstream CATV signal strength reduction caused by splitting, some entry adapters include amplifiers to increase the strength of the copies of the downstream CATV signals. Of course, including an amplifier along with the signal splitter makes the signal transmission dependent upon the presence of adequate electrical power to operate the amplifier. The power for the amplifier is derived from commercial sources within the household. If the commercial power supply is temporarily interrupted, or if the power supply equipment within the home ceases operating properly, the customer perceives a CATV problem and reports the problem to the CATV service provider. The CATV service provider must thereafter send a service or repair person to the home of the subscriber in order to identify and remedy the problem. Such service calls are a significant expense for a CATV service provider. CATV service providers therefore attempt to eliminate as many of the potential points of failure as possible in the equipment supplied by the CATV service provider, to reduce service calls and repair costs. Including an amplifier in a CATV entry adapter creates a potential point of failure, and for that reason most CATV service providers wish to avoid using CATV entry adapters with amplifiers. However, in those relatively large in-home networks with multiple outlets for connecting multiple multimedia devices, there has been little previous choice but to use amplifiers in conjunction with splitters in order to obtain the desired downstream CATV signal strength that represents a high quality of service. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a cable television (CATV) entry adapter which beneficially provides a high quality and strength downstream CATV signal to multiple subscriber devices while simultaneously contributing to and promoting the establishment of a multimedia in-home network. The CATV entry adapter is preferably passive without an amplifier, and passes the in-home network communication signals between the multiple subscriber devices, and passes the downstream and upstream CATV signals to the subscriber equipment and the CATV network. The in-home network communication signals are effectively communicated in the in-home network and the multimedia content from the upstream and downstream CATV signals is effectively made available to all of the subscriber equipment and to the CATV network without diminishing the quality or strength of the CATV signals to the point where the quality of service is compromised. As a passive device, the CATV entry adapter of the present invention requires no external power source, which eliminates unnecessary service calls. In addition, critical communications over the CATV network, such as “life-line” phone service, are preserved during transmission over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. In accordance with these and other features, one aspect of the invention involves a cable television (CATV) entry adapter for conducting downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at subscriber premises and for conducting in-home network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The CATV signals occupy a CATV frequency band which is different from an in-home network frequency band occupied by the in-home network signals. The in-home network includes a network interface connected to each subscriber device by which to generate and communicate the network signals between the subscriber devices in the in-home network. The CATV entry adapter comprises a CATV entry port for connection to the CATV network, and a plurality of network ports each for connection to the network interface to which each subscriber device is connected. The CATV entry adapter also includes a signal splitter which has an input terminal and two output terminals. The signal splitter operatively splits a signal received at its input terminal into reduced-power copies of the input signal supplied at each of its output terminals. The signal splitter also communicates signals received at each output terminal to the input terminal and to the other output terminal. The CATV entry adapter also includes an in-home network frequency band rejection device connected between the CATV entry port and the input port of the signal splitter. The in-home network frequency band rejection device substantially blocks transmission of the in-home network signals therethrough to the CATV entry port and the CATV network. Another aspect of the invention involves an in-home network for distributing multimedia content to subscriber devices. The multimedia content is obtained from CATV signals communicated over a CATV network and from a subscriber device connected to the in-home network. The in-home network comprises a CATV entry adapter having a CATV entry port and a plurality of network ports. The CATV entry port is connected to the CATV network for receiving multimedia content from CATV signals communicated over the CATV network. The in-home network also comprises a plurality of in-home network interfaces, each of which is connected to a different one of the plurality of network ports. Each of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content to the subscriber devices to which each network interface is connected. All of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content between one another in network signals communicated between the network interfaces. At least one of the network interfaces sends and receives CATV signals and communicates the multimedia content contained in the CATV signals to the subscriber device to which the one network interface is connected, and communicates the multimedia content obtained from the CATV signals in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. Each of the network interfaces communicates multimedia content obtained from a subscriber device connected to that network interface in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. The network signals are located within a network frequency band which is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are located. A further aspect of the invention involves a method of conducting information contained in downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at a subscriber premises and of conducting information contained in network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The method comprises connecting the CATV entry adapter to receive and transmit CATV signals from and to the CATV network, respectively; connecting in-home network interfaces to each subscriber device to form the in-home network among the subscriber devices to which network interfaces are attached; connecting the CATV entry adapter as a hub in the in-home network to pass network signals between network interfaces; confining the network signals to an end-home network frequency band that is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are confined; connecting the CATV adapter to at least one network interface to receive and transmit CATV signals supplied from and to the CATV entry adapter; and preventing transmission of the network signals within the CATV entry adapter onto the CATV network. One subsidiary aspect of the invention which relates to blocking or preventing the transmission of network signals onto the CATV network, involves a frequency rejection device which comprises only passive electronic components, or which functions without a power source separate from the CATV signals and the in-home network signals. The frequency rejection device may take the form of a frequency rejection filter, or the frequency rejection device may take the form of at least one diplexer which divides frequencies into separate frequency bands, and is connected to conduct the network signals in the network frequency band between network interfaces and to conduct the CATV signals in the CATV frequency band to and from the CATV network. Another subsidiary aspect of the invention involves a server network interface and at least one client network interface. The server network interface sends and receives downstream and upstream CATV signals and network signals to communicate information contained in the CATV and network signals to the subscriber device to which the server network interface is connected. Each client network interface sends and receives network signals to communicate information contained in the network signals to the subscriber device to which each client network interface is connected. The server network interface also has a capability for storing information obtained from downstream CATV signals and subsequently supplying network signals to a client network interface which contain the information stored from the downstream CATV signals. An additional subsidiary aspect of the invention involves connecting an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA)-compatible subscriber device including a modem and telephone set to the CATV entry adapter, and splitting downstream CATV signals into reduced-power copies and supplying one of the copies to the eMTA-compatible device. A more complete appreciation of the present invention, as well as the manner in which the present invention achieves the above and other improvements, can be obtained by reference to the following detailed description of presently preferred embodiments taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are briefly summarized below, and by reference to the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a typical CATV network infrastructure, including a plurality of CATV entry adapters which incorporate the present invention, and also illustrating an in-home network using a CATV entry adapter for connecting multimedia devices or other subscriber equipment within the subscriber premises. FIG. 2 is a more detailed illustration of the in-home network in one subscriber premises shown in FIG. 1, with more details of network interfaces and subscriber equipment shown in block diagram form. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of components of one embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 5 is a block diagram of components of another embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, constituting an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 3, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is a block diagram of components of another embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, constituting an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapters shown in FIGS. 3 and 5, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 8 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 7. DETAILED DESCRIPTION A CATV entry adapter 10 which incorporates the present invention is shown generally in FIG. 1. The CATV entry adapter 10 is located at subscriber premises 12 and forms a part of a conventional in-home network 14, such as a conventional Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA) in-home entertainment network. The in-home network 14 interconnects subscriber equipment or multimedia devices 16 within the subscriber premises 12, and allows the multimedia devices 16 to communicate multimedia content or in-home signals between other multimedia devices 16. The connection medium of the in-home network 14 is formed in significant part by a preexisting CATV coaxial cable infrastructure (represented generally by coaxial cables 18) present in the subscriber premises 12 and originally intended to communicate CATV signals between the multimedia or subscriber devices 16. However the connection medium of the in-home network 14 may be intentionally created using newly-installed coaxial cables 18. Examples of multimedia devices 16 are digital video recorders, computers, data modems, computer game playing devices, television sets, television set-top boxes, and other audio and visual entertainment devices. The CATV entry adapter 10 is also a part of a conventional CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10 delivers CATV multimedia content or signals from the CATV network 20 to subscriber equipment at the subscriber premises 12. The subscriber equipment includes the multimedia devices 16, but may also include other devices which may or may not operate as a part of the in-home network 14 but which are intended to function as a result of connection to the CATV network 20. Examples of subscriber equipment which may not be part of the in-home network 14 are a modem 56 and a connected voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone set 58 and certain other embedded multimedia terminal adapter-(eMTA) compatible devices (not shown). The CATV entry adapter 10 has beneficial characteristics which allow it to function simultaneously in both the in-home network 14 and in the CATV network 20, thereby benefiting both the in-home network 14 and the CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10 functions as a hub in the in-home network 14, to effectively transfer in-home network signals between the multimedia and subscriber devices 16. The CATV entry adapter 10 also functions in a conventional role as an CATV interface between the CATV network 20 and the subscriber equipment 16 located at the subscriber premises 12, thereby providing CATV service to the subscriber. In addition, the CATV entry adapter 10 securely confines in-home network communications within each subscriber premise and prevents the network signals from entering the CATV network 20 and degrading the strength of the CATV signals conducted by the CATV network 20 four possible recognition by a nearby subscriber. The CATV network 20 has a typical topology. Downstream signals 22 originate from programming sources at a headend 24 of the CATV network 20, and are conducted to the CATV entry adapter 10 in a sequential path through a main trunk cable 26, a signal splitter/combiner 28, secondary trunk cables 30, another signal splitter/combiner 32, distribution cable branches 34, cable taps 36, and drop cables 38. Upstream signals 40 originating from the subscriber equipment 16 and 56/58 are delivered from the CATV entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20, and are conducted to the headend 24 in the same path but in reverse sequence. Interspersed at appropriate locations within the topology of the CATV network 20 are conventional repeater amplifiers 42, which amplify both the downstream CATV signals 22 and the upstream CATV signals 40. Conventional repeater amplifiers may also be included in the cable taps 36. The cable taps 36 and signal splitter/combiners 28 and 32 divide a single downstream signal into multiple separate downstream signals, and combine multiple upstream signals into a single upstream signal. More details concerning the CATV entry adapter 10 are shown in FIG. 2. The CATV entry adapter 10 includes a housing 44 which encloses internal electronic circuit components (shown in FIGS. 3-8). A mounting flange 46 surrounds the housing 44, and holes 48 in the flange 46 allow attachment of the CATV entry adapter 10 to a support structure at a subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1). The CATV entry adapter 10 connects to the CATV network 20 through a CATV connection or entry port 50. The CATV entry adapter 10 receives the downstream signals 22 from, and sends the upstream signals 40 to, the CATV network 20 through the connection port 50. The downstream and upstream signals 22 and 40 are communicated to and from the subscriber equipment through an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA) port 52 and through in-home network ports 54. A conventional modem 56 is connected between a conventional voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone set 58 and the eMTA port 52. The modem 56 converts downstream CATV signals 22 containing data for the telephone set 58 into signals 60 usable by the telephone set 58 in accordance with the VoIP protocol. Similarly, the modem 56 converts the VoIP protocol signals 60 from the telephone set 58 into Upstream CATV signals 40 which are sent through the eMTA port 52 and the CATV entry port 50 to the CATV network 20. Coaxial cables 18 within the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) connect the in-home network ports 54 to coaxial outlets 62. The in-home network 14 uses a new or existing coaxial cable infrastructure in the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) to locate the coaxial outlets 62 in different rooms or locations within the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) and to establish the communication medium for the in-home network 14. In-home network interface devices 64 and 66 are connected to or made a part of the coaxial outlets 62. The devices 64 and 66 send in-home network signals 78 between one another through the coaxial outlets 62, coaxial cables 18, the network ports 54 and the CATV entry adapter 10. The CATV entry adapter 10 internally connects the network ports 54 to transfer the network signals 78 between the ports 54, as shown and discussed below in connection with FIGS. 3-8. Subscriber or multimedia devices 16 are connected to the in-home network interfaces 64 and 66. In-home network signals 78 originating from a subscriber devices 16 connected to one of the network interfaces 64 or 66 are delivered through the in-home network 14 to the interface 64 or 66 of the recipient subscriber device 16. The network interfaces 64 and 66 perform the typical functions of buffering information, typically in digital form as packets, and delivering and receiving the packets over the in-home network 14 in accordance with the communication protocol used by the in-home network, for example the MoCA protocol. Although the information is typically in digital form, it is communication over the in-home network 14 is typically as analog signals in predetermined frequency bands, such as the D-band frequencies used in the MoCA communication protocol. The combination of one of the in-home network interfaces 64 or 66 and the connected subscriber device 16 constitutes one node of the in-home network 14. The present invention takes advantage of typical server-client technology and incorporates it within the in-home network interfaces 64 and 66. The in-home network interface 64 is a server network interface, while the in-home network interfaces 66 are client network interfaces. Only one server network interface 64 is present in the in-home network 14, while multiple client network interfaces 66 are typically present in the in-home network 14. The server network interface 64 receives downstream CATV signals 22 and in-home network signals 68 originating from other client network interfaces 66 connected to subscriber devices 16, extracts the information content carried by the downstream CATV signals 22 and the network signals 78, and stores the information content in digital form on a memory device (not shown) included within the server network interface 64. With respect to downstream CATV signals 22, the server network interface 64 communicates the extracted and stored information to the subscriber device 16 to which that information is destined. Thus the server interface 64 delivers the information derived from the downstream CATV signal 22 to the subscriber device connected to it, or over the in-home network 14 to the client interface 66 connected to the subscriber device 16 to which the downstream CATV signal 22 is destined. The recipient client network interface 66 extracts the information and delivers it to the destined subscriber device connected to that client network interface 66. For network signals 78 originating in one network interface 64 or 66 and destined to another network interlace 64 or 66, those signals are sent directly between the originating and recipient network interfaces 64 or 66, utilizing the communication protocol of the in-home network. For those signals originating in one of the subscriber devices 16 intended as an upstream CATV signal 40 within the CATV network 20, for example a programming content selection signal originating from a set-top box of a television set, the upstream CATV signal is communicated into the CATV network 20 by the in-home server network interface 64, or is alternatively communicated by the network interface 64 or 66 which is connected to the particular subscriber device 16. In some implementations of the present invention, if the upstream CATV signal originates from a subscriber device 16 connected to a client network interface 66, that client network interface 66 encodes the upstream CATV signal, and sends the encoded signal over the in-home network 14 to the server network interface 64; thereafter, the server network interface 64 communicates the upstream CATV signal through the CATV entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20. If the upstream signal originates from the subscriber device connected to the server network interface 64, that interface 64 directly communicates the upstream signal through the entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20. The advantage of using the server network interface 64 to receive the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signals 22 and then distribute that content in network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 for use by the destination subscriber devices 16, is that there is not a substantial degradation in the signal strength of the downstream CATV signal, as would be the case if the downstream CATV signal was split into multiple reduced-power copies and each copy delivered to each subscriber device 16. By splitting downstream CATV signals 22 only a few times, as compared to a relatively large number of times as would be required in a typical in-home network, good CATV signal strength is achieved at the server network interface 64. Multimedia content or other information in downstream CATV signals 22 that are destined for subscriber devices 16 connected to client network interfaces 66 is supplied by the server network interface 64 in network signals 78 which have sufficient strength to ensure good quality of service. Upstream CATV signals generated by the server and client interfaces 64 and 66 are of adequate signal strength since the originating interfaces are capable of delivering signals of adequate signal strength for transmission to the CATV network 20. Different embodiments 10a, 10b, 10c, 10d, 10e and 10f of the CATV entry adapter 10 (FIGS. 1 and 2) are described below in conjunction with FIGS. 3-8, respectively. The CATV entry adapters 10a, 10c and 10e shown respectively in FIGS. 3, 5 and 7 are similar to the corresponding CATV entry adapters 10b, 10d and 10f shown respectively in FIGS. 4, 6 and 8, except for the lack of a dedicated eMTA port 52 and supporting components. In some cases, the eMTA port 52 will not be required or desired. In the CATV entry adapter 10a shown in FIG. 3, the entry port 50 is connected to the CATV network 20. An in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70 is connected between the entry port 50 and an input terminal 72 of a conventional four-way splitter 74. Four output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the in-home network ports 54. Downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 pass through the filter 70, because the filter 70 only rejects signals with frequencies which are in the in-home network frequency band. The frequency band specific to the in-home network 14 is different from the frequency band of the CATV signals 22 and 40. Downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 also pass in both directions through the four-way splitter 74, because the splitter 74 carries signals of all frequencies. The four-way splitter 74, although providing a large degree of isolation between the signals at the output terminals 76, still permits in-home network signals 78 to pass between those output terminals 76. Thus, the four-way splitter 74 splits downstream CATV signals 22 into four copies and delivers the copies to the output terminals 76 connected to the network ports 54, conducts upstream CATV signals 40 from the ports 54 and output terminals 76 to the input terminal 72. The four-way splitter 74 also conducts in-home network signals 78 from one of the output terminals 76 to the other output terminals 76, thereby assuring that all of the network interfaces 64 and 66 are able to communicate with one another using the in-home network communication protocol. One server network interface 64 is connected to one of the ports 54, while one or more client network interfaces 66 is connected to one or more of the remaining ports 54. Subscriber or multimedia devices 16 are connected to each of the network interfaces 64 and 66. The upstream and downstream CATV signals 40 and 22 pass through the splitter 74 to the interface devices 64 and 66 without modification. Those CATV signals are delivered from the interface devices 64 and 66 to the subscriber equipment 16. The network signals 78 pass to and from the interface devices 64 and 66 through the output terminals 76 of the splitter 74. The network signals 78 are received and sent by the interface devices 64 and 66 in accordance with the communication protocol used by the in-home network 14. The rejection filter 70 blocks the in-home network signals 78 from reaching the CATV network 20, and thereby confines the network signals 78 to the subscriber equipment 16 within the subscribers premises. Preventing the network signals 78 from entering the CATV network 20 ensures the privacy of the information contained with the network signals 78 and keeps the network signals 78 from creating any adverse affect on the CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10a allows each of the subscriber devices 16 to directly receive CATV information and signals from the CATV network 20 (FIG. 1). Because the server network interface 64 may store multimedia content received from the CATV network 20, the subscriber devices 16 connected to the client network interfaces 66 may also request the server network interface 64 to store and supply that stored content at a later time. The client network interfaces 66 and the attached subscriber devices 16 request and receive the stored multimedia content from the server network interface 64 over the in-home network 14. In this fashion, the subscriber may choose when to view the stored CATV-obtained multimedia content without having to view that content at the specific time when it was available from the CATV network 20. The in-home network 14 at the subscriber premises 12 permits this flexibility. The CATV entry adapter 10b shown in FIG. 4 contains the same components described above for the adapter 10a (FIG. 3), and additionally includes an eMTA port 52 and a conventional two-way splitter 80. The modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 are connected to the eMTA port 52, for example. An input terminal 82 of the two-way splitter 80 connects to the in-home network rejection filter 70. Output terminals 84 and 85 of the two-way splitter 80 connect to the eMTA port 52 and to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74, respectively. The downstream CATV signals 22 entering the two-way splitter are split into two reduced-power copies and delivered to the output ports 84 and 85. The split copies of the downstream CATV signals 22 are approximately half of the signal strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 delivered from the CATV network 20 to the entry port 50. Consequently, the copy of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied to the eMTA port 52 has a relatively high signal strength, which assures good operation of the modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58. Adequate operation of the modem 56 in the telephone set 58 is particularly important in those circumstances where “life-line” telephone services are provided to the subscriber, because a good quality signal assures continued adequate operation of those services. In the situation where the downstream CATV signal 22 is split multiple times before being delivered to a modem or VoIP telephone set, the multiple split may so substantially reduce the power of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied to the modem and VoIP telephone set that the ability to communicate is substantially compromised. A benefit of the adapter 10b over the adapter 10a (FIG. 3) is the single, two-way split of the downstream CATV signal 22 and the delivery of one of those copies at a relatively high or good signal strength to the dedicated eMTA port 52. A disadvantage of the adapter 10b over the adapter 10a (FIG. 4) is that the downstream CATV signals 22 pass through an extra splitter (the two-way splitter 80) prior to reaching the subscriber devices 16, thereby diminishing the quality of the downstream signal 22 applied from the network ports 54 to the subscriber devices 16. The downstream CATV signals 22 utilized by the subscriber devices 16 are diminished in strength, because the four-way split from the splitter 74 substantially reduces the already-reduced power, thus reducing the amount of signal strength received by the subscriber devices 16. However, the functionality of the subscriber devices 16 is not as critical or important as the functionality of the modem 56 and telephone 58 or other subscriber equipment connected to the eMTA port 52. Upstream CATV signals 40 from the subscriber devices 16 and the voice modem 56 are combined by the splitters 74 and 80 and then sent to the CATV network 20 through the in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70, without substantial reduction in signal strength due to the relatively high strength of those upstream CATV signals 40 supplied by the network interfaces 64 and 66 and the modem 56 or other subscriber equipment 16. The embodiment of the CATV entry adapter 10c shown in FIG. 5 eliminates the need for the in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70 (FIGS. 3 and 4), while preserving the ability to block the in-home network frequency band signals 78 from entering the CATV network 20 and while assuring that a relatively high strength downstream CATV signal 22 will be present for delivery to subscriber equipment at one or more network ports. To do so, the CATV entry adapter 10c uses two conventional diplexers 92 and 94 in conjunction with the splitter 74 and 80. In general, the function of a conventional diplexer is to separate signals received at a common terminal into signals within a high frequency range and within a low frequency range, and to deliver signals in the high and low frequency ranges separately from high and low pass terminals. Conversely, the conventional diplexer will combine separate high frequency and low frequency signals received separately at the high and low frequency terminals into a single signal which has both high frequency and low frequency content and supply that single signal of combined frequency content at the common terminal. In the following discussion of the CATV entry adapters which utilize diplexers, the predetermined low frequency range is the CATV signal frequency range which encompasses both the upstream and downstream CATV signals 22 and 40 (i.e., 5-1002 MHz), and the predetermined high frequency range is the frequency of the in-home network signals 78. When in-home network 14 is implemented by use of MoCA devices and protocol, the in-home frequency band is greater than the frequency band employed for CATV signals (i.e., 1125-1525 MHz). If the in-home network 14 is implemented using other networking technology, the network signals 78 must be in a frequency band which is separate from the frequency band of the upstream and downstream CATV signals. In such a circumstance, the high and low frequency ranges of the diplexers used in the herein-described CATV entry adapters must be selected to separate the CATV signal frequency band from the in-home network signal frequency band. The entry port 50 connects the adapter 10c to the CATV network 20. A two-way splitter 80 has an input terminal 82 which is connected directly to the entry port 50. The two-way splitter 80 splits the downstream CATV signals 22 at the input terminal 82 into two identical copies of reduced signal strength and conducts those copies through the two output terminals 84 and 85. The split copy of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied by the output terminal 84 is conducted to a principal network port 54p of the entry adapter 10c. The network port 54p is regarded as a principal network port because the server network interface 64 is connected to that port 54p. A subscriber devices 16 may or may not be connected to the server network interface 64. The two output terminals 84 and 85 of the splitter 80 are respectively connected to low-pass terminals 88 and 90 of conventional diplexers 92 and 94. The low pass terminals 88 and 90 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals which have a predetermined low frequency range. High pass terminals 104 and 106 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals which have a predetermined high frequency range. Common terminals 96 and 98 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals that have both predetermined high and predetermined low frequency ranges. The common terminal 98 of the diplexer 94 is connected to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. The output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the in-home network ports 54 (FIG. 2) which are designated as secondary ports 54s. Client network interfaces 66 are connected to the secondary ports 54s. Subscriber devices 16 are connected to the client interfaces 66. The network ports 54s to which the client network interfaces 66 are connected are designated as secondary network ports because the server network interface 64 is connected to the principal network port 54p. The high-pass terminals 104 and 106 of the diplexers 92 and 94 are connected to each other. As a consequence, the higher frequency band of the network signals 78 are conducted by the diplexers 92 and 94 through their high pass terminals 104 and 106 and between their common terminals 96 and 98. In this manner, the network signals 78 are confined for transmission only between the network interfaces 64 and 66, through the diplexers 92 and 94 and the four-way splitter 74. The diplexers 92 and 94 also conduct the lower frequency band CATV signals 22 and 40 from their common terminals 96 and 98 through their low-pass terminals 88 and 90 to the principal port 54p and to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. The four-way splitter 74 conducts the lower frequency band CATV signals 22 and 40 to the secondary ports 54s. The CATV signals 22 and 40 are available to all of the network interfaces 64 and 66 and to the subscriber equipment 16 connected to those network interfaces 64 and 66. In this manner, the CATV signals 22 and 40 and the network signals 78 are both made available to each of the network interfaces 64 and 66 so that each of the subscriber devices 16 has the capability of interacting with both the CATV signals and the network signals. The frequency band separation characteristics of the diplexers 92 and 94 perform the function of preventing the high frequency network signals 78 from reaching the CATV network 20. Another advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10c is that the downstream CATV signals 22 are applied to the server network interface 64 and its attached subscriber device 16 with only the relatively small reduction in signal strength caused by splitting the downstream CATV signal 22 in the two-way splitter 80. This contrasts with the substantially greater reduction in signal strength created by passing the downstream CATV signal 22 through the four-way splitter 74 in the entry adapters 10a and 10b (FIGS. 3 and 4) to reach the subscriber devices 16. Minimizing the amount of signal power reduction experienced by the downstream CATV signal 22 received by the server network interface 64 preserves a high quality of the multimedia content contained in the downstream CATV signal 22. Consequently, the server network interface 64 receives high quality, good strength downstream CATV signals, which the server network interface 64 uses to supply high quality of service by sending that content in network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 connected to other subscriber devices. In this manner, the CATV entry adapter 10c may be used to replace the downstream CATV signals directly applied to the client network interfaces with the network signals containing the same content. Another advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10c is that the server network interface 64 can store the multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signal supplied to it. A subscriber may wish to access and view or otherwise use that stored multimedia content at a later time. The stored multimedia content is delivered in high quality network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 over the in-home network 14. Because of the capability of the server network interface 64 to supply high quality network signals, the reduction in signal strength created by the four-way splitter 74 does not significantly impact the quality of the network signals received by the client network interfaces 66. Thus, the CATV entry adapter 10c offers a subscriber the opportunity to utilize directly those CATV signal copies which pass through the four-way splitter 74, or to achieve a higher quality signal when the server network interface 64 converts the content from the downstream CATV signal into network signals 78 which are then made available as high-quality network signals for the client network interfaces 66. Storing the multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signals 22 in the storage medium of the server network interface 64 provides an opportunity for one or more of the client network interfaces 66 to access that stored content and request its transmission over the in-home network 14 to the subscriber devices 16 connected to the requesting client network interface 66. Because the multimedia content has been stored by the server network interface 64, the client network interfaces 66 may request and receive that multimedia content at any subsequent time while that content remains stored on the server network interface 64. The CATV entry adapter 10d shown in FIG. 6 is similar to the CATV entry adapter 10c (FIG. 5) except that the adapter 10d allows a modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 to be connected in a dedicated manner that does not involve use of the in-home network 14. If a modem and VoIP telephone set are connected to the CATV entry adapter 10c (FIG. 5), the modem and VoIP telephone set would be connected as subscriber equipment to the server network interface 64 in that entry adapter 10c. In this circumstance, the proper functionality of the modem and VoIP telephone set depends on proper functionality of the server network interface 64, and that functionality is susceptible to failure due to power outages and the like. In the CATV entry adapter 10d shown in FIG. 6, a three-way splitter 110 is used to divide the downstream CATV signal 22 into three reduced-power identical copies. The three-way splitter has a single input terminal 112 and three output terminals 114, 116 and 118. The input terminal 112 is connected to the entry port 50, and two of the output terminals 114 and 116 are connected to the low pass terminals 88 and 90 of the diplexers 92 and 94. A third output terminal 118 is connected to the eMTA port 52. Although the signal strength of the CATV signal 22 is diminished as a result of the three-way split in the splitter 110, there will be sufficient strength in the copy supplied to the EMTA port 52 from the output terminal 118 to permit the modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 to operate reliably. Upstream signals from the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58 pass through the three-way splitter 110 into the CATV network 20. The advantage to the CATV entry adapter 10d is that the functionality of the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58 does not depend on the functionality of the network interfaces 64 and 66. Thus any adversity which occurs within the in-home network 14 does not adversely influence the capability of the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone to provide continuous telephone service to the subscriber. Continuous telephone service is important when the service is “life-line” telephone service. Other communication with respect to downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 and network signals 78 occur in the manner discussed above in conjunction with the adapter 10c (FIG. 5). The CATV entry adapter 10e, shown in FIG. 7, is distinguished from the previously discussed CATV entry adapters 10a, 10b, 10c and 10d (FIGS. 3-6) by conducting only the CATV signals 22 and 40 between the entry port 50 and the principal port 54p to which the server network interface 64 is connected. In the CATV entry adapter 10e, the entry port 50 is connected to the low pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The common terminal 96 of the diplexer 92 is connected to the principal port 54p. The high pass terminal 104 of the diplexer 92 is connected to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. Output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the secondary ports 54s. The principal and secondary ports 54p and 54s are connected to the server and client network interfaces 64 and 66. In the CATV entry adapter 10e, the downstream CATV signals 22 are not conducted to the client network interfaces 66. Similarly, the upstream CATV signals 22 are not conducted from the client network interfaces 66 to the entry port 50. Instead, all CATV signals 22 and 40 are conducted through the low pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The server network interface 64 converts the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signals 22 into network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66, and all of the information constituting upstream CATV signals 40 is communicated as network signals 78 from the client network interfaces 66 to the server network interface 64. The server network interface 64 converts the information into upstream CATV signals 40 and delivers them to the common terminal 96 of the diplexer 92. A subscriber device connected to a client network interface 66 that wishes to request content from the CATV network 20 sends a signal over the in-home network 14 to the server network interface 64, and the server network interface 64 sends the appropriate upstream CATV signal 40 to the CATV network 20. The CATV network 20 responds by sending downstream CATV signals 22, which are directed through the diplexer 92 only to the server network interface 64. Multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signals 22 is received and stored by the server network interface 64. The storage of the multimedia content on the server network interface 64 may be for a prolonged amount of time, or the storage may be only momentary. The server network interface 64 processes the content of the downstream CATV signals 22 into network signals 78 and delivers those signals over the in-home network 14 to the requesting client network interface 66 for use by its attached subscriber device 16. Even though the network signals 78 sent by the server network interface 64 pass through the four-way splitter 74, the strength of the signals supplied by the server network interface 64 is sufficient to maintain good signal strength of the network signals 78 when received by the client network interfaces 66. The advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10e over the other adapters 10a, 10b, 10c and 10d (FIGS. 3-6) is that the downstream CATV signal 22 reaches the server network interface 64 with substantially no reduction in signal strength. The downstream CATV signal 22 is conducted between the entry port 50 and the principal port 54p without being split. The high strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 is therefore available for use in obtaining the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signal 22. The multimedia content is also maintained at a high quality when transferred from the server network interface 64 to the client network interfaces 66, since the server network interface 64 delivers a high quality network signal 78 to the client network interfaces 66 over the in-home network 14, even when the network signals 78 are passed through the four-way splitter 74. The CATV entry adapter 10e therefore achieves the highest possible signal strength and quality for a passive CATV entry adapter, and enables multimedia content received from the downstream CATV signals 22 to be shared to multiple subscriber devices 16 over the in-home network. The passive nature of the CATV entry adapter 10e improves its reliability. The relatively small number of internal components, i.e. one diplexer 92 and one four-way splitter 74, also reduces the cost of the adapter 10e. A CATV entry adapter 10f shown in FIG. 8 uses an additional two-way splitter 80 and has a eMTA port 52 for connecting the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58, compared to the components of the entry adapter 10e (FIG. 7). The input terminal 82 of the two-way splitter 80 connects to the entry port 50. The output terminal 84 of the splitter 80 connects to the eMTA port 52, and the other output terminal 85 of the splitter 80 connects to the low-pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 are conducted between the entry port 50 and both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p. Copies of the downstream CATV signal 22 reach both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p after having been split only once by the two-way splitter 80. The downstream CATV signals 22 reaching both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p have a relatively high signal strength, since only one split of the downstream CATV signal 22 has occurred. Consequently, the entry adapter 10f delivers high quality downstream CATV signals 22 to both the modem 56 and connected VOIP telephone set 58 and to the server network interface 64. The advantage to the CATV entry adapter 10f is that it provides reliable telephone service through the eMTA port 52, which is not dependent upon the functionality of the network interfaces 64 and 66. Accordingly, reliable telephone service is available. In addition, the entry adapter 10f reliably communicates the content of the downstream CATV signals 22, because the single signal split from the splitter 80 does not diminish the quality of the downstream CATV signal 22 sufficiently to adversely affect the performance of the server network interface 64 in obtaining the CATV content. That high-quality content is preserved when it is communicated as network signals 78 from the server network interface 64 to the client interface devices 66 which are connected to the subscriber devices 16. Other than a slight reduction in signal strength created by the splitter 80, the communication of the downstream CATV signals 22 containing multimedia content for the subscriber devices 16 is essentially the same as that described in connection with the CATV entry adapter 10e (FIG. 7). The CATV entry adapters described within offer numerous advantages over other presently-known CATV entry adapters. Each of the CATV entry adapters is capable of supplying multimedia content from the CATV network to any of the subscriber devices connected to the adapter, either through direct communication of the downstream CATV signal 22 or by use of the network signals 78. Each of the CATV entry adapters also functions as a hub for the in-home network 14. Each of the CATV entry adapters is constructed with passive components and therefore do not require an external power supply beyond the CATV signals 22 and 40 and the network signals 78, thus both improving the reliability of the adapters themselves and reducing service calls. Each CATV entry adapter achieves a substantial strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 by limiting the number of times that the downstream signal 22 is split, compared to conventional CATV entry adapters which require a signal split for each subscriber device in the premises. Critical communications over the CATV network, such as life-line phone service, is preserved by CATV signals communicated over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely affected by multiple splits of the CATV signal. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. These and other benefits and advantages will become more apparent upon gaining a complete appreciation for the improvements of the present invention. Preferred embodiments of the invention and many of its improvements have been described with a degree of particularity. The description is of preferred examples for implementing the invention, and these preferred descriptions are not intended necessarily to limit the scope of the invention. The scope of the invention is defined by the following claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>CATV networks use an infrastructure of interconnected coaxial cables, signal splitters and combiners, repeating amplifiers, filters, trunk lines, cable taps, drop lines and other signal-conducting devices to supply and distribute high frequency “downstream” signals from a main signal distribution facility, known as a “headend,” to the premises (homes and offices' of subscribers to the CATV services. The downstream signals transfer multimedia content to subscriber equipment, such as television sets, telephone sets and computers. In addition, most CATV networks also transmit “upstream” signals from the subscriber equipment back to the headend of the CATV network. For example, the subscriber uses a set top box to select programs for display on the television set. As another example, two-way communication is essential when using a personal computer connected through the CATV infrastructure to the public Internet. As a further example, voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone sets use the CATV infrastructure and the public Internet as the communication medium for transmitting two-way telephone conversations. To permit simultaneous communication of upstream and downstream CATV signals and the interoperability of the subscriber equipment and the equipment associated with the CATV network infrastructure outside of subscriber premises, the downstream and upstream CATV signals are confined to two different frequency bands. The downstream frequency band is within the range of 54-1002 megahertz (MHz) and the upstream frequency band is within the range of 5-42 MHz, in most CATV networks. The entire CATV frequency band is therefore 5-1002 MHz. The downstream signals are delivered from the CATV network infrastructure to the subscriber premises at a CATV entry adapter, which is also commonly referred to as an entry device, terminal adapter or a drop amplifier. The CATV entry adapter is usually a multi-port device which provides a multiplicity of ports or connectors for connecting coaxial cables. A separate coaxial cable is connected to each of the ports and extends within the subscriber premises to the location of the subscriber equipment. Some homes have coaxial cables extending to cable outlets in almost every room, because of the many different types of subscriber equipment used in different rooms. For example, television sets are commonplace throughout the home. The multiple ports of the CATV entry adapter deliver downstream CATV at each cable outlet and conduct upstream CATV signals back through the premises coaxial cables to the CATV entry adapter, which delivers the upstream CATV signals to the CATV network. In addition to television sets, computers and telephones, a relatively large number of other entertainment and multimedia devices are available for use in homes. For example, a digital video recorder (DVR) is used to store broadcast programming, still photography and moving pictures in a memory medium so that the content can be replayed on a display or television set at a later time selected by the user. As another example, computer games are also played at displays or on television sets. Such computer games may be obtained or played over the Internet from the CATV network or from media played on play-back devices or game consoles connected to displays or television sets. As a further example, receivers which receive satellite-broadcast signals may be distributed for viewing or listening throughout the home. These types of devices, including the more-conventional television sets, telephone sets and devices connected to the Internet by the CATV network, are generically referred to as multimedia devices. The desire to use multimedia devices at multiple different locations within the home or subscriber premises has led to the creation of the Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA). MoCA has developed specifications for products to create an in-home entertainment network for interconnecting presently-known and future multimedia devices. The MoCA in-home network uses the subscriber premise or in-home coaxial cable infrastructure originally established for distribution of CATV signals within the subscriber premises, principally because that cable infrastructure already exists in most homes and is capable of carrying much more information than is carried in the CATV frequency band. A MoCA network is established by connecting MoCA interface devices at the cable outlets in the rooms of the subscriber premises. The MoCA network is used to transmit multimedia content from one MoCA interface device to another. The MoCA interface devices implement a MoCA communication protocol which encapsulates the multimedia content normally sent and received by the multimedia devices within MoCA packets and then communicates these MoCA packets between selected ones of the other MoCA interfaces devices connected at other cable outlets. The receiving MoCA interface device removes the encapsulated multimedia content, and delivers it to the connected computer, digital television or set-top box or other multimedia device from which then presents that multimedia content. Each MoCA interface device is capable of communicating with every other MoCA interface device in the MoCA network to deliver the multimedia content throughout the home or subscriber premises. The entertainment or multimedia content that is available from one multimedia device can be displayed, played or otherwise used at a different location within the home, without having to physically relocate the multimedia device from one location to another within the home. The in-home network communication of multimedia content is considered beneficial in more fully utilizing the multimedia devices present in modern homes. The MoCA interface devices also pass the upstream and downstream CATV signals between the CATV entry adapter and the subscriber devices. Since the MoCA network may function simultaneously with the normal operation of the CATV services, the MoCA signals communicated between MoCA interface devices utilize a frequency range of 1125-1525 MHz, which is outside of the frequency band of CATV signals. This so-called band of MoCA signals is divided into eight different frequency ranges, D1-D8, and these eight different D frequency ranges are used to assure communication between the selected MoCA interface devices. For example, the D-1 band at 1125-1175 MHz may be used to communicate CATV television programming content between a MoCA interface device connected to a set-top box in a main room of the house and another MoCA interface device connected to a television set in bedroom of the house, while a MoCA interface device connected to a computer gaming multimedia device in a basement room of the house simultaneously communicates computer game content over the D-6 band at 1375-1425 MHz to a computer located in a recreation room of the house. The MoCA frequency band also includes other frequency ranges outside of the CATV frequency band, but the D band is used to establish connections and communicate content between the MoCA interface devices. Using the in-home coaxial cable as the principal communication medium substantially simplifies the implementation of the MoCA network, but there are certain disadvantages in doing so. The D band MoCA frequencies have the capability of passing through the CATV entry adapter and entering the CATV network where they may then enter a nearby subscriber's premises. The presence of the MoCA signals at the nearby subscriber's premises compromises the privacy and security of the information originally intended to be confined within the original subscriber premises. The MoCA signals from the original subscriber premises which enter through the CATV network to the nearby subscriber premises also have the potential to adversely affect the performance of a MoCA network in nearby subscriber's premises. The conflict of the MoCA signals from the original and nearby subscriber premises may cause the MoCA interface devices to malfunction or not operate properly on a consistent basis. Another undesirable aspect of using a MoCA for communication between the various multimedia devices is that a relatively large MoCA network with many cable outlet ports has the effect of deteriorating the strength of the downstream CATV signal. Because in-home multimedia devices frequently require access to the CATV network in order to send upstream CATV signals as well is to receive downstream CATV signals, the in-home coaxial cable infrastructure must commonly connect all of the CATV cables and CATV ports within the home to a common connection with the drop cable that supplies the CATV signal and services to the home. The common connection is usually achieved in the CATV entry adapter, which provides output ports that connect to the coaxial cables extending within the home to each separate location or room. A splitter within the CATV entry adapter divides the CATV downstream signals into two or more reduced-power copies of the input signal, and supplies each copy to a separate outlet port. Similarly, upstream signals from the subscriber equipment connected to each of the coaxial cables are combined in the splitter and then passed upstream through the CATV entry adapter into the CATV network. The typical splitter is passive, which means that the power of the input signal is divided among the copies of the output signals split from the input signal. Each copy of the signal therefore has diminished power or strength, and the lower strength copies will not have the same quality as the input signal. In general terms, the quality is the strength of the signal relative to the strength of the inherent ambient noise. Since the inherent ambient noise generally cannot be diminished and is usually a constant, lowering the strength of the signal relative to the noise reduces the signal-to-noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio is a recognized measure of the quality of a signal. A lower signal-to-noise ratio represents a lesser quality signal. Because many homes require a relatively large number of cable outlet ports, for example six or more, the downstream CATV signal must be split into a comparable relatively large number of copies. The greater number of signal splitters required to generate the requisite number of separate copies of the downstream CATV signal diminishes the strength of the downstream signal copies. The quality of CATV service available in an in-home network with a relatively large number of cable output ports therefore suffers, because the strength of the CATV signal available at each of these ports is substantially diminished due to the extent of signal splitting required. On the other hand, Upstream CATV signals from the subscriber equipment do not occur as frequently as downstream CATV signals. Furthermore, upstream signals are generally of a higher power because they are generated immediately by the subscriber equipment within the home. Consequently, the reduction in CATV signal strength applies principally to downstream CATV signals, which of course provide the multimedia content to the subscriber. It is the quality of the multimedia content observed by the subscriber that forms the basis for the subscriber's opinion of quality of service. To compensate for downstream CATV signal strength reduction caused by splitting, some entry adapters include amplifiers to increase the strength of the copies of the downstream CATV signals. Of course, including an amplifier along with the signal splitter makes the signal transmission dependent upon the presence of adequate electrical power to operate the amplifier. The power for the amplifier is derived from commercial sources within the household. If the commercial power supply is temporarily interrupted, or if the power supply equipment within the home ceases operating properly, the customer perceives a CATV problem and reports the problem to the CATV service provider. The CATV service provider must thereafter send a service or repair person to the home of the subscriber in order to identify and remedy the problem. Such service calls are a significant expense for a CATV service provider. CATV service providers therefore attempt to eliminate as many of the potential points of failure as possible in the equipment supplied by the CATV service provider, to reduce service calls and repair costs. Including an amplifier in a CATV entry adapter creates a potential point of failure, and for that reason most CATV service providers wish to avoid using CATV entry adapters with amplifiers. However, in those relatively large in-home networks with multiple outlets for connecting multiple multimedia devices, there has been little previous choice but to use amplifiers in conjunction with splitters in order to obtain the desired downstream CATV signal strength that represents a high quality of service.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to a cable television (CATV) entry adapter which beneficially provides a high quality and strength downstream CATV signal to multiple subscriber devices while simultaneously contributing to and promoting the establishment of a multimedia in-home network. The CATV entry adapter is preferably passive without an amplifier, and passes the in-home network communication signals between the multiple subscriber devices, and passes the downstream and upstream CATV signals to the subscriber equipment and the CATV network. The in-home network communication signals are effectively communicated in the in-home network and the multimedia content from the upstream and downstream CATV signals is effectively made available to all of the subscriber equipment and to the CATV network without diminishing the quality or strength of the CATV signals to the point where the quality of service is compromised. As a passive device, the CATV entry adapter of the present invention requires no external power source, which eliminates unnecessary service calls. In addition, critical communications over the CATV network, such as “life-line” phone service, are preserved during transmission over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. In accordance with these and other features, one aspect of the invention involves a cable television (CATV) entry adapter for conducting downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at subscriber premises and for conducting in-home network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The CATV signals occupy a CATV frequency band which is different from an in-home network frequency band occupied by the in-home network signals. The in-home network includes a network interface connected to each subscriber device by which to generate and communicate the network signals between the subscriber devices in the in-home network. The CATV entry adapter comprises a CATV entry port for connection to the CATV network, and a plurality of network ports each for connection to the network interface to which each subscriber device is connected. The CATV entry adapter also includes a signal splitter which has an input terminal and two output terminals. The signal splitter operatively splits a signal received at its input terminal into reduced-power copies of the input signal supplied at each of its output terminals. The signal splitter also communicates signals received at each output terminal to the input terminal and to the other output terminal. The CATV entry adapter also includes an in-home network frequency band rejection device connected between the CATV entry port and the input port of the signal splitter. The in-home network frequency band rejection device substantially blocks transmission of the in-home network signals therethrough to the CATV entry port and the CATV network. Another aspect of the invention involves an in-home network for distributing multimedia content to subscriber devices. The multimedia content is obtained from CATV signals communicated over a CATV network and from a subscriber device connected to the in-home network. The in-home network comprises a CATV entry adapter having a CATV entry port and a plurality of network ports. The CATV entry port is connected to the CATV network for receiving multimedia content from CATV signals communicated over the CATV network. The in-home network also comprises a plurality of in-home network interfaces, each of which is connected to a different one of the plurality of network ports. Each of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content to the subscriber devices to which each network interface is connected. All of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content between one another in network signals communicated between the network interfaces. At least one of the network interfaces sends and receives CATV signals and communicates the multimedia content contained in the CATV signals to the subscriber device to which the one network interface is connected, and communicates the multimedia content obtained from the CATV signals in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. Each of the network interfaces communicates multimedia content obtained from a subscriber device connected to that network interface in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. The network signals are located within a network frequency band which is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are located. A further aspect of the invention involves a method of conducting information contained in downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at a subscriber premises and of conducting information contained in network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The method comprises connecting the CATV entry adapter to receive and transmit CATV signals from and to the CATV network, respectively; connecting in-home network interfaces to each subscriber device to form the in-home network among the subscriber devices to which network interfaces are attached; connecting the CATV entry adapter as a hub in the in-home network to pass network signals between network interfaces; confining the network signals to an end-home network frequency band that is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are confined; connecting the CATV adapter to at least one network interface to receive and transmit CATV signals supplied from and to the CATV entry adapter; and preventing transmission of the network signals within the CATV entry adapter onto the CATV network. One subsidiary aspect of the invention which relates to blocking or preventing the transmission of network signals onto the CATV network, involves a frequency rejection device which comprises only passive electronic components, or which functions without a power source separate from the CATV signals and the in-home network signals. The frequency rejection device may take the form of a frequency rejection filter, or the frequency rejection device may take the form of at least one diplexer which divides frequencies into separate frequency bands, and is connected to conduct the network signals in the network frequency band between network interfaces and to conduct the CATV signals in the CATV frequency band to and from the CATV network. Another subsidiary aspect of the invention involves a server network interface and at least one client network interface. The server network interface sends and receives downstream and upstream CATV signals and network signals to communicate information contained in the CATV and network signals to the subscriber device to which the server network interface is connected. Each client network interface sends and receives network signals to communicate information contained in the network signals to the subscriber device to which each client network interface is connected. The server network interface also has a capability for storing information obtained from downstream CATV signals and subsequently supplying network signals to a client network interface which contain the information stored from the downstream CATV signals. An additional subsidiary aspect of the invention involves connecting an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA)-compatible subscriber device including a modem and telephone set to the CATV entry adapter, and splitting downstream CATV signals into reduced-power copies and supplying one of the copies to the eMTA-compatible device. A more complete appreciation of the present invention, as well as the manner in which the present invention achieves the above and other improvements, can be obtained by reference to the following detailed description of presently preferred embodiments taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are briefly summarized below, and by reference to the appended claims.

H04N2143615

20180125

20180531

88957.0

H04N21436

DUBASKY, GIGI L

AN ENTRY ADAPTER THAT BLOCKS DIFFERENT FREQUENCY BANDS AND PRESERVES DOWNSTREAM SIGNAL STRENGTH

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04N

ACCEPTED

Modular Display Panel

Embodiments of the present invention relate to integrated modular display panels. In one embodiment, modular display panel includes a a shell with a first thermally conductive material, a printed circuit board disposed in the shell, and a plurality of LEDs attached to a first side of the printed circuit board. A driver circuit is disposed in the shell and coupled to the plurality of LEDs from a second side of the printed circuit board. The panel further includes a power supply unit for powering the LEDs. The printed circuit board are disposed between the power supply unit and the plurality of LEDs. A second thermally conductive material is disposed between the power supply unit and an outer back side of the panel. A protective structure is disposed over the first side of the printed circuit board, where a display side of the panel, opposite the outer back side, is waterproof.

1. A modular display panel comprising: a casing comprising plastic sidewalls, the casing being part of an outer surface of the modular display panel that is exposed to an external environment, the casing configured to be attached with other modular display panels to form a multi-panel modular display; a printed circuit board attached to the casing; a plurality of LEDs attached to a first side of the printed circuit board; a circuit for controlling the plurality of LEDs attached to a second side of the printed circuit board, the second side being opposite to the first side, wherein the circuit is disposed within the casing; a power supply for powering the plurality of LEDs, the power supply comprising a power converter for converting ac power to dc power; a thermally conductive material disposed between the power supply and a back surface of the casing, wherein the back surface of the casing comprises the part of the outer surface of the modular display panel; a framework of louvers disposed over the printed circuit board, the framework of louvers disposed between rows of the plurality of LEDs; and wherein the modular display panel is sealed to be waterproof. 2. The panel of claim 1, wherein the thermally conductive material comprises aluminum. 3. The panel of claim 1, further comprising a potting material disposed at the first side of the printed circuit board. 4. The panel of claim 3, wherein the panel is completely waterproof against submersion in up to 3 feet of water. 5. The panel of claim 3, wherein the panel comprises an ingress protection (IP) rating of IP 65. 6. The panel of claim 3, wherein the panel comprises an ingress protection (IP) rating of or IP 66. 7. The panel of claim 3, wherein the panel comprises an ingress protection (IP) rating of IP 67 or IP 68. 8. The panel of claim 1, wherein the power supply is mounted over the casing. 9. The panel of claim 1, wherein the power supply is disposed within the casing. 10. The panel of claim 1, wherein the casing is configured to be attached with other modular display panels using interlocking features. 11. The panel of claim 1, wherein the casing is configured to be indirectly attached with other modular display panels. 12. The panel of claim 11, wherein the casing comprising connections for attaching located in each of four corner regions of the panel, wherein one or more connections are configured to mount a corner plate that is configured to mount to corresponding connections of three adjacent panels. 13. The panel of claim 11, wherein the casing comprising connections for attaching located in each of four corner regions of the panel, wherein the connections are configured to be attached to a mechanical support structure. 14. A modular multi-panel display system comprising: a mechanical support structure; and a plurality of LED display panels mounted to the mechanical support structure so as to form an integrated display panel; wherein each LED display panel includes a casing comprising plastic sidewalls, the casing being part of an outer surface of the modular multi-panel display system that is exposed to external environment, wherein the casing is attached with other modular display panels to form the integrated display panel; wherein each LED display panel also includes: a printed circuit board attached to the casing, a plurality of LEDs attached to a first side of the printed circuit board, a circuit for controlling the plurality of LEDs attached to a second side of the printed circuit board, the second side being opposite to the first side, wherein the circuit is disposed within the casing, a power supply for powering the plurality of LEDs, the power supply comprising a power converter for converting ac power to dc power, and a thermally conductive material disposed between the power supply and a back surface of the casing, wherein the back surface of the casing comprises the part of the outer surface of the modular multi-panel display system; wherein each LED display panel with the casing is sealed to be waterproof and exposed to an external environment without a protective waterproof enclosure; and wherein the modular multi-panel display system is cooled passively and includes no air conditioning, fans, or heating units. 15. The display system of claim 14, wherein each LED display panel further comprises a heat sink. 16. The display system of claim 14, wherein each LED display panel further comprises a framework of louvers disposed over the printed circuit board, the framework of louvers exposing LEDs of the plurality of LED display panels. 17. The display system of claim 14, further comprising a data receiver box mounted to the mechanical support structure, the data receiver box configured to provide power, data, and communication to the LED display panels. 18. The display system of claim 14, wherein none of the LED display panels includes a data receiver card. 19. A modular display panel comprising: a plastic casing comprising a first side and an opposite second side, wherein the first side of the plastic casing includes a surface that is part of an outer surface of the modular display panel; a printed circuit board attached to the plastic casing; a plurality of LEDs attached to a first side of the printed circuit board; a potting compound overlying the first side of the printed circuit board; a circuit for controlling the plurality of LEDs attached to a second side of the printed circuit board, the second side being opposite to the first side, wherein the circuit is disposed within the plastic casing; a power supply mounted outside the plastic casing, the power supply comprising a power converter for converting ac power to dc power; and a thermally conductive material to extract heat disposed proximate to the power supply, wherein the modular display panel is sealed to be waterproof. 20. The panel of claim 19, further comprising: a first integrated data and power cable connector electrically coupled to the printed circuit board and the power supply; and a second integrated data and power cable connector electrically coupled to the printed circuit board and the power supply. 21. The panel of claim 19, further comprising a framework of louvers disposed over first side of the printed circuit board, the framework of louvers disposed between rows of the LEDs. 22. The panel of claim 19, wherein the panel is completely waterproof against submersion in up to 3 feet of water. 23. The panel of claim 19, wherein the panel comprises an ingress protection (IP) rating of IP 65. 24. The panel of claim 19, wherein the panel comprises an ingress protection (IP) rating of IP 66. 25. The panel of claim 19, wherein the panel comprises an ingress protection (IP) rating of IP 67 or IP 68. 26. The panel of claim 21, wherein the modular display panel comprises only one printed circuit board. 27. A modular multi-panel display system comprising: a mechanical support structure; a plurality of modular display panels mounted to the mechanical support structure so as to form an integrated display panel; wherein the mechanical support structure comprises a plurality of beams; wherein each of the plurality of modular display panels is attached to a beam of the plurality of beams without being enclosed in any additional enclosures; and wherein each modular display panel comprises a plastic casing comprising a first side and an opposite second side, wherein the first side of the plastic casing includes a surface that is part of an outer surface of the modular display panel, a printed circuit board attached to the plastic casing, a plurality of LEDs attached to a front side of the printed circuit board, a potting compound overlying the first side of the printed circuit board, a driver circuit attached to the printed circuit board, wherein the driver circuit is disposed within the plastic casing, a power supply mounted outside the plastic casing, and wherein the modular display panel is sealed to be waterproof to have an ingress protection (IP) rating of IP 67 or IP 68. 28. The display system of claim 27, wherein each of the plurality of modular display panels comprises an ingress protection (IP) rating of IP 67. 29. The display system of claim 27, wherein each of the plurality of modular display panels comprises an ingress protection (IP) rating of IP 68. 30. The display system of claim 27, further comprising a thermally conductive material disposed proximate to the power supply.

This application is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/369,304 filed on Dec. 5, 2016, which is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/162,439 filed on May 23, 2016, which is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/850,632 filed on Sep. 10, 2015, which is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/444,719 filed on Jul. 28, 2014. All of the above applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. U.S. application Ser. No. 14/444,719 claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/025,463, filed on Jul. 16, 2014 and also claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/922,631, filed on Dec. 31, 2013, which applications are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/328,624, filed Jul. 10, 2014, also claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/922,631 and is also incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The following patents and applications are related: U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/866,294, filed Jan. 9, 2018 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/331,681, filed Oct. 21, 2016 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/341,678, filed Jul. 25, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,195,281) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/948,939, filed Nov. 23, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,535,650) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/396,102, filed Dec. 30, 2016 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,642,272) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/582,059, filed Apr. 28, 2017 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,832,897) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/802,241, filed Nov. 2, 2017 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/444,719, filed Jul. 28, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,134,773) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/850,632, filed Sep. 10, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,349,306) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/162,439, filed May 23, 2016 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,513,863) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/369,304, filed Dec. 5, 2016 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/444,775, filed Jul. 28, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,081,552) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/627,923, filed Feb. 20, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,131,600) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/829,469, filed Aug. 18, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,226,413) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/981,561, filed Dec. 28, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,372,659) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/444,747, filed Jul. 28, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,069,519) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/550,685, filed Nov. 21, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,582,237) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/641,130, filed Mar. 6, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,164,722) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/409,288, filed Jan. 18, 2017 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/582,908, filed Dec. 24, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,416,551) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/641,189, filed Mar. 6, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,528,283) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/390,277, filed Dec. 23, 2016 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/720,544, filed May 22, 2015 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/720,560, filed May 22, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,207,904) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/720,610, filed May 22, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,311,847) TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates generally to displays, and, in particular embodiments, to a system and method for a modular multi-panel display. BACKGROUND Large displays (e.g., billboards), such as those commonly used for advertising in cities and along roads, generally have one or more pictures and/or text that are to be displayed under various light and weather conditions. As technology has advanced and introduced new lighting devices such as the light emitting diode (LED), such advances have been applied to large displays. An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses an array of light-emitting diodes. A large display may be made of a single LED display or a panel of smaller LED panels. LED panels may be conventional panels made using discrete LEDs or surface-mounted device (SMD) panels. Most outdoor screens and some indoor screens are built around discrete LEDs, which are also known as individually mounted LEDs. A cluster of red, green, and blue diodes is driven together to form a full-color pixel, usually square in shape. These pixels are spaced evenly apart and are measured from center to center for absolute pixel resolution. SUMMARY Embodiments of the invention relate to lighting systems and, more particularly, to multi-panel lighting systems for providing interior or exterior displays. In one embodiment, a modular display panel comprises a casing having a recess. The casing comprises locking points for use in attachment to an adjacent casing of another modular display panel. A printed circuit board is disposed in the recess and a plurality of LEDs attached to the printed circuit board. A driver circuit is attached to the printed circuit board. A heat sink is disposed between a back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. A framework of louvers is disposed over the printed circuit board. The framework of louvers is disposed between rows of the LEDs. The framework of louvers is attached to the printed circuit board using an adhesive. In another embodiment, a modular multi-panel display system comprises a mechanical support structure, and a plurality of LED display panels mounted to the mechanical support structure so as to form an integrated display panel. Each LED display panel includes a casing having a recess. The casing comprises interlocking attachment points that are attached to an adjacent LED display panel. Each LED display panel also includes a printed circuit board disposed in the recess. A plurality of LED modules is attached to the printed circuit board. Each LED display panel also includes a heat sink disposed between a back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. Each LED display panel is hermetically sealed and exposed to the environment without use of any cabinets. The display system is cooled passively and includes no air conditioning, fans, or heating units. In yet another embodiment, a modular display panel comprises a plastic housing having a recess, and a printed circuit board disposed in the recess. A plurality of LEDs is attached to the printed circuit board. A transparent potting compound overlies the LEDs. A driver circuit is attached to the printed circuit board. A heat sink is disposed between a back side of the housing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the housing and the printed circuit board. A power supply is mounted outside the plastic housing. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding, reference is now made to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which: FIGS. 1A and 1B illustrate one embodiment of a display that may be provided according to the present disclosure; FIGS. 2A-2C illustrate one embodiment of a lighting panel that may be used with the display of FIGS. 1A and 1B; FIGS. 3A-3I illustrate one embodiment of a housing and an alignment plate that may be used with the panel of FIG. 2A; FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate a more detailed embodiment of the panel of FIG. 2A; FIG. 5 illustrates an alternative embodiment of the panel of FIG. 4A; FIGS. 6A and 6B illustrate a more detailed embodiment of the panel of FIG. 2A; FIG. 7 illustrates an alternative embodiment of the panel of FIG. 6A; FIGS. 8A-8M illustrate one embodiment of a frame that may be used with the display of FIGS. 1A and 1B; FIGS. 9A-9C illustrate one embodiment of a locking mechanism that may be used with the display of FIGS. 1A and 1B; FIGS. 10A-10D illustrate one embodiment of a display configuration; FIGS. 11A-11D illustrate another embodiment of a display configuration; FIGS. 12A-12D illustrate yet another embodiment of a display configuration; FIG. 13 illustrates a modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 illustrates a modular display panel attached to a supporting frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 15 illustrates a frame used to provide mechanical support to the modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 16A-16E illustrate an attachment plate used to attach one or more modular display panels to the frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 16A illustrates a projection view while FIG. 16B illustrates a top view and FIG. 16C illustrates a cross-sectional view of a first embodiment while FIG. 16D illustrates a bottom view and FIG. 16 E illustrates a bottom view of a second embodiment; FIG. 17 illustrates a magnified view of the attachment plate or a connecting plate, frame, and display panel after mounting in accordance with embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 18 illustrates one unit of the modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 19 illustrates a magnified view of two display panels next to each other and connected through the cables such that the output cable of the left display panel is connected with the input cable of the next display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 20 illustrates a modular multi-panel display system comprising a plurality of LED display panels connected together using the afore-mentioned cables in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 21A-21C illustrate an alternative embodiment of the modular display panel attached to a supporting frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIGS. 21B and 21C illustrate alternative structural embodiments of the supporting frame; FIG. 22 illustrates a method of assembling a modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 23 illustrates a method of maintaining a modular multi-panel display that includes a mechanical support structure and a plurality of LED display panels detachably coupled to the mechanical support structure without a cabinet in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 24A-24C illustrate a display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 24A illustrates a cross-sectional view of a display panel while FIG. 24B illustrates a schematic of the display panel, and wherein FIG. 24C illustrates a schematic of the LED array as controlled by the receiver circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 25A-25D illustrate a display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 25A illustrates a projection view of the back side of the display panel, FIG. 25B illustrates a planar back side of the display panel, and FIG. 25C illustrates a planar bottom view while FIG. 25D illustrates a side view; FIG. 26 illustrates a planar view of a portion of the front side of the display panel in according with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 27A-27C illustrate cross-sectional views of the framework of louvers at the front side of the display panel in according with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 27 illustrates a cross-sectional along a direction perpendicular to the orientation of the plurality of ridges 1632 along the line 27-27 in FIG. 26; FIG. 28 illustrates a plurality of display panels arranged next to each other in accordance with embodiments of the present invention; FIGS. 29A-29D illustrates a schematic of a control system for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 29A illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wired network connection, wherein FIG. 29B illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wireless network connection, wherein FIGS. 29C and 29D illustrate the power transmission scheme used in powering the modular multi-panel display system; FIG. 30 illustrates a schematic of a sending card of the control system for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 31 illustrates a schematic of a data receiver box for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 32 illustrates a method of assembling a modular multi-panel display in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 33 illustrates a cross-sectional view of an integrated data and power cord in accordance with embodiments; FIGS. 34A and 34B illustrate cross-sectional views of connectors at the ends of the integrated data and power cable in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, wherein FIG. 34A illustrates a first connector that is configured to fit or lock into a second connector illustrated in FIG. 34B; FIGS. 35A and 35B illustrate cross-sectional views showing the first connector locked with the second connector in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, wherein FIG. 35A illustrates the first connector aligned to the second connector, while FIG. 35B illustrates the first connector securely locked to the second connector with the sealing cover sealing the connectors; FIGS. 36A and 36B illustrate one embodiment of the first connector previously illustrated in FIG. 34A and FIGS. 35A and 35B, wherein FIG. 36A illustrates a planar top view while FIG. 36B illustrates a projection view; FIGS. 37A and 37B illustrate one embodiment of the second connector previously illustrated in FIG. 34B and FIGS. 35A and 35B, wherein FIG. 37A illustrates a planar top view while FIG. 37B illustrates a projection view; FIGS. 38A-38D illustrate specific examples of an assembled display system; FIG. 38E illustrates a specific example of a frame that can be used with the system of FIGS. 38A-38D; FIG. 39 illustrates an assembled multi-panel display that is ready for shipment; and FIGS. 40A and 40B illustrate a lower cost panel that can be used with embodiments of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS In the following discussion, exterior displays are used herein for purposes of example. It is understood that the present disclosure may be applied to lighting for any type of interior and/or exterior display. Embodiments of the invention provide display panels, each of which provides a completely self-contained building block that is lightweight. These displays are designed to protect against weather, without a heavy cabinet. The panel can be constructed of aluminum or plastic so that it will about 50% lighter than typical panels that are commercially available. The lightweight design allows for easier installation and maintenance, thus lowering total cost of ownership. In certain embodiments, the display is IP 67 rated and therefore waterproof and corrosion resistant. Because weather is the number one culprit for damage to LED displays, and IP 67 rating provides weatherproofing with significant weather protection. These panels are completely waterproof against submersion in up to 3 feet of water. In other embodiments, the equipment can be designed with an IP 68 rating to operate completely underwater. In lower-cost embodiments where weatherproofing is not as significant, the panels can have an IP 65 or IP 66 rating. One aspect takes advantage of a no cabinet design-new technology that replaces cabinets, which are necessary in commercial embodiments. Older technology incorporates the use of cabinets in order to protect the LED display electronics from rain. This creates an innate problem in that the cabinet must not allow rain to get inside to the electronics, while at the same time the cabinet must allow for heat created by the electronics and ambient heat to escape. Embodiments that do not use this cabinet technology avoid a multitude of problems inherent to cabinet-designed displays. One of the problems that has been solved is the need to effectively cool the LED display. Most LED manufacturers must use air-conditioning (HVAC) to keep their displays cool. This technology greatly increases the cost of installation and performance. Displays of the present invention can be designed to be light weight and easy to handle. For example, the average total weight of a 20 mm, 14′×48′ panel can be 5,500 pounds or less while typical commercially available panels are at 10,000 to 12,000 pounds. These units are more maneuverable and easier to install saving time and money in the process. Embodiments of the invention provide building block panels that are configurable with future expandability. These displays can offer complete expandability to upgrade in the future without having to replace the entire display. Installation is fast and easy with very little down-time, which allows any electronic message to be presented more quickly. In some embodiments, the display panels are “hot swappable.” By removing one screw in each of the four corners of the panel, servicing the display is fast and easy. Since a highly-trained, highly-paid electrician or LED technician is not needed to correct a problem, cost benefits can be achieved. Various embodiments utilize enhanced pixel technology (EPT), which increases image capability. EPT allows image displays in the physical pitch spacing, but also has the ability to display the image in a resolution that is four-times greater. Images will be as sharp and crisp when viewed close as when viewed from a distance, and at angles. In some embodiments it is advantageous to build multipanel displays where each of the LEDs is provided by a single LED manufacturer, so that diodes of different origin in the manufacture are not mixed. It has been discovered that diode consistency can aid in the quality of the visual image. While this feature is not necessary, it is helpful because displays made from different diodes from different suppliers can create patchy inconsistent color, e.g., “pink” reds and pink looking casts to the overall image. Referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B, one embodiment of a multi-panel display 100 is illustrated. The display 100 includes a display surface 102 that is formed by multiple lighting panels 104a-104t. In the present embodiment, the panels 104a-104t use light emitting diodes (LEDs) for illumination, but it is understood that other light sources may be used in other embodiments. The panels 104a-104t typically operate together to form a single image, although multiple images may be simultaneously presented by the display 100. In the present example, the panels 104a-104t are individually attached to a frame 106, which enables each panel to be installed or removed from the frame 106 without affecting the other panels. Each panel 104a-104t is a self-contained unit that couples directly to the frame 106. By “directly,” it is understood that another component or components may be positioned between the panel 104a-104t and the frame 106, but the panel is not placed inside a cabinet that is coupled to the frame 106. For example, an alignment plate (described later but not shown in the present figure) may be coupled to a panel and/or the frame 106 to aid in aligning a panel with other panels. Further a corner plate could be used. The panel may then be coupled to the frame 106 or the alignment plate and/or corner plate, and either coupling approach would be “direct” according to the present disclosure. Two or more panels 104a-104t can be coupled for power and/or data purposes, with a panel 104a-104t receiving power and/or data from a central source or another panel and passing through at least some of the power and/or data to one or more other panels. This further improves the modular aspect of the display 100, as a single panel 104a-104t can be easily connected to the display 100 when being installed and easily disconnected when being removed by decoupling the power and data connections from neighboring panels. The power and data connections for the panels 104a-104t may be configured using one or more layouts, such as a ring, mesh, star, bus, tree, line, or fully-connected layout, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments the LED panels 104a-104t may be in a single network, while in other embodiments the LED panels 104a-104t may be divided into multiple networks. Power and data may be distributed using identical or different layouts. For example, power may be distributed in a line layout, while data may use a combination of line and star layouts. The frame 106 may be relatively light in weight compared to frames needed to support cabinet mounted LED assemblies. In the present example, the frame 106 includes only a top horizontal member 108, a bottom horizontal member 110, a left vertical member 112, a right vertical member 114, and intermediate vertical members 116. Power cables and data cables (not shown) for the panels 104a-104t may route around and/or through the frame 106. In one example, the display 100 includes 336 panels 104a-104t, e.g., to create a 14′×48′ display. As will be discussed below, because each panel is lighter than typical panels, the entire display could be built to weigh only 5500 pounds. This compares favorably to commercially available displays of the size, which generally weigh from 10,000 to 12,000 pounds. Referring to FIGS. 2A-2C, one embodiment of an LED panel 200 is illustrated that may be used as one of the LED panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B. FIG. 2A illustrates a front view of the panel 200 with LEDs aligned in a 16×32 configuration. FIG. 2B illustrates a diagram of internal components within the panel 200. FIG. 2C illustrates one possible configuration of a power supply positioned within the panel 200 relative to a back plate of the panel 200. Referring specifically to FIG. 2A, in the present example, the LED panel 200 includes a substrate 202 that forms a front surface of the panel 200. The substrate 202 in the present embodiment is rectangular in shape, with a top edge 204, a bottom edge 206, a right edge 208, and a left edge 210. A substrate surface 212 includes “pixels” 214 that are formed by one or more LEDs 216 on or within the substrate 202. In the present example, each pixel 214 includes four LEDs 216 arranged in a pattern (e.g., a square). For example, the four LEDs 216 that form a pixel 214 may include a red LED, a green LED, a blue LED, and one other LED (e.g., a white LED). In some embodiments, the other LED may be a sensor. It is understood that more or fewer LEDs 216 may be used to form a single pixel 214, and the use of four LEDs 216 and their relative positioning as a square is for purposes of illustration only. In some embodiments, the substrate 202 may form the entire front surface of the panel 200, with no other part of the panel 200 being visible from the front when the substrate 202 is in place. In other embodiments, a housing 220 (FIG. 2B) may be partially visible at one or more of the edges of the substrate 202. The substrate 202 may form the front surface of the panel 200, but may not be the outer surface in some embodiments. For example, a transparent or translucent material or coating may overlay the substrate 202 and the LEDs 216, thereby being positioned between the substrate 202/LEDs 216 and the environment. As one example, a potting material can be formed over the LEDs 216. This material can be applied as a liquid, e.g., while heated, and then harden over the surface, e.g., when cooled. This potting material is useful for environmental protection, e.g., to achieve an IP rating of IP 65 or higher. Louvers 218 may be positioned above each row of pixels 214 to block or minimize light from directly striking the LEDs 216 from certain angles. For example, the louvers 218 may be configured to extend from the substrate 202 to a particular distance and/or at a particular angle needed to completely shade each pixel 214 when a light source (e.g., the sun) is at a certain position (e.g., ten degrees off vertical). In the present example, the louvers 208 extend the entire length of the substrate 202, but it is understood that other louver configurations may be used. Referring specifically to FIG. 2B, one embodiment of the panel 200 illustrates a housing 220. The housing 220 contains circuitry 222 and a power supply 224. The circuitry 222 is coupled to the LEDs 216 and is used to control the LEDs. The power supply 224 provides power to the LEDs 216 and circuitry 222. As will be described later in greater detail with respect to two embodiments of the panel 200, data and/or power may be received for only the panel 200 or may be passed on to one or more other panels as well. Accordingly, the circuitry 222 and/or power supply 224 may be configured to pass data and/or power to other panels in some embodiments. In the present example, the housing 220 is sealed to prevent water from entering the housing. For example, the housing 220 may be sealed to have an ingress protection (IP) rating such as IP 67, which defines a level of protection against both solid particles and liquid. This ensures that the panel 200 can be mounted in inclement weather situations without being adversely affected. In such embodiments, the cooling is passive as there are no vent openings for air intakes or exhausts. In other embodiments, the housing may be sealed to have an IP rating of IP 65 or higher, e.g. IP 65, IP 66, IP 67, or IP 68. Referring specifically to FIG. 2C, one embodiment of the panel 200 illustrates how the power supply 224 may be thermally coupled to the housing 220 via a thermally conductive material 226 (e.g., aluminum). This configuration may be particularly relevant in embodiments where the panel 200 is sealed and cooling is passive. Referring to FIGS. 3A-3I, one embodiment of a housing 300 is illustrated that may be used with one of the LED panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B. For example, the housing 300 may be a more specific example of the housing 220 of FIG. 2B. In FIGS. 3B-3I, the housing 300 is shown with an alignment plate, which may be separate from the housing 300 or formed as part of the housing 300. In the present example, the housing 300 may be made of a thermally conductive material (e.g., aluminum) that is relatively light weight and rigid. In other embodiments, the housing 300 could be made out of industrial plastic, which is even lighter than aluminum. As shown in the orthogonal view of FIG. 3A, the housing 300 defines a cavity 302. Structural cross-members 304 and 306 may be used to provide support to a substrate (e.g., the substrate 202 of FIG. 2A) (not shown). The cross-members 304 and 306, as well as other areas of the housing 300, may include supports 308 against which the substrate can rest when placed into position. As shown, the supports 308 may include a relatively narrow tip section that can be inserted into a receiving hole in the back of the substrate and then a wider section against which the substrate can rest. The housing 300 may also include multiple extensions 310 (e.g., sleeves) that provide screw holes or locations for captive screws that can be used to couple the substrate to the housing 300. Other extensions 312 may be configured to receive pins or other protrusions from a locking plate and/or fasteners, which will be described later in greater detail. Some or all of the extensions 312 may be accessible only from the rear side of the housing 300 and so are not shown as openings in FIG. 3A. As shown in FIG. 3B, an alignment plate 314 may be used with the housing 300. The alignment plate is optional. The alignment plate 314, when used, aids in aligning multiple panels on the frame 106 to ensure that the resulting display surface has correctly aligned pixels both horizontally and vertically. To accomplish this, the alignment plate 314 includes tabs 316 and slots 318 (FIG. 3F). Each tab 316 fits into the slot 318 of an adjoining alignment plate (if present) and each slot 318 receives a tab from an adjoining alignment plate (if present). This provides an interlocking series of alignment plates. As each alignment plate 314 is coupled to or part of a housing 300, this results in correctly aligning the panels on the frame 106. It is understood that, in some embodiments, the alignment plate 314 may be formed as part of the panel or the alignment functionality provided by the alignment plate 314 may be achieved in other ways. In still other embodiments, a single alignment panel 314 may be formed to receive multiple panels, rather than a single panel as shown in FIG. 3B. In other embodiments, the alignment functionality is eliminated. The design choice of whether to use alignment mechanisms (e.g., slots and grooves) is based upon a tradeoff between the additional alignment capability and the ease of assembly. As shown in FIG. 3C, the housing 300 may include beveled or otherwise non-squared edges 320. This shaping of the edges enables panels to be positioned in a curved display without having large gaps appear as would occur if the edges were squared. Referring to FIGS. 4A and 4B, one embodiment of a panel 400 is illustrated that may be similar or identical to one of the LED panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B. The panel 400 may be based on a housing 401 that is similar or identical to the housing 300 of FIG. 3A. FIG. 4A illustrates a back view of the panel 400 and FIG. 4B illustrates a top view. The panel 400 has a width W and a height H. In the present example, the back includes a number of connection points that include a “power in” point 402, a “data in” point 404, a main “data out” point 406, multiple slave data points 408, and a “power out” point 410. As will be discussed below, one embodiment of the invention provides for an integrated data and power cable, which reduces the number of ports. The power in point 402 enables the panel 400 to receive power from a power source, which may be another panel. The data in point 404 enables the panel to receive data from a data source, which may be another panel. The main data out point 406 enables the panel 400 to send data to another main panel. The multiple slave data points 408, which are bi-directional in this example, enable the panel 400 to send data to one or more slave panels and to receive data from those slave panels. In some embodiments, the main data out point 406 and the slave data out points 408 may be combined. The power out point 410 enables the panel 400 to send power to another panel. The connection points may be provided in various ways. For example, in one embodiment, the connection points may be jacks configured to receive corresponding plugs. In another embodiment, a cable may extend from the back panel with a connector (e.g., a jack or plug) affixed to the external end of the cable to provide an interface for another connector. It is understood that the connection points may be positioned and organized in many different ways. Inside the panel, the power in point 402 and power out point 410 may be coupled to circuitry (not shown) as well as to a power supply. For example, the power in point 402 and power out point 410 may be coupled to the circuitry 222 of FIG. 2B, as well as to the power supply 224. In such embodiments, the circuitry 222 may aid in regulating the reception and transmission of power. In other embodiments, the power in point 402 and power out point 410 may by coupled only to the power supply 224 with a pass through power connection allowing some of the received power to be passed from the power in point 402 to the power out point 410. The data in point 404, main data out point 406, and slave data out points 408 may be coupled to the circuitry 222. The circuitry 222 may aid in regulating the reception and transmission of the data. In some embodiments, the circuitry 222 may identify data used for the panel 400 and also send all data on to other coupled main and slave panels via the main data out point 406 and slave data out points 408, respectively. In such embodiments, the other main and slave panels would then identify the information relevant to that particular panel from the data. In other embodiments, the circuitry 222 may remove the data needed for the panel 400 and selectively send data on to other coupled main and slave panels via the main data out point 406 and slave data out points 408, respectively. For example, the circuitry 222 may send only data corresponding to a particular slave panel to that slave panel rather than sending all data and letting the slave panel identify the corresponding data. The back panel also has coupling points 412 and 414. In the example where the housing is supplied by the housing 300 of FIG. 3A, the coupling points 412 and 414 may correspond to extensions 310 and 312, respectively. Referring specifically to FIG. 4B, a top view of the panel 400 illustrates three sections of the housing 401. The first section 416 includes the LEDs (not shown) and louvers 418. The second section 420 and third section 422 may be used to house the circuitry 222 and power supply 224. In the present example, the third section 422 is an extended section that may exist on main panels, but not slave panels, due to extra components needed by a main panel to distribute data. Depths D1, D2, and D3 correspond to sections 416, 420, and 422, respectively. Referring to FIG. 5, one embodiment of a panel 500 is illustrated that may be similar or identical to the panel 400 of FIG. 4A with the exception of a change in the slave data points 408. In the embodiment of FIG. 4A, the slave data points 408 are bi-directional connection points. In the present embodiment, separate slave “data in” points 502 and slave “data out” points 504 are provided. In other embodiments, the data points can be directional connection points. Referring to FIGS. 6A and 6B, one embodiment of a panel 600 is illustrated that may be similar or identical to the panel 400 of FIG. 4A except that the panel 600 is a slave panel. FIG. 6A illustrates a back view of the panel 600 and FIG. 6B illustrates a top view. The panel 600 has a width W and a height H. In the present embodiment, these are identical to the width W and height H of the panel 400 of FIG. 4A. In one example, the width W can be between 1 and 4 feet and the height H can be between 0.5 and 4 feet, for example 1 foot by 2 feet. Of course, the invention is not limited to these specific dimensions. In contrast to the main panel of FIG. 4A, the back of the slave panel 600 has a more limited number of connection points that include a “power in” point 602, a data point 604, and a “power out” point 606. The power in point 602 enables the panel 600 to receive power from a power source, which may be another panel. The data point 604 enables the panel to receive data from a data source, which may be another panel. The power out point 606 enables the panel 600 to send power to another main panel. In the present example, the data point 604 is bi-directional, which corresponds to the main panel configuration illustrated in FIG. 4A. The back panel also has coupling points 608 and 610, which correspond to coupling points 412 and 414, respectively, of FIG. 4A. As discussed above, other embodiments use directional data connections. Referring specifically to FIG. 6B, a top view of the panel 600 illustrates two sections of the housing 601. The first section 612 includes the LEDs (not shown) and louvers 614. The second section 616 may be used to house the circuitry 222 and power supply 224. In the present example, the extended section provided by the third section 422 of FIG. 4A is not needed as the panel 600 does not pass data on to other panels. Depths D1 and D2 correspond to sections 612 and 616, respectively. In the present embodiment, depths D1 and D2 are identical to depths D1 and D2 of the panel 400 of FIG. 4B. In one example, the depth D1 can be between 1 and 4 inches and the depths D2 can be between 1 and 4 inches. It is noted that the similarity in size of the panels 400 of FIG. 4A and the panel 600 of FIG. 6A enables the panels to be interchanged as needed. More specifically, as main panels and slave panels have an identical footprint in terms of height H, width W, and depth D1, their position on the frame 106 of FIGS. 1A and 1B does not matter from a size standpoint, but only from a functionality standpoint. Accordingly, the display 100 can be designed as desired using main panels and slave panels without the need to be concerned with how a particular panel will physically fit into a position on the frame. The design may then focus on issues such as the required functionality (e.g., whether a main panel is needed or a slave panel is sufficient) for a particular position and/or other issues such as weight and cost. In some embodiments, the main panel 400 of FIG. 4A may weigh more than the slave panel 600 due to the additional components present in the main panel 400. The additional components may also make the main panel 400 more expensive to produce than the slave panel 600. Therefore, a display that uses as many slave panels as possible while still meeting required criteria will generally cost less and weigh less than a display that uses more main panels. Referring to FIG. 7, one embodiment of a panel 700 is illustrated that may be similar or identical to the panel 600 of FIG. 6A with the exception of a change in the data point 604. In the embodiment of FIG. 6A, the data point 604 is a bi-directional connection. In the present embodiment, a separate “data out” point 702 and a “data in” point 704 are provided, which corresponds to the main panel configuration illustrated in FIG. 5. Referring to FIGS. 8A-8M, embodiments of a frame 800 are illustrated. For example, the frame 800 may provide a more detailed embodiment of the frame 106 of FIG. 1B. As described previously, LED panels, such as the panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B, may be mounted directly to the frame 800. Accordingly, the frame 800 does not need to be designed to support heavy cabinets, but need only be able to support the panels 104a-104t and associated cabling (e.g., power and data cables), and the frame 800 may be lighter than conventional frames that have to support cabinet based structures. For purposes of example, various references may be made to the panel 200 of FIG. 2A, the housing 300 of FIG. 3A, and the panel 400 of FIG. 4A. In the present example, the frame 800 is designed to support LED panels 802 in a configuration that is ten panels high and thirty-two panels wide. While the size of the panels 802 may vary, in the current embodiment this provides a display surface that is approximately fifty feet and four inches wide (50′ 4″) and fifteen feet and eight and three-quarters inches high (15′ 8.75″). It is understood that all measurements and materials described with respect to FIGS. 8A-8M are for purposes of example only and are not intended to be limiting. Accordingly, many different lengths, heights, thicknesses, and other dimensional and/or material changes may be made to the embodiments of FIGS. 8A-8M. Referring specifically to FIG. 8B, a back view of the frame 800 is illustrated. The frame 800 includes a top bar 804, a bottom bar 806, a left bar 808, a right bar 810, and multiple vertical bars 812 that connect the top bar 804 and bottom bar 806. In some embodiments, additional horizontal bars 814 may be present. The frame 800 may be constructed of various materials, including metals. For example, the top bar 804, the bottom bar 806, the left bar 808, and the right bar 810 (e.g., the perimeter bars) may be made using a four inch aluminum association standard channel capable of bearing 1.738 lb/ft. The vertical bars 812 may be made using 2″×4″×½″ aluminum tube capable of bearing a load of 3.23 lb/ft. it is understood that other embodiments will utilize other size components. It is understood that these sizes and load bearing capacities are for purposes of illustration and are not intended to be limiting. However, conventional steel display frames needed to support conventional cabinet-based displays are typically much heavier than the frame 800, which would likely not be strong enough to support a traditional cabinet-based display. For example, the frame 800 combined with the panels described herein may weigh at least fifty percent less than equivalent steel cabinet-based displays. Referring to FIG. 8C, a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8B taken along lines A1-A1 is illustrated. The horizontal bars 810 are more clearly visible. More detailed views of FIG. 8C are described below. Referring to FIG. 8D, a more detailed view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C at location B1 is illustrated. The cutaway view shows the top bar 804 and a vertical bar 812. A first flat bar 816 may be used with multiple fasteners 818 to couple the top bar 804 to the vertical bar 812 at the back of the frame 800. A second flat bar 820 may be used with fasteners 821 to couple the top bar 804 to the vertical bar 812 at the front of the frame 800. A front plate 902 belonging to a coupling mechanism 900 (described below with respect to FIG. 9A) is illustrated. The second flat bar 820 may replace a back plate of the coupling mechanism 900. In embodiments where the second flat bar 820 replaces the back plate, the second flat bar 820 may include one or more holes to provide accessibility to fasteners of the coupling mechanism 900. Referring to FIGS. 8E-8G, various more detailed views of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C are illustrated. FIG. 8E provides a more detailed view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C at location B2. FIG. 8F provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8E taken along lines C1-C1. FIG. 8G provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8E taken along lines C2-C2. A clip 822 may be coupled to a vertical bar 812 via one or more fasteners 824 and to the horizontal bar 814 via one or more fasteners 824. In the present example, the clip 822 is positioned above the horizontal bar 814, but it is understood that the clip 822 may be positioned below the horizontal bar 814 in other embodiments. In still other embodiments, the clip 822 may be placed partially inside the horizontal bar 814 (e.g., a portion of the clip 822 may be placed through a slot or other opening in the horizontal bar 814). Referring to FIGS. 8H and 8I, various more detailed views of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C are illustrated. FIG. 8H provides a more detailed view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C at location B3. FIG. 8I provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8H taken along lines D1-D1. The cutaway view shows the bottom bar 806 and a vertical bar 812. A first flat bar 826 may be used with multiple fasteners 828 to couple the bottom bar 806 to the vertical bar 812 at the back of the frame 800. A second flat bar 830 may be used with fasteners 832 to couple the bottom bar 806 to the vertical bar 812 at the front of the frame 800. A front plate 902 belonging to a coupling mechanism 900 (described below with respect to FIG. 9A) is illustrated. The second flat bar 830 may replace a back plate of the coupling mechanism 900. In embodiments where the second flat bar 830 replaces the back plate, the second flat bar 830 may include one or more holes to provide accessibility to fasteners of the coupling mechanism 900. Referring to FIGS. 8J and 8K, various more detailed views of the frame 800 of FIG. 8A are illustrated. FIG. 8H provides a more detailed view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8B at location A2. FIG. 8K provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8J taken along lines E1-E1. The two views show the bottom bar 806 and the left bar 808. A clip 834 may be used with multiple fasteners 836 to couple the bottom bar 806 to the left bar 808 at the corner of the frame 800. Referring to FIGS. 8L and 8M, an alternative embodiment to FIG. 8E is illustrated. FIG. 8L provides a more detailed view of the frame 800 in the alternate embodiment. FIG. 8M provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8L taken along lines F1-F1. In this embodiment, rather than using a horizontal bar 814, a vertical bar 812 is coupled directly to a beam 840 using a clip 838. Referring to FIGS. 9A-9C, one embodiment of a coupling mechanism 900 is illustrated that may be used to attach an LED panel (e.g., one of the panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B) to a frame (e.g., the frame 106 or the frame 800 of FIGS. 8A and 8B). For purposes of example, the coupling mechanism 900 is described as attaching the panel 200 of FIG. 2A to the frame 800 of FIG. 8B. In the present example, a single coupling mechanism 900 may attach up to four panels to the frame 800. To accomplish this, the coupling mechanism 900 is positioned where the corners of four panels meet. The coupling mechanism 900 includes a front plate 902 and a back plate 904. The front plate 902 has an outer surface 906 that faces the back of a panel and an inner surface 908 that faces the frame 106. The front plate 902 may include a center hole 910 and holes 912. The center hole 910 may be countersunk relative to the outer surface 906 to allow a bolt head to sit at or below the outer surface 906. Mounting pins 914 may extend from the outer surface 906. The back plate 904 has an outer surface 916 that faces away from the frame 106 and an inner surface 918 that faces the frame 106. The back plate 904 includes a center hole 920 and holes 922. In operation, the front plate 902 and back plate 904 are mounted on opposite sides of one of the vertical bars 808, 810, or 812 with the front plate 902 mounted on the panel side of the frame 800 and the back plate 904 mounted on the back side of the frame 800. For purposes of example, a vertical bar 812 will be used. When mounted in this manner, the inner surface 908 of the front plate 902 and the inner surface 918 of the back plate 904 face one another. A fastener (e.g., a bolt) may be placed through the center hole 910 of the front plate 902, through a hole in the vertical bar 812 of the frame 800, and through the center hole 920 of the back plate 904. This secures the front plate 902 and back plate 904 to the frame 800 with the mounting pins 914 extending away from the frame. Using the housing 300 of FIG. 3A as an example, a panel is aligned on the frame 800 by inserting the appropriate mounting pin 914 into one of the holes in the back of the housing 300 provided by an extension 310/312. It is understood that this occurs at each corner of the panel, so that the panel will be aligned with the frame 800 using four mounting pins 914 that correspond to four different coupling mechanisms 900. It is noted that the pins 914 illustrated in FIG. 9C are horizontally aligned with the holes 912, while the extensions illustrated in FIG. 3A are vertically aligned. As described previously, these are alternate embodiments and it is understood that the holes 912/pins 914 and extensions 310/312 should have a matching orientation and spacing. Once in position, a fastener is inserted through the hole 922 of the back plate 904, through the corresponding hole 912 of the front plate 902, and into a threaded hole provided by an extension 310/312 in the panel 300. This secures the panel to the frame 800. It is understood that this occurs at each corner of the panel, so that the panel will be secured to the frame 800 using four different coupling mechanisms 900. Accordingly, to attach or remove a panel, only four fasteners need be manipulated. The coupling mechanism 900 can remain in place to support up to three other panels. In other embodiments, the front plate 902 is not needed. For example, in displays that are lighter in weight the back of the panel can abut directly with the beam. In other embodiments, the center hole 920 and corresponding bolt are not necessary. In other words the entire connection is made by the screws through the plate 904 into the panel. The embodiment illustrated here shows a connection from the back of the display. In certain applications, access to the back of the panels is not available. For example, the display may be mounted directly on a building without a catwalk or other access. In this case, the holes in the panel can extend all the way through the panel with the bolts being applied through the panel and secured on the back. This is the opposite direction of what is shown in FIG. 9C. More precise alignment may be provided by using an alignment plate, such as the alignment plate 314 of FIG. 3B, with each panel. For example, while positioning the panel and prior to tightening the coupling mechanism 900, the tabs 316 of the alignment plate 314 for that panel may be inserted into slots 318 in surrounding alignment plates. The coupling mechanism 900 may then be tightened to secure the panel into place. It is understood that many different configurations may be used for the coupling mechanism 400. For example, the locations of holes and/or pins may be moved, more or fewer holes and/or pins may be provided, and other modifications may be made. It is further understood that many different coupling mechanisms may be used to attach a panel to the frame 106. Such coupling mechanisms may use bolts, screws, latches, clips, and/or any other fastener suitable for removably attaching a panel to the frame 800. FIG. 10A illustrates the power connections, FIG. 10B illustrates data connections, FIG. 10C illustrates power connections, and FIG. 10D illustrates data connections. Referring to FIGS. 10A and 10B, one embodiment of a 13×22 panel display 1000 is illustrated that includes two hundred and eighty-six panels arranged in thirteen rows and twenty-two columns. For purposes of example, the display 1000 uses the previously described main panel 400 of FIG. 4A (a ‘B’ panel) and the slave panel 600 of FIG. 6A (a ‘C’ panel). As described previously, these panels have a bi-directional input/output connection point for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels. The rows are divided into two sections with the top section having seven rows and the bottom section having six rows. The B panels form the fourth row of each section and the remaining rows are C panels. FIGS. 10C and 10D provide enlarged views of a portion of FIGS. 10A and 10B, respectively. As illustrated in FIG. 10A, power (e.g., 220V single phase) is provided to the top section via seven breakers (e.g., twenty amp breakers), with a breaker assigned to each of the seven rows. Power is provided to the bottom section via six breakers, with a breaker assigned to each of the six rows. In the present example, the power is provided in a serial manner along a row, with power provided to the first column panel via the power source, to the second column panel via the first panel, to the third column panel via the second panel, and so on for the entire row. Accordingly, if a panel is removed or the power for a panel is unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the row will lose power. As illustrated in FIG. 10B, data is sent from a data source 1002 (e.g., a computer) to the top section via one line and to the bottom section via another line. In some embodiments, as illustrated, the data lines may be connected to provide a loop. In the present example, the data is provided to the B panels that form the fourth row of each section. The B panels in the fourth row feed the data both vertically along the column and in a serial manner along the row. For example, the B panel at row four, column two (r4:c2), sends data to the C panels in rows one, two, three, five, six, and seven of column two (r1-3:c2 and r5-7:c2), as well as to the B panel at row four, column three (r4:c3). Accordingly, if a B panel in row four is removed or the data cables are unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the column fed by that panel will lose their data connection. The next columns will also lose their data connections unless the loop allows data to reach them in the opposite direction. It is understood that the data lines may be bi-directional. In some embodiments, an input line and an output line may be provided, rather than a single bi-directional line as illustrated in FIGS. 10A and 10B. In such embodiments, the panels may be configured with additional input and/or output connections. An example of this is provided below in FIGS. 11A and 11B. Referring to FIGS. 11A and 11B, one embodiment of a 16×18 panel display 1100 is illustrated that includes two hundred and eighty-eight panels arranged in sixteen rows and eighteen columns. Each power line connects to a single 110V 20 amp breaker. All external power cables are 14 AWG SOW UL while internal power cables must be 14 AWG UL. For purposes of example, the display 1100 uses the previously described main panel 500 of FIG. 5 (a ‘B’ panel) and the slave panel 700 of FIG. 7 (a ‘C’ panel). As described previously, these panels have separate input and output connection points for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels. FIGS. 11C and 11D provide enlarged views of a portion of FIGS. 11A and 11B, respectively. As illustrated in FIG. 11A, power is provided from a power source directly to the first column panel and the tenth column panel of each row via a power line connected to a single 110V, 20 A breaker. Those panels then feed the power along the rows in a serial manner. For example, the power is provided to the first column panel via the power source, to the second column panel via the first panel, to the third column panel via the second panel, and so on until the ninth column panel is reached for that row. The ninth column panel does not feed power to another panel because power is provided directly to the tenth column panel via the power source. Power is then provided to the eleventh column panel via the tenth panel, to the twelfth column panel via the eleventh panel, and so on until the end of the row is reached. Accordingly, if a panel is removed or the power for a panel is unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the row that rely on that panel for power will lose power. Although not shown in FIG. 11B, the panels of the display 1100 may be divided into two sections for data purposes as illustrated previously with respect to FIG. 10B. Accordingly, as illustrated in FIG. 10B, data may be sent from a data source (e.g., a computer) to a top section via one line and to a bottom section via another line. As the present example illustrates the use of separate input and output connection points for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels, data connections between B panels have been omitted for purposes of clarity. In the present example, the data is provided to the B panels that form the fourth row of each section. The B panels in the fourth row feed the data both vertically along the column and in a serial manner along the row (as shown in FIG. 10B). For example, the B panel at row four, column two (r4:c2), sends data to the C panels in rows one, two, three, five, six, seven, and eight of column two (r1-3:c2 and r5-8:c2), as well as to the B panel at row four, column three (r4:c3). Accordingly, if a B panel in row four is removed or the data cables are unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the column fed by that panel will lose their data connection. The next columns will also lose their data connections unless the loop allows data to reach them in the opposite direction. Referring to FIGS. 12A and 12B, one embodiment of a 19×10 panel two face display 1100 is illustrated that includes three hundred and eighty panels arranged in two displays of nineteen rows and ten columns. Each face requires 19 110 V 20 AMP circuit breakers. For purposes of example, the display 1100 uses the previously described main panel 500 of FIG. 5 (a ‘B’ panel) and the slave panel 700 of FIG. 7 (a ‘C’ panel). As described previously, these panels have separate input and output connection points for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels. FIGS. 12C and 12D provide enlarged views of a portion of FIGS. 12A and 12B, respectively. As illustrated in FIG. 12A, power is provided from a power source directly to the first column panel of each face via a power line connected to a single 110V, 20 A breaker. Those panels then feed the power along the rows in a serial manner. For example, the power is provided to the first column panel of the first face via the power source, to the second column panel via the first panel, to the third column panel via the second panel, and so on until the last panel is reached for that row of that face. The tenth column panel does not feed power to the next face because power is provided directly to the first column of the second face via the power source. Power is then provided to the second column panel via the first panel, to the third column panel via the second panel, and so on until the last panel is reached for that row of that face. Accordingly, if a panel is removed or the power for a panel is unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the row that rely on that panel for power will lose power. Although not shown in FIG. 12B, the panels of the display 1200 may be divided into three sections for data purposes as illustrated previously with respect to FIG. 10B. Accordingly, as illustrated in FIG. 10B, data may be sent from a data source (e.g., a computer) to the top section via one line, to a middle section via a second line, and to a bottom section via a third line. Each master control cabinet has six data cables and is configured to be in row 4. Two rows of cabinets use only 5 cables while the sixth cable is unused and tied back. As the present example illustrates the use of separate input and output connection points for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels, data connections between B panels have been omitted for purposes of clarity. However, a separate line may be run to the B panels in the first column of each face (which would require six lines in FIG. 12B), or the B panel in the last column of a row of one face may pass data to the B panel in the first column of a row of the next face (which would require three lines in FIG. 12B). In the present example, the data is provided to the B panels that form the fourth row of each section. The B panels in the fourth row feed the data both vertically along the column and in a serial manner along the row (as shown in FIG. 10B). For example, the B panel at row four, column two (r4:c2), sends data to the C panels in rows one, two, three, five, and six of column two (r1-3:c2 and r5-6:c2), as well as to the B panel at row four, column three (r4:c3). Accordingly, if a B panel in row four is removed or the data cables are unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the column fed by that panel will lose their data connection. The next columns will also lose their data connections unless the loop allows data to reach them in the opposite direction. FIG. 13 illustrates a modular display panel in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 14 illustrates a modular display panel attached to a supporting frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 15 illustrates a frame used to provide mechanical support to the modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The multi-panel modular display panel 1300 comprises a plurality of LED display panels 1350. In various embodiments describe herein, the light emitting diode (LED) display panels 1350 are attached to a frame 1310 or skeletal structure that provides the framework for supporting the LED display panels 1350. The LED display panels 1350 are stacked next to each other and securely attached to the frame 1310 using attachment plate 1450, which may be a corner plate in one embodiment. The attachment plate 1450 may comprise holes through which attachment features 1490 may be screwed in, for example. Referring to FIGS. 13 and 14, the LED display panels 1350 are arranged in an array of rows and columns. Each LED display panel 1350 of each row is electrically connected to an adjacent LED display panel 1350 within that row. Referring to FIG. 15, the frame 1310 provides mechanical support and electrical connectivity to each of the LED display panels 1350. The frame 1310 comprises a plurality of beams 1320 forming the mechanical structure. The frame 1310 comprises a top bar, a bottom bar, a left bar, a right bar, and a plurality of vertical bars extending from the top bar to the bottom bar, the vertical bars disposed between the left bar and the right bar. The top bar, the bottom bar, the left bar and the right bar comprise four inch aluminum bars, and the vertical bars comprise 2″×4″×½″ aluminum tubes. The top bar, the bottom bar, the left bar and the right bar are each capable of bearing a load of 1.738 lb/ft, and the vertical bars are each capable of bearing a load of 3.23 lb/ft. The frame 1310 may include support structures for the electrical cables, data cables, electrical power box powering the LED displays panels 1350, data receiver box controlling power, data, and communication to the LED displays panels 1350. However, the frame 1310 does not include any additional enclosures to protect the LED panels, data, power cables from the environment. Rather, the frame 1310 is exposed to the elements and further exposes the LED display panels 1350 to the environment. The frame 1310 also does not include air conditioning, fans, or heating units to maintain the temperature of the LED display panels 1350. Rather, the LED display panels 1350 are hermetically sealed themselves and are designed to be exposed to the outside ambient. Further, in various embodiments, there are not additional cabinets that are attached to the frame 1310 or used for housing the LED display panels 1350. Accordingly, in various embodiments, the multi-panel modular display panel 1300 is designed to be only passively cooled. FIGS. 38A-38E illustrate specific examples of an assembled display system 1300 and a frame 1310. As shown in FIG. 38A, the modular display system 1300 includes a number of LED display panels 1350 mounted to frame 1310. One of the display panels has been removed in the lower corner to illustrate the modular nature of the display. In this particular example, access is provided to the back of the modular display through a cage 1390 that includes an enclosed catwalk. Since the display system 1300 is generally highly elevated, a ladder (see FIG. 38C) provides access to the catwalk. A side view of the display system is shown in FIG. 38B and back views are shown in FIGS. 38C and 38D. FIG. 38D further illustrates the cables of the panels interlocked for safe transportation. FIG. 38E illustrates the frame 1310 without the display panels 1350. In this embodiment the beams 1320 that form that outer frame are bigger than the interior beams 1325. In this case, the interior beams 1325 are aligned in a plane outside those of the frame beams 1322. The plates 1315 are also shown in the figure. Upon installation, these plates will be rotated by 90 degrees and fasten to the display panels. FIG. 16, which includes FIGS. 16A-16C, illustrates an attachment plate used to attach one or more modular display panels to the frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 16A illustrates a projection view while FIG. 16B illustrates a top view and FIG. 16C illustrates a cross-sectional view. Referring to FIGS. 16A-16C, the attachment plate 1450 may comprise one or more through openings 1460 for enabling attachment features such as screws to go through. Referring to FIG. 16C, the attachment plate 1450 comprises a top surface 1451 and a bottom surface 1452. The height of the pillars 1480 may be adjusted to provide a good fit for the display panel. Advantageously, because the frame 1310 is not screw mounted to the display panel 1350, the display panel 1350 may be moved during mounting. This allows for improved alignment of the display panels resulting in improved picture output. An alignment plate could also be used as described above. Accordingly, in various embodiments, the height of the pillars 1480 is about the same as the thickness of the beams 1320 of the frame 1310. In one or more embodiments, the height of the pillars 1480 is slightly more than the thickness of the beams 1320 of the frame 1310. FIGS. 16D and 16E illustrate another embodiment of the attachment plate 1450. In this example, the plate is rectangular shaped and not a square. For example, the length can be two to four times longer than the width. In one example, the length is about 9 inches while the width is about 3 inches. The holes in the center of the plate are optional. Conversely, these types of holes could be added to the embodiment of FIGS. 16A and 16B. In other embodiments, other shaped plates 1450 can be used. FIG. 17 illustrates a magnified view of the attachment plate or a connecting plate, frame, and display panel after mounting in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 17, one or more attachment features 1490 may be used to connect the attachment plate 1450 to the display panel 1350. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 17, the attachment plate 1450 is a corner plate. Each corner plate is mechanically connected to corners of four of the LED display panels 1350 to secure the LED display panels 1350 to the respective beams 1320 of the frame 1310. FIG. 17 illustrates that the attachment features 1490 is attached using the through openings 1460 in the attachment plate 1450. The frame is between the attachment plate 1450 and the display panel 1350. In the embodiment of FIG. 17, the beam 1320 physically contacts the display panel 1350. In another embodiment, a second plate (not shown here) could be included between the beam 1320 and the display panel 1350. The plate could be a solid material such as a metal plate or could be a conforming material such as a rubber material embedded with metal particles. In either case, it is desirable that the plate be thermally conductive. FIG. 18 illustrates one unit of the modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 18 illustrates one LED display panel 1350 of of the multi-panel modular display panel 1300 comprising an input cable 1360 and an output cable 1365. The LED display panels 1350 are electrically connected together for data and for power using the input cable 1360 and the output cable 1365. Each modular LED display panel 1350 is capable of receiving input using an integrated data and power cable from a preceding modular LED display panel and providing an output using another integrated data and power cable to a succeeding modular LED display panel. Each cable ends with an endpoint device or connector, which is a socket or alternatively a plug. Referring to FIG. 18, in accordance with an embodiment, a LED display panel 1350 comprises an attached input cable 1360 and an output cable 1365, a first connector 1370, a second connector 1375, a sealing cover 1380. The sealing cover 1380 is configured to go over the second connector 1375 thereby hermetically sealing both ends (first connector 1370 and the second connector 1375). The sealing cover 1380, which also includes a locking feature, locks the two cables together securely. As will be described further, the input cable 1360 and the output cable 1365 comprise integrated data and power wires with appropriate insulation separating them. FIG. 19 illustrates two display panels next to each other and connected through the cables such that the output cable 1365 of the left display panel 1350 is connected with the input cable 1360 of the next display panel 1350. The sealing cover 1380 locks the two cables together as described above. FIG. 20 illustrates a modular multi-panel display system comprising a plurality of LED display panels connected together using the afore-mentioned cables. Referring to FIG. 20, for each row, a LED display panel 1350 at a first end receives an input data connection from a data source and has an output data connection to a next LED display panel in the row. Each further LED display panel 1350 provides data to a next adjacent LED display panel until a LED display panel 1350 at a second end of the row is reached. The power line is run across each row to power the LED display panels 1350 in that row. In one embodiment, the plurality of LED display panels 1350 includes 320 LED display panels 1350 arranged in ten rows and thirty-two columns so that the integrated display panel 1300 has a display surface that is approximately fifty feet and four inches wide and fifteen feet and eight and three-quarters inches high. In various embodiments, as illustrated in FIGS. 14 and 20, a data receiver box 1400 is mounted to the mechanical support structure or frame 1310. The data receiver box 1400 is configured to provide power, data, and communication to the LED display panels 1350. With a shared receiver box 1400, the panels themselves do not need their own receiver card. This configuration saves cost and weight. FIG. 21, which includes FIGS. 21A-21C, illustrates an alternative embodiment of the modular display panel attached to a supporting frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 21B and 21C illustrate alternative structural embodiments of the supporting frame. This embodiment differs from embodiment described in FIG. 14 in that the horizontal beams 1320A may be used to support the display panels 1350. In one embodiment, both horizontal beams 1320A and vertical beams 1320B may be used to support the display panels 1350. In another embodiment, horizontal beams 1320A but not the vertical beams 1320B may be used to support the display panels 1350. FIG. 21B illustrates an alternative embodiment including additional beams 1320C, which may be narrower than the other beams of the frame. One or more of the thinner beams 1320C may be placed between the regular sized vertical beams 1320B. FIG. 21C illustrates a further embodiment illustrating both a top view, bottom view and side view of a frame. The frame 1310 may be attached to a wall or other structure using plates 1315. The frame 1310 may comprise a plurality of vertical beams and horizontal beams. In one embodiment, the frame 1310 comprises an outer frame having a top bar, a bottom bar, a left bar and a right bar. A display panel 1350 may be supported between two adjacent beams 1320 marked as L3 beams, which may be thinner (smaller diameter) and lighter than the thicker and heavier load bearing beams 1321 marked as L2 beams used for forming the outer frame. As an illustration, the L2 beams may be 4″ while the L3 beams may be 3″ in one example. FIG. 22 illustrates a method of assembling a modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 22 illustrates a method of assembling the multi-panel display system discussed in various embodiments, for example, FIG. 14. A mechanical support structure such as the frame 1310 described above is assembled taking into account various parameters such as the size and weight of the multi-panel display, location and zoning requirements, and others (box 1501). For example, as previously described, the mechanical support structure includes a plurality of vertical bars and horizontal bars. The mechanical support structure may be fabricated from a corrosion resistant material in one or more embodiments. For example, the mechanical support structure may be coated with a weather-proofing coating that prevents the underlying substrate from corroding. A plurality of LED display panels are mounted on to the mechanical support structure so as to form an integrated display panel that includes an array of rows and columns of LED display panels as described in various embodiments (box 1503). Each of the LED display panels is hermetically sealed. Mounting the LED display panels may comprise mounting each LED display panel to a respective vertical beam using an attachment plate. Each of the LED display panels is electrically connected to a data source and to a power source (box 1505). For example, a first LED display panel in each row is electrically coupled to the display source. The other LED display panels in each row may be daisy-chain coupled to an adjacent LED display panel (e.g., as illustrated in FIG. 20). Since the assembled display structure is light weight, significant assembly advantages can be achieved. For example, the panels can be assembled within a warehouse that is remote from the final location where the display will be utilized. In other words, the panels can be assembled at a first location, shipped to a second location and finalized at the second location. An illustration of two assembled displays that are ready for shipment is provided in FIG. 39. These displays can be quite large, for example much larger than a 14×48 panel display. In some cases, a single display system is shipped as a series of sub-assemblies, e.g., as shown in the figure, and then assembled into a full display on location. In various embodiments, the assembled multi-panel display system includes no cabinets. The assembled multi-panel display system is cooled passively and includes no air conditioning or fans. FIG. 23 illustrates a method of maintaining a modular multi-panel display that includes a mechanical support structure and a plurality of LED display panels detachably coupled to the mechanical support structure without a cabinet. Each LED display panel is mechanically coupled to the mechanical support structure and three other lighting panels by a corner plate. Referring to FIG. 23, a defect is identified in one of the LED display panels so as to identify a defective LED display panel (box 1511). The identification of the defective LED display panel may be performed manually or automatically. For example, a control loop monitoring the display system may provide a warning or error signal identifying the location of the defect. In one embodiment, the health of a panel and/or the health of individual pixels can be determined. To determine the health of the panel, the power supply for each of the panels is monitored. If a lack of power is detected at any of the supplies a warning message is sent. For example, it can be determined that one of the power supplies has ceased to supply power. In the illustrated example, the message is sent from the power supply to the communication chip within the panel and then back to the receiving card. From the receiving card a message can be sent to the sending card or otherwise. For example, the message could generate a text to be provided to a repair station or person. In one example, a wireless transmitter is provided in the receiving card so that the warning message can be sent via a wireless network, e.g., a cellular data network. Upon receipt of the warning message, a maintenance provider can view the display, e.g., using a camera directed at the display. In another embodiment, the health of individual pixels is determined, for example, by having each panel include circuitry to monitor the power being consumed by each pixel. If any pixel is determined to be failing, a warning message can be generated as discussed above. The pixel level health check can be used separately from or in combination with the panel level health check. These embodiments would use bi-directional data communication between the panels and the receiver box. Image data will be transferred from the receiver box to the panels, e.g., along each row, and health and other monitoring data can be transferred from the panels back to the receiver. In addition to, or instead of, the health data discussed other data such as temperature, power consumption or mechanical data (e.g., sensing whether the panel has moved) can be provided from the panel. If a decision is made to replace the defective LED display panel, the defective LED display panel is electrically disconnected from the multi-panel display (box 1512). The attachment plate securely holding the LED display panel to the frame is removed from the defective LED display panel (box 1513). In one or more embodiments, four attachment plates are removed so as to remove a single LED display panel. This is because one attachment plate has to be removed from a respective corner of the defective LED display panel. The defective LED display panel is next removed from the multi-panel display (box 1514). A replacement LED display panel is placed in a location formerly taken by the defective LED display panel (box 1515). The attachment plate is reattached to the replacement LED display panel securely mounting the replacement LED display panel back to the display system (box 1516). Similarly, four attachment plates have to be reattached in the above example. The replacement LED display panel is electrically reconnected to the multi-panel display (box 1517). FIG. 24, which includes FIGS. 24A and 24B, illustrates a display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 24A illustrates a cross-sectional view of a display panel while FIG. 24B illustrates a schematic of the display panel. FIG. 24C illustrates a schematic of the LED array as controlled by the receiver circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 24A, the modular LED display panel comprises a plurality of LEDs 1610 mounted on one or more printed circuit boards (PCBs) 1620, which are housed within a hermetically sealed enclosure or casing. A framework of louvers 1630 is attached to the PCB 1620 using an adhesive 1640, which prevents moisture from reaching the PCB. However, the LEDs 1610 are directly exposed to the ambient in the direction of light emission. The LEDs 1610 themselves are water repellent and therefore are not damaged even if exposed to water. The louvers 1630 rise above the surface of the LEDs and help to minimize reflection and scattering of external light, which can otherwise degrade the quality of light output from the LEDs 1610. The PCB is mounted within a cavity of an enclosure, which may be a plastic casing 1650. A heat sink 1660 is attached between the PCB 1620 and the casing 1650 and contacts both the PCB 1620 and the casing 1650 to maximize heat extraction. A thermal grease may be used between the back side of the casing 1650 and the PCB 1620 to improve thermal conduction. In one example embodiment, the thermal grease is between the heat sink 1660 and the back side of the casing 1650. In a further example embodiment, the thermal grease is between the PCB 1620 and the heat sink 1660. A receiver circuit 1625 is mounted on the PCB 1620. The receiver circuit 1625 may be a single chip in one embodiment. Alternatively, multiple components may be mounted on the PCB 1620. The receiver circuit 1625 may be configured to process the received media and control the operation of the LEDs 1610 individually. For example, the receiver circuit 1625 may determine the color of the LED to be displayed at each location (pixel). Similarly, the receiver circuit 1625 may determine the brightness at each pixel location, for example, by controlling the current supplied to the LED. The air gap within the cavity is minimized so that heat is conducted out more efficiently. Thermally conductive standoffs 1626 may be introduced between the PCB 1620 to minimize the air gap, for example, between the receiver circuit 1625 and the heat sink 1660. The PCB 1620 is designed to maximize heat extraction from the LEDs 1610 to the heat sink 1660. As described previously, the casing 1650 of the display panel 1350 has openings through which an input cable 1360 and output cable 1365 may be attached. The cables may have connectors or plugs for connecting to an adjacent panel or alternatively the casing 1650 may simply have input and output sockets. A power supply unit 1670 may be mounted over the casing 1650 for powering the LEDs 1610. The power supply unit 1670 may comprise a LED driver in various embodiments. The LED driver may include a power converter for converting ac to dc, which is supplied to the LEDs 1610. Alternatively, the LED driver may comprise a down converter that down converts the voltage suitable for driving the LEDs 1610. For example, the down converter may down convert a dc voltage at a first level to a dc voltage at a second level that is lower than the first level. This is done so that large dc currents are not carried on the power cables. The LED driver is configured to provide a constant dc current to the LEDs 1610. Examples of down converters (dc to dc converters) include linear regulators and switched mode converters such as buck converters. In further embodiments, the output from the power supply unit 1670 is isolated from the input power. Accordingly, in various embodiments, the power supply unit 1670 may comprise a transformer. As a further example, in one or more embodiments, the power supply unit 1670 may comprise forward, half-bridge, full-bridge, or push-pull topologies. The power supply unit 1670 may be placed inside a faraday cage to minimize RF interference to other components. The LED driver of the power supply unit 1670 may also include a control loop for controlling the output current. In various embodiments, the display panel 1350 is sealed to an IP 67 standard. As discussed herein, other ratings are possible. FIG. 24B illustrates a system diagram schematic of the display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 24B, a data and power signal received at the input cable 1360 is processed at an interface circuit 1651. The incoming power is provided to the LED driver 1653. Another output from the incoming power is provided to the output cable 1365. This provides redundancy so that even if a component in the display panel 1350 is not working, the output power is not disturbed. Similarly, the output cable 1365 includes all the data packets being received in the input cable 1360. The interface circuit 1651 provides the received data packets to the graphics processor 1657 through a receiver bus 1654. In some embodiments, the interface circuit 1651 provides only the data packets intended for the display panel 1350. In other embodiment, the interface circuit 1651 provides all incoming data packets to the graphics processor 1657. For example, the graphics processor 1657 may perform any decoding of the received media. The graphics processor 1657 may use the buffer memory 1655 or frame buffer as needed to store media packets during processing. A scan controller 1659, which may include an address decoder, receives the media to be displayed and identifies individual LEDs in the LEDs 1610 that need to be controlled. The scan controller 1659 may determine an individual LED's color, brightness, refresh time, and other parameters associated to generate the display. In one embodiment, the scan controller 1659 may provide this information to the LED driver 1653, which selects the appropriate current for the particular LED. Alternatively, the scan controller 1659 may interface directly with the LEDs 1610 in one embodiment. For example, the LED driver 1653 provides a constant current to the LEDs 1610 while the scan controller 1659 controls the select line needed to turn ON or OFF a particular LED. Further, in various embodiments, the scan controller 1659 may be integrated into the LED driver 1653. FIG. 24C illustrates a schematic of the LED array as controlled by the receiver circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 24C, the row selector 1661 and column selector 1662, which may be part of the circuitry of the scan controller 1659 described previously, may be used to control individual pixels in the array of the LEDs 1610. For example, at each pixel location, the color of the pixel is selected by powering one or more combinations of red, blue, green, and white LEDs. The row selector 1661 and column selector 1662 include control circuitry for performing this operation as an example. FIG. 25, which includes FIGS. 25A-25D, illustrates a display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 25A illustrates a projection view of the back side of the display panel, FIG. 25B illustrates a planar back side of the display panel, and FIG. 25C illustrates a planar bottom view while FIG. 25D illustrates a side view. Referring to FIG. 25A, the display panel 1350 comprises a casing 1650, which includes casing holes 1710 for attaching the attachment features 1490 (e.g., FIG. 14) and openings for the input cable 1360 and the output cable 1365. A power supply unit 1670 is mounted over the casing 1650 and protrudes away from the back side. The casing 1650 may also include stacking features 1730 that may be used to stack the display panels 1350 correctly. For example, the stacking features 1730 may indicate the path in which data cables are moving and which end of the casing 1650, if any, has to placed pointing up. The casing 1650 may further include a handle 1720 for lifting the display panel 1350. The housing of the power supply unit 1670, which may be made of plastic, may include fins 1671 for maximizing heat extraction from the power supply unit 1670. The power supply unit 1670 may be screwed into the casing 1650. FIG. 26 illustrates a planar view of a portion of the front side of the display panel in according with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 26, a plurality of LEDs 1610 is exposed between the framework of louvers 1630 comprising a plurality of support strips 1631 and a plurality of ridges 1632. The plurality of support strips 1631 and the plurality of ridges 1632 are attached to the PCB below using an adhesive as described previously. The framework of louvers 1630 may also be screwed at the corners or spaced apart distances to provide improved mechanical support and mitigate issues related to adhesive peeling. The display panel discussed thus far has the advantage of being self-cooling, waterproof and light-weight. A plastic material, e.g., an industrial plastic, can be used for the housing. Within the housing, the LED board (or boards) are enclosed without any significant air gaps (or no air gaps at all). In some embodiments, a heat conductive material can be attached to both the back of the LED board and the inner surface of the housing to facilitate heat transfer. This material can be a thermally conductive sheet of material such as a metal (e.g., an aluminum plate) and/or a thermal grease. The power supply is mounted outside the LED board housing and can also be passively cooled. As discussed herein, a thermally conductive material can be included between the power supply and the LED board, e.g., between the power supply housing and the LED panel enclosure. A thermally conductive material could also line some or all of the surfaces of the power supply housing. While the discussion thus far has related to the self-cooling panel, it is understood that many of the embodiments discussed herein also applied to fan-cooled assemblies. Two views of a fan cooled display panel are shown in FIGS. 40A and 40B. As an example, these panels can be mounted as disclosed with regard to FIG. 14 as well as the other embodiments. Other features described herein could also be used with this type of a display panel. FIG. 27, which includes FIGS. 27A-27C, illustrates cross-sectional views of the framework of louvers at the front side of the display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 27 illustrates a cross-sectional view along a direction perpendicular to the orientation of the plurality of ridges 1632 along the line 27-27 in FIG. 26. In various embodiments, the plurality of ridges 1632 have a higher height than the plurality of support strips 1631. Horizontally oriented plurality of ridges 1632 may be advantageous to remove or block water droplets from over the LEDs 1610. The relative height differences between the plurality of support strips 1631 and the plurality of ridges 1632 may be adjusted depending on the particular mounting location in one embodiment. Alternatively in other embodiments, these may be independent of the mounting location. The sidewalls and structure of the plurality of ridges 1632 may be adjusted depending on various lighting conditions and need to prevent water from accumulating or streaking over the LEDs 1610. FIG. 27A illustrates a first embodiment in which the sidewalls of the plurality of ridges 1632 are perpendicular. FIG. 27B illustrates a second embodiment in which the sidewalls of the plurality of ridges 1632 are perpendicular but the inside of the plurality of ridges 1632 is partially hollow enabling ease of fabrication. FIG. 27C illustrates a different embodiment in which the sidewalls of the plurality of ridges 1632 are angled, for example, to prevent from other sources scattering of the LEDs 1610 and generating a diffuse light output. FIG. 28 illustrates a plurality of display panels arranged next to each other in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. In addition to the features described previously, in one or more embodiments, the display panels may include locking features 1760 such as tabs and other marks that may be used to correctly align the display panels precisely. For example, the locking features 1760 may comprise interlocking attachment points that are attached to an adjacent LED display panel. FIGS. 29A-29D illustrate a schematic of a control system for a modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 29A illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wired network connection. FIG. 29B illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wireless network connection. FIGS. 29C and 29D illustrate the power transmission scheme used in powering the modular multi-panel display system. Data to be displayed at the multi-panel display system may be first received from a computer 1850, which may be a media server, at a controller 1800. The controller 1800, which may also be part of the media server, may transmit the data to be displayed to one or more data receiver boxes 1400. A very large display may include more than one receiver box 1400. The data receiver boxes 1400 receive the data to be displayed from the controller 1800, and distribute it across to the multiple display panels. As described previously, a data receiver box 1400 is mounted to the mechanical support structure or frame 1310. The data receiver box 1400 is configured to receive data from a controller 1800 and to provide power, data, and communication to the LED display panels 1350 through integrated power and data cables 1860. The input cable 1360 and the output cable 1365 in FIG. 18 are specific applications of the integrated power and data cables 1860 illustrated in FIGS. 29A and 29B. The data receive box 1400 can eliminate the need for a receiver card in each panel. In other words, the panels of certain embodiments include no receiver card. The controller 1800 may be a remotely located or located on-site in various embodiments. The controller 1800 is configured to provide data to display to the data receiver box 1400. The output of the controller 1800 may be coupled through a network cable 1840 to the data receiver box 1400. The data receiver box 1400 is housed in a housing that is separate from housings of each of the LED display panels 1300 (for example, FIG. 14). Alternatively, the output of the controller 1800 may be coupled to an ingress router of the internet and the data receiver box 1400 may be coupled to an egress router if the controller 1800 is located remotely. Referring to FIG. 29A, the controller 1800 comprises a sending card 1810 and a power management unit (PMU) 1820. The PMU 1820 receives power and provides operating voltage to the sending card 1810. The sending card 1810 receives data through data cables and provides it to the output. The sending card 1810 may comprise receiver and transmitter circuitry in various embodiments for processing the received video, up-converting, and down converting. In one or more embodiments, the sending card 1810 may be configured to receive data from the respective data receiver box 1400. The sending card 1810 may communicate with the data receiver box 1400 using an internet communication protocol such as Transmission Control Protocol and/or the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol in one embodiment. Alternatively, other suitable protocols may be used. In some embodiments, the communication between the sending card 1810 and the data receiver box 1400 may be performed using a secure protocol such as SSH or may be encrypted in other embodiments. FIG. 29B illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wireless network connection in which the data to be displayed is transmitted and received using antennas 1831 at the controller 1800 and the data receiver box 1400. The data input 1830 may be coupled to a computer 1850, for example, to a USB or DVI output. The computer 1850 may provide data to the sending card 1810, for example, through the USB and/or DVI output. The data receiver box 1400 connects the LED display panels with data to be displayed on the integrated display and with power to power each of the LED display panels 1350. The data receiver box 1400 may transmit the media or data to be displayed in a suitable encoded format. In one or more embodiments, the data receiver box 1400 transmits analog video. For example, in one embodiment, composite video may be outputted by the data receiver box 1400. Alternatively, in one embodiment, YPbPr analog component video may be outputted by the data receiver box 1400. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the data receiver box 1400 transmits digital video. The output video comprises video to be displayed encoded in a digital video format by each of the display panels under the data receiver box 1400. In one or more embodiments, the data receiver box 1400 creates multiple outputs, where each output is configured for each panel under its control. Alternatively, the display panels 1350 may be configured to decode the received data and select and display only the appropriate data intended to be displayed by that particular display panel 1350. FIGS. 29C and 29D illustrate the power transmission scheme used in powering the modular multi-panel display system. FIG. 29C illustrates the power conversion at the data receiver box 1400 produces a plurality of AC outputs that is transmitted to all the display panels. All the display panels 1350 on the same row receive output from the same AC output whereas display panels 1350 on a different row receive output from the different AC output. The power supply unit 1670 converts the received AC power to a DC current and supplies it to the LEDs 1610. FIG. 29D is an alternative embodiment in which the AC to DC conversion is performed at the data receiver box 1400. The power supply unit 1670 down converts the received voltage from a higher voltage to a lower voltage. In either of the power transmission embodiments, the power line can be configured so that power is run across all of the row (or any other group of panels). In this manner, if the power supply of any one of the panels fails, the other panels will continue to operate. One way to assist in the maintenance of the display system is to monitor the power at each panel to determine if any of the panels has failed. FIG. 30 illustrates a schematic of a sending card of the control system for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The sending card 1810 may include an inbound network interface controller, a processor for processing, an outbound network interface controller for communicating with the data receiver boxes 1400 using a specific physical layer and data link layer standards. Display packets (media packaged as data packets intended for display) received at the inbound network interface controller may be processed at the processor and routed to the outbound network interface controller. The display packets may be buffered in a memory within the sending card 1810 if necessary. As an illustration, the processor in the sending card 1810 may perform functions such as routing table maintenance, path computations, and reachability propagation. The inbound network interface controller and the outbound network interface controller include adapters that perform inbound and outbound packet forwarding. As an illustration, the sending card 1810 may include a route processor 1811, which is used for computing the routing table, maintenance using routing protocols, and routing table lookup for a particular destination. The sending card 1810 further may include multiple interface network controllers as described above. As an example, the inbound network interface controller may include an inbound packet forwarder 1812 to receive the display packet at an interface unit while the outbound network interface controller may include an outbound packet forwarder 1813 to forward the display packet out of another interface unit. The circuitry for the inbound packet forwarder 1812 and the outbound packet forwarder 1813 may be implemented separately in different chips or on the same chip in one or more embodiments. The sending card 1810 also includes an optional packet processor 1814 for performing non-routing functions relating to the processing of the packet and a memory 1815, for example, for route caching. For example, the packet processor 1814 may also perform media encoding in some embodiments. Additionally, in some embodiments, the sending card 1810 may include a high performance switch that enables them to exchange data and control messages between the inbound and the outbound network interface controllers. The communication between the various components of the sending card 1810 may be through a bus 1816. FIG. 31 illustrates a schematic of a data receiver box for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 31, a large multi-panel display modular system 1300 may include multiple data receiver boxes 1400 for displaying portions of the multi-panel modular display system 1300. The data receiver box 1400 receives the output of the controller 1800 through a network cable 1840. The data receiver box 1400 is configured to provide power, data, and communication to the LED display panels 1350 through integrated power and data cables 1860. The data receiver box 1400 comprises an interface unit 1910 that receives the network data according to the internet protocol, e.g., TCP/IP. The data receiver box 1400 may include a designated IP address and therefore receives the output of the controller 1800 that is specifically sent to it. In case the controller 1800 and the data receiver box 1400 are part of the same local area network (LAN), the data receiver box 1400 may also receive data designated towards other similar data receiver boxes in the network. However, the interface unit 1910 is configured to select data based on the IP address and ignore data destined to other boxes. The interface unit 1910 includes necessary interface controllers, and may include circuitry for up-converting and down-converting signals. The power management unit 1920 receives an ac input power for powering the data receiver box 1400 as well as the corresponding display panels 1350 that are controlled by the data receiver box 1400. In one embodiment, the power management unit 1920 comprises a switched mode power supply unit for providing power to the display panels 1350. The power management unit 1920 may be placed inside a faraday cage to minimize RF interference to other components. In various embodiments, the output from the power management unit 1920 is isolated from the input, which is connected to the AC mains. Accordingly, in various embodiments, the power management unit 1920 comprises a transformer. The primary side of the transformer is coupled to the AC mains whereas the secondary side of the transformer is coupled to the components of the data receiver box 1400. The power management unit 1920 may also include a control loop for controlling the output voltage. Depending on the output current and/or voltage, the primary side may be regulated. As examples, in one or more embodiments, the power management unit 1920 may comprise flyback, half-bridge, full-bridge, or push-pull topologies. The signal processing unit 1930 receives the media packets from the interface unit 1910. The signal processing unit 1930 may be configured to process media packets so as to distribute the media packets through parallel paths. In one or more embodiments, the signal processing unit 1930 may be configured to decode the media packets and encode them into another format, for example. The system management unit 1940 receives the parallel paths of the media packets and combines with the power from the power management unit 1920. For example, the media packets destined for different rows of the display panels may be forwarded through different output paths using different integrated power and data cables 1860. The power for powering the display panels from the power management unit 1920 is also combined with the media packets and transmitted through the integrated power and data cables 1860. FIG. 32 illustrates a method of assembling a modular multi-panel display in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 32, a mechanical support structure such as a frame is assembled as described above in various embodiments (box 1921). A plurality of LED display panels is attached directly to the mechanical support structure using a plurality of coupling mechanisms (box 1922). A receiver box is attached to the mechanical support structure (box 1923). The receiver box includes power circuitry with an ac power input and an ac power output. The receiver box further includes digital circuitry configured to process media data to be displayed by the LED display panels. AC power from the receiver box is electrically connected to each of the LED display panels (box 1924). Media data from the receiver box is electrically connected to each of the LED display panels (box 1925). For example, a plurality of integrated data and power cables are interconnected. FIGS. 33-37 illustrate particular embodiments relating to an integrated data and power cord for use with modular display panels. FIG. 33 illustrates a cross-sectional view of an integrated data and power cord in accordance with embodiments. For example, the integrated data and power cord may be used as the integrated power and data cable 1860 in FIGS. 29A and 29B and/or the input cable 1360 or the output cable 1365 in FIG. 18. Referring to FIG. 33, the integrated power and data cable 1860 includes a first plurality of wires 2011 for carrying data and a second plurality of wires 2012 for carrying power. The power may be a/c or dc. The first plurality of wires 2011 may include twisted pair. The length of the first plurality of wires 2011 and the second plurality of wires 2012 may be controlled to prevent the signal propagation delay within each LED display panel within a specific time. The first plurality of wires 2011 may be configured to transport data at a high bit rate, e.g., at least 1 Mbit/s and may be 100-1000 Mbit/s. To minimize noise, the cable 2010 as a whole may be shielded or the first plurality of wires 2011 may be shielded separately. The shielding may be accomplished by a conductive outer layer formed around the first and the second plurality of wires 2011 and 2012. FIG. 34, which includes FIGS. 34A and 34B, illustrates cross-sectional views of connectors at the ends of the integrated data and power cable in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 34A illustrates a first connector that is configured to fit or lock into a second connector illustrated in FIG. 34B. For example, the first connector 1370 and the second connector 1375 may be attached to corresponding input cable 1360 and output cable 1365 of the display panel 1350 as illustrated in FIG. 18. In various embodiments, the endpoints of the input cable 1360 is opposite to the endpoints of the output cable 1365 so that they may be interlocked together or interlocked with an adjacent panel. For example, the endpoint of the integrated data and power input cable 1360 is interlocked with an endpoint of an integrated data and power output cable 1365 of an adjacent panel, for example, as illustrated in FIG. 19 and FIG. 20. In one embodiment, a subset of the endpoints of the input cable 1360 is a male type pin while a remaining subset of the endpoints of the input cable 1360 is a female type pin. This advantageously allows the electrical connection to be made securely. Referring to FIG. 34A, the first connector 1370 includes a plurality of first openings 2020 configured to receive a plurality of pins from another connector. The plurality of first openings 2020 comprises a conductive internal surface, which is a female pin, that is configured to establish an electrical contact with an incoming male pin. The first connector 1370 further includes a plurality of second openings 2030 configured to receive power male pins from another connector. Thus, the connector is designed to integrated power and data. The pins 2031 protrude out of the plurality of second openings 2030 and are configured to fit into corresponding openings (i.e., female pins) of another connector. The diameters of the plurality of first openings 2020 and the plurality of second openings 2030 may be different to account for the different currents being carried through each. The plurality of first openings 2020 and the plurality of second openings 2030 are formed inside a first protruding section 2070 that is configured to lock inside a second protruding section 2170 of another connector. The enclosing material 2040 provide insulation and protection against external elements such as water. A sealing cover 1380 is configured to lock with the another connector and configured to prevent moisture from reaching inside the connector As further illustrated in FIG. 34B, the second connector 1375 is configured to receive a connector similar to the first connector 1370. Thus, the pins 2121 of the second connector 1375 are configured to fit into the corresponding first openings 2020 of the first connector 1370. The plurality of first openings 2120 may be optional and may not be used in some embodiments. Similarly, the plurality of second openings 2130 of the second connector 1375 comprises a conductive internal surface, which is a female pin, that is configured to establish an electrical contact with an incoming male pin. Similar to FIG. 34A, the plurality of first openings 2020 and the plurality of second openings 2030 of the second connector 1375 in FIG. 34B are formed inside a second protruding section 2170 that is configured to lock with the first protruding section 2070 of another connector. FIG. 35, which includes FIGS. 35A and 35B, illustrates cross-sectional views showing the first connector locked with the second connector in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 35A illustrates the first connector aligned to the second connector, while FIG. 35B illustrates the first connector securely locked to the second connector with the sealing cover sealing the connectors. Referring to FIG. 35A, the plurality of first openings 2020, pins 2031 are connected to corresponding to first and the second plurality of wires 2011 and 2012 respectively. As illustrated, the electrical pins/openings of the first connector 1370 are configured to be lock with the electrical pins/openings of the second connector 1375. Further, there may be additional mechanical locking points to secure the two connectors. In one embodiment, the first connector 1370 comprises a concentric opening 2041 configured to fit in a locking position with the concentric ring 2042 on the second connector 1375. As illustrated in FIG. 35B, the first protruding section 2070 is disposed inside the second protruding section 2170 when locked. The sealing cover 1380 is moveable seals over the first and the second protruding sections 2070 and 2170 thereby preventing any moisture from entering into the connectors. The sealing cover 1380 may be able to screw over a portion of the second connector 1375 in the direction indicated by the arrow in FIG. 35B in one embodiment. FIG. 36, which includes FIGS. 36A and 36B, illustrates one embodiment of the first connector previously illustrated in FIG. 34A and FIGS. 35A and 35B. FIG. 36A illustrates a planar top view while FIG. 36B illustrates a projection view. FIG. 37, which includes FIGS. 37A and 37B, illustrates one embodiment of the second connector previously illustrated in FIG. 34B and FIGS. 35A and 35B. FIG. 37A illustrates a planar top view while FIG. 37B illustrates a projection view. Referring to FIGS. 36 and 37, besides the features previously discussed, embodiments of the present invention may also radial alignment features for radially aligning the first connector 1370 with the second connector 1375. FIG. 36A illustrates a first type of radial alignment features 2080 while FIG. 37A illustrates a second type of radial alignment features 2180. The first type of radial alignment features 2080 is configured to correctly align with the second type of radial alignment features 2180. Although the preferred embodiment has been described in detail, it should be understood that various changes, substitutions and alterations can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Large displays (e.g., billboards), such as those commonly used for advertising in cities and along roads, generally have one or more pictures and/or text that are to be displayed under various light and weather conditions. As technology has advanced and introduced new lighting devices such as the light emitting diode (LED), such advances have been applied to large displays. An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses an array of light-emitting diodes. A large display may be made of a single LED display or a panel of smaller LED panels. LED panels may be conventional panels made using discrete LEDs or surface-mounted device (SMD) panels. Most outdoor screens and some indoor screens are built around discrete LEDs, which are also known as individually mounted LEDs. A cluster of red, green, and blue diodes is driven together to form a full-color pixel, usually square in shape. These pixels are spaced evenly apart and are measured from center to center for absolute pixel resolution.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Embodiments of the invention relate to lighting systems and, more particularly, to multi-panel lighting systems for providing interior or exterior displays. In one embodiment, a modular display panel comprises a casing having a recess. The casing comprises locking points for use in attachment to an adjacent casing of another modular display panel. A printed circuit board is disposed in the recess and a plurality of LEDs attached to the printed circuit board. A driver circuit is attached to the printed circuit board. A heat sink is disposed between a back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. A framework of louvers is disposed over the printed circuit board. The framework of louvers is disposed between rows of the LEDs. The framework of louvers is attached to the printed circuit board using an adhesive. In another embodiment, a modular multi-panel display system comprises a mechanical support structure, and a plurality of LED display panels mounted to the mechanical support structure so as to form an integrated display panel. Each LED display panel includes a casing having a recess. The casing comprises interlocking attachment points that are attached to an adjacent LED display panel. Each LED display panel also includes a printed circuit board disposed in the recess. A plurality of LED modules is attached to the printed circuit board. Each LED display panel also includes a heat sink disposed between a back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. Each LED display panel is hermetically sealed and exposed to the environment without use of any cabinets. The display system is cooled passively and includes no air conditioning, fans, or heating units. In yet another embodiment, a modular display panel comprises a plastic housing having a recess, and a printed circuit board disposed in the recess. A plurality of LEDs is attached to the printed circuit board. A transparent potting compound overlies the LEDs. A driver circuit is attached to the printed circuit board. A heat sink is disposed between a back side of the housing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the housing and the printed circuit board. A power supply is mounted outside the plastic housing.

G09F1322

20180125

20180605

20180531

66503.0

G09F1322

JUNGE, KRISTINA N S

Modular Display Panel

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

G09F

PENDING

PASSIVE MULTI-PORT ENTRY ADAPTER AND METHOD FOR PRESERVING DOWNSTREAM CATV SIGNAL STRENGTH WITHIN IN-HOME NETWORK

A cable television (CATV) entry adapter interfaces to a CATV network and serves as a hub in an in-home network for passively communicating multimedia content or information from the CATV network and between subscriber devices connected to the ports of the CATV entry adapter, using CATV signals in a CATV frequency band and network signals in a different in-home network band.

1. A method for controlling upstream and downstream communications between a cable television (CATV) network and a client network, the method comprising: receiving a downstream CATV signal in a downstream CATV frequency band at an entry port of a multimedia over coaxial alliance (MoCA) device; splitting the downstream CATV signal using a first splitter of the MoCA device, wherein the first splitter has a first splitter output and a second splitter output that each receive the downstream CATV signal; receiving the downstream CATV signal from the first splitter output at a low frequency terminal of a first diplexer of the MoCA device; preventing the downstream CATV signals from being transmitted from the low frequency terminal to a high frequency terminal of the first diplexer; receiving the downstream CATV signals from a common terminal of the first diplexer at second splitter; splitting the downstream CATV signals using the second splitter, wherein the second splitter comprises a plurality of splitter outputs that receive the downstream CATV signal; receiving the downstream CATV signals from the plurality of splitter outputs of the second splitter at a plurality of network ports of the MoCA device; receiving the downstream CATV signals from the second splitter output of the first splitter at a low frequency terminal of a second diplexer of the MoCA device; preventing the downstream CATV signals from being transmitted from the low frequency terminal of the second diplexer to a high frequency terminal thereof; receiving the downstream CATV signal from a common terminal of the second diplexer at a data port; receiving a first upstream CATV signal in an upstream CATV frequency band that is at least partially lower than the CATV downstream frequency band from at least one network port at one of the plurality of splitter outputs of the second splitter; receiving the first upstream CATV signal from the second splitter at the common terminal of the first diplexer; preventing the first upstream CATV signal from being transmitted to the high frequency terminal of the first diplexer; receiving the first upstream CATV signal at the first splitter output of the first splitter from the low frequency terminal of the first diplexer; receiving the first upstream CATV from the first splitter at the entry port; receiving a first MoCA signal in a MoCA frequency band that is at least partially higher than the downstream CATV frequency band at one of the plurality of splitter outputs of the second splitter from one of the network ports; transmitting the first MoCA signal from the one of the plurality of splitter outputs to another at least one of the plurality of splitter outputs of the second splitter; receiving the first MoCA signal from the another at least one of the plurality of splitter ports at at least one of the plurality of network ports connected to the another at least one of the plurality of splitter outputs of the second splitter; receiving the first MoCA signal from the second splitter at the common terminal of the first diplexer; preventing the first MoCA signal from being transmitted from the common terminal of the first diplexer to the low frequency terminal thereof; receiving the first MoCA signal from the high frequency terminal of the first diplexer at the high frequency terminal of the second diplexer; preventing the first MoCA signal from transmitting from the high frequency terminal of the second diplexer to the low frequency terminal thereof; receiving the first MoCA signal from the common terminal of the second diplexer at the data port; receiving a second MoCA signal from the data port at the common terminal of the second diplexer; preventing the second MoCA signal from transmitting from the common terminal of the second diplexer to the low frequency terminal thereof; receiving the second MoCA signal from the high frequency terminal of the second diplexer at the high frequency terminal of the first diplexer; preventing the second MoCA signal from transmitting from the high frequency terminal of the second diplexer to the low frequency terminal thereof; receiving the second MoC A signal from the common terminal of the first diplexer at the the second splitter; splitting the second MoCA signal so as to transmit the second MoCA signal to the plurality of splitter outputs of the second splitter; and receiving the second MoCA signal from the plurality of second splitter outputs at the plurality of network ports. 2. A method for controlling upstream and downstream communications between a cable television (CATV) network and a client network, the method comprising: receiving a downstream CATV signal in a downstream CATV frequency band from an entry port of a multimedia over coaxial alliance (MoCA) device at a low frequency terminal of a diplexer of the MoCA device; preventing the downstream CATV signal from transmitting from the low frequency terminal to a high frequency terminal of the diplexer; receiving the downstream CATV signal from a common terminal of the diplexer at a data port of the MoCA device; receiving an upstream CATV signal in an upstream CATV frequency band at the common terminal of the diplexer from the data port, wherein the upstream CATV frequency band is at least partially lower than the downstream CATV frequency band; preventing the upstream CATV signal from transmitting from the common terminal to the high frequency terminal of the diplexer; receiving the upstream CATV signal from the low frequency terminal of the diplexer at the entry port; receiving a first MoCA signal at the common terminal of the diplexer from the data port, wherein the first MoCA signal is in a MoCA frequency band that is at least partially higher than the downstream CATV frequency band; preventing the first MoCA signal from being transmitted from the common terminal to the low frequency terminal of the diplexer; receiving the first MoCA signal from the high frequency terminal of the diplexer at an input of a splitter of the MoCA device; splitting the first MoCA signal such that the first MoCA signal is received at a plurality of splitter outputs; receiving the first MoCA signal from the plurality of splitter outputs at a plurality of network ports of the MoCA device; receiving a second MoCA signal at one of a plurality of splitter outputs from one of the network ports, wherein the second MoCA signal is in the MoCA frequency band; transmitting the second MoCA signal from the one of the plurality of splitter outputs to another one of the plurality of splitter outputs and to the input of the splitter; receiving the second MoCA signal at another one of the network ports from the another one of the plurality of splitter outputs; receiving the second MoCA signal from the input of the splitter at the low frequency terminal of the diplexer; preventing the second MoCA signal from transmitting from the low frequency terminal to the high frequency terminal; and receiving the first MoCA signal from the common terminal of the diplexer at the data port. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the first diplexer is configured to separate high and low frequency bands of signals so as to prevent first MoCA signals from reaching the entry port, and the second diplexer is configured to separate high and low frequency bands of signals so as to prevent the second MoCA signals from reaching the entry port. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the data port comprises a primary port configured to communicate with a server network interface, and the plurality of network ports comprise a secondary port configured to communicate with a client network interface. 5. The method of claim 4, further comprising: converting, using the server network interface, multimedia content from the downstream CATV signals into network signals via the MoCA device; communicating the network signals to the client network interface via the MoCA device; communicating, using the client network interface, information constituting at least some of the upstream CATV signals to the server network interface via the MoCA device; converting, using the server network interface, the information constituting at least some of the upstream CATV signals communicated from the client network interface into converted upstream CATV signals; and allowing the converted upstream CATV signals to be communicated to the entry port via the first diplexer. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the downstream and upstream CATV signals and the second MoCA signal are made available to the server and client network interfaces so that a subscriber device coupled to at least one of the client network interfaces is configured to interact with not only the downstream and upstream CATV signals, but also the second MoCA signals. 7. The method of claim 5, further comprising: storing, using the server network interface, downstream CATV signals; and supplying network signals to the client network interface based on the stored downstream CATV signals. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the first and second signal splitters and the first and second diplexers are passive electronic components, and the downstream and upstream CATV signals pass respectively from and to the CATV network through the first and second diplexers without substantial attenuation. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the first and second MoCA signals have a higher frequency than all of the CATV signals, and wherein the first and second diplexers are configured to separate the MoCA signals from the CATV signals based on the higher frequency of the MoCA signals. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein the MoCA frequency band is from about 1125 MHz to about 1525 MHz, the upstream CATV frequency band is from about 5 MHz to about 42 MHz, and the downstream CATV frequency band is from about 54 MHz to about 1005 MHz. 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the entry port is directly connected to the first splitter without any intermediate components therebetween. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the first splitter is directly connected to the first and second diplexers without any intermediate components therebetween. 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the second splitter is directly connected to the plurality of network ports without any intermediate components therebetween. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the second splitter comprises a single sp with three or more outputs, each connected to one of the plurality of network ports. 15. The method of claim 2, Wherein the entry port, the data port, the plurality of network ports, the splitter, and the diplexer are positioned together within a single housing. 16. The method of claim 2, wherein the splitter and the diplexer are passive electronic components, and wherein power is provided to the MoCA device solely through the downstream CATV signals, the upstream CATV signals, the MoCA signals, or a combination thereof. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the downstream and upstream CATV signals pass respectively from and to the CATV network through the diplexer without any substantial attenuation. 18. The method of claim 2, wherein the first and second MoCA signals have a higher frequency than all of the CATV signals, and wherein the diplexer is configured to separate the first and second MoCA signals from the upstream CATV signals based on the higher frequency of the MoCA signals. 19. The method of claim 2, wherein the entry port is directly connected to the splitter without any intermediate components therebetween, the splitter is directly connected to the diplexer without any intermediate components therebetween, and the splitter is directly connected to the plurality of network ports without any intermediate components therebetween. 20. The method of claim 2, wherein the splitter comprises a single splitter with three or more outputs, each connected to one of the plurality of network ports.

This invention relates to cable television (CATV) and to in-home entertainment networks which share existing coaxial cables within the premises for CATV signal distribution and in-home network communication signals. More particularly, the present invention relates to a new and improved passive entry adapter between a CATV network and the in-home network which minimizes the CATV signal strength reduction even when distributed among multiple subscriber or multimedia devices within the subscriber's premises or home. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION CATV networks use an infrastructure of interconnected coaxial cables, signal splitters and combiners, repeating amplifiers, filters, trunk lines, cable taps, drop lines and other signal-conducting devices to supply and distribute high frequency “downstream” signals from a main signal distribution facility, known as a “headend,” to the premises (homes and offices) of subscribers to the CATV services. The downstream signals transfer multimedia content to subscriber equipment, such as television sets, telephone sets and computers. In addition, most CATV networks also transmit “upstream” signals from the subscriber equipment back to the headend of the CATV network. For example, the subscriber uses a set top box to select programs for display on the television set. As another example, two-way communication is essential when using a personal computer connected through the CATV infrastructure to the public Internet. As a further example, voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone sets use the CATV infrastructure and the public Internet as the communication medium for transmitting two-way telephone conversations. To permit simultaneous communication of upstream and downstream CATV signals and the interoperability of the subscriber equipment and the equipment associated with the CATV network infrastructure outside of subscriber premises, the downstream and upstream CATV signals are confined to two different frequency bands. The downstream frequency band is within the range of 54-1002 megahertz (MHz) and the upstream frequency band is within the range of 5-42 MHz, in most CATV networks. The entire CATV frequency band is therefore 5-1002 MHz. The downstream signals are delivered from the CATV network infrastructure to the subscriber premises at a CATV entry adapter, which is also commonly referred to as an entry device, terminal adapter or a drop amplifier. The CATV entry adapter is usually a multi-port device which provides a multiplicity of ports or connectors for connecting coaxial cables. A separate coaxial cable is connected to each of the ports and extends within the subscriber premises to the location of the subscriber equipment. Some homes have coaxial cables extending to cable outlets in almost every room, because of the many different types of subscriber equipment used in different rooms. For example. television sets are commonplace throughout the home. The multiple ports of the CATV entry adapter deliver downstream CATV at each cable outlet and conduct upstream CATV signals back through the premises coaxial cables to the CATV entry adapter, which delivers the upstream CATV signals to the CATV network. In addition to television sets, computers and telephones, a relatively large number of other entertainment and multimedia devices are available for use in homes. For example, a digital video recorder (DVR) is used to store broadcast programming, still photography and moving pictures in a memory medium so that the content can be replayed on a display or television set at a later time selected by the user. As another example, computer games are also played at displays or on television sets. Such computer games may be obtained or played over the Internet from the CATV network or from media played on play-back devices or game consoles connected to displays or television sets. As a further example, receivers which receive satellite-broadcast signals may be distributed for viewing or listening throughout the home. These types of devices, including the more-conventional television sets, telephone sets and devices connected to the Internet by the CATV network, are generically referred to as multimedia devices. The desire to use multimedia devices at multiple different locations within the home or subscriber premises has led to the creation of the Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA). MoCA has developed specifications for products to create an in-home entertainment network for interconnecting presently-known and future multimedia devices. The MoCA in-home network uses the subscriber premise or in-home coaxial cable infrastructure originally established for distribution of CATV signals within the subscriber premises, principally because that cable infrastructure already exists in most homes and is capable of carrying much more information than is carried in the CATV frequency band. A MoCA network is established by connecting MoCA interface devices at the cable outlets in the rooms of the subscriber premises. The MoCA network is used to transmit multimedia content from one MoCA interface device to another. The MoCA interface devices implement a MoCA communication protocol which encapsulates the multimedia content normally sent and received by the multimedia devices within MoCA packets and then communicates these MoCA packets between selected ones of the other MoCA interfaces devices connected at other cable outlets. The receiving MoCA interface device removes the encapsulated multimedia content, and delivers it to the connected computer, digital television or set-top box or other multimedia device from which then presents that multimedia content. Each MoCA interface device is capable of communicating with every other MoCA interface device in the MoCA network to deliver the multimedia content throughout the home or subscriber premises. The entertainment or multimedia content that is available from one multimedia device can be displayed, played or otherwise used at a different location within the home, without having to physically relocate the multimedia device from one location to another within the home. The in-home network communication of multimedia content is considered beneficial in more fully utilizing the multimedia devices present in modern homes. The MoCA interface devices also pass the upstream and downstream CATV signals between the CATV entry adapter and the subscriber devices. Since the MoCA network may function simultaneously with the normal operation of the CATV services, the MoCA signals communicated between MoCA interface devices utilize a frequency range of 1125-1525 MHz, which is outside of the frequency band of CATV signals. This so-called band of MoCA signals is divided into eight different frequency ranges, D1-D8, and these eight different D frequency ranges are used to assure communication between the selected MoCA interface devices. For example, the D-1 band at 1125-1175 MHz may be used to communicate CATV television programming content between a MoCA interface device connected to a set-top box in a main room of the house and another MoCA interface device connected to a television set in bedroom of the house, while a MoCA interface device connected to a computer gaming multimedia device in a basement room of the house simultaneously communicates computer game content over the D-6 band at 1375-1425 MHz to a computer located in a recreation room of the house. The MoCA frequency band also includes other frequency ranges outside of the CATV frequency band, but the D band is is used to establish connections and communicate content between the MoCA interface devices. Using the in-home coaxial cable as the principal communication medium substantially simplifies the implementation of the MoCA network, but there are certain disadvantages in doing so. The D band MoCA frequencies have the capability of passing through the CATV entry adapter and entering the CATV network where they may then enter a nearby subscriber's premises. The presence of the MoCA signals at the nearby subscriber's premises compromises the privacy and security of the information originally intended to be confined within the original subscriber premises. The MoCA signals from the original subscriber premises which enter through the CATV network to the nearby subscriber premises also have the potential to adversely affect the performance of a MoCA network in nearby subscriber's premises. The conflict of the MoCA signals from the original and nearby subscriber premises may cause the MoCA interface devices to malfunction or not operate properly on a consistent basis. Another undesirable aspect of using a MoCA for communication between the various multimedia devices is that a relatively large MoCA network with many cable outlet ports has the effect of deteriorating the strength of the downstream CATV signal. Because in-home multimedia devices frequently require access to the CATV network in order to send upstream CATV signals as well is to receive downstream CATV signals, the in-home coaxial cable infrastructure must commonly connect all of the CATV cables and CATV ports within the home to a common connection with the drop cable that supplies the CATV signal and services to the home. The common connection is usually achieved in the CATV entry adapter, which provides output ports that connect to the coaxial cables extending within the home to each separate location or room. A splitter within the CATV entry adapter divides the CATV downstream signals into two or more reduced-power copies of the input signal, and supplies each copy to a separate outlet port. Similarly, upstream signals from the subscriber equipment connected to each of the coaxial cables are combined in the splitter and then passed upstream through the CATV entry adapter into the CATV network. The typical splitter is passive, which means that the power of the input signal is divided among the copies of the output signals split from the input signal. Each copy of the signal therefore has diminished power or strength, and the lower strength copies will not have the same quality as the input signal. In general terms, the quality is the strength of the signal relative to the strength of the inherent ambient noise. Since the inherent ambient noise generally cannot be diminished and is usually a constant, lowering the strength of the signal relative to the noise reduces the signal-to-noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio is a recognized measure of the quality of a signal. A lower signal-to-noise ratio represents a lesser quality signal. Because many homes require a relatively large number of cable outlet ports, for example six or more, the downstream CATV signal must be split into a comparable relatively large number of copies. The greater number of signal splitters required to generate the requisite number of separate copies of the downstream CATV signal diminishes the strength of the downstream signal copies. The quality of CATV service available in an in-home network with a relatively large number of cable output ports therefore suffers, because the strength of the CATV signal available at each of these ports is substantially diminished due to the extent of signal splitting required. On the other hand, Upstream CATV signals from the subscriber equipment do not occur as frequently as downstream CATV signals. Furthermore, upstream signals are generally of a higher power because they are generated immediately by the subscriber equipment within the home. Consequently, the reduction in CATV signal strength applies principally to downstream CATV signals, which of course provide the multimedia content to the subscriber. It is the quality of the multimedia content observed by the subscriber that forms the basis for the subscriber's opinion of quality of service. To compensate for downstream CATV signal strength reduction caused by splitting, some entry adapters include amplifiers to increase the strength of the copies of the downstream CATV signals. Of course, including an amplifier along with the signal splitter makes the signal transmission dependent upon the presence of adequate electrical power to operate the amplifier. The power for the amplifier is derived from commercial sources within the household. If the commercial power supply is temporarily interrupted, or if the power supply equipment within the home ceases operating properly, the customer perceives a CATV problem and reports the problem to the CATV service provider. The CATV service provider must thereafter send a service or repair person to the home of the subscriber in order to identify and remedy the problem. Such service calls are a significant expense for a CATV service provider. CATV service providers therefore attempt to eliminate as many of the potential points of failure as possible in the equipment supplied by the CATV service provider, to reduce service calls and repair costs. Including an amplifier in a CATV entry adapter creates a potential point of failure, and for that reason most CATV service providers wish to avoid using CATV entry adapters with amplifiers. However, in those relatively large in-home networks with multiple outlets for connecting multiple multimedia devices, there has been little previous choice but to use amplifiers in conjunction with splitters in order to obtain the desired downstream CATV signal strength that represents a high quality of service. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a cable television (CATV) entry adapter which beneficially provides a high quality and strength downstream CATV signal to multiple subscriber devices while simultaneously contributing to and promoting the establishment of a multimedia in-home network. The CATV entry adapter is preferably passive without an amplifier, and passes the in-home network communication signals between the multiple subscriber devices, and passes the downstream and upstream CATV signals to the subscriber equipment and the CATV network. The in-home network communication signals are effectively communicated in the in-home network and the multimedia content from the upstream and downstream CATV signals is effectively made available to all of the subscriber equipment and to the CATV network without diminishing the quality or strength of the CATV signals to the point where the quality of service is compromised. As a passive device, the CATV entry adapter of the present invention requires no external power source, which eliminates unnecessary service calls. In addition, critical communications over the CATV network, such as “life-line” phone service, are preserved during transmission over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. In accordance with these and other features, one aspect of the invention involves a cable television (CATV) entry adapter for conducting downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at subscriber premises and for conducting in-home network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The CATV signals occupy a CATV frequency band which is different from an in-home network frequency band occupied by the in-home network signals. The in-home network includes a network interface connected to each subscriber device by which to generate and communicate the network signals between the subscriber devices in the in-home network. The CATV entry adapter comprises a CATV entry port for connection to the CATV network, and a plurality of network ports each for connection to the network interface to which each subscriber device is connected. The CATV entry adapter also includes a signal splitter which has an input terminal and two output terminals. The signal splitter operatively splits a signal received at its input terminal into reduced-power copies of the input signal supplied at each of its output terminals. The signal splitter also communicates signals received at each output terminal to the input terminal and to the other output terminal. The CATV entry adapter also includes an in-home network frequency band rejection device connected between the CATV entry port and the input port of the signal splitter. The in-home network frequency band rejection device substantially blocks transmission of the in-home network signals therethrough to the CATV entry port and the CATV network. Another aspect of the invention involves an in-home network for distributing multimedia content to subscriber devices. The multimedia content is obtained from CATV signals communicated over a CATV network and from a subscriber device connected to the in-home network. The in-home network comprises a CATV entry adapter having a CATV entry port and a plurality of network ports. The CATV entry port is connected to the CATV network for receiving multimedia content from CATV signals communicated over the CATV network. The in-home network also comprises a plurality of in-home network interfaces, each of which is connected to a different one of the plurality of network ports. Each of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content to the subscriber devices to which each network interface is connected. All of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content between one another in network signals communicated between the network interfaces. At least one of the network interfaces sends and receives CATV signals and communicates the multimedia content contained in the CATV signals to the subscriber device to which the one network interface is connected, and communicates the multimedia content obtained from the CATV signals in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. Each of the network interfaces communicates multimedia content obtained from a subscriber device connected to that network interface in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. The network signals are located within a network frequency band which is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are located. A further aspect of the invention involves a method of conducting information contained in downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at a subscriber premises and of conducting information contained in network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The method comprises connecting the CATV entry adapter to receive and transmit CATV signals from and to the CATV network, respectively; connecting in-home network interfaces to each subscriber device to form the in-home network among the subscriber devices to which network interfaces are attached; connecting the CATV entry adapter as a hub in the in-home network to pass network signals between network interfaces; confining the network signals to an end-home network frequency band that is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are confined; connecting the CATV adapter to at least one network interface to receive and transmit CATV signals supplied from and to the CATV entry adapter; and preventing transmission of the network signals within the CATV entry adapter onto the CATV network. One subsidiary aspect of the invention which relates to blocking or preventing the transmission of network signals onto the CATV network, involves a frequency rejection device which comprises only passive electronic components, or which functions without a power source separate from the CATV signals and the in-home network signals. The frequency rejection device may take the form of a frequency rejection filter, or the frequency rejection device may take the form of at least one diplexer which divides frequencies into separate frequency bands, and is connected to conduct the network signals in the network frequency band between network interfaces and to conduct the CATV signals in the CATV frequency band to and from the CATV network. Another subsidiary aspect of the invention involves a server network interface and at least one client network interface. The server network interface sends and receives downstream and upstream CATV signals and network signals to communicate information contained in the CATV and network signals to the subscriber device to which the server network interface is connected. Each client network interface sends and receives network signals to communicate information contained in the network signals to the subscriber device to which each client network interface is connected. The server network interface also has a capability for storing information obtained from downstream CATV signals and subsequently supplying network signals to a client network interface which contain the information stored from the downstream CATV signals. An additional subsidiary aspect of the invention involves connecting an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA)-compatible subscriber device including a modem and telephone set to the CATV entry adapter, and splitting downstream CATV signals into reduced-power copies and supplying one of the copies to the eMTA-compatible device. A more complete appreciation of the present invention, as well as the manner in which the present invention achieves the above and other improvements, can be obtained by reference to the following detailed description of presently preferred embodiments taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are briefly summarized below, and by reference to the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a typical CATV network infrastructure, including a plurality of CATV entry adapters which incorporate the present invention, and also illustrating an in-home network using a CATV entry adapter for connecting multimedia devices or other subscriber equipment within the subscriber premises. FIG. 2 is a more detailed illustration of the in-home network in one subscriber premises shown in FIG. 1, with more details of network interfaces and subscriber equipment shown in block diagram form. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of components of one embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 5 is a block diagram of components of another embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, constituting an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 3, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is a block diagram of components of another embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, constituting an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapters shown in FIGS. 3 and 5, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 8 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 7. DETAILED DESCRIPTION A CATV entry adapter 10 which incorporates the present invention is shown generally in FIG. 1. The CATV entry adapter 10 is located at subscriber premises 12 and forms a part of a conventional in-home network 14, such as a conventional Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA) in-home entertainment network. The in-home network 14 interconnects subscriber equipment or multimedia devices 16 within the subscriber premises 12, and allows the multimedia devices 16 to communicate multimedia content or in-home signals between other multimedia devices 16. The connection medium of the in-home network 14 is formed in significant part by a preexisting CATV coaxial cable infrastructure (represented generally by coaxial cables 18) present in the subscriber premises 12 and originally intended to communicate CATV signals between the multimedia or subscriber devices 16. However the connection medium of the in-home network 14 may be intentionally created using newly-installed coaxial cables 18. Examples of multimedia devices 16 are digital video recorders, computers, data modems, computer game playing devices, television sets, television set-top boxes, and other audio and visual entertainment devices. The CATV entry adapter 10 is also a part of a conventional CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10 delivers CATV multimedia content or signals from the CATV network 20 to subscriber equipment at the subscriber premises 12. The subscriber equipment includes the multimedia devices 16, but may also include other devices which may or may not operate as a part of the in-home network 14 but which are intended to function as a result of connection to the CATV network 20. Examples of subscriber equipment which may not be part of the in-home network 14 are a modem 56 and a connected voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone set 58 and certain other embedded multimedia terminal adapter-(eMTA) compatible devices (not shown). The CATV entry adapter 10 has beneficial characteristics which allow it to function simultaneously in both the in-home network 14 and in the CATV network 20, thereby benefiting both the in-home network 14 and the CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10 functions as a hub in the in-home network 14, to effectively transfer in-home network signals between the multimedia and subscriber devices 16. The CATV entry adapter 10 also functions in a conventional role as an CATV interface between the CATV network 20 and the subscriber equipment 16 located at the subscriber premises 12, thereby providing CATV service to the subscriber. In addition, the CATV entry adapter 10 securely confines in-home network communications within each subscriber premise and prevents the network signals from entering the CATV network 20 and degrading the strength of the CATV signals conducted by the CATV network 20 four possible recognition by a nearby subscriber. The CATV network 20 has a typical topology. Downstream signals 22 originate from programming sources at a headend 24 of the CATV network 20, and are conducted to the CATV entry adapter 10 in a sequential path through a main trunk cable 26, a signal splitter/combiner 28, secondary trunk cables 30, another signal splitter/combiner 32, distribution cable branches 34, cable taps 36, and drop cables 38. Upstream signals 40 originating from the subscriber equipment 16 and 56/58 are delivered from the CATV entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20, and are conducted to the headend 24 in the same path but in reverse sequence. Interspersed at appropriate locations within the topology of the CATV network 20 are conventional repeater amplifiers 42, which amplify both the downstream CATV signals 22 and the upstream CATV signals 40. Conventional repeater amplifiers may also be included in the cable taps 36. The cable taps 36 and signal splitter/combiners 28 and 32 divide a single downstream signal into multiple separate downstream signals, and combine multiple upstream signals into a single upstream signal. More details concerning the CATV entry adapter 10 are shown in FIG. 2. The CATV entry adapter 10 includes a housing 44 which encloses internal electronic circuit components (shown in FIGS. 3-8). A mounting flange 46 surrounds the housing 44, and holes 48 in the flange 46 allow attachment of the CATV entry adapter 10 to a support structure at a subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1). The CATV entry adapter 10 connects to the CATV network 20 through a CATV connection or entry port 50. The CATV entry adapter 10 receives the downstream signals 22 from, and sends the upstream signals 40 to, the CATV network 20 through the connection port 50. The downstream and upstream signals 22 and 40 are communicated to and from the subscriber equipment through an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA) port 52 and through in-home network ports 54. A conventional modem 56 is connected between a conventional voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone set 58 and the eMTA port 52. The modem 56 converts downstream CATV signals 22 containing data for the telephone set 58 into signals 60 usable by the telephone set 58 in accordance with the VoIP protocol. Similarly, the modem 56 converts the VoIP protocol signals 60 from the telephone set 58 into Upstream CATV signals 40 which are sent through the eMTA port 52 and the CATV entry port 50 to the CATV network 20. Coaxial cables 18 within the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) connect the in-home network ports 54 to coaxial outlets 62. The in-home network 14 uses a new or existing coaxial cable infrastructure in the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) to locate the coaxial outlets 62 in different rooms or locations within the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) and to establish the communication medium for the in-home network 14. In-home network interface devices 64 and 66 are connected to or made a part of the coaxial outlets 62. The devices 64 and 66 send in-home network signals 78 between one another through the coaxial outlets 62, coaxial cables 18, the network ports 54 and the CATV entry adapter 10. The CATV entry adapter 10 internally connects the network ports 54 to transfer the network signals 78 between the ports 54, as shown and discussed below in connection with FIGS. 3-8. Subscriber or multimedia devices 16 are connected to the in-home network interfaces 64 and 66. In-home network signals 78 originating from a subscriber devices 16 connected to one of the network interfaces 64 or 66 are delivered through the in-home network 14 to the interface 64 or 66 of the recipient subscriber device 16. The network interfaces 64 and 66 perform the typical functions of buffering information, typically in digital form as packets, and delivering and receiving the packets over the in-home network 14 in accordance with the communication protocol used by the in-home network, for example the MoCA protocol. Although the information is typically in digital form, it is communication over the in-home network 14 is typically as analog signals in predetermined frequency bands, such as the D-band frequencies used in the MoCA communication protocol. The combination of one of the in-home network interfaces 64 or 66 and the connected subscriber device 16 constitutes one node of the in-home network 14. The present invention takes advantage of typical server-client technology and incorporates it within the in-home network interfaces 64 and 66. The in-home network interface 64 is a server network interface, while the in-home network interfaces 66 are client network interfaces. Only one server network interface 64 is present in the in-home network 14, while multiple client network interfaces 66 are typically present in the in-home network 14. The server network interface 64 receives downstream CATV signals 22 and in-home network signals 68 originating from other client network interfaces 66 connected to subscriber devices 16, extracts the information content carried by the downstream CATV signals 22 and the network signals 78, and stores the information content in digital form on a memory device (not shown) included within the server network interface 64. With respect to downstream CATV signals 22, the server network interface 64 communicates the extracted and stored information to the subscriber device 16 to which that information is destined. Thus the server interface 64 delivers the information derived from the downstream CATV signal 22 to the subscriber device connected to it, or over the in-home network 14 to the client interface 66 connected to the subscriber device 16 to which the downstream CATV signal 22 is destined. The recipient client network interface 66 extracts the information and delivers it to the destined subscriber device connected to that client network interface 66. For network signals 78 originating in one network interface 64 or 66 and destined to another network interlace 64 or 66, those signals are sent directly between the originating and recipient network interfaces 64 or 66, utilizing the communication protocol of the in-home network. For those signals originating in one of the subscriber devices 16 intended as an upstream CATV signal 40 within the CATV network 20, for example a programming content selection signal originating from a set-top box of a television set, the upstream CATV signal is communicated into the CATV network 20 by the in-home server network interface 64, or is alternatively communicated by the network interface 64 or 66 which is connected to the particular subscriber device 16. In some implementations of the present invention, if the upstream CATV signal originates from a subscriber device 16 connected to a client network interface 66, that client network interface 66 encodes the upstream CATV signal, and sends the encoded signal over the in-home network 14 to the server network interface 64; thereafter, the server network interface 64 communicates the upstream CATV signal through the CATV entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20. If the upstream signal originates from the subscriber device connected to the server network interface 64, that interface 64 directly communicates the upstream signal through the entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20. The advantage of using the server network interface 64 to receive the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signals 22 and then distribute that content in network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 for use by the destination subscriber devices 16, is that there is not a substantial degradation in the signal strength of the downstream CATV signal, as would be the case if the downstream CATV signal was split into multiple reduced-power copies and each copy delivered to each subscriber device 16. By splitting downstream CATV signals 22 only a few times, as compared to a relatively large number of times as would be required in a typical in-home network, good CATV signal strength is achieved at the server network interface 64. Multimedia content or other information in downstream CATV signals 22 that are destined for subscriber devices 16 connected to client network interfaces 66 is supplied by the server network interface 64 in network signals 78 which have sufficient strength to ensure good quality of service. Upstream CATV signals generated by the server and client interfaces 64 and 66 are of adequate signal strength since the originating interfaces are capable of delivering signals of adequate signal strength for transmission to the CATV network 20. Different embodiments 10a, 10b, 10c, 10d, 10e and 10f of the CATV entry adapter 10 (FIGS. 1 and 2) are described below in conjunction with FIGS. 3-8, respectively. The CATV entry adapters 10a, 10c and 10e shown respectively in FIGS. 3, 5 and 7 are similar to the corresponding CATV entry adapters 10b, 10d and 10f shown respectively in FIGS. 4, 6 and 8, except for the lack of a dedicated eMTA port 52 and supporting components. In some cases, the eMTA port 52 will not be required or desired. In the CATV entry adapter 10a shown in FIG. 3, the entry port 50 is connected to the CATV network 20. An in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70 is connected between the entry port 50 and an input terminal 72 of a conventional four-way splitter 74. Four output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the in-home network ports 54. Downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 pass through the filter 70, because the filter 70 only rejects signals with frequencies which are in the in-home network frequency band. The frequency band specific to the in-home network 14 is different from the frequency band of the CATV signals 22 and 40. Downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 also pass in both directions through the four-way splitter 74, because the splitter 74 carries signals of all frequencies. The four-way splitter 74, although providing a large degree of isolation between the signals at the output terminals 76, still permits in-home network signals 78 to pass between those output terminals 76. Thus, the four-way splitter 74 splits downstream CATV signals 22 into four copies and delivers the copies to the output terminals 76 connected to the network ports 54, conducts upstream CATV signals 40 from the ports 54 and output terminals 76 to the input terminal 72. The four-way splitter 74 also conducts in-home network signals 78 from one of the output terminals 76 to the other output terminals 76, thereby assuring that all of the network interfaces 64 and 66 are able to communicate with one another using the in-home network communication protocol. One server network interface 64 is connected to one of the ports 54, while one or more client network interfaces 66 is connected to one or more of the remaining ports 54. Subscriber or multimedia devices 16 are connected to each of the network interfaces 64 and 66. The upstream and downstream CATV signals 40 and 22 pass through the splitter 74 to the interface devices 64 and 66 without modification. Those CATV signals are delivered from the interface devices 64 and 66 to the subscriber equipment 16. The network signals 78 pass to and from the interface devices 64 and 66 through the output terminals 76 of the splitter 74. The network signals 78 are received and sent by the interface devices 64 and 66 in accordance with the communication protocol used by the in-home network 14. The rejection filter 70 blocks the in-home network signals 78 from reaching the CATV network 20, and thereby confines the network signals 78 to the subscriber equipment 16 within the subscribers premises. Preventing the network signals 78 from entering the CATV network 20 ensures the privacy of the information contained with the network signals 78 and keeps the network signals 78 from creating any adverse affect on the CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10a allows each of the subscriber devices 16 to directly receive CATV information and signals from the CATV network 20 (FIG. 1). Because the server network interface 64 may store multimedia content received from the CATV network 20, the subscriber devices 16 connected to the client network interfaces 66 may also request the server network interface 64 to store and supply that stored content at a later time. The client network interfaces 66 and the attached subscriber devices 16 request and receive the stored multimedia content from the server network interface 64 over the in-home network 14. In this fashion, the subscriber may choose when to view the stored CATV-obtained multimedia content without having to view that content at the specific time when it was available from the CATV network 20. The in-home network 14 at the subscriber premises 12 permits this flexibility. The CATV entry adapter 10b shown in FIG. 4 contains the same components described above for the adapter 10a (FIG. 3), and additionally includes an eMTA port 52 and a conventional two-way splitter 80. The modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 are connected to the eMTA port 52, for example. An input terminal 82 of the two-way splitter 80 connects to the in-home network rejection filter 70. Output terminals 84 and 85 of the two-way splitter 80 connect to the eMTA port 52 and to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74, respectively. The downstream CATV signals 22 entering the two-way splitter are split into two reduced-power copies and delivered to the output ports 84 and 85. The split copies of the downstream CATV signals 22 are approximately half of the signal strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 delivered from the CATV network 20 to the entry port 50. Consequently, the copy of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied to the eMTA port 52 has a relatively high signal strength, which assures good operation of the modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58. Adequate operation of the modem 56 in the telephone set 58 is particularly important in those circumstances where “life-line” telephone services are provided to the subscriber, because a good quality signal assures continued adequate operation of those services. In the situation where the downstream CATV signal 22 is split multiple times before being delivered to a modem or VoIP telephone set, the multiple split may so substantially reduce the power of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied to the modem and VoIP telephone set that the ability to communicate is substantially compromised. A benefit of the adapter 10b over the adapter 10a (FIG. 3) is the single, two-way split of the downstream CATV signal 22 and the delivery of one of those copies at a relatively high or good signal strength to the dedicated eMTA port 52. A disadvantage of the adapter 10b over the adapter 10a (FIG. 4) is that the downstream CATV signals 22 pass through an extra splitter (the two-way splitter 80) prior to reaching the subscriber devices 16, thereby diminishing the quality of the downstream signal 22 applied from the network ports 54 to the subscriber devices 16. The downstream CATV signals 22 utilized by the subscriber devices 16 are diminished in strength, because the four-way split from the splitter 74 substantially reduces the already-reduced power, thus reducing the amount of signal strength received by the subscriber devices 16. However, the functionality of the subscriber devices 16 is not as critical or important as the functionality of the modem 56 and telephone 58 or other subscriber equipment connected to the eMTA port 52. Upstream CATV signals 40 from the subscriber devices 16 and the voice modem 56 are combined by the splitters 74 and 80 and then sent to the CATV network 20 through the in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70, without substantial reduction in signal strength due to the relatively high strength of those upstream CATV signals 40 supplied by the network interfaces 64 and 66 and the modem 56 or other subscriber equipment 16. The embodiment of the CATV entry adapter 10c shown in FIG. 5 eliminates the need for the in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70 (FIGS. 3 and 4), while preserving the ability to block the in-home network frequency band signals 78 from entering the CATV network 20 and while assuring that a relatively high strength downstream CATV signal 22 will be present for delivery to subscriber equipment at one or more network ports. To do so, the CATV entry adapter 10c uses two conventional diplexers 92 and 94 in conjunction with the splitter 74 and 80. In general, the function of a conventional diplexer is to separate signals received at a common terminal into signals within a high frequency range and within a low frequency range, and to deliver signals in the high and low frequency ranges separately from high and low pass terminals. Conversely, the conventional diplexer will combine separate high frequency and low frequency signals received separately at the high and low frequency terminals into a single signal which has both high frequency and low frequency content and supply that single signal of combined frequency content at the common terminal. In the following discussion of the CATV entry adapters which utilize diplexers, the predetermined low frequency range is the CATV signal frequency range which encompasses both the upstream and downstream CATV signals 22 and 40 (i.e., 5-1002 MHz), and the predetermined high frequency range is the frequency of the in-home network signals 78. When in-home network 14 is implemented by use of MoCA devices and protocol, the in-home frequency band is greater than the frequency band employed for CATV signals (i.e., 1125-1525 MHz). If the in-home network 14 is implemented using other networking technology, the network signals 78 must be in a frequency band which is separate from the frequency band of the upstream and downstream CATV signals. In such a circumstance, the high and low frequency ranges of the diplexers used in the herein-described CATV entry adapters must be selected to separate the CATV signal frequency band from the in-home network signal frequency band. The entry port 50 connects the adapter 10c to the CATV network 20. A two-way splitter 80 has an input terminal 82 which is connected directly to the entry port 50. The two-way splitter 80 splits the downstream CATV signals 22 at the input terminal 82 into two identical copies of reduced signal strength and conducts those copies through the two output terminals 84 and 85. The split copy of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied by the output terminal 84 is conducted to a principal network port 54p of the entry adapter 10c. The network port 54p is regarded as a principal network port because the server network interface 64 is connected to that port 54p. A subscriber devices 16 may or may not be connected to the server network interface 64. The two output terminals 84 and 85 of the splitter 80 are respectively connected to low-pass terminals 88 and 90 of conventional diplexers 92 and 94. The low pass terminals 88 and 90 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals which have a predetermined low frequency range. High pass terminals 104 and 106 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals which have a predetermined high frequency range. Common terminals 96 and 98 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals that have both predetermined high and predetermined low frequency ranges. The common terminal 98 of the diplexer 94 is connected to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. The output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the in-home network ports 54 (FIG. 2) which are designated as secondary ports 54s. Client network interfaces 66 are connected to the secondary ports 54s. Subscriber devices 16 are connected to the client interfaces 66. The network ports 54s to which the client network interfaces 66 are connected are designated as secondary network ports because the server network interface 64 is connected to the principal network port 54p. The high-pass terminals 104 and 106 of the diplexers 92 and 94 are connected to each other. As a consequence, the higher frequency band of the network signals 78 are conducted by the diplexers 92 and 94 through their high pass terminals 104 and 106 and between their common terminals 96 and 98. In this manner, the network signals 78 are confined for transmission only between the network interfaces 64 and 66, through the diplexers 92 and 94 and the four-way splitter 74. The diplexers 92 and 94 also conduct the lower frequency band CATV signals 22 and 40 from their common terminals 96 and 98 through their low-pass terminals 88 and 90 to the principal port 54p and to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. The four-way splitter 74 conducts the lower frequency band CATV signals 22 and 40 to the secondary ports 54s. The CATV signals 22 and 40 are available to all of the network interfaces 64 and 66 and to the subscriber equipment 16 connected to those network interfaces 64 and 66. In this manner, the CATV signals 22 and 40 and the network signals 78 are both made available to each of the network interfaces 64 and 66 so that each of the subscriber devices 16 has the capability of interacting with both the CATV signals and the network signals. The frequency band separation characteristics of the diplexers 92 and 94 perform the function of preventing the high frequency network signals 78 from reaching the CATV network 20. Another advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10c is that the downstream CATV signals 22 are applied to the server network interface 64 and its attached subscriber device 16 with only the relatively small reduction in signal strength caused by splitting the downstream CATV signal 22 in the two-way splitter 80. This contrasts with the substantially greater reduction in signal strength created by passing the downstream CATV signal 22 through the four-way splitter 74 in the entry adapters 10a and 10b (FIGS. 3 and 4) to reach the subscriber devices 16. Minimizing the amount of signal power reduction experienced by the downstream CATV signal 22 received by the server network interface 64 preserves a high quality of the multimedia content contained in the downstream CATV signal 22. Consequently, the server network interface 64 receives high quality, good strength downstream CATV signals, which the server network interface 64 uses to supply high quality of service by sending that content in network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 connected to other subscriber devices. In this manner, the CATV entry adapter 10c may be used to replace the downstream CATV signals directly applied to the client network interfaces with the network signals containing the same content. Another advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10c is that the server network interface 64 can store the multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signal supplied to it. A subscriber may wish to access and view or otherwise use that stored multimedia content at a later time. The stored multimedia content is delivered in high quality network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 over the in-home network 14. Because of the capability of the server network interface 64 to supply high quality network signals, the reduction in signal strength created by the four-way splitter 74 does not significantly impact the quality of the network signals received by the client network interfaces 66. Thus, the CATV entry adapter 10c offers a subscriber the opportunity to utilize directly those CATV signal copies which pass through the four-way splitter 74, or to achieve a higher quality signal when the server network interface 64 converts the content from the downstream CATV signal into network signals 78 which are then made available as high-quality network signals for the client network interfaces 66. Storing the multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signals 22 in the storage medium of the server network interface 64 provides an opportunity for one or more of the client network interfaces 66 to access that stored content and request its transmission over the in-home network 14 to the subscriber devices 16 connected to the requesting client network interface 66. Because the multimedia content has been stored by the server network interface 64, the client network interfaces 66 may request and receive that multimedia content at any subsequent time while that content remains stored on the server network interface 64. The CATV entry adapter 10d shown in FIG. 6 is similar to the CATV entry adapter 10c (FIG. 5) except that the adapter 10d allows a modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 to be connected in a dedicated manner that does not involve use of the in-home network 14. If a modem and VoIP telephone set are connected to the CATV entry adapter 10c (FIG. 5), the modem and VoIP telephone set would be connected as subscriber equipment to the server network interface 64 in that entry adapter 10c. In this circumstance, the proper functionality of the modem and VoIP telephone set depends on proper functionality of the server network interface 64, and that functionality is susceptible to failure due to power outages and the like. In the CATV entry adapter 10d shown in FIG. 6, a three-way splitter 110 is used to divide the downstream CATV signal 22 into three reduced-power identical copies. The three-way splitter has a single input terminal 112 and three output terminals 114, 116 and 118. The input terminal 112 is connected to the entry port 50, and two of the output terminals 114 and 116 are connected to the low pass terminals 88 and 90 of the diplexers 92 and 94. A third output terminal 118 is connected to the eMTA port 52. Although the signal strength of the CATV signal 22 is diminished as a result of the three-way split in the splitter 110, there will be sufficient strength in the copy supplied to the EMTA port 52 from the output terminal 118 to permit the modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 to operate reliably. Upstream signals from the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58 pass through the three-way splitter 110 into the CATV network 20. The advantage to the CATV entry adapter 10d is that the functionality of the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58 does not depend on the functionality of the network interfaces 64 and 66. Thus any adversity which occurs within the in-home network 14 does not adversely influence the capability of the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone to provide continuous telephone service to the subscriber. Continuous telephone service is important when the service is “life-line” telephone service. Other communication with respect to downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 and network signals 78 occur in the manner discussed above in conjunction with the adapter 10c (FIG. 5). The CATV entry adapter 10e, shown in FIG. 7, is distinguished from the previously discussed CATV entry adapters 10a, 10b, 10c and 10d (FIGS. 3-6) by conducting only the CATV signals 22 and 40 between the entry port 50 and the principal port 54p to which the server network interface 64 is connected. In the CATV entry adapter 10e, the entry port 50 is connected to the low pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The common terminal 96 of the diplexer 92 is connected to the principal port 54p. The high pass terminal 104 of the diplexer 92 is connected to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. Output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the secondary ports 54s. The principal and secondary ports 54p and 54s are connected to the server and client network interfaces 64 and 66. In the CATV entry adapter 10e, the downstream CATV signals 22 are not conducted to the client network interfaces 66. Similarly, the upstream CATV signals 22 are not conducted from the client network interfaces 66 to the entry port 50. Instead, all CATV signals 22 and 40 are conducted through the low pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The server network interface 64 converts the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signals 22 into network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66, and all of the information constituting upstream CATV signals 40 is communicated as network signals 78 from the client network interfaces 66 to the server network interface 64. The server network interface 64 converts the information into upstream CATV signals 40 and delivers them to the common terminal 96 of the diplexer 92. A subscriber device connected to a client network interface 66 that wishes to request content from the CATV network 20 sends a signal over the in-home network 14 to the server network interface 64, and the server network interface 64 sends the appropriate upstream CATV signal 40 to the CATV network 20. The CATV network 20 responds by sending downstream CATV signals 22, which are directed through the diplexer 92 only to the server network interface 64. Multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signals 22 is received and stored by the server network interface 64. The storage of the multimedia content on the server network interface 64 may be for a prolonged amount of time, or the storage may be only momentary. The server network interface 64 processes the content of the downstream CATV signals 22 into network signals 78 and delivers those signals over the in-home network 14 to the requesting client network interface 66 for use by its attached subscriber device 16. Even though the network signals 78 sent by the server network interface 64 pass through the four-way splitter 74, the strength of the signals supplied by the server network interface 64 is sufficient to maintain good signal strength of the network signals 78 when received by the client network interfaces 66. The advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10e over the other adapters 10a. 10b, 10c and 10d (FIGS. 3-6) is that the downstream CATV signal 22 reaches the server network interface 64 with substantially no reduction in signal strength. The downstream CATV signal 22 is conducted between the entry port 50 and the principal port 54p without being split. The high strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 is therefore available for use in obtaining the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signal 22. The multimedia content is also maintained at a high quality when transferred from the server network interface 64 to the client network interfaces 66, since the server network interface 64 delivers a high quality network signal 78 to the client network interfaces 66 over the in-home network 14, even when the network signals 78 are passed through the four-way splitter 74. The CATV entry adapter 10e therefore achieves the highest possible signal strength and quality for a passive CATV entry adapter, and enables multimedia content received from the downstream CATV signals 22 to be shared to multiple subscriber devices 16 over the in-home network. The passive nature of the CATV entry adapter 10e improves its reliability. The relatively small number of internal components, i.e. one diplexer 92 and one four-way splitter 74, also reduces the cost of the adapter 10e. A CATV entry adapter 10f shown in FIG. 8 uses an additional two-way splitter 80 and has a eMTA port 52 for connecting the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58, compared to the components of the entry adapter 10e (FIG. 7). The input terminal 82 of the two-way splitter 80 connects to the entry port 50. The output terminal 84 of the splitter 80 connects to the eMTA port 52, and the other output terminal 85 of the splitter 80 connects to the low-pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 are conducted between the entry port 50 and both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p. Copies of the downstream CATV signal 22 reach both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p after having been split only once by the two-way splitter 80. The downstream CATV signals 22 reaching both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p have a relatively high signal strength, since only one split of the downstream CATV signal 22 has occurred. Consequently, the entry adapter 10f delivers high quality downstream CATV signals 22 to both the modem 56 and connected VOIP telephone set 58 and to the server network interface 64. The advantage to the CATV entry adapter 10f is that it provides reliable telephone service through the eMTA port 52, which is not dependent upon the functionality of the network interfaces 64 and 66. Accordingly, reliable telephone service is available. In addition, the entry adapter 10f reliably communicates the content of the downstream CATV signals 22, because the single signal split from the splitter 80 does not diminish the quality of the downstream CATV signal 22 sufficiently to adversely affect the performance of the server network interface 64 in obtaining the CATV content. That high-quality content is preserved when it is communicated as network signals 78 from the server network interface 64 to the client interface devices 66 which are connected to the subscriber devices 16. Other than a slight reduction in signal strength created by the splitter 80, the communication of the downstream CATV signals 22 containing multimedia content for the subscriber devices 16 is essentially the same as that described in connection with the CATV entry adapter 10e (FIG. 7). The CATV entry adapters described within offer numerous advantages over other presently-known CATV entry adapters. Each of the CATV entry adapters is capable of supplying multimedia content from the CATV network to any of the subscriber devices connected to the adapter, either through direct communication of the downstream CATV signal 22 or by use of the network signals 78. Each of the CATV entry adapters also functions as a hub for the in-home network 14. Each of the CATV entry adapters is constructed with passive components and therefore do not require an external power supply beyond the CATV signals 22 and 40 and the network signals 78, thus both improving the reliability of the adapters themselves and reducing service calls. Each CATV entry adapter achieves a substantial strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 by limiting the number of times that the downstream signal 22 is split, compared to conventional CATV entry adapters which require a signal split for each subscriber device in the premises. Critical communications over the CATV network, such as life-line phone service, is preserved by CATV signals communicated over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely affected by multiple splits of the CATV signal. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. These and other benefits and advantages will become more apparent upon gaining a complete appreciation for the improvements of the present invention. Preferred embodiments of the invention and many of its improvements have been described with a degree of particularity. The description is of preferred examples for implementing the invention, and these preferred descriptions are not intended necessarily to limit the scope of the invention. The scope of the invention is defined by the following claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>CATV networks use an infrastructure of interconnected coaxial cables, signal splitters and combiners, repeating amplifiers, filters, trunk lines, cable taps, drop lines and other signal-conducting devices to supply and distribute high frequency “downstream” signals from a main signal distribution facility, known as a “headend,” to the premises (homes and offices) of subscribers to the CATV services. The downstream signals transfer multimedia content to subscriber equipment, such as television sets, telephone sets and computers. In addition, most CATV networks also transmit “upstream” signals from the subscriber equipment back to the headend of the CATV network. For example, the subscriber uses a set top box to select programs for display on the television set. As another example, two-way communication is essential when using a personal computer connected through the CATV infrastructure to the public Internet. As a further example, voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone sets use the CATV infrastructure and the public Internet as the communication medium for transmitting two-way telephone conversations. To permit simultaneous communication of upstream and downstream CATV signals and the interoperability of the subscriber equipment and the equipment associated with the CATV network infrastructure outside of subscriber premises, the downstream and upstream CATV signals are confined to two different frequency bands. The downstream frequency band is within the range of 54-1002 megahertz (MHz) and the upstream frequency band is within the range of 5-42 MHz, in most CATV networks. The entire CATV frequency band is therefore 5-1002 MHz. The downstream signals are delivered from the CATV network infrastructure to the subscriber premises at a CATV entry adapter, which is also commonly referred to as an entry device, terminal adapter or a drop amplifier. The CATV entry adapter is usually a multi-port device which provides a multiplicity of ports or connectors for connecting coaxial cables. A separate coaxial cable is connected to each of the ports and extends within the subscriber premises to the location of the subscriber equipment. Some homes have coaxial cables extending to cable outlets in almost every room, because of the many different types of subscriber equipment used in different rooms. For example. television sets are commonplace throughout the home. The multiple ports of the CATV entry adapter deliver downstream CATV at each cable outlet and conduct upstream CATV signals back through the premises coaxial cables to the CATV entry adapter, which delivers the upstream CATV signals to the CATV network. In addition to television sets, computers and telephones, a relatively large number of other entertainment and multimedia devices are available for use in homes. For example, a digital video recorder (DVR) is used to store broadcast programming, still photography and moving pictures in a memory medium so that the content can be replayed on a display or television set at a later time selected by the user. As another example, computer games are also played at displays or on television sets. Such computer games may be obtained or played over the Internet from the CATV network or from media played on play-back devices or game consoles connected to displays or television sets. As a further example, receivers which receive satellite-broadcast signals may be distributed for viewing or listening throughout the home. These types of devices, including the more-conventional television sets, telephone sets and devices connected to the Internet by the CATV network, are generically referred to as multimedia devices. The desire to use multimedia devices at multiple different locations within the home or subscriber premises has led to the creation of the Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA). MoCA has developed specifications for products to create an in-home entertainment network for interconnecting presently-known and future multimedia devices. The MoCA in-home network uses the subscriber premise or in-home coaxial cable infrastructure originally established for distribution of CATV signals within the subscriber premises, principally because that cable infrastructure already exists in most homes and is capable of carrying much more information than is carried in the CATV frequency band. A MoCA network is established by connecting MoCA interface devices at the cable outlets in the rooms of the subscriber premises. The MoCA network is used to transmit multimedia content from one MoCA interface device to another. The MoCA interface devices implement a MoCA communication protocol which encapsulates the multimedia content normally sent and received by the multimedia devices within MoCA packets and then communicates these MoCA packets between selected ones of the other MoCA interfaces devices connected at other cable outlets. The receiving MoCA interface device removes the encapsulated multimedia content, and delivers it to the connected computer, digital television or set-top box or other multimedia device from which then presents that multimedia content. Each MoCA interface device is capable of communicating with every other MoCA interface device in the MoCA network to deliver the multimedia content throughout the home or subscriber premises. The entertainment or multimedia content that is available from one multimedia device can be displayed, played or otherwise used at a different location within the home, without having to physically relocate the multimedia device from one location to another within the home. The in-home network communication of multimedia content is considered beneficial in more fully utilizing the multimedia devices present in modern homes. The MoCA interface devices also pass the upstream and downstream CATV signals between the CATV entry adapter and the subscriber devices. Since the MoCA network may function simultaneously with the normal operation of the CATV services, the MoCA signals communicated between MoCA interface devices utilize a frequency range of 1125-1525 MHz, which is outside of the frequency band of CATV signals. This so-called band of MoCA signals is divided into eight different frequency ranges, D1-D8, and these eight different D frequency ranges are used to assure communication between the selected MoCA interface devices. For example, the D-1 band at 1125-1175 MHz may be used to communicate CATV television programming content between a MoCA interface device connected to a set-top box in a main room of the house and another MoCA interface device connected to a television set in bedroom of the house, while a MoCA interface device connected to a computer gaming multimedia device in a basement room of the house simultaneously communicates computer game content over the D-6 band at 1375-1425 MHz to a computer located in a recreation room of the house. The MoCA frequency band also includes other frequency ranges outside of the CATV frequency band, but the D band is is used to establish connections and communicate content between the MoCA interface devices. Using the in-home coaxial cable as the principal communication medium substantially simplifies the implementation of the MoCA network, but there are certain disadvantages in doing so. The D band MoCA frequencies have the capability of passing through the CATV entry adapter and entering the CATV network where they may then enter a nearby subscriber's premises. The presence of the MoCA signals at the nearby subscriber's premises compromises the privacy and security of the information originally intended to be confined within the original subscriber premises. The MoCA signals from the original subscriber premises which enter through the CATV network to the nearby subscriber premises also have the potential to adversely affect the performance of a MoCA network in nearby subscriber's premises. The conflict of the MoCA signals from the original and nearby subscriber premises may cause the MoCA interface devices to malfunction or not operate properly on a consistent basis. Another undesirable aspect of using a MoCA for communication between the various multimedia devices is that a relatively large MoCA network with many cable outlet ports has the effect of deteriorating the strength of the downstream CATV signal. Because in-home multimedia devices frequently require access to the CATV network in order to send upstream CATV signals as well is to receive downstream CATV signals, the in-home coaxial cable infrastructure must commonly connect all of the CATV cables and CATV ports within the home to a common connection with the drop cable that supplies the CATV signal and services to the home. The common connection is usually achieved in the CATV entry adapter, which provides output ports that connect to the coaxial cables extending within the home to each separate location or room. A splitter within the CATV entry adapter divides the CATV downstream signals into two or more reduced-power copies of the input signal, and supplies each copy to a separate outlet port. Similarly, upstream signals from the subscriber equipment connected to each of the coaxial cables are combined in the splitter and then passed upstream through the CATV entry adapter into the CATV network. The typical splitter is passive, which means that the power of the input signal is divided among the copies of the output signals split from the input signal. Each copy of the signal therefore has diminished power or strength, and the lower strength copies will not have the same quality as the input signal. In general terms, the quality is the strength of the signal relative to the strength of the inherent ambient noise. Since the inherent ambient noise generally cannot be diminished and is usually a constant, lowering the strength of the signal relative to the noise reduces the signal-to-noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio is a recognized measure of the quality of a signal. A lower signal-to-noise ratio represents a lesser quality signal. Because many homes require a relatively large number of cable outlet ports, for example six or more, the downstream CATV signal must be split into a comparable relatively large number of copies. The greater number of signal splitters required to generate the requisite number of separate copies of the downstream CATV signal diminishes the strength of the downstream signal copies. The quality of CATV service available in an in-home network with a relatively large number of cable output ports therefore suffers, because the strength of the CATV signal available at each of these ports is substantially diminished due to the extent of signal splitting required. On the other hand, Upstream CATV signals from the subscriber equipment do not occur as frequently as downstream CATV signals. Furthermore, upstream signals are generally of a higher power because they are generated immediately by the subscriber equipment within the home. Consequently, the reduction in CATV signal strength applies principally to downstream CATV signals, which of course provide the multimedia content to the subscriber. It is the quality of the multimedia content observed by the subscriber that forms the basis for the subscriber's opinion of quality of service. To compensate for downstream CATV signal strength reduction caused by splitting, some entry adapters include amplifiers to increase the strength of the copies of the downstream CATV signals. Of course, including an amplifier along with the signal splitter makes the signal transmission dependent upon the presence of adequate electrical power to operate the amplifier. The power for the amplifier is derived from commercial sources within the household. If the commercial power supply is temporarily interrupted, or if the power supply equipment within the home ceases operating properly, the customer perceives a CATV problem and reports the problem to the CATV service provider. The CATV service provider must thereafter send a service or repair person to the home of the subscriber in order to identify and remedy the problem. Such service calls are a significant expense for a CATV service provider. CATV service providers therefore attempt to eliminate as many of the potential points of failure as possible in the equipment supplied by the CATV service provider, to reduce service calls and repair costs. Including an amplifier in a CATV entry adapter creates a potential point of failure, and for that reason most CATV service providers wish to avoid using CATV entry adapters with amplifiers. However, in those relatively large in-home networks with multiple outlets for connecting multiple multimedia devices, there has been little previous choice but to use amplifiers in conjunction with splitters in order to obtain the desired downstream CATV signal strength that represents a high quality of service.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to a cable television (CATV) entry adapter which beneficially provides a high quality and strength downstream CATV signal to multiple subscriber devices while simultaneously contributing to and promoting the establishment of a multimedia in-home network. The CATV entry adapter is preferably passive without an amplifier, and passes the in-home network communication signals between the multiple subscriber devices, and passes the downstream and upstream CATV signals to the subscriber equipment and the CATV network. The in-home network communication signals are effectively communicated in the in-home network and the multimedia content from the upstream and downstream CATV signals is effectively made available to all of the subscriber equipment and to the CATV network without diminishing the quality or strength of the CATV signals to the point where the quality of service is compromised. As a passive device, the CATV entry adapter of the present invention requires no external power source, which eliminates unnecessary service calls. In addition, critical communications over the CATV network, such as “life-line” phone service, are preserved during transmission over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. In accordance with these and other features, one aspect of the invention involves a cable television (CATV) entry adapter for conducting downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at subscriber premises and for conducting in-home network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The CATV signals occupy a CATV frequency band which is different from an in-home network frequency band occupied by the in-home network signals. The in-home network includes a network interface connected to each subscriber device by which to generate and communicate the network signals between the subscriber devices in the in-home network. The CATV entry adapter comprises a CATV entry port for connection to the CATV network, and a plurality of network ports each for connection to the network interface to which each subscriber device is connected. The CATV entry adapter also includes a signal splitter which has an input terminal and two output terminals. The signal splitter operatively splits a signal received at its input terminal into reduced-power copies of the input signal supplied at each of its output terminals. The signal splitter also communicates signals received at each output terminal to the input terminal and to the other output terminal. The CATV entry adapter also includes an in-home network frequency band rejection device connected between the CATV entry port and the input port of the signal splitter. The in-home network frequency band rejection device substantially blocks transmission of the in-home network signals therethrough to the CATV entry port and the CATV network. Another aspect of the invention involves an in-home network for distributing multimedia content to subscriber devices. The multimedia content is obtained from CATV signals communicated over a CATV network and from a subscriber device connected to the in-home network. The in-home network comprises a CATV entry adapter having a CATV entry port and a plurality of network ports. The CATV entry port is connected to the CATV network for receiving multimedia content from CATV signals communicated over the CATV network. The in-home network also comprises a plurality of in-home network interfaces, each of which is connected to a different one of the plurality of network ports. Each of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content to the subscriber devices to which each network interface is connected. All of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content between one another in network signals communicated between the network interfaces. At least one of the network interfaces sends and receives CATV signals and communicates the multimedia content contained in the CATV signals to the subscriber device to which the one network interface is connected, and communicates the multimedia content obtained from the CATV signals in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. Each of the network interfaces communicates multimedia content obtained from a subscriber device connected to that network interface in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. The network signals are located within a network frequency band which is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are located. A further aspect of the invention involves a method of conducting information contained in downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at a subscriber premises and of conducting information contained in network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The method comprises connecting the CATV entry adapter to receive and transmit CATV signals from and to the CATV network, respectively; connecting in-home network interfaces to each subscriber device to form the in-home network among the subscriber devices to which network interfaces are attached; connecting the CATV entry adapter as a hub in the in-home network to pass network signals between network interfaces; confining the network signals to an end-home network frequency band that is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are confined; connecting the CATV adapter to at least one network interface to receive and transmit CATV signals supplied from and to the CATV entry adapter; and preventing transmission of the network signals within the CATV entry adapter onto the CATV network. One subsidiary aspect of the invention which relates to blocking or preventing the transmission of network signals onto the CATV network, involves a frequency rejection device which comprises only passive electronic components, or which functions without a power source separate from the CATV signals and the in-home network signals. The frequency rejection device may take the form of a frequency rejection filter, or the frequency rejection device may take the form of at least one diplexer which divides frequencies into separate frequency bands, and is connected to conduct the network signals in the network frequency band between network interfaces and to conduct the CATV signals in the CATV frequency band to and from the CATV network. Another subsidiary aspect of the invention involves a server network interface and at least one client network interface. The server network interface sends and receives downstream and upstream CATV signals and network signals to communicate information contained in the CATV and network signals to the subscriber device to which the server network interface is connected. Each client network interface sends and receives network signals to communicate information contained in the network signals to the subscriber device to which each client network interface is connected. The server network interface also has a capability for storing information obtained from downstream CATV signals and subsequently supplying network signals to a client network interface which contain the information stored from the downstream CATV signals. An additional subsidiary aspect of the invention involves connecting an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA)-compatible subscriber device including a modem and telephone set to the CATV entry adapter, and splitting downstream CATV signals into reduced-power copies and supplying one of the copies to the eMTA-compatible device. A more complete appreciation of the present invention, as well as the manner in which the present invention achieves the above and other improvements, can be obtained by reference to the following detailed description of presently preferred embodiments taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are briefly summarized below, and by reference to the appended claims.

H04N2143615

20180125

20180531

88957.0

H04N21436

DUBASKY, GIGI L

METHODS FOR CONTROLLING CATV SIGNAL COMMUNICATION BETWEEN A CATV NETWORK AND AN IN-HOME NETWORK, AND PRESERVING DOWNSTREAM CATV SIGNAL STRENGTH WITHIN THE IN-HOME NETWORK

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04N

PENDING

PASSIVE MULTI-PORT ENTRY ADAPTER AND METHOD FOR PRESERVING DOWNSTREAM CATV SIGNAL STRENGTH WITHIN IN-HOME NETWORK

A cable television (CATV) entry adapter interfaces to a CATV network and serves as a hub in an in-home network for passively communicating multimedia content or information from the CATV network and between subscriber devices connected to the ports of the CATV entry adapter, using CATV signals in a CATV frequency band and network signals in a different in-home network band.

1. An entry adapter for communicating two-way, downstream and upstream cable television (CATV) signals between a CATV network and a subscriber device at a subscriber premises and for communicating in-home network signals in an in-home network, the CATV signals being within a CATV frequency band range that is different from an in-home network frequency band range of the in-home network signals, the in-home network including a network interface that is configured to communicate with the subscriber device so as to communicate the in-home network signals in the in-home network, the entry adapter comprising: a CATV entry port configured to be in communication with a CATV network; a primary network port configured to be in communication with a server network interface for a subscriber device; a plurality of secondary network ports each configured to be in communication with a client network interface for the subscriber device; a first signal splitter having a first splitter input terminal, and a plurality of first splitter output terminals, the first signal splitter being configured to split a CATV network signal into a first CATV network signal copy and a second CATV network signal copy, communicate the first CATV network signal copy to the primary network port, the server network interface, and the subscriber device, and communicate the second CATV network signal copy to at least one of the plurality of secondary network ports, the client network interface, and the subscriber device; a two-way, downstream and upstream communication and in-home network signal blocking device configured to allow downstream and upstream CATV signals to be communicated between the CATV network and the subscriber device; a second signal splitter having a second splitter input terminal, and a plurality of second splitter output terminals, the second signal splitter being configured to split a CATV network signal into a plurality of CATV network signal copies each having a reduced signal-to-noise ratio after the second signal splitter has split the CATV network signal into the plurality of CATV network signal copies, and communicate the plurality of CATV network signal copies to the plurality of secondary network ports; wherein the two-way, downstream and upstream communication and in-home network signal blocking device is configured to block in-home network signals from being communicated to the CATV network; wherein the two-way, downstream and upstream communication and in-home network signal blocking device comprises a first diplexer and a second diplexer; wherein the first diplexer includes a first high frequency band terminal, a first low frequency band terminal, and a first common terminal; wherein the first low frequency band terminal is configured to communicate with one of the plurality of first splitter output terminals of the first signal splitter; wherein the first common terminal is configured to communicate with the primary network port; wherein the first diplexer is configured to communicate in-home network signals in a predetermined high frequency band range through the first high frequency band terminal; wherein the first diplexer is configured to communicate CATV signals in a predetermined low frequency band range through the first low frequency band terminal; wherein the second diplexer includes a second high frequency band terminal, a second low frequency band terminal, and a second common terminal; wherein the second high frequency band terminal is configured to communicate with the first high frequency band terminal of the first diplexer; wherein the second low frequency band terminal is configured to communicate with another one of the plurality of first splitter output terminals of the first signal splitter; wherein the second common terminal is configured to communicate with at least one of the plurality of secondary network ports; wherein the second diplexer is configured to communicate in-home network signals in the predetermined high frequency band range through the second high frequency band terminal; wherein the second diplexer is configured to communicate CATV signals in the predetermined low frequency band range through the second low frequency band terminal; wherein the first high frequency band terminal of the first diplexer is configured to communicate with the second high frequency band terminal of the second diplexer; wherein the in-home network signals are in the predetermined high frequency band range, and not in the predetermined low frequency band range; wherein the downstream and upstream CATV signals are in the predetermined low frequency band range, and not in the predetermined high frequency band range; wherein the first high frequency band terminal of the first diplexer is connected to the second high frequency band terminal of the second diplexer so as to limit transmission of in-home network signals through the server network interface, the client network interface, the first diplexer, the second diplexer, and the second signal splitter so as to prevent in-home network signals from being distributed to the CATV network; and wherein the downstream and upstream CATV signals and the in-home network signals are both made available to the server and client network interfaces so that the subscriber device is configured to interact with not only the downstream and upstream CATV signals, but also the in-home network signals, and the first and second diplexers are configured to separate high and low frequency bands of signals so as to prevent high frequency in-home network signals from reaching the CATV network. 2. An entry adapter for communicating two-way, downstream and upstream cable television (CATV) signals between a CATV network and a subscriber device at a subscriber premises and for communicating in-home network signals in an in-home network, the CATV signals being within a CATV frequency band range that is different from an in-home network frequency band range of the in-home network signals, the in-home network including a network interface that is configured to communicate with the subscriber device so as to communicate the in-home network signals in the in-home network, the entry adapter comprising: a CATV entry port configured to be in communication with a CATV network; a primary network port configured to be in communication with a server network interface for a subscriber device; a secondary network port configured to be in communication with a client network interface for the subscriber device; a signal splitter having a splitter input terminal, a first splitter output terminal, and a second splitter output terminal, the signal splitter being configured to split a CATV network signal into a first CATV network signal copy and a second CATV network signal copy, communicate the first CATV network signal copy to the primary network port, the server network interface and the subscriber device, and communicate the second CATV network signal copy to the secondary network port, the client network interface, and the subscriber device; a two-way, downstream and upstream communication and in-home network signal blocking device configured to allow downstream and upstream CATV signals to be communicated between the CATV network and the subscriber device; wherein the two-way, downstream and upstream communication and in-home network signal blocking device is configured to block in-home network signals from being communicated to the CATV network; wherein the two-way, downstream and upstream communication and in-home network signal blocking device comprises a first diplexer and a second diplexer; wherein the first diplexer includes a first high frequency band terminal, a first low frequency band terminal, and a first common terminal; wherein the first low frequency band terminal is configured to communicate with the first splitter output terminal of the signal splitter; wherein the first common terminal is configured to communicate with the primary network port; wherein the first diplexer is configured to communicate in-home network signals in a predetermined high frequency band range through the first high frequency band terminal; wherein the first diplexer is configured to communicate CATV signals in a predetermined low frequency band range through the first low frequency band terminal; wherein the second diplexer includes a second high frequency band terminal, a second low frequency band terminal, and a second common terminal; wherein the second high frequency band terminal is configured to communicate with the first high frequency band terminal of the first diplexer; wherein the second low frequency band terminal is configured to communicate with the second splitter output terminal of the signal splitter; wherein the second common terminal is configured to communicate with the secondary network port; wherein the second diplexer is configured to communicate in-home network signals in the predetermined high frequency band range through the second high frequency band terminal; wherein the second diplexer is configured to communicate CATV signals in the predetermined low frequency band range through the second low frequency band terminal; wherein the first high frequency band terminal of the first diplexer is configured to communicate with the second high frequency band terminal of the second diplexer; wherein the in-home network signals are in the predetermined high frequency band range, and not in the predetermined low frequency band range; and wherein the downstream and upstream CATV signals are in the predetermined low frequency band range, and not in the predetermined high frequency band range. 3. An entry adapter for distributing downstream and upstream network signals between an external network and a client device in an internal network, and distributing internal network signals in the internal network, while frequency band blocking the internal network signals from being distributed to the external network, the entry adapter comprising: a plurality of ports configured to allow downstream and upstream network signals from an external network to communicate with a client device in an internal network; and a two-way, downstream and upstream network communications and frequency band, internal network signal blocking device configured to allow downstream and upstream external network signals to communicate with the client device in the internal network, and frequency band block internal network signals from being communicated upstream to the external network; wherein the two-way, downstream and upstream network communications and frequency band, internal network signal blocking device comprises: a signal splitter configured to split a network signal into a plurality of reduced signal-strength network signal copies to be communicated to the plurality of ports; and a diplexer configured to separate network signals into a high frequency band network signal range and a low frequency band network signal range so as to allow downstream and upstream low frequency band network signals to communicate with the client device in the internal network while frequency band blocking high frequency band internal network signals from being communicated upstream to the external network; wherein the internal network signals are in the high frequency band network signal range, and not in the low frequency band network signal range; wherein the downstream and upstream network signals are in the low frequency band network signal range, and not in the high frequency band network signal range; wherein the plurality of ports comprise a primary network port in communication with a server network interface, and a secondary network port in communication with a client network interface; and wherein the signal splitter is configured to allow a first reduced signal-strength network signal copy to be communicated to the primary network port and allow a second reduced signal-strength network signal copy to be communicated to the secondary network port. 4. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the first signal splitter, the first diplexer, the second diplexer, and the second signal splitter are passive electrical components. 5. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the downstream and upstream CATV signals are distributed through the two-way downstream and downstream communication and in-home network signal blocking device without being attenuated. 6. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the server network interface is configured to send and receive downstream and upstream CATV signals between the CATV network and the subscriber device. 7. The entry adapter of claim 6, wherein the server network interface is configured to store downstream CATV signals and supply network signals to the client network interface based on the stored downstream CATV signals. 8. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the client network interface is configured to send and receive network signals CATV network and the subscriber device. 9. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the first signal splitter comprises a two-way splitter. 10. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the second signal splitter comprises a four-way splitter. 11. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the first CATV network signal copy and the second CATV network signal copy each has a reduced signal-to-noise ratio after the first signal splitter has split the CATV network signal into the first CATV network signal copy and the second CATV network signal copy. 12. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the CATV entry port is configured to be in direct communication with the CATV network. 13. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the primary network port is configured to be in direct communication with the server network interface for the subscriber device. 14. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the plurality of secondary network ports are each configured to be in direct communication with the client network interface for the subscriber device. 15. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein first signal splitter is configured to directly communicate the first CATV network signal copy to the primary network port. 16. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the first low frequency band terminal is configured to directly communicate with one of the first splitter output terminals of the first signal splitter. 17. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the first common terminal is configured to directly communicate with the primary network port. 18. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the first diplexer is configured to directly communicate in-home network signals in the predetermined high frequency band range through the first high frequency band terminal, and wherein the first diplexer is configured to directly communicate CATV signals in the predetermined low frequency band range through the first low frequency band terminal. 19. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the second high frequency band terminal of the second diplexer is configured to directly communicate with the first high frequency band terminal of the first diplexer. 20. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the second low frequency band terminal of the second diplexer is configured to directly communicate with one of the first splitter output terminals of the first signal splitter. 21. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the second common terminal of the second diplexer is configured to directly communicate with the plurality of secondary network ports. 22. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the second diplexer is configured to directly communicate in-home network signals in the predetermined high frequency band range through the second high frequency band terminal, and wherein the second diplexer is configured to directly communicate CATV signals in the predetermined low frequency band range through the second low frequency band terminal. 23. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the entry adapter is configured to eliminate a need for an in-home network frequency band rejection filter, while blocking in-home frequency band signal from entering the CATV network, and while assuring that a high strength downstream CATV signal will be delivered to the subscriber device during operation of the entry adapter. 24. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the predetermined low frequency band range is a CATV frequency range that encompasses both the upstream and downstream CATV signals. 25. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the predetermined low frequency band range comprises a downstream frequency band range and an upstream frequency band range. 26. The entry adapter of claim 25, wherein the downstream frequency band range comprises 54 MHz to 1002 MHz, and the upstream frequency band range comprises 5 MHz to 42 MHz. 27. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the predetermined low frequency band range comprises 5 MHz to 1002 MHz. 28. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the predetermined high frequency band range is the in-home frequency band range of the in-home network signals. 29. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the in-home frequency band range is higher than a frequency band range employed for CATV signals. 30. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the in-home frequency band range comprises 1125 MHz to 1525 MHz. 31. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the first low frequency band terminal of the first diplexer and the second low frequency band terminal of the second diplexer are configured to confine transmission of high frequency in-home network signals only through the server network interface, the client network interface, the first diplexer, the second diplexer, and the second signal splitter so as to prevent high frequency in-home network signals from being distributed to the CATV network. 32. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the first signal splitter comprises a two-way splitter configured to distribute the downstream CATV signals to the server network interface, and a subscriber device in communication with the server network interface, with only a single reduction in signal strength caused by splitting the downstream CATV signals in the two-way splitter so as to allow the server network interface to store multimedia content based on the single reduction in signal strength of the downstream CATV signals distributed from the two-way splitter. 33. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the signal splitter, the first diplexer, and the second diplexer are passive electrical components. 34. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the downstream and upstream CATV signals are distributed through the two-way downstream and downstream communication and in-home network signal blocking device without being attenuated. 35. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the server network interface is configured to send and receive downstream and upstream CATV signals between the CATV network and the subscriber device. 36. The entry adapter of claim 35, wherein the server network interface is configured to store downstream CATV signals and supply network signals to the client network interface based on the stored downstream CATV signals. 37. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the client network interface is configured to send and receive network signals CATV network and the subscriber device. 38. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the signal splitter comprises a first signal splitter, the entry adapter further comprising a second signal splitter. 39. The entry adapter of claim 38, wherein the first signal splitter comprises a two-way splitter. 40. The entry adapter of claim 38, wherein the second signal splitter comprises a four-way splitter. 41. The entry adapter of claim 38, wherein the second signal splitter comprising a second splitter input terminal and a second splitter output terminal. 42. The entry adapter of claim 38, wherein the second signal splitter comprises a second splitter input terminal and a plurality of second splitter output terminals. 43. The entry adapter of claim 42, wherein the secondary network port comprises a plurality of secondary network ports, the client network interface comprises a plurality of client network interfaces, the subscriber devices comprises a plurality of subscriber devices, and the second splitter is configured to split a CATV network signal into a plurality of CATV network signal copies, and communicate the plurality of CATV network signal copies to the plurality of secondary network ports, the plurality of client network interfaces and the plurality of subscriber devices. 44. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the first CATV network signal copy and the second CATV network signal copy each has a reduced signal-to-noise ratio after the signal splitter has split the CATV network signal into the first CATV network signal copy and the second CATV network signal copy. 45. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the CATV entry port is configured to be in direct communication with the CATV network. 46. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the primary network port is configured to be in direct communication with the server network interface for the subscriber device. 47. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the secondary network port is configured to be in direct communication with the client network interface for the subscriber device. 48. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the signal splitter is configured to directly communicate the first CATV network signal copy to the primary network port. 49. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the first low frequency band terminal is configured to directly communicate with the first splitter output terminal of the signal splitter. 50. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the first common terminal is configured to directly communicate with the primary network port. 51. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the first diplexer is configured to directly communicate in-home network signals in the predetermined high frequency band range through the first high frequency band terminal. 52. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the first diplexer is configured to directly communicate CATV signals in the predetermined low frequency band range through the first low frequency band terminal. 53. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the second high frequency band terminal of the second diplexer is configured to directly communicate with the first high frequency band terminal of the first diplexer. 54. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the second low frequency band terminal of the second diplexer is configured to directly communicate with the second splitter output terminal of the signal splitter. 55. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the second diplexer is configured to directly communicate in-home network signals in the predetermined high frequency band range through the second high frequency band terminal. 56. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the second diplexer is configured to directly communicate CATV signals in the predetermined low frequency band range through the second low frequency band terminal. 57. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the entry adapter is configured to eliminate a need for an in-home network frequency band rejection filter, while blocking in-home frequency band signal from entering the CATV network, and while assuring that a high strength downstream CATV signal will be delivered to the subscriber device during operation of the entry adapter. 58. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the predetermined low frequency band range is a CATV frequency range that encompasses both the upstream and downstream CATV signals. 59. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the predetermined low frequency band range comprises a downstream frequency band range and an upstream frequency band range. 60. The entry adapter of claim 59, wherein the downstream frequency band range comprises 54 MHz to 1002 MHz. 61. The entry adapter of claim 59, wherein the upstream frequency band range comprises 5 MHz to 42 MHz. 62. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the predetermined low frequency band range comprises 5 MHz to 1002 MHz. 63. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the predetermined high frequency band range is the in-home frequency band range of the in-home network signals. 64. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the in-home frequency band range is greater than a frequency band range employed for CAT signals. 65. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the in-home frequency band range comprises 1125 MHz to 1525 MHz. 66. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the signal splitter comprises a first signal splitter, the entry adapter further comprising a second signal splitter, and wherein the first high frequency band terminal of the first diplexer is connected to the second high frequency band terminal of the second diplexer so as to confine transmission of in-home network signals only through the server network interface, the client network interface, the first diplexer, the second diplexer, the second signal splitter, and prevent in-home network signals from being distributed to the CATV network. 67. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the signal splitter comprises a first signal splitter, the entry adapter further comprising a second signal splitter, and wherein the first high frequency band terminal of the first diplexer is directly connected to the second high frequency band terminal of the second diplexer so as to limit transmission of in-home network signals only through the server network interface, the client network interface, the first diplexer, the second diplexer, the second signal splitter, and prevent in-home network signals from being distributed to the CATV network. 68. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the signal splitter comprises a first signal splitter, the entry adapter further comprising a second signal splitter, and wherein the first low frequency band terminal of the first diplexer and the second low frequency band terminal of the second diplexer are configured to confine transmission of high frequency in-home network signals only through the server network interface, the client network interface, the first diplexer, the second diplexer, the second signal splitter, and prevent high frequency in-home network signals from being distributed to the CATV network. 69. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the downstream and upstream CATV signals and the in-home network signals are both made available to each of the server and client network interfaces so that the subscriber device is configured to interact with not only the downstream and upstream CATV signals, but also the in-home network signals, and the first and second diplexers are configured to separate high and low frequency bands of signals so as to prevent high frequency in-home network signals from reaching the CATV network. 70. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the first splitter comprises a two-way splitter configured to distribute the downstream CATV signals to the server network interface, and a subscriber device in communication with the server network interface, with only a single reduction in signal strength caused by splitting the downstream CATV signals in the two-way splitter. 71. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the first splitter comprises a two-way splitter configured to distribute the downstream CATV signals to the server network interface, and a subscriber device in communication with the server network interface, with only a single reduction in signal strength caused by splitting the downstream CATV signals in the two-way splitter so as to allow the server network interface to store multimedia content based on the single reduction in signal strength of the downstream CATV signals distributed from the two-way splitter. 72. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the first splitter comprises a two-way splitter configured to split a CATV signal into a first CATV signal having a first reduced signal strength caused by splitting the CATV signal in the two-way splitter, and distribute the first CATV signal to the server network interface, and a subscriber device in communication with the server network interface, the entry adapter comprising a second splitter, the second splitter comprising a four-way splitter configured to split a CATV signal into a second CATV signal having a second reduced signal strength caused by splitting the CATV signal in the four-way splitter, and distribute the second CATV signal to the client network interface, and a subscriber device in communication with the client network interface, and wherein the second reduced signal strength is less than the first reduced signal strength. 73. The entry adapter of claim 2, wherein the first splitter is configured to split a CATV signal into a first CATV signal having a first reduced signal strength caused by splitting the CATV signal in the first splitter, and distribute the first CATV signal to the server network interface, and a subscriber device in communication with the server network interface, and comprising a second splitter configured to split a CATV signal into a second CATV signal having a second reduced signal strength caused by splitting the CATV signal in the second splitter, and distribute the second CATV signal to the client network interface, and a subscriber device in communication with the client network interface, and wherein the second reduced signal strength is less than the first reduced signal strength. 74. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the external network comprises a cable television (CATV) network, and the internal network comprises an in-home network. 75. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the plurality of ports comprises a primary port configured to be connected to a server network interface, and wherein the signal splitter is configured to split the network signal into a first network signal copy and a second network signal copy, communicate the first network signal copy to the primary network port, and a server network interface and a subscriber device in communication with the primary network port, and communicate the second network signal copy to the secondary network port, and a client network interface and a subscriber device in communication with the secondary network port. 76. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the diplexer comprises a first diplexer and a second diplexer. 77. The entry adapter of claim 76, wherein the first diplexer includes a first high frequency band terminal, a first low frequency band terminal, and a first common terminal. 78. The entry adapter of claim 77, wherein the first low frequency band terminal is configured to communicate with a first splitter output terminal of the signal splitter, and the first common terminal is configured to communicate with the primary network port. 79. The entry adapter of claim 77, wherein the first diplexer is configured to communicate network signals in a predetermined high frequency band range through the first high frequency band terminal, and communicate network signals in a predetermined low frequency band range through the first low frequency band terminal. 80. The entry adapter of claim 76, wherein the second diplexer includes a second high frequency band terminal, a second low frequency band terminal, and a second common terminal, wherein the second high frequency band terminal is configured to communicate with the first high frequency band terminal of the first diplexer, the second low frequency band terminal is configured to communicate with the second splitter output terminal of the signal splitter, and the second common terminal is configured to communicate with the secondary network port. 81. The entry adapter of claim 80, wherein the second diplexer is configured to communicate network signals in a predetermined high frequency band range through the second high frequency band terminal, communicate network signals in a predetermined low frequency band range through the second low frequency band terminal. 82. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the diplexer comprises a first diplexer having a first high frequency band terminal and a second diplexer having a second high frequency band terminal, and the first high frequency band terminal of the first diplexer is configured to communicate with the second high frequency band terminal of the second diplexer. 83. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the signal splitter and diplexer are passive electrical components. 84. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the server network interface is configured to send and receive downstream and upstream network signals between the external network and the client device. 85. The entry adapter of claim 84, wherein the server network interface is configured to store downstream network signals and supply network signals to the client network interface based on the stored downstream network signals. 86. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the client network interface is configured to send and receive network signals from the client device. 87. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein a primary network port of the plurality of ports is configured to communicate with a first common terminal of the diplexer, and a secondary network port of the plurality of ports is configured to communicate with a second common terminal of the diplexer. 88. The entry adapter of claim 87, wherein the diplexer comprises a first diplexer having the first common terminal, and a second diplexer having the second common terminal. 89. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the signal splitter comprises a first signal splitter, and further comprising a second signal splitter. 90. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the diplexer includes a low frequency band terminal that is configured to directly communicate with an output terminal of the signal splitter. 91. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the diplexer includes a first diplexer having a first high frequency band terminal and a second diplexer having a second high frequency band terminal configured to communicate with the first high frequency band terminal of the first diplexer. 92. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the diplexer includes a first diplexer having a first high frequency band terminal and a second diplexer having a second high frequency band terminal configured to be directly connected to the first high frequency band terminal of the first diplexer without any intermediate components. 93. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the signal splitter comprises: a first signal splitter having a first splitter input terminal and a plurality of first splitter output terminals; and a second signal splitter having a second splitter input terminal and a plurality of second splitter output terminals; and wherein the diplexer comprises: a first diplexer having a first diplexer high frequency band terminal, a first diplexer low frequency band terminal configured to be in direct communication with one of the plurality of first splitter output terminals, and a first diplexer common terminal configured to be in direct communication with the primary network port; and a second diplexer having a second diplexer high frequency band terminal configured to be in direct communication with the first diplexer high frequency band terminal of the first diplexer, a second diplexer low frequency band terminal configured to be in direct communication with another one of the plurality of first splitter output terminals, and a second diplexer common terminal configured to be in direct communication with the second splitter input terminal. 94. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the entry adapter is configured to eliminate a need for an internal network frequency band rejection filter, while blocking internal frequency band signals from entering the external network, and while assuring that a high strength downstream network signal will be delivered to the client device during operation of the entry adapter. 95. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the low frequency band network signal range is a cable television network (CATV) frequency range that encompasses both the upstream and downstream CATV signals. 96. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the low frequency band network signal range comprises a downstream frequency band range and an upstream frequency band range. 97. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the high frequency band network signal range is the frequency band range of the internal network signals. 98. The entry adapter of claim 97, wherein the frequency band range of the internal network signals is greater than the frequency band range employed for cable television (CATV) signals. 99. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the diplexer comprises a first high frequency band terminal and a second high frequency band terminal connected to the first high frequency terminal so as to confine transmission of internal network signals only through the server network interface, and prevent the internal network signals from being distributed to the external network. 100. The entry adapter of claim 99, wherein the diplexer comprises a first diplexer having the first high frequency band terminal and a second diplexer having the second high frequency band terminal. 101. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the signal splitter comprises a first signal splitter and a second signal splitter, and the diplexer comprises a first diplexer and a second diplexer. 102. The entry adapter of claim 101, wherein the first diplexer comprises a first high frequency band terminal, the second diplexer comprises a second high frequency band terminal configured to be connected to the first high frequency band terminal so as to limit transmission of high frequency band internal network signals only through the server network interface and the client network interface, and prevent the high frequency band internal network signals from being distributed to the external network. 103. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the signal splitter and diplexer are together configured to limit transmission of internal network signals only through the server network interface and the client network interface, and prevent internal network signals from being distributed to the external network. 104. The entry adapter of claim 3, wherein the downstream and upstream network signals and the internal network signals are both made available to each of the server and client network interfaces so that the client device is configured to interact with not only the downstream and upstream network signals, but also the internal network signals, and the two-way, downstream and upstream network communications and frequency band, internal network signal blocking device is configured to separate high and low frequency bands of signals so as to isolate and prevent high frequency internal network signals from reaching the external network.

This invention relates to cable television (CATV) and to in-home entertainment networks which share existing coaxial cables within the premises for CATV signal distribution and in-home network communication signals. More particularly, the present invention relates to a new and improved passive entry adapter between a CATV network and the in-home network which minimizes the CATV signal strength reduction even when distributed among multiple subscriber or multimedia devices within the subscriber's premises or home. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION CATV networks use an infrastructure of interconnected coaxial cables, signal splitters and combiners, repeating amplifiers, filters, trunk lines, cable taps, drop lines and other signal-conducting devices to supply and distribute high frequency “downstream” signals from a main signal distribution facility, known as a “headend,” to the premises (homes and offices' of subscribers to the CATV services. The downstream signals transfer multimedia content to subscriber equipment, such as television sets, telephone sets and computers. In addition, most CATV networks also transmit “upstream” signals from the subscriber equipment back to the headend of the CATV network. For example, the subscriber uses a set top box to select programs for display on the television set. As another example, two-way communication is essential when using a personal computer connected through the CATV infrastructure to the public Internet. As a further example, voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone sets use the CATV infrastructure and the public Internet as the communication medium for transmitting two-way telephone conversations. To permit simultaneous communication of upstream and downstream CATV signals and the interoperability of the subscriber equipment and the equipment associated with the CATV network infrastructure outside of subscriber premises, the downstream and upstream CATV signals are confined to two different frequency bands. The downstream frequency band is within the range of 54-1002 megahertz (MHz) and the upstream frequency band is within the range of 5-42 MHz, in most CATV networks. The entire CATV frequency band is therefore 5-1002 MHz. The downstream signals are delivered from the CATV network infrastructure to the subscriber premises at a CATV entry adapter, which is also commonly referred to as an entry device, terminal adapter or a drop amplifier. The CATV entry adapter is usually a multi-port device which provides a multiplicity of ports or connectors for connecting coaxial cables. A separate coaxial cable is connected to each of the ports and extends within the subscriber premises to the location of the subscriber equipment. Some homes have coaxial cables extending to cable outlets in almost every room, because of the many different types of subscriber equipment used in different rooms. For example, television sets are commonplace throughout the home. The multiple ports of the CATV entry adapter deliver downstream CATV at each cable outlet and conduct upstream CATV signals back through the premises coaxial cables to the CATV entry adapter, which delivers the upstream CATV signals to the CATV network. In addition to television sets, computers and telephones, a relatively large number of other entertainment and multimedia devices are available for use in homes. For example, a digital video recorder (DVR) is used to store broadcast programming, still photography and moving pictures in a memory medium so that the content can be replayed on a display or television set at a later time selected by the user. As another example, computer games are also played at displays or on television sets. Such computer games may be obtained or played over the Internet from the CATV network or from media played on play-back devices or game consoles connected to displays or television sets. As a further example, receivers which receive satellite-broadcast signals may be distributed for viewing or listening throughout the home. These types of devices, including the more-conventional television sets, telephone sets and devices connected to the Internet by the CATV network, are generically referred to as multimedia devices. The desire to use multimedia devices at multiple different locations within the home or subscriber premises has led to the creation of the Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA). MoCA has developed specifications for products to create an in-home entertainment network for interconnecting presently-known and future multimedia devices. The MoCA in-home network uses the subscriber premise or in-home coaxial cable infrastructure originally established for distribution of CATV signals within the subscriber premises, principally because that cable infrastructure already exists in most homes and is capable of carrying much more information than is carried in the CATV frequency band. A MoCA network is established by connecting MoCA interface devices at the cable outlets in the rooms of the subscriber premises. The MoCA network is used to transmit multimedia content from one MoCA interface device to another. The MoCA interface devices implement a MoCA communication protocol which encapsulates the multimedia content normally sent and received by the multimedia devices within MoCA packets and then communicates these MoCA packets between selected ones of the other MoCA interfaces devices connected at other cable outlets. The receiving MoCA interface device removes the encapsulated multimedia content, and delivers it to the connected computer, digital television or set-top box or other multimedia device from which then presents that multimedia content. Each MoCA interface device is capable of communicating with every other MoCA interface device in the MoCA network to deliver the multimedia content throughout the home or subscriber premises. The entertainment or multimedia content that is available from one multimedia device can be displayed, played or otherwise used at a different location within the home, without having to physically relocate the multimedia device from one location to another within the home. The in-home network communication of multimedia content is considered beneficial in more fully utilizing the multimedia devices present in modern homes. The MoCA interface devices also pass the upstream and downstream CATV signals between the CATV entry adapter and the subscriber devices. Since the MoCA network may function simultaneously with the normal operation of the CATV services, the MoCA signals communicated between MoCA interface devices utilize a frequency range of 1125-1525 MHz, which is outside of the frequency band of CATV signals. This so-called band of MoCA signals is divided into eight different frequency ranges, D1-D8, and these eight different D frequency ranges are used to assure communication between the selected MoCA interface devices. For example, the D-1 band at 1125-1175 MHz may be used to communicate CATV television programming content between a MoCA interface device connected to a set-top box in a main room of the house and another MoCA interface device connected to a television set in bedroom of the house, while a MoCA interface device connected to a computer gaming multimedia device in a basement room of the house simultaneously communicates computer game content over the D-6 band at 1375-1425 MHz to a computer located in a recreation room of the house. The MoCA frequency band also includes other frequency ranges outside of the CATV frequency band, but the D band is is used to establish connections and communicate content between the MoCA interface devices. Using the in-home coaxial cable as the principal communication medium substantially simplifies the implementation of the MoCA network, but there are certain disadvantages in doing so. The D band MoCA frequencies have the capability of passing through the CATV entry adapter and entering the CATV network where they may then enter a nearby subscriber's premises. The presence of the MoCA signals at the nearby subscriber's premises compromises the privacy and security of the information originally intended to be confined within the original subscriber premises. The MoCA signals from the original subscriber premises which enter through the CATV network to the nearby subscriber premises also have the potential to adversely affect the performance of a MoCA network in nearby subscriber's premises. The conflict of the MoCA signals from the original and nearby subscriber premises may cause the MoCA interface devices to malfunction or not operate properly on a consistent basis. Another undesirable aspect of using a MoCA for communication between the various multimedia devices is that a relatively large MoCA network with many cable outlet ports has the effect of deteriorating the strength of the downstream CATV signal. Because in-home multimedia devices frequently require access to the CATV network in order to send upstream CATV signals as well is to receive downstream CATV signals, the in-home coaxial cable infrastructure must commonly connect all of the CATV cables and CATV ports within the home to a common connection with the drop cable that supplies the CATV signal and services to the home. The common connection is usually achieved in the CATV entry adapter, which provides output ports that connect to the coaxial cables extending within the home to each separate location or room. A splitter within the CATV entry adapter divides the CATV downstream signals into two or more reduced-power copies of the input signal, and supplies each copy to a separate outlet port. Similarly, upstream signals from the subscriber equipment connected to each of the coaxial cables are combined in the splitter and then passed upstream through the CATV entry adapter into the CATV network. The typical splitter is passive, which means that the power of the input signal is divided among the copies of the output signals split from the input signal. Each copy of the signal therefore has diminished power or strength, and the lower strength copies will not have the same quality as the input signal. In general terms, the quality is the strength of the signal relative to the strength of the inherent ambient noise. Since the inherent ambient noise generally cannot be diminished and is usually a constant, lowering the strength of the signal relative to the noise reduces the signal-to-noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio is a recognized measure of the quality of a signal. A lower signal-to-noise ratio represents a lesser quality signal. Because many homes require a relatively large number of cable outlet ports, for example six or more, the downstream CATV signal must be split into a comparable relatively large number of copies. The greater number of signal splitters required to generate the requisite number of separate copies of the downstream CATV signal diminishes the strength of the downstream signal copies. The quality of CATV service available in an in-home network with a relatively large number of cable output ports therefore suffers, because the strength of the CATV signal available at each of these ports is substantially diminished due to the extent of signal splitting required. On the other hand, Upstream CATV signals from the subscriber equipment do not occur as frequently as downstream CATV signals. Furthermore, upstream signals are generally of a higher power because they are generated immediately by the subscriber equipment within the home. Consequently, the reduction in CATV signal strength applies principally to downstream CATV signals, which of course provide the multimedia content to the subscriber. It is the quality of the multimedia content observed by the subscriber that forms the basis for the subscriber's opinion of quality of service. To compensate for downstream CATV signal strength reduction caused by splitting, some entry adapters include amplifiers to increase the strength of the copies of the downstream CATV signals. Of course, including an amplifier along with the signal splitter makes the signal transmission dependent upon the presence of adequate electrical power to operate the amplifier. The power for the amplifier is derived from commercial sources within the household. If the commercial power supply is temporarily interrupted, or if the power supply equipment within the home ceases operating properly, the customer perceives a CATV problem and reports the problem to the CATV service provider. The CATV service provider must thereafter send a service or repair person to the home of the subscriber in order to identify and remedy the problem. Such service calls are a significant expense for a CATV service provider. CATV service providers therefore attempt to eliminate as many of the potential points of failure as possible in the equipment supplied by the CATV service provider, to reduce service calls and repair costs. Including an amplifier in a CATV entry adapter creates a potential point of failure, and for that reason most CATV service providers wish to avoid using CATV entry adapters with amplifiers. However, in those relatively large in-home networks with multiple outlets for connecting multiple multimedia devices, there has been little previous choice but to use amplifiers in conjunction with splitters in order to obtain the desired downstream CATV signal strength that represents a high quality of service. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a cable television (CATV) entry adapter which beneficially provides a high quality and strength downstream CATV signal to multiple subscriber devices while simultaneously contributing to and promoting the establishment of a multimedia in-home network. The CATV entry adapter is preferably passive without an amplifier, and passes the in-home network communication signals between the multiple subscriber devices, and passes the downstream and upstream CATV signals to the subscriber equipment and the CATV network. The in-home network communication signals are effectively communicated in the in-home network and the multimedia content from the upstream and downstream CATV signals is effectively made available to all of the subscriber equipment and to the CATV network without diminishing the quality or strength of the CATV signals to the point where the quality of service is compromised. As a passive device, the CATV entry adapter of the present invention requires no external power source, which eliminates unnecessary service calls. In addition, critical communications over the CATV network, such as “life-line” phone service, are preserved during transmission over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. In accordance with these and other features, one aspect of the invention involves a cable television (CATV) entry adapter for conducting downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at subscriber premises and for conducting in-home network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The CATV signals occupy a CATV frequency band which is different from an in-home network frequency band occupied by the in-home network signals. The in-home network includes a network interface connected to each subscriber device by which to generate and communicate the network signals between the subscriber devices in the in-home network. The CATV entry adapter comprises a CATV entry port for connection to the CATV network, and a plurality of network ports each for connection to the network interface to which each subscriber device is connected. The CATV entry adapter also includes a signal splitter which has an input terminal and two output terminals. The signal splitter operatively splits a signal received at its input terminal into reduced-power copies of the input signal supplied at each of its output terminals. The signal splitter also communicates signals received at each output terminal to the input terminal and to the other output terminal. The CATV entry adapter also includes an in-home network frequency band rejection device connected between the CATV entry port and the input port of the signal splitter. The in-home network frequency band rejection device substantially blocks transmission of the in-home network signals therethrough to the CATV entry port and the CATV network. Another aspect of the invention involves an in-home network for distributing multimedia content to subscriber devices. The multimedia content is obtained from CATV signals communicated over a CATV network and from a subscriber device connected to the in-home network. The in-home network comprises a CATV entry adapter having a CATV entry port and a plurality of network ports. The CATV entry port is connected to the CATV network for receiving multimedia content from CATV signals communicated over the CATV network. The in-home network also comprises a plurality of in-home network interfaces, each of which is connected to a different one of the plurality of network ports. Each of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content to the subscriber devices to which each network interface is connected. All of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content between one another in network signals communicated between the network interfaces. At least one of the network interfaces sends and receives CATV signals and communicates the multimedia content contained in the CATV signals to the subscriber device to which the one network interface is connected, and communicates the multimedia content obtained from the CATV signals in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. Each of the network interfaces communicates multimedia content obtained from a subscriber device connected to that network interface in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. The network signals are located within a network frequency band which is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are located. A further aspect of the invention involves a method of conducting information contained in downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at a subscriber premises and of conducting information contained in network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The method comprises connecting the CATV entry adapter to receive and transmit CATV signals from and to the CATV network, respectively; connecting in-home network interfaces to each subscriber device to form the in-home network among the subscriber devices to which network interfaces are attached; connecting the CATV entry adapter as a hub in the in-home network to pass network signals between network interfaces; confining the network signals to an end-home network frequency band that is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are confined; connecting the CATV adapter to at least one network interface to receive and transmit CATV signals supplied from and to the CATV entry adapter; and preventing transmission of the network signals within the CATV entry adapter onto the CATV network. One subsidiary aspect of the invention which relates to blocking or preventing the transmission of network signals onto the CATV network, involves a frequency rejection device which comprises only passive electronic components, or which functions without a power source separate from the CATV signals and the in-home network signals. The frequency rejection device may take the form of a frequency rejection filter, or the frequency rejection device may take the form of at least one diplexer which divides frequencies into separate frequency bands, and is connected to conduct the network signals in the network frequency band between network interfaces and to conduct the CATV signals in the CATV frequency band to and from the CATV network. Another subsidiary aspect of the invention involves a server network interface and at least one client network interface. The server network interface sends and receives downstream and upstream CATV signals and network signals to communicate information contained in the CATV and network signals to the subscriber device to which the server network interface is connected. Each client network interface sends and receives network signals to communicate information contained in the network signals to the subscriber device to which each client network interface is connected. The server network interface also has a capability for storing information obtained from downstream CATV signals and subsequently supplying network signals to a client network interface which contain the information stored from the downstream CATV signals. An additional subsidiary aspect of the invention involves connecting an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA)-compatible subscriber device including a modem and telephone set to the CATV entry adapter, and splitting downstream CATV signals into reduced-power copies and supplying one of the copies to the eMTA-compatible device. A more complete appreciation of the present invention, as well as the manner in which the present invention achieves the above and other improvements, can be obtained by reference to the following detailed description of presently preferred embodiments taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are briefly summarized below, and by reference to the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a typical CATV network infrastructure, including a plurality of CATV entry adapters which incorporate the present invention, and also illustrating an in-home network using a CATV entry adapter for connecting multimedia devices or other subscriber equipment within the subscriber premises. FIG. 2 is a more detailed illustration of the in-home network in one subscriber premises shown in FIG. 1, with more details of network interfaces and subscriber equipment shown in block diagram form. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of components of one embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 5 is a block diagram of components of another embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, constituting an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 3, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is a block diagram of components of another embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, constituting an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapters shown in FIGS. 3 and 5, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 8 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 7. DETAILED DESCRIPTION A CATV entry adapter 10 which incorporates the present invention is shown generally in FIG. 1. The CATV entry adapter 10 is located at subscriber premises 12 and forms a part of a conventional in-home network 14, such as a conventional Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA) in-home entertainment network. The in-home network 14 interconnects subscriber equipment or multimedia devices 16 within the subscriber premises 12, and allows the multimedia devices 16 to communicate multimedia content or in-home signals between other multimedia devices 16. The connection medium of the in-home network 14 is formed in significant part by a preexisting CATV coaxial cable infrastructure (represented generally by coaxial cables 18) present in the subscriber premises 12 and originally intended to communicate CATV signals between the multimedia or subscriber devices 16. However the connection medium of the in-home network 14 may be intentionally created using newly-installed coaxial cables 18. Examples of multimedia devices 16 are digital video recorders, computers, data modems, computer game playing devices, television sets, television set-top boxes, and other audio and visual entertainment devices. The CATV entry adapter 10 is also a part of a conventional CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10 delivers CATV multimedia content or signals from the CATV network 20 to subscriber equipment at the subscriber premises 12. The subscriber equipment includes the multimedia devices 16, but may also include other devices which may or may not operate as a part of the in-home network 14 but which are intended to function as a result of connection to the CATV network 20. Examples of subscriber equipment which may not be part of the in-home network 14 are a modem 56 and a connected voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone set 58 and certain other embedded multimedia terminal adapter-(eMTA) compatible devices (not shown). The CATV entry adapter 10 has beneficial characteristics which allow it to function simultaneously in both the in-home network 14 and in the CATV network 20, thereby benefiting both the in-home network 14 and the CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10 functions as a hub in the in-home network 14, to effectively transfer in-home network signals between the multimedia and subscriber devices 16. The CATV entry adapter 10 also functions in a conventional role as an CATV interface between the CATV network 20 and the subscriber equipment 16 located at the subscriber premises 12, thereby providing CATV service to the subscriber. In addition, the CATV entry adapter 10 securely confines in-home network communications within each subscriber premise and prevents the network signals from entering the CATV network 20 and degrading the strength of the CATV signals conducted by the CATV network 20 four possible recognition by a nearby subscriber. The CATV network 20 has a typical topology. Downstream signals 22 originate from programming sources at a headend 24 of the CATV network 20, and are conducted to the CATV entry adapter 10 in a sequential path through a main trunk cable 26, a signal splitter/combiner 28, secondary trunk cables 30, another signal splitter/combiner 32, distribution cable branches 34, cable taps 36, and drop cables 38. Upstream signals 40 originating from the subscriber equipment 16 and 56/58 are delivered from the CATV entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20, and are conducted to the headend 24 in the same path but in reverse sequence. Interspersed at appropriate locations within the topology of the CATV network 20 are conventional repeater amplifiers 42, which amplify both the downstream CATV signals 22 and the upstream CATV signals 40. Conventional repeater amplifiers may also be included in the cable taps 36. The cable taps 36 and signal splitter/combiners 28 and 32 divide a single downstream signal into multiple separate downstream signals, and combine multiple upstream signals into a single upstream signal. More details concerning the CATV entry adapter 10 are shown in FIG. 2. The CATV entry adapter 10 includes a housing 44 which encloses internal electronic circuit components (shown in FIGS. 3-8). A mounting flange 46 surrounds the housing 44, and holes 48 in the flange 46 allow attachment of the CATV entry adapter 10 to a support structure at a subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1). The CATV entry adapter 10 connects to the CATV network 20 through a CATV connection or entry port 50. The CATV entry adapter 10 receives the downstream signals 22 from, and sends the upstream signals 40 to, the CATV network 20 through the connection port 50. The downstream and upstream signals 22 and 40 are communicated to and from the subscriber equipment through an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA) port 52 and through in-home network ports 54. A conventional modem 56 is connected between a conventional voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone set 58 and the eMTA port 52. The modem 56 converts downstream CATV signals 22 containing data for the telephone set 58 into signals 60 usable by the telephone set 58 in accordance with the VoIP protocol. Similarly, the modem 56 converts the VoIP protocol signals 60 from the telephone set 58 into Upstream CATV signals 40 which are sent through the eMTA port 52 and the CATV entry port 50 to the CATV network 20. Coaxial cables 18 within the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) connect the in-home network ports 54 to coaxial outlets 62. The in-home network 14 uses a new or existing coaxial cable infrastructure in the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) to locate the coaxial outlets 62 in different rooms or locations within the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) and to establish the communication medium for the in-home network 14. In-home network interface devices 64 and 66 are connected to or made a part of the coaxial outlets 62. The devices 64 and 66 send in-home network signals 78 between one another through the coaxial outlets 62, coaxial cables 18, the network ports 54 and the CATV entry adapter 10. The CATV entry adapter 10 internally connects the network ports 54 to transfer the network signals 78 between the ports 54, as shown and discussed below in connection with FIGS. 3-8. Subscriber or multimedia devices 16 are connected to the in-home network interfaces 64 and 66. In-home network signals 78 originating from a subscriber devices 16 connected to one of the network interfaces 64 or 66 are delivered through the in-home network 14 to the interface 64 or 66 of the recipient subscriber device 16. The network interfaces 64 and 66 perform the typical functions of buffering information, typically in digital form as packets, and delivering and receiving the packets over the in-home network 14 in accordance with the communication protocol used by the in-home network, for example the MoCA protocol. Although the information is typically in digital form, it is communication over the in-home network 14 is typically as analog signals in predetermined frequency bands, such as the D-band frequencies used in the MoCA communication protocol. The combination of one of the in-home network interfaces 64 or 66 and the connected subscriber device 16 constitutes one node of the in-home network 14. The present invention takes advantage of typical server-client technology and incorporates it within the in-home network interfaces 64 and 66. The in-home network interface 64 is a server network interface, while the in-home network interfaces 66 are client network interfaces. Only one server network interface 64 is present in the in-home network 14, while multiple client network interfaces 66 are typically present in the in-home network 14. The server network interface 64 receives downstream CATV signals 22 and in-home network signals 68 originating from other client network interfaces 66 connected to subscriber devices 16, extracts the information content carried by the downstream CATV signals 22 and the network signals 78, and stores the information content in digital form on a memory device (not shown) included within the server network interface 64. With respect to downstream CATV signals 22, the server network interface 64 communicates the extracted and stored information to the subscriber device 16 to which that information is destined. Thus the server interface 64 delivers the information derived from the downstream CATV signal 22 to the subscriber device connected to it, or over the in-home network 14 to the client interface 66 connected to the subscriber device 16 to which the downstream CATV signal 22 is destined. The recipient client network interface 66 extracts the information and delivers it to the destined subscriber device connected to that client network interface 66. For network signals 78 originating in one network interface 64 or 66 and destined to another network interlace 64 or 66, those signals are sent directly between the originating and recipient network interfaces 64 or 66, utilizing the communication protocol of the in-home network. For those signals originating in one of the subscriber devices 16 intended as an upstream CATV signal 40 within the CATV network 20, for example a programming content selection signal originating from a set-top box of a television set, the upstream CATV signal is communicated into the CATV network 20 by the in-home server network interface 64, or is alternatively communicated by the network interface 64 or 66 which is connected to the particular subscriber device 16. In some implementations of the present invention, if the upstream CATV signal originates from a subscriber device 16 connected to a client network interface 66, that client network interface 66 encodes the upstream CATV signal, and sends the encoded signal over the in-home network 14 to the server network interface 64; thereafter, the server network interface 64 communicates the upstream CATV signal through the CATV entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20. If the upstream signal originates from the subscriber device connected to the server network interface 64, that interface 64 directly communicates the upstream signal through the entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20. The advantage of using the server network interface 64 to receive the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signals 22 and then distribute that content in network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 for use by the destination subscriber devices 16, is that there is not a substantial degradation in the signal strength of the downstream CATV signal, as would be the case if the downstream CATV signal was split into multiple reduced-power copies and each copy delivered to each subscriber device 16. By splitting downstream CATV signals 22 only a few times, as compared to a relatively large number of times as would be required in a typical in-home network, good CATV signal strength is achieved at the server network interface 64. Multimedia content or other information in downstream CATV signals 22 that are destined for subscriber devices 16 connected to client network interfaces 66 is supplied by the server network interface 64 in network signals 78 which have sufficient strength to ensure good quality of service. Upstream CATV signals generated by the server and client interfaces 64 and 66 are of adequate signal strength since the originating interfaces are capable of delivering signals of adequate signal strength for transmission to the CATV network 20. Different embodiments 10a, 10b, 10c, 10d, 10e and 10f of the CATV entry adapter 10 (FIGS. 1 and 2) are described below in conjunction with FIGS. 3-8, respectively. The CATV entry adapters 10a, 10c and 10e shown respectively in FIGS. 3, 5 and 7 are similar to the corresponding CATV entry adapters 10b, 10d and 10f shown respectively in FIGS. 4, 6 and 8, except for the lack of a dedicated eMTA port 52 and supporting components. In some cases, the eMTA port 52 will not be required or desired. In the CATV entry adapter 10a shown in FIG. 3, the entry port 50 is connected to the CATV network 20. An in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70 is connected between the entry port 50 and an input terminal 72 of a conventional four-way splitter 74. Four output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the in-home network ports 54. Downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 pass through the filter 70, because the filter 70 only rejects signals with frequencies which are in the in-home network frequency band. The frequency band specific to the in-home network 14 is different from the frequency band of the CATV signals 22 and 40. Downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 also pass in both directions through the four-way splitter 74, because the splitter 74 carries signals of all frequencies. The four-way splitter 74, although providing a large degree of isolation between the signals at the output terminals 76, still permits in-home network signals 78 to pass between those output terminals 76. Thus, the four-way splitter 74 splits downstream CATV signals 22 into four copies and delivers the copies to the output terminals 76 connected to the network ports 54, conducts upstream CATV signals 40 from the ports 54 and output terminals 76 to the input terminal 72. The four-way splitter 74 also conducts in-home network signals 78 from one of the output terminals 76 to the other output terminals 76, thereby assuring that all of the network interfaces 64 and 66 are able to communicate with one another using the in-home network communication protocol. One server network interface 64 is connected to one of the ports 54, while one or more client network interfaces 66 is connected to one or more of the remaining ports 54. Subscriber or multimedia devices 16 are connected to each of the network interfaces 64 and 66. The upstream and downstream CATV signals 40 and 22 pass through the splitter 74 to the interface devices 64 and 66 without modification. Those CATV signals are delivered from the interface devices 64 and 66 to the subscriber equipment 16. The network signals 78 pass to and from the interface devices 64 and 66 through the output terminals 76 of the splitter 74. The network signals 78 are received and sent by the interface devices 64 and 66 in accordance with the communication protocol used by the in-home network 14. The rejection filter 70 blocks the in-home network signals 78 from reaching the CATV network 20, and thereby confines the network signals 78 to the subscriber equipment 16 within the subscribers premises. Preventing the network signals 78 from entering the CATV network 20 ensures the privacy of the information contained with the network signals 78 and keeps the network signals 78 from creating any adverse affect on the CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10a allows each of the subscriber devices 16 to directly receive CATV information and signals from the CATV network 20 (FIG. 1). Because the server network interface 64 may store multimedia content received from the CATV network 20, the subscriber devices 16 connected to the client network interfaces 66 may also request the server network interface 64 to store and supply that stored content at a later time. The client network interfaces 66 and the attached subscriber devices 16 request and receive the stored multimedia content from the server network interface 64 over the in-home network 14. In this fashion, the subscriber may choose when to view the stored CATV-obtained multimedia content without having to view that content at the specific time when it was available from the CATV network 20. The in-home network 14 at the subscriber premises 12 permits this flexibility. The CATV entry adapter 10b shown in FIG. 4 contains the same components described above for the adapter 10a (FIG. 3), and additionally includes an eMTA port 52 and a conventional two-way splitter 80. The modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 are connected to the eMTA port 52, for example. An input terminal 82 of the two-way splitter 80 connects to the in-home network rejection filter 70. Output terminals 84 and 85 of the two-way splitter 80 connect to the eMTA port 52 and to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74, respectively. The downstream CATV signals 22 entering the two-way splitter are split into two reduced-power copies and delivered to the output ports 84 and 85. The split copies of the downstream CATV signals 22 are approximately half of the signal strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 delivered from the CATV network 20 to the entry port 50. Consequently, the copy of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied to the eMTA port 52 has a relatively high signal strength, which assures good operation of the modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58. Adequate operation of the modem 56 in the telephone set 58 is particularly important in those circumstances where “life-line” telephone services are provided to the subscriber, because a good quality signal assures continued adequate operation of those services. In the situation where the downstream CATV signal 22 is split multiple times before being delivered to a modem or VoIP telephone set, the multiple split may so substantially reduce the power of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied to the modem and VoIP telephone set that the ability to communicate is substantially compromised. A benefit of the adapter 10b over the adapter 10a (FIG. 3) is the single, two-way split of the downstream CATV signal 22 and the delivery of one of those copies at a relatively high or good signal strength to the dedicated eMTA port 52. A disadvantage of the adapter 10b over the adapter 10a (FIG. 4) is that the downstream CATV signals 22 pass through an extra splitter (the two-way splitter 80) prior to reaching the subscriber devices 16, thereby diminishing the quality of the downstream signal 22 applied from the network ports 54 to the subscriber devices 16. The downstream CATV signals 22 utilized by the subscriber devices 16 are diminished in strength, because the four-way split from the splitter 74 substantially reduces the already-reduced power, thus reducing the amount of signal strength received by the subscriber devices 16. However, the functionality of the subscriber devices 16 is not as critical or important as the functionality of the modem 56 and telephone 58 or other subscriber equipment connected to the eMTA port 52. Upstream CATV signals 40 from the subscriber devices 16 and the voice modem 56 are combined by the splitters 74 and 80 and then sent to the CATV network 20 through the in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70, without substantial reduction in signal strength due to the relatively high strength of those upstream CATV signals 40 supplied by the network interfaces 64 and 66 and the modem 56 or other subscriber equipment 16. The embodiment of the CATV entry adapter 10c shown in FIG. 5 eliminates the need for the in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70 (FIGS. 3 and 4), while preserving the ability to block the in-home network frequency band signals 78 from entering the CATV network 20 and while assuring that a relatively high strength downstream CATV signal 22 will be present for delivery to subscriber equipment at one or more network ports. To do so, the CATV entry adapter 10c uses two conventional diplexers 92 and 94 in conjunction with the splitter 74 and 80. In general, the function of a conventional diplexer is to separate signals received at a common terminal into signals within a high frequency range and within a low frequency range, and to deliver signals in the high and low frequency ranges separately from high and low pass terminals. Conversely, the conventional diplexer will combine separate high frequency and low frequency signals received separately at the high and low frequency terminals into a single signal which has both high frequency and low frequency content and supply that single signal of combined frequency content at the common terminal. In the following discussion of the CATV entry adapters which utilize diplexers, the predetermined low frequency range is the CATV signal frequency range which encompasses both the upstream and downstream CATV signals 22 and 40 (i.e., 5-1002 MHz), and the predetermined high frequency range is the frequency of the in-home network signals 78. When in-home network 14 is implemented by use of MoCA devices and protocol, the in-home frequency band is greater than the frequency band employed for CATV signals (i.e., 1125-1525 MHz). If the in-home network 14 is implemented using other networking technology, the network signals 78 must be in a frequency band which is separate from the frequency band of the upstream and downstream CATV signals. In such a circumstance, the high and low frequency ranges of the diplexers used in the herein-described CATV entry adapters must be selected to separate the CATV signal frequency band from the in-home network signal frequency band. The entry port 50 connects the adapter 10c to the CATV network 20. A two-way splitter 80 has an input terminal 82 which is connected directly to the entry port 50. The two-way splitter 80 splits the downstream CATV signals 22 at the input terminal 82 into two identical copies of reduced signal strength and conducts those copies through the two output terminals 84 and 85. The split copy of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied by the output terminal 84 is conducted to a principal network port 54p of the entry adapter 10c. The network port 54p is regarded as a principal network port because the server network interface 64 is connected to that port 54p. A subscriber devices 16 may or may not be connected to the server network interface 64. The two output terminals 84 and 85 of the splitter 80 are respectively connected to low-pass terminals 88 and 90 of conventional diplexers 92 and 94. The low pass terminals 88 and 90 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals which have a predetermined low frequency range. High pass terminals 104 and 106 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals which have a predetermined high frequency range. Common terminals 96 and 98 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals that have both predetermined high and predetermined low frequency ranges. The common terminal 98 of the diplexer 94 is connected to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. The output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the in-home network ports 54 (FIG. 2) which are designated as secondary ports 54s. Client network interfaces 66 are connected to the secondary ports 54s. Subscriber devices 16 are connected to the client interfaces 66. The network ports 54s to which the client network interfaces 66 are connected are designated as secondary network ports because the server network interface 64 is connected to the principal network port 54p. The high-pass terminals 104 and 106 of the diplexers 92 and 94 are connected to each other. As a consequence, the higher frequency band of the network signals 78 are conducted by the diplexers 92 and 94 through their high pass terminals 104 and 106 and between their common terminals 96 and 98. In this manner, the network signals 78 are confined for transmission only between the network interfaces 64 and 66, through the diplexers 92 and 94 and the four-way splitter 74. The diplexers 92 and 94 also conduct the lower frequency band CATV signals 22 and 40 from their common terminals 96 and 98 through their low-pass terminals 88 and 90 to the principal port 54p and to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. The four-way splitter 74 conducts the lower frequency band CATV signals 22 and 40 to the secondary ports 54s. The CATV signals 22 and 40 are available to all of the network interfaces 64 and 66 and to the subscriber equipment 16 connected to those network interfaces 64 and 66. In this manner, the CATV signals 22 and 40 and the network signals 78 are both made available to each of the network interfaces 64 and 66 so that each of the subscriber devices 16 has the capability of interacting with both the CATV signals and the network signals. The frequency band separation characteristics of the diplexers 92 and 94 perform the function of preventing the high frequency network signals 78 from reaching the CATV network 20. Another advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10c is that the downstream CATV signals 22 are applied to the server network interface 64 and its attached subscriber device 16 with only the relatively small reduction in signal strength caused by splitting the downstream CATV signal 22 in the two-way splitter 80. This contrasts with the substantially greater reduction in signal strength created by passing the downstream CATV signal 22 through the four-way splitter 74 in the entry adapters 10a and 10b (FIGS. 3 and 4) to reach the subscriber devices 16. Minimizing the amount of signal power reduction experienced by the downstream CATV signal 22 received by the server network interface 64 preserves a high quality of the multimedia content contained in the downstream CATV signal 22. Consequently, the server network interface 64 receives high quality, good strength downstream CATV signals, which the server network interface 64 uses to supply high quality of service by sending that content in network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 connected to other subscriber devices. In this manner, the CATV entry adapter 10c may be used to replace the downstream CATV signals directly applied to the client network interfaces with the network signals containing the same content. Another advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10c is that the server network interface 64 can store the multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signal supplied to it. A subscriber may wish to access and view or otherwise use that stored multimedia content at a later time. The stored multimedia content is delivered in high quality network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 over the in-home network 14. Because of the capability of the server network interface 64 to supply high quality network signals, the reduction in signal strength created by the four-way splitter 74 does not significantly impact the quality of the network signals received by the client network interfaces 66. Thus, the CATV entry adapter 10c offers a subscriber the opportunity to utilize directly those CATV signal copies which pass through the four-way splitter 74, or to achieve a higher quality signal when the server network interface 64 converts the content from the downstream CATV signal into network signals 78 which are then made available as high-quality network signals for the client network interfaces 66. Storing the multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signals 22 in the storage medium of the server network interface 64 provides an opportunity for one or more of the client network interfaces 66 to access that stored content and request its transmission over the in-home network 14 to the subscriber devices 16 connected to the requesting client network interface 66. Because the multimedia content has been stored by the server network interface 64, the client network interfaces 66 may request and receive that multimedia content at any subsequent time while that content remains stored on the server network interface 64. The CATV entry adapter 10d shown in FIG. 6 is similar to the CATV entry adapter 10c (FIG. 5) except that the adapter 10d allows a modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 to be connected in a dedicated manner that does not involve use of the in-home network 14. If a modem and VoIP telephone set are connected to the CATV entry adapter 10c (FIG. 5), the modem and VoIP telephone set would be connected as subscriber equipment to the server network interface 64 in that entry adapter 10c. In this circumstance, the proper functionality of the modem and VoIP telephone set depends on proper functionality of the server network interface 64, and that functionality is susceptible to failure due to power outages and the like. In the CATV entry adapter 10d shown in FIG. 6, a three-way splitter 110 is used to divide the downstream CATV signal 22 into three reduced-power identical copies. The three-way splitter has a single input terminal 112 and three output terminals 114, 116 and 118. The input terminal 112 is connected to the entry port 50, and two of the output terminals 114 and 116 are connected to the low pass terminals 88 and 90 of the diplexers 92 and 94. A third output terminal 118 is connected to the eMTA port 52. Although the signal strength of the CATV signal 22 is diminished as a result of the three-way split in the splitter 110, there will be sufficient strength in the copy supplied to the EMTA port 52 from the output terminal 118 to permit the modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 to operate reliably. Upstream signals from the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58 pass through the three-way splitter 110 into the CATV network 20. The advantage to the CATV entry adapter 10d is that the functionality of the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58 does not depend on the functionality of the network interfaces 64 and 66. Thus any adversity which occurs within the in-home network 14 does not adversely influence the capability of the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone to provide continuous telephone service to the subscriber. Continuous telephone service is important when the service is “life-line” telephone service. Other communication with respect to downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 and network signals 78 occur in the manner discussed above in conjunction with the adapter 10c (FIG. 5). The CATV entry adapter 10e, shown in FIG. 7, is distinguished from the previously discussed CATV entry adapters 10a, 10b, 10c and 10d (FIGS. 3-6) by conducting only the CATV signals 22 and 40 between the entry port 50 and the principal port 54p to which the server network interface 64 is connected. In the CATV entry adapter 10e, the entry port 50 is connected to the low pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The common terminal 96 of the diplexer 92 is connected to the principal port 54p. The high pass terminal 104 of the diplexer 92 is connected to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. Output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the secondary ports 54s. The principal and secondary ports 54p and 54s are connected to the server and client network interfaces 64 and 66. In the CATV entry adapter 10e, the downstream CATV signals 22 are not conducted to the client network interfaces 66. Similarly, the upstream CATV signals 22 are not conducted from the client network interfaces 66 to the entry port 50. Instead, all CATV signals 22 and 40 are conducted through the low pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The server network interface 64 converts the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signals 22 into network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66, and all of the information constituting upstream CATV signals 40 is communicated as network signals 78 from the client network interfaces 66 to the server network interface 64. The server network interface 64 converts the information into upstream CATV signals 40 and delivers them to the common terminal 96 of the diplexer 92. A subscriber device connected to a client network interface 66 that wishes to request content from the CATV network 20 sends a signal over the in-home network 14 to the server network interface 64, and the server network interface 64 sends the appropriate upstream CATV signal 40 to the CATV network 20. The CATV network 20 responds by sending downstream CATV signals 22, which are directed through the diplexer 92 only to the server network interface 64. Multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signals 22 is received and stored by the server network interface 64. The storage of the multimedia content on the server network interface 64 may be for a prolonged amount of time, or the storage may be only momentary. The server network interface 64 processes the content of the downstream CATV signals 22 into network signals 78 and delivers those signals over the in-home network 14 to the requesting client network interface 66 for use by its attached subscriber device 16. Even though the network signals 78 sent by the server network interface 64 pass through the four-way splitter 74, the strength of the signals supplied by the server network interface 64 is sufficient to maintain good signal strength of the network signals 78 when received by the client network interfaces 66. The advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10e over the other adapters 10a, 10b, 10c and 10d (FIGS. 3-6) is that the downstream CATV signal 22 reaches the server network interface 64 with substantially no reduction in signal strength. The downstream CATV signal 22 is conducted between the entry port 50 and the principal port 54p without being split. The high strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 is therefore available for use in obtaining the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signal 22. The multimedia content is also maintained at a high quality when transferred from the server network interface 64 to the client network interfaces 66, since the server network interface 64 delivers a high quality network signal 78 to the client network interfaces 66 over the in-home network 14, even when the network signals 78 are passed through the four-way splitter 74. The CATV entry adapter 10e therefore achieves the highest possible signal strength and quality for a passive CATV entry adapter, and enables multimedia content received from the downstream CATV signals 22 to be shared to multiple subscriber devices 16 over the in-home network. The passive nature of the CATV entry adapter 10e improves its reliability. The relatively small number of internal components, i.e. one diplexer 92 and one four-way splitter 74, also reduces the cost of the adapter 10e. A CATV entry adapter 10f shown in FIG. 8 uses an additional two-way splitter 80 and has a eMTA port 52 for connecting the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58, compared to the components of the entry adapter 10e (FIG. 7). The input terminal 82 of the two-way splitter 80 connects to the entry port 50. The output terminal 84 of the splitter 80 connects to the eMTA port 52, and the other output terminal 85 of the splitter 80 connects to the low-pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 are conducted between the entry port 50 and both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p. Copies of the downstream CATV signal 22 reach both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p after having been split only once by the two-way splitter 80. The downstream CATV signals 22 reaching both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p have a relatively high signal strength, since only one split of the downstream CATV signal 22 has occurred. Consequently, the entry adapter 10f delivers high quality downstream CATV signals 22 to both the modem 56 and connected VOIP telephone set 58 and to the server network interface 64. The advantage to the CATV entry adapter 10f is that it provides reliable telephone service through the eMTA port 52, which is not dependent upon the functionality of the network interfaces 64 and 66. Accordingly, reliable telephone service is available. In addition, the entry adapter 10f reliably communicates the content of the downstream CATV signals 22, because the single signal split from the splitter 80 does not diminish the quality of the downstream CATV signal 22 sufficiently to adversely affect the performance of the server network interface 64 in obtaining the CATV content. That high-quality content is preserved when it is communicated as network signals 78 from the server network interface 64 to the client interface devices 66 which are connected to the subscriber devices 16. Other than a slight reduction in signal strength created by the splitter 80, the communication of the downstream CATV signals 22 containing multimedia content for the subscriber devices 16 is essentially the same as that described in connection with the CATV entry adapter 10e (FIG. 7). The CATV entry adapters described within offer numerous advantages over other presently-known CATV entry adapters. Each of the CATV entry adapters is capable of supplying multimedia content from the CATV network to any of the subscriber devices connected to the adapter, either through direct communication of the downstream CATV signal 22 or by use of the network signals 78. Each of the CATV entry adapters also functions as a hub for the in-home network 14. Each of the CATV entry adapters is constructed with passive components and therefore do not require an external power supply beyond the CATV signals 22 and 40 and the network signals 78, thus both improving the reliability of the adapters themselves and reducing service calls. Each CATV entry adapter achieves a substantial strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 by limiting the number of times that the downstream signal 22 is split, compared to conventional CATV entry adapters which require a signal split for each subscriber device in the premises. Critical communications over the CATV network, such as life-line phone service, is preserved by CATV signals communicated over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely affected by multiple splits of the CATV signal. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. These and other benefits and advantages will become more apparent upon gaining a complete appreciation for the improvements of the present invention. Preferred embodiments of the invention and many of its improvements have been described with a degree of particularity. The description is of preferred examples for implementing the invention, and these preferred descriptions are not intended necessarily to limit the scope of the invention. The scope of the invention is defined by the following claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>CATV networks use an infrastructure of interconnected coaxial cables, signal splitters and combiners, repeating amplifiers, filters, trunk lines, cable taps, drop lines and other signal-conducting devices to supply and distribute high frequency “downstream” signals from a main signal distribution facility, known as a “headend,” to the premises (homes and offices' of subscribers to the CATV services. The downstream signals transfer multimedia content to subscriber equipment, such as television sets, telephone sets and computers. In addition, most CATV networks also transmit “upstream” signals from the subscriber equipment back to the headend of the CATV network. For example, the subscriber uses a set top box to select programs for display on the television set. As another example, two-way communication is essential when using a personal computer connected through the CATV infrastructure to the public Internet. As a further example, voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone sets use the CATV infrastructure and the public Internet as the communication medium for transmitting two-way telephone conversations. To permit simultaneous communication of upstream and downstream CATV signals and the interoperability of the subscriber equipment and the equipment associated with the CATV network infrastructure outside of subscriber premises, the downstream and upstream CATV signals are confined to two different frequency bands. The downstream frequency band is within the range of 54-1002 megahertz (MHz) and the upstream frequency band is within the range of 5-42 MHz, in most CATV networks. The entire CATV frequency band is therefore 5-1002 MHz. The downstream signals are delivered from the CATV network infrastructure to the subscriber premises at a CATV entry adapter, which is also commonly referred to as an entry device, terminal adapter or a drop amplifier. The CATV entry adapter is usually a multi-port device which provides a multiplicity of ports or connectors for connecting coaxial cables. A separate coaxial cable is connected to each of the ports and extends within the subscriber premises to the location of the subscriber equipment. Some homes have coaxial cables extending to cable outlets in almost every room, because of the many different types of subscriber equipment used in different rooms. For example, television sets are commonplace throughout the home. The multiple ports of the CATV entry adapter deliver downstream CATV at each cable outlet and conduct upstream CATV signals back through the premises coaxial cables to the CATV entry adapter, which delivers the upstream CATV signals to the CATV network. In addition to television sets, computers and telephones, a relatively large number of other entertainment and multimedia devices are available for use in homes. For example, a digital video recorder (DVR) is used to store broadcast programming, still photography and moving pictures in a memory medium so that the content can be replayed on a display or television set at a later time selected by the user. As another example, computer games are also played at displays or on television sets. Such computer games may be obtained or played over the Internet from the CATV network or from media played on play-back devices or game consoles connected to displays or television sets. As a further example, receivers which receive satellite-broadcast signals may be distributed for viewing or listening throughout the home. These types of devices, including the more-conventional television sets, telephone sets and devices connected to the Internet by the CATV network, are generically referred to as multimedia devices. The desire to use multimedia devices at multiple different locations within the home or subscriber premises has led to the creation of the Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA). MoCA has developed specifications for products to create an in-home entertainment network for interconnecting presently-known and future multimedia devices. The MoCA in-home network uses the subscriber premise or in-home coaxial cable infrastructure originally established for distribution of CATV signals within the subscriber premises, principally because that cable infrastructure already exists in most homes and is capable of carrying much more information than is carried in the CATV frequency band. A MoCA network is established by connecting MoCA interface devices at the cable outlets in the rooms of the subscriber premises. The MoCA network is used to transmit multimedia content from one MoCA interface device to another. The MoCA interface devices implement a MoCA communication protocol which encapsulates the multimedia content normally sent and received by the multimedia devices within MoCA packets and then communicates these MoCA packets between selected ones of the other MoCA interfaces devices connected at other cable outlets. The receiving MoCA interface device removes the encapsulated multimedia content, and delivers it to the connected computer, digital television or set-top box or other multimedia device from which then presents that multimedia content. Each MoCA interface device is capable of communicating with every other MoCA interface device in the MoCA network to deliver the multimedia content throughout the home or subscriber premises. The entertainment or multimedia content that is available from one multimedia device can be displayed, played or otherwise used at a different location within the home, without having to physically relocate the multimedia device from one location to another within the home. The in-home network communication of multimedia content is considered beneficial in more fully utilizing the multimedia devices present in modern homes. The MoCA interface devices also pass the upstream and downstream CATV signals between the CATV entry adapter and the subscriber devices. Since the MoCA network may function simultaneously with the normal operation of the CATV services, the MoCA signals communicated between MoCA interface devices utilize a frequency range of 1125-1525 MHz, which is outside of the frequency band of CATV signals. This so-called band of MoCA signals is divided into eight different frequency ranges, D1-D8, and these eight different D frequency ranges are used to assure communication between the selected MoCA interface devices. For example, the D-1 band at 1125-1175 MHz may be used to communicate CATV television programming content between a MoCA interface device connected to a set-top box in a main room of the house and another MoCA interface device connected to a television set in bedroom of the house, while a MoCA interface device connected to a computer gaming multimedia device in a basement room of the house simultaneously communicates computer game content over the D-6 band at 1375-1425 MHz to a computer located in a recreation room of the house. The MoCA frequency band also includes other frequency ranges outside of the CATV frequency band, but the D band is is used to establish connections and communicate content between the MoCA interface devices. Using the in-home coaxial cable as the principal communication medium substantially simplifies the implementation of the MoCA network, but there are certain disadvantages in doing so. The D band MoCA frequencies have the capability of passing through the CATV entry adapter and entering the CATV network where they may then enter a nearby subscriber's premises. The presence of the MoCA signals at the nearby subscriber's premises compromises the privacy and security of the information originally intended to be confined within the original subscriber premises. The MoCA signals from the original subscriber premises which enter through the CATV network to the nearby subscriber premises also have the potential to adversely affect the performance of a MoCA network in nearby subscriber's premises. The conflict of the MoCA signals from the original and nearby subscriber premises may cause the MoCA interface devices to malfunction or not operate properly on a consistent basis. Another undesirable aspect of using a MoCA for communication between the various multimedia devices is that a relatively large MoCA network with many cable outlet ports has the effect of deteriorating the strength of the downstream CATV signal. Because in-home multimedia devices frequently require access to the CATV network in order to send upstream CATV signals as well is to receive downstream CATV signals, the in-home coaxial cable infrastructure must commonly connect all of the CATV cables and CATV ports within the home to a common connection with the drop cable that supplies the CATV signal and services to the home. The common connection is usually achieved in the CATV entry adapter, which provides output ports that connect to the coaxial cables extending within the home to each separate location or room. A splitter within the CATV entry adapter divides the CATV downstream signals into two or more reduced-power copies of the input signal, and supplies each copy to a separate outlet port. Similarly, upstream signals from the subscriber equipment connected to each of the coaxial cables are combined in the splitter and then passed upstream through the CATV entry adapter into the CATV network. The typical splitter is passive, which means that the power of the input signal is divided among the copies of the output signals split from the input signal. Each copy of the signal therefore has diminished power or strength, and the lower strength copies will not have the same quality as the input signal. In general terms, the quality is the strength of the signal relative to the strength of the inherent ambient noise. Since the inherent ambient noise generally cannot be diminished and is usually a constant, lowering the strength of the signal relative to the noise reduces the signal-to-noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio is a recognized measure of the quality of a signal. A lower signal-to-noise ratio represents a lesser quality signal. Because many homes require a relatively large number of cable outlet ports, for example six or more, the downstream CATV signal must be split into a comparable relatively large number of copies. The greater number of signal splitters required to generate the requisite number of separate copies of the downstream CATV signal diminishes the strength of the downstream signal copies. The quality of CATV service available in an in-home network with a relatively large number of cable output ports therefore suffers, because the strength of the CATV signal available at each of these ports is substantially diminished due to the extent of signal splitting required. On the other hand, Upstream CATV signals from the subscriber equipment do not occur as frequently as downstream CATV signals. Furthermore, upstream signals are generally of a higher power because they are generated immediately by the subscriber equipment within the home. Consequently, the reduction in CATV signal strength applies principally to downstream CATV signals, which of course provide the multimedia content to the subscriber. It is the quality of the multimedia content observed by the subscriber that forms the basis for the subscriber's opinion of quality of service. To compensate for downstream CATV signal strength reduction caused by splitting, some entry adapters include amplifiers to increase the strength of the copies of the downstream CATV signals. Of course, including an amplifier along with the signal splitter makes the signal transmission dependent upon the presence of adequate electrical power to operate the amplifier. The power for the amplifier is derived from commercial sources within the household. If the commercial power supply is temporarily interrupted, or if the power supply equipment within the home ceases operating properly, the customer perceives a CATV problem and reports the problem to the CATV service provider. The CATV service provider must thereafter send a service or repair person to the home of the subscriber in order to identify and remedy the problem. Such service calls are a significant expense for a CATV service provider. CATV service providers therefore attempt to eliminate as many of the potential points of failure as possible in the equipment supplied by the CATV service provider, to reduce service calls and repair costs. Including an amplifier in a CATV entry adapter creates a potential point of failure, and for that reason most CATV service providers wish to avoid using CATV entry adapters with amplifiers. However, in those relatively large in-home networks with multiple outlets for connecting multiple multimedia devices, there has been little previous choice but to use amplifiers in conjunction with splitters in order to obtain the desired downstream CATV signal strength that represents a high quality of service.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to a cable television (CATV) entry adapter which beneficially provides a high quality and strength downstream CATV signal to multiple subscriber devices while simultaneously contributing to and promoting the establishment of a multimedia in-home network. The CATV entry adapter is preferably passive without an amplifier, and passes the in-home network communication signals between the multiple subscriber devices, and passes the downstream and upstream CATV signals to the subscriber equipment and the CATV network. The in-home network communication signals are effectively communicated in the in-home network and the multimedia content from the upstream and downstream CATV signals is effectively made available to all of the subscriber equipment and to the CATV network without diminishing the quality or strength of the CATV signals to the point where the quality of service is compromised. As a passive device, the CATV entry adapter of the present invention requires no external power source, which eliminates unnecessary service calls. In addition, critical communications over the CATV network, such as “life-line” phone service, are preserved during transmission over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. In accordance with these and other features, one aspect of the invention involves a cable television (CATV) entry adapter for conducting downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at subscriber premises and for conducting in-home network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The CATV signals occupy a CATV frequency band which is different from an in-home network frequency band occupied by the in-home network signals. The in-home network includes a network interface connected to each subscriber device by which to generate and communicate the network signals between the subscriber devices in the in-home network. The CATV entry adapter comprises a CATV entry port for connection to the CATV network, and a plurality of network ports each for connection to the network interface to which each subscriber device is connected. The CATV entry adapter also includes a signal splitter which has an input terminal and two output terminals. The signal splitter operatively splits a signal received at its input terminal into reduced-power copies of the input signal supplied at each of its output terminals. The signal splitter also communicates signals received at each output terminal to the input terminal and to the other output terminal. The CATV entry adapter also includes an in-home network frequency band rejection device connected between the CATV entry port and the input port of the signal splitter. The in-home network frequency band rejection device substantially blocks transmission of the in-home network signals therethrough to the CATV entry port and the CATV network. Another aspect of the invention involves an in-home network for distributing multimedia content to subscriber devices. The multimedia content is obtained from CATV signals communicated over a CATV network and from a subscriber device connected to the in-home network. The in-home network comprises a CATV entry adapter having a CATV entry port and a plurality of network ports. The CATV entry port is connected to the CATV network for receiving multimedia content from CATV signals communicated over the CATV network. The in-home network also comprises a plurality of in-home network interfaces, each of which is connected to a different one of the plurality of network ports. Each of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content to the subscriber devices to which each network interface is connected. All of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content between one another in network signals communicated between the network interfaces. At least one of the network interfaces sends and receives CATV signals and communicates the multimedia content contained in the CATV signals to the subscriber device to which the one network interface is connected, and communicates the multimedia content obtained from the CATV signals in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. Each of the network interfaces communicates multimedia content obtained from a subscriber device connected to that network interface in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. The network signals are located within a network frequency band which is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are located. A further aspect of the invention involves a method of conducting information contained in downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at a subscriber premises and of conducting information contained in network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The method comprises connecting the CATV entry adapter to receive and transmit CATV signals from and to the CATV network, respectively; connecting in-home network interfaces to each subscriber device to form the in-home network among the subscriber devices to which network interfaces are attached; connecting the CATV entry adapter as a hub in the in-home network to pass network signals between network interfaces; confining the network signals to an end-home network frequency band that is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are confined; connecting the CATV adapter to at least one network interface to receive and transmit CATV signals supplied from and to the CATV entry adapter; and preventing transmission of the network signals within the CATV entry adapter onto the CATV network. One subsidiary aspect of the invention which relates to blocking or preventing the transmission of network signals onto the CATV network, involves a frequency rejection device which comprises only passive electronic components, or which functions without a power source separate from the CATV signals and the in-home network signals. The frequency rejection device may take the form of a frequency rejection filter, or the frequency rejection device may take the form of at least one diplexer which divides frequencies into separate frequency bands, and is connected to conduct the network signals in the network frequency band between network interfaces and to conduct the CATV signals in the CATV frequency band to and from the CATV network. Another subsidiary aspect of the invention involves a server network interface and at least one client network interface. The server network interface sends and receives downstream and upstream CATV signals and network signals to communicate information contained in the CATV and network signals to the subscriber device to which the server network interface is connected. Each client network interface sends and receives network signals to communicate information contained in the network signals to the subscriber device to which each client network interface is connected. The server network interface also has a capability for storing information obtained from downstream CATV signals and subsequently supplying network signals to a client network interface which contain the information stored from the downstream CATV signals. An additional subsidiary aspect of the invention involves connecting an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA)-compatible subscriber device including a modem and telephone set to the CATV entry adapter, and splitting downstream CATV signals into reduced-power copies and supplying one of the copies to the eMTA-compatible device. A more complete appreciation of the present invention, as well as the manner in which the present invention achieves the above and other improvements, can be obtained by reference to the following detailed description of presently preferred embodiments taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are briefly summarized below, and by reference to the appended claims.

H04N2143615

20180125

20180607

88957.0

H04N21436

DUBASKY, GIGI L

ENTRY ADAPTERS FOR FREQUENCY BAND BLOCKING INTERNAL NETWORK SIGNALS

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04N

PENDING

PASSIVE MULTI-PORT ENTRY ADAPTER AND METHOD FOR PRESERVING DOWNSTREAM CATV SIGNAL STRENGTH WITHIN IN-HOME NETWORK

A cable television (CATV) entry adapter interfaces to a CATV network and serves as a hub in an in-home network for passively communicating multimedia content or information from the CATV network and between subscriber devices connected to the ports of the CATV entry adapter, using CATV signals in a CATV frequency band and network signals in a different in-home network band.

1-3. (canceled) 4. A cable television (CATV) entry adapter for conducting downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and a subscriber device, and conducting in-home network signals in an in-home network, the CATV signals occupying a CATV frequency band that is different from an in-home network frequency band occupied by the in-home network signals, the CATV entry adapter comprising: CATV entry means for communicating with a CATV network; primary port means for communicating with a first subscriber device; secondary port means for communicating with a second subscriber device; splitter means having an input terminal and at least two output terminals, wherein each of the at least two output terminals is configured to communicate with the secondary port means; communication and blocking means for allowing downstream and upstream CATV signals to be communicated to the first subscriber device and block in-home network signals from being communicated to the CATV network; wherein the communication and blocking means is connected between the CATV entry means and the splitter means; wherein the communication and blocking means includes a low pass terminal that is configured to communicate with the CATV entry means, a high pass terminal that is configured to communicate with the splitter means, and a common terminal that is configured to communicate with the primary port means; wherein the communication and blocking means is configured to allow both upstream and downstream CATV signals to communicate with the first subscriber device; wherein the primary port means is configured to communicate with a server network interface and the secondary port means is configured to communicate with a client network interface; wherein the communication and blocking means is configured to conduct only the downstream and upstream CATV signals between the CATV entry means and the primary port; wherein the communication and blocking means is configured to allow all upstream and downstream CATV signals to be conducted through the low pass terminal, instead of allowing downstream CATV signals to be conducted to the client network interface, and instead of allowing upstream CATV signals to be conducted from the client network interface through the secondary port means and to the CATV entry means; wherein the communication and blocking means is configured to allow downstream CATV signals to reach the server network interface with substantially no reduction in signal strength; wherein the communication and blocking means is configured to allow the server network interface to deliver a higher quality network signal to the client network interface over the in-home network even when the network signals are passed through the splitter means; wherein the secondary port means comprises a plurality of secondary ports in communication with the splitter means; wherein the communication and blocking means is configured to only communicate CATV signals in a predetermined high frequency band range through the high pass terminal, and prevent CATV signals outside the predetermined high frequency range from being communicated through the high pass terminal; and wherein the communication and blocking means is configured to only communicate CATV signals in a predetermined low frequency band range through the low pass terminal, and prevent CATV signals outside the predetermined low frequency range from being communicated through the low pass terminal. 5. The CATV entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the server network interface is configured to convert multimedia content from downstream CATV signals into network signals to the client network interface, the client network interface is configured to communicate information constituting upstream CATV signals to the server network interface, and the server network interface is configured to convert the information constituting upstream CATV signals communicated from the client network interface into converted upstream CATV signals and allow the converted upstream CATV signals to be communicated to the common terminal of the downstream and upstream CATV communication and in-home network frequency band blocking device. 6. The CATV entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the splitter means and the communication and blocking means are passive electronic components. 7. The CATV entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the only power received by the entry adapter is received through the CATV signals or the in-home network signals. 8. The CATV entry adapter of claim 4, wherein downstream and upstream CATV signals pass respectively from and to the CATV network through the communication and blocking means without substantial attenuation. 9. The CATV entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the communication and blocking means is configured to block in-home network signals within the in-home network signal frequency band of about 1125-1525 megahertz, and pass CATV signals within the CATV signal frequency band of 5-1002 megahertz. 10. The CATV entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the communication and blocking means comprises a diplexer configured to conduct downstream and upstream CATV signals in the CATV frequency band between the common terminal and the low pass terminal, and block in-home network signals in the in-home network signal frequency band from being conducted between the common terminal and the low pass terminals. 11. The CATV entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the CATV entry means is directly connected to the low pass terminal of the communication and blocking means without any intermediate components. 12. The CATV entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the high pass terminal of the communication and blocking means is directly connected to the input terminal of the splitter means without any intermediate components. 13. The CATV entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the common terminal of the communication and blocking means is directly connected to the primary port means without any intermediate components. 14. The CATV entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the primary port means is configured to be directly connected to the server network interface without any intermediate components. 15. The CATV entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the splitter means is configured to split a CATV network signal into a first CATV network signal copy and a second CATV network signal copy, conduct the first CATV network signal copy to one of the plurality of secondary ports, and conduct the second CATV network signal copy to another one of the plurality of secondary ports. 16. The CATV entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the in-home network signals are in the predetermined high frequency band range, and not in the predetermined low frequency band range. 17. The CATV entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the downstream and upstream CATV signals are in the predetermined low frequency band range, and not in the predetermined high frequency band range. 18. The CATV entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the downstream and upstream CATV signals and the in-home network signals are both made available to the server and client network interfaces so that the subscriber device can interact with not only the downstream and upstream CATV signals, but also the in-home network signals, and the communication and blocking means is configured to separate high and low frequency bands of signals so as to prevent high frequency in-home network signals from reaching the CATV network. 19. The entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the server network interface is configured to store downstream CATV signals and supply network signals to the client network interface based on the stored downstream CATV signals. 20. The entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the client network interface is configured to send and receive CATV signals and the subscriber device. 21. The entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the splitter means comprises a four-way splitter. 22. The entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the entry adapter is configured to eliminate a need for an in-home network frequency band rejection filter, while blocking in-home frequency band signal from entering the CATV network, and while assuring that a high strength downstream CATV signal will be delivered to the subscriber device during operation of the entry adapter. 23. The entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the predetermined low frequency band range is a CATV frequency range that encompasses both the upstream and downstream CATV signals. 24. The entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the predetermined low frequency band range comprises a downstream frequency band range and an upstream frequency band range. 25. The entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the downstream frequency band range comprises 54 MHz to 1002 MHz. 26. The entry adapter of claim 24, wherein the upstream frequency band range comprises 5 MHz to 42 MHz. 27. The entry adapter claim 4, wherein the predetermined low frequency band range comprises 54 MHz to 1002 MHz. 28. The entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the predetermined high frequency band range is an in-home network frequency band range of the in-home network signals. 29. The entry adapter of claim 28, wherein the in-home network frequency band range is greater than a frequency band range employed for CATV signals. 30. The entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the communication and blocking means is configured to confine transmission of high frequency in-home network signals between the entry adapter, the server network interface, and the client network interface so as to prevent high frequency in-home network signals from interfering with the CATV network. 31. The entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the splitter means is limited to only one multiple-way splitter. 32. The entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the communication and blocking means is limited to only one high-low frequency band diplexer. 33. The entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the communication and blocking means is configured to allow the downstream CATV signals to be conducted between the CATV entry means and the primary port means without being split. 34. The entry adapter of claim 4, wherein the splitter means comprises a multiple-way splitter having a plurality of output terminals each configured to communicate with one of the plurality of secondary ports. 35. The CATV entry adapter of claim 35, wherein the plurality of output terminals of the splitter means are each configured to be directly connected to one of the plurality of secondary ports without any intermediate components. 36. A cable television (CATV) entry adapter for allowing two-way, downstream and upstream CATV signals to be conducted between a CATV network and a client device, allowing client signals to be conducted in a client-server network, and preventing the client signals from being conducted to the CATV network, the CATV entry adapter comprising: first port means for allowing two-way, downstream and upstream CATV signals from a CATV network in a CATV signal frequency band to be conducted to the CATV entry adapter; second port means for allowing two-way, downstream and upstream CATV signals to be conducted to a server interface in the client-server network; third port means for allowing two-way, downstream and upstream CATV signals to be conducted to a client interface in the client-server network; frequency band separation and blocking means configured to block client signals from being conducted to the CATV network, while allowing two-way, downstream and upstream CATV signals to be conducted between the CATV network and a client device in the client-server network; wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to be connected between the first port means and splitter means; wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means includes a low pass terminal, a high pass terminal, and a common terminal; wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to allow both upstream and downstream CATV signals to conduct to the second port means and the third port means; wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to conduct only the downstream and upstream CATV signals between the first port means and the second port means; wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to allow all upstream and downstream CATV signals to be conducted through the low pass terminal, instead of allowing downstream CATV signals to be conducted to the client interface, and instead of allowing upstream CATV signals to be conducted from the client interface; wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to only conduct CATV signals in a predetermined high frequency band range through the high pass terminal; and wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to only conduct CATV signals in a predetermined low frequency band range through the low pass terminal. 37. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to allow downstream CATV signals to reach the server interface with substantially no reduction in signal strength. 38. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to allow the downstream CATV signals to be conducted between the first port means and the second port means without being split. 39. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to allow the server interface to deliver a higher quality network signal to the client interface over the client-server network even when the network signals are passed through a splitter means downstream of the frequency band separation and blocking means. 40. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the server interface is configured to convert multimedia content from downstream CATV signals into network signals to the client interface, the client interface is configured to conduct information constituting upstream CATV signals to the server interface, and the server interface is configured to convert the information constituting upstream CATV signals conducted from the client interface into converted upstream CATV signals and allow the converted upstream CATV signals to be conducted to the common terminal of the frequency band separation and blocking means. 41. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is a passive electronic component. 42. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the only power received by the entry adapter is received through the CATV signals or the client signals. 43. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein downstream and upstream CATV signals pass respectively to and from the CATV network through the frequency band separation and blocking means without substantial attenuation. 44. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the client-server network signal frequency band is about 1125-1525 megahertz, the CATV signal frequency band is about 5-1002 megahertz, the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to block signals within the client-server network signal frequency band of about 1125-1525 megahertz, and pass CATV signals within the CATV signal frequency band of 5-1002 megahertz. 45. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means comprises a diplexer configured to conduct downstream and upstream CATV signals between the common terminal and the low pass terminal, and block client signals in the client-server network signal frequency band from being conducted between the common terminal and the low pass terminal. 46. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the first port means is directly connected to the low pass terminal of the frequency band separation and blocking means without any intermediate components. 47. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the high pass terminal of the frequency band separation and blocking means is directly connected to an input terminal of the splitter means without any intermediate components. 48. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the common terminal of the frequency band separation and blocking means is directly connected to the second port means without any intermediate components. 49. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the second port means is configured to be directly connected to the server interface without any intermediate components. 50. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the third port means comprises a plurality of third port means, and the splitter means includes a plurality of output terminals that are each configured to be directly connected to one of the plurality of third port means without any intermediate components. 51. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the third port means comprises a plurality of third ports, and the splitter means is configured to split a CATV network signal into a first CATV network signal copy and a second CATV network signal copy, conduct the first CATV network signal copy to one of the plurality of third ports, and conduct the second CATV network signal copy to another one of the plurality of third ports. 52. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to conduct CATV signals in a predetermined high frequency band range through the high frequency band terminal and conduct CATV signals in a predetermined low frequency band range through the low frequency band terminal. 53. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the client signals are in the predetermined high frequency band range, and not in the predetermined low frequency band range. 54. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the downstream and upstream CATV signals are in the predetermined low frequency band range, and not in the predetermined high frequency band range. 55. The CATV entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the downstream and upstream CATV signals and the client signals are both made available to the server and client interfaces so that the client device is configured to interact with not only the downstream and upstream CATV signals, but also the client signals, and the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to separate high and low frequency bands of signals so as to prevent high frequency client signals from reaching the CATV network. 56. The entry adapter of claim 56, wherein the server interface is configured to store downstream CATV signals and supply network signals to the client interface based on the stored downstream CATV signals, and the client interface is configured to send and receive CATV signals and the client device. 57. The entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the splitter means comprises a four-way splitter. 58. The entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the entry adapter is configured to eliminate a need for a client signal rejection filter, while blocking client signals from entering the CATV network, and while assuring that a high strength downstream CATV signal will be delivered to the client device during operation of the entry adapter. 59. The entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the predetermined low frequency band range is a CATV frequency range that encompasses both the upstream and downstream CATV signals. 60. The entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the predetermined low frequency band range comprises a downstream frequency band range and an upstream frequency band range. 61. The entry adapter of claim 60, wherein the downstream frequency band range comprises 54 MHz to 1002 MHz, the upstream frequency band range comprises 5 MHz to 42 MHz, and the predetermined low frequency band range comprises 5 MHz to 1002 MHz. 62. The entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the predetermined high frequency band range corresponds to a frequency band range of the client signals. 63. The entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the client signals have a frequency band range that is greater than a frequency band range employed for CATV signals. 64. The entry adapter of claim 63, wherein the frequency band range of the client signals comprises 1125 MHz to at least 1525 MHz. 65. The entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to mechanically and electrically confine transmission of high frequency client signals between the entry adapter, the server interface, and the client interface so as to prevent high frequency client signals from interfering with the CATV network. 66. The entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the splitter means is limited to only one multiple-way splitter. 67. The entry adapter of claim 36, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is limited to only one high-low frequency band diplexer. 68. An entry adapter for allowing downstream and upstream external signals to be conducted between an external network and a client device, allowing client signals to be conducted in an internal client-server network, and preventing the client signals from being conducted to the external network, the entry adapter comprising: a first port means for allowing downstream and upstream external signals to be received by the entry adapter; a second port means for allowing downstream and upstream external signals to be concluded to a server interface of an internal client-server network: a third port means for allowing the downstream and upstream external signals to be conducted to a client interface of the internal client-server network; and a frequency band separation and blocking means for separating downstream and upstream external signals that are in a first frequency band range into low frequency band external signals and high frequency band external signals, only allowing low frequency band external signals to be conducted through the second port means to the server interface, only allowing high frequency band external signals to be conducted through the third port means to the client interface, and blocking all client signals that are in a second frequency band range from being conducted to the external network. 69. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the first frequency band range is about 5 megahertz to 1002 megahertz, and the second frequency band range is about 1125 megahertz to at least about 1525 megahertz. 70. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the downstream and upstream external signals are downstream and upstream cable television (CATV) signals. 71. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the first port means is an entry port, the second port means is a primary port, and the third port means is a secondary port. 72. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means only conducts the downstream and upstream external signals through the first port means and the second port means. 73. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means includes a low pass terminal, a high pass terminal, and a common terminal. 74. The entry adapter of claim 78, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means only allows downstream and upstream external signals in a predetermined high frequency band range to be conducted through the high pass terminal. 75. The entry adapter of claim 74, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means only allows downstream and upstream external signals in a predetermined low frequency band range to be conducted through the low pass terminal. 76. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is connected between the first port means and a signal splitter means for splitting external signals. 77. The entry adapter of claim 76, wherein the second port means is a primary port, the third port means is a plurality of secondary ports, and the signal splitter means is for splitting external signals into a plurality of external signal copies so as to allow each of the plurality of external signal copies to be conducted to a respective one of the plurality of secondary ports. 78. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to be directly connected between the first port means and a signal splitter means for splitting external signals without any intermediate components. 79. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is a passive electronic component. 80. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the only power received by the entry adapter is received through the external signals or the client signals. 81. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein downstream and upstream external signals pass respectively to and from the external network through the frequency band separation and blocking means without substantial attenuation. 82. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means comprises a diplexer having a low frequency terminal, a high frequency terminal, and a common terminal. 83. The entry adapter of claim 82, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means only allows the low frequency band external signals to be conducted through the low frequency terminal and the common terminal, and blocks all client signals from being conducted through the low frequency terminal to the external network. 84. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the first port means is directly connected to a low frequency terminal of the frequency band separation and blocking means without any intermediate components. 85. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the client device comprises a plurality of client devices, and the third port means comprises a plurality of third port means for allowing downstream and upstream external signals to communicate with the plurality of client devices. 86. The entry adapter of claim 85, further comprising a splitter means for allowing downstream and upstream external signals to be conducted through the plurality of third port means. 87. The entry adapter of claim 86, wherein the splitter means includes an input terminal, and the frequency band separation and block means includes a high pass terminal that is directly connected to the input terminal of the splitter means without any intermediate components. 88. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means includes a common terminal that is directly connected to the second port means without any intermediate components. 89. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the second port means is configured to be directly connected to the server interface without any intermediate components. 90. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the third port means comprises a plurality of third port means, and further comprising splitter means including a plurality of output terminals that are each configured to be directly connected to one of the plurality of third port means without any intermediate components. 91. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the third port means comprises a plurality of third port means, and further comprising signal splitter means for splitting an external signal into a first external network signal copy and a second external network signal copy, conduct the first external network signal copy to one of the plurality of third port means, and conduct the second external network signal copy to another one of the plurality of third port means. 92. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to conduct external signals in a predetermined high frequency band range through a high frequency band terminal and conduct external signals in a predetermined low frequency band range through a low frequency band terminal. 93. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the client signals are in a predetermined high frequency band range, and not in a predetermined low frequency band range. 94. The entry adapter of claim 94, wherein the downstream and upstream external signals are in the predetermined low frequency band range, and not in the predetermined high frequency band range. 95. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the downstream and upstream external signals and the client signals are both made available to the server and client interfaces so that the client device is configured to interact with not only the downstream and upstream external signals, but also the client signals, and the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to separate high and low frequency bands of signals so as to prevent high frequency client signals from reaching the external network through the entry adapter. 96. The entry adapter of claim 68, further comprising a four-way signal splitter means for four-way splitting external signals received from the frequency band separation and blocking means. 97. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the second frequency band range is a CATV frequency range that encompasses both the upstream and downstream external signals. 98. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the second frequency band range comprises a downstream CATV frequency band range and an upstream CATV frequency band range. 99. The entry adapter of claim 98, wherein the downstream CATV frequency band range comprises 54 MHz to 1002 MHz, and the upstream CATV frequency band range comprises 5 MHz to 42 MHz. 100. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the second frequency band range corresponds to a frequency band range of the client signals. 101. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means is configured to mechanically and electrically confine transmission of high frequency client signals between the entry adapter, the server interface, and the client interface so as to prevent high frequency client signals from interfering with the external network. 102. The entry adapter of claim 68, further comprising only one multiple-way splitter means for one-way splitting signals. 103. The entry adapter of claim 68, wherein the frequency band separation and blocking means includes only one high-low frequency band diplexer.

This invention relates to cable television (CATV) and to in-home entertainment networks which share existing coaxial cables within the premises for CATV signal distribution and in-home network communication signals. More particularly, the present invention relates to a new and improved passive entry adapter between a CATV network and the in-home network which minimizes the CATV signal strength reduction even when distributed among multiple subscriber or multimedia devices within the subscriber's premises or home. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION CATV networks use an infrastructure of interconnected coaxial cables, signal splitters and combiners, repeating amplifiers, filters, trunk lines, cable taps, drop lines and other signal-conducting devices to supply and distribute high frequency “downstream” signals from a main signal distribution facility, known as a “headend,” to the premises (homes and offices) of subscribers to the CATV services. The downstream signals transfer multimedia content to subscriber equipment, such as television sets, telephone sets and computers. In addition, most CATV networks also transmit “upstream” signals from the subscriber equipment back to the headend of the CATV network. For example, the subscriber uses a set top box to select programs for display on the television set. As another example, two-way communication is essential when using a personal computer connected through the CATV infrastructure to the public Internet. As a further example, voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone sets use the CATV infrastructure and the public Internet as the communication medium for transmitting two-way telephone conversations. To permit simultaneous communication of upstream and downstream CATV signals and the interoperability of the subscriber equipment and the equipment associated with the CATV network infrastructure outside of subscriber premises, the downstream and upstream CATV signals are confined to two different frequency bands. The downstream frequency band is within the range of 54-1002 megahertz (MHz) and the upstream frequency band is within the range of 5-42 MHz, in most CATV networks. The entire CATV frequency band is therefore 5-1002 MHz. The downstream signals are delivered from the CATV network infrastructure to the subscriber premises at a CATV entry adapter, which is also commonly referred to as an entry device, terminal adapter or a drop amplifier. The CATV entry adapter is usually a multi-port device which provides a multiplicity of ports or connectors for connecting coaxial cables. A separate coaxial cable is connected to each of the ports and extends within the subscriber premises to the location of the subscriber equipment. Some homes have coaxial cables extending to cable outlets in almost every room, because of the many different types of subscriber equipment used in different rooms. For example, television sets are commonplace throughout the home. The multiple ports of the CATV entry adapter deliver downstream CATV at each cable outlet and conduct upstream CATV signals back through the premises coaxial cables to the CATV entry adapter, which delivers the upstream CATV signals to the CATV network. In addition to television sets, computers and telephones, a relatively large number of other entertainment and multimedia devices are available for use in homes. For example, a digital video recorder (DVR) is used to store broadcast programming, still photography and moving pictures in a memory medium so that the content can be replayed on a display or television set at a later time selected by the user. As another example, computer games are also played at displays or on television sets. Such computer games may be obtained or played over the Internet from the CATV network or from media played on play-back devices or game consoles connected to displays or television sets. As a further example, receivers which receive satellite-broadcast signals may be distributed for viewing or listening throughout the home. These types of devices, including the more-conventional television sets, telephone sets and devices connected to the Internet by the CATV network, are generically referred to as multimedia devices. The desire to use multimedia devices at multiple different locations within the home or subscriber premises has led to the creation of the Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA). MoCA has developed specifications for products to create an in-home entertainment network for interconnecting presently-known and future multimedia devices. The MoCA in-home network uses the subscriber premise or in-home coaxial cable infrastructure originally established for distribution of CATV signals within the subscriber premises, principally because that cable infrastructure already exists in most homes and is capable of carrying much more information than is carried in the CATV frequency band. A MoCA network is established by connecting MoCA interface devices at the cable outlets in the rooms of the subscriber premises. The MoCA network is used to transmit multimedia content from one MoCA interface device to another. The MoCA interface devices implement a MoCA communication protocol which encapsulates the multimedia content normally sent and received by the multimedia devices within MoCA packets and then communicates these MoCA packets between selected ones of the other MoCA interfaces devices connected at other cable outlets. The receiving MoCA interface device removes the encapsulated multimedia content, and delivers it to the connected computer, digital television or set-top box or other multimedia device from which then presents that multimedia content. Each MoCA interface device is capable of communicating with every other MoCA interface device in the MoCA network to deliver the multimedia content throughout the home or subscriber premises. The entertainment or multimedia content that is available from one multimedia device can be displayed, played or otherwise used at a different location within the home, without having to physically relocate the multimedia device from one location to another within the home. The in-home network communication of multimedia content is considered beneficial in more fully utilizing the multimedia devices present in modern homes. The MoCA interface devices also pass the upstream and downstream CATV signals between the CATV entry adapter and the subscriber devices. Since the MoCA network may function simultaneously with the normal operation of the CATV services, the MoCA signals communicated between MoCA interface devices utilize a frequency range of 1125-1525 MHz, which is outside of the frequency band of CATV signals. This so-called D band of MoCA signals is divided into eight different frequency ranges, D1-D8, and these eight different D frequency ranges are used to assure communication between the selected MoCA interface devices. For example, the D-1 band at 1125-1175 MHz may be used to communicate CATV television programming content between a MoCA interface device connected to a set-top box in a main room of the house and another MoCA interface device connected to a television set in bedroom of the house, while a MoCA interface device connected to a computer gaming multimedia device in a basement room of the house simultaneously communicates computer game content over the D-6 band at 1375-1425 MHz to a computer located in a recreation room of the house. The MoCA frequency band also includes other frequency ranges outside of the CATV frequency band, but the D band is is used to establish connections and communicate content between the MoCA interface devices. Using the in-home coaxial cable as the principal communication medium substantially simplifies the implementation of the MoCA network, but there are certain disadvantages in doing so. The D band MoCA frequencies have the capability of passing through the CATV entry adapter and entering the CATV network where they may then enter a nearby subscriber's premises. The presence of the MoCA signals at the nearby subscriber's premises compromises the privacy and security of the information originally intended to be confined within the original subscriber premises. The MoCA signals from the original subscriber premises which enter through the CATV network to the nearby subscriber premises also have the potential to adversely affect the performance of a MoCA network in nearby subscriber's premises. The conflict of the MoCA signals from the original and nearby subscriber premises may cause the MoCA interface devices to malfunction or not operate properly on a consistent basis. Another undesirable aspect of using a MoCA for communication between the various multimedia devices is that a relatively large MoCA network with many cable outlet ports has the effect of deteriorating the strength of the downstream CATV signal. Because in-home multimedia devices frequently require access to the CATV network in order to send upstream CATV signals as well is to receive downstream CATV signals, the in-home coaxial cable infrastructure must commonly connect all of the CATV cables and CATV ports within the home to a common connection with the drop cable that supplies the CATV signal and services to the home. The common connection is usually achieved in the CATV entry adapter, which provides output ports that connect to the coaxial cables extending within the home to each separate location or room. A splitter within the CATV entry adapter divides the CATV downstream signals into two or more reduced-power copies of the input signal, and supplies each copy to a separate outlet port. Similarly, upstream signals from the subscriber equipment connected to each of the coaxial cables are combined in the splitter and then passed upstream through the CATV entry adapter into the CATV network. The typical splitter is passive, which means that the power of the input signal is divided among the copies of the output signals split from the input signal. Each copy of the signal therefore has diminished power or strength, and the lower strength copies will not have the same quality as the input signal. In general terms, the quality is the strength of the signal relative to the strength of the inherent ambient noise. Since the inherent ambient noise generally cannot be diminished and is usually a constant, lowering the strength of the signal relative to the noise reduces the signal-to-noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio is a recognized measure of the quality of a signal. A lower signal-to-noise ratio represents a lesser quality signal. Because many homes require a relatively large number of cable outlet ports, for example six or more, the downstream CATV signal must be split into a comparable relatively large number of copies. The greater number of signal splitters required to generate the requisite number of separate copies of the downstream CATV signal diminishes the strength of the downstream signal copies. The quality of CATV service available in an in-home network with a relatively large number of cable output ports therefore suffers, because the strength of the CATV signal available at each of these ports is substantially diminished due to the extent of signal splitting required. On the other hand, Upstream CATV signals from the subscriber equipment do not occur as frequently as downstream CATV signals. Furthermore, upstream signals are generally of a higher power because they are generated immediately by the subscriber equipment within the home. Consequently, the reduction in CATV signal strength applies principally to downstream CATV signals, which of course provide the multimedia content to the subscriber. It is the quality of the multimedia content observed by the subscriber that forms the basis for the subscriber's opinion of quality of service. To compensate for downstream CATV signal strength reduction caused by splitting, some entry adapters include amplifiers to increase the strength of the copies of the downstream CATV signals. Of course, including an amplifier along with the signal splitter makes the signal transmission dependent upon the presence of adequate electrical power to operate the amplifier. The power for the amplifier is derived from commercial sources within the household. If the commercial power supply is temporarily interrupted, or if the power supply equipment within the home ceases operating properly, the customer perceives a CATV problem and reports the problem to the CATV service provider. The CATV service provider must thereafter send a service or repair person to the home of the subscriber in order to identify and remedy the problem. Such service calls are a significant expense for a CATV service provider. CATV service providers therefore attempt to eliminate as many of the potential points of failure as possible in the equipment supplied by the CATV service provider, to reduce service calls and repair costs. Including an amplifier in a CATV entry adapter creates a potential point of failure, and for that reason most CATV service providers wish to avoid using CATV entry adapters with amplifiers. However, in those relatively large in-home networks with multiple outlets for connecting multiple multimedia devices, there has been little previous choice but to use amplifiers in conjunction with splitters in order to obtain the desired downstream CATV signal strength that represents a high quality of service. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a cable television (CATV) entry adapter which beneficially provides a high quality and strength downstream CATV signal to multiple subscriber devices while simultaneously contributing to and promoting the establishment of a multimedia in-home network. The CATV entry adapter is preferably passive without an amplifier, and passes the in-home network communication signals between the multiple subscriber devices, and passes the downstream and upstream CATV signals to the subscriber equipment and the CATV network. The in-home network communication signals are effectively communicated in the in-home network and the multimedia content from the upstream and downstream CATV signals is effectively made available to all of the subscriber equipment and to the CATV network without diminishing the quality or strength of the CATV signals to the point where the quality of service is compromised. As a passive device, the CATV entry adapter of the present invention requires no external power source, which eliminates unnecessary service calls. In addition, critical communications over the CATV network, such as “life-line” phone service, are preserved during transmission over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. In accordance with these and other features, one aspect of the invention involves a cable television (CATV) entry adapter for conducting downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at subscriber premises and for conducting in-home network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The CATV signals occupy a CATV frequency band which is different from an in-home network frequency band occupied by the in-home network signals. The in-home network includes a network interface connected to each subscriber device by which to generate and communicate the network signals between the subscriber devices in the in-home network. The CATV entry adapter comprises a CATV entry port for connection to the CATV network, and a plurality of network ports each for connection to the network interface to which each subscriber device is connected. The CATV entry adapter also includes a signal splitter which has an input terminal and two output terminals. The signal splitter operatively splits a signal received at its input terminal into reduced-power copies of the input signal supplied at each of its output terminals. The signal splitter also communicates signals received at each output terminal to the input terminal and to the other output terminal. The CATV entry adapter also includes an in-home network frequency band rejection device connected between the CATV entry port and the input port of the signal splitter. The in-home network frequency band rejection device substantially blocks transmission of the in-home network signals therethrough to the CATV entry port and the CATV network. Another aspect of the invention involves an in-home network for distributing multimedia content to subscriber devices. The multimedia content is obtained from CATV signals communicated over a CATV network and from a subscriber device connected to the in-home network. The in-home network comprises a CATV entry adapter having a CATV entry port and a plurality of network ports. The CATV entry port is connected to the CATV network for receiving multimedia content from CATV signals communicated over the CATV network. The in-home network also comprises a plurality of in-home network interfaces, each of which is connected to a different one of the plurality of network ports. Each of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content to the subscriber devices to which each network interface is connected. All of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content between one another in network signals communicated between the network interfaces. At least one of the network interfaces sends and receives CATV signals and communicates the multimedia content contained in the CATV signals to the subscriber device to which the one network interface is connected, and communicates the multimedia content obtained from the CATV signals in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. Each of the network interfaces communicates multimedia content obtained from a subscriber device connected to that network interface in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. The network signals are located within a network frequency band which is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are located. A further aspect of the invention involves a method of conducting information contained in downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at a subscriber premises and of conducting information contained in network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The method comprises connecting the CATV entry adapter to receive and transmit CATV signals from and to the CATV network, respectively; connecting in-home network interfaces to each subscriber device to form the in-home network among the subscriber devices to which network interfaces are attached; connecting the CATV entry adapter as a hub in the in-home network to pass network signals between network interfaces; confining the network signals to an end-home network frequency band that is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are confined; connecting the CATV adapter to at least one network interface to receive and transmit CATV signals supplied from and to the CATV entry adapter; and preventing transmission of the network signals within the CATV entry adapter onto the CATV network. One subsidiary aspect of the invention which relates to blocking or preventing the transmission of network signals onto the CATV network, involves a frequency rejection device which comprises only passive electronic components, or which functions without a power source separate from the CATV signals and the in-home network signals. The frequency rejection device may take the form of a frequency rejection filter, or the frequency rejection device may take the form of at least one diplexer which divides frequencies into separate frequency bands, and is connected to conduct the network signals in the network frequency band between network interfaces and to conduct the CATV signals in the CATV frequency band to and from the CATV network. Another subsidiary aspect of the invention involves a server network interface and at least one client network interface. The server network interface sends and receives downstream and upstream CATV signals and network signals to communicate information contained in the CATV and network signals to the subscriber device to which the server network interface is connected. Each client network interface sends and receives network signals to communicate information contained in the network signals to the subscriber device to which each client network interface is connected. The server network interface also has a capability for storing information obtained from downstream CATV signals and subsequently supplying network signals to a client network interface which contain the information stored from the downstream CATV signals. An additional subsidiary aspect of the invention involves connecting an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA)-compatible subscriber device including a modem and telephone set to the CATV entry adapter, and splitting downstream CATV signals into reduced-power copies and supplying one of the copies to the eMTA-compatible device. A more complete appreciation of the present invention, as well as the manner in which the present invention achieves the above and other improvements, can be obtained by reference to the following detailed description of presently preferred embodiments taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are briefly summarized below, and by reference to the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a typical CATV network infrastructure, including a plurality of CATV entry adapters which incorporate the present invention, and also illustrating an in-home network using a CATV entry adapter for connecting multimedia devices or other subscriber equipment within the subscriber premises. FIG. 2 is a more detailed illustration of the in-home network in one subscriber premises shown in FIG. 1, with more details of network interfaces and subscriber equipment shown in block diagram form. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of components of one embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 5 is a block diagram of components of another embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, constituting an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 3, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is a block diagram of components of another embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, constituting an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapters shown in FIGS. 3 and 5, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 8 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 7. DETAILED DESCRIPTION A CATV entry adapter 10 which incorporates the present invention is shown generally in FIG. 1. The CATV entry adapter 10 is located at subscriber premises 12 and forms a part of a conventional in-home network 14, such as a conventional Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA) in-home entertainment network. The in-home network 14 interconnects subscriber equipment or multimedia devices 16 within the subscriber premises 12, and allows the multimedia devices 16 to communicate multimedia content or in-home signals between other multimedia devices 16. The connection medium of the in-home network 14 is formed in significant part by a preexisting CATV coaxial cable infrastructure (represented generally by coaxial cables 18) present in the subscriber premises 12 and originally intended to communicate CATV signals between the multimedia or subscriber devices 16. However the connection medium of the in-home network 14 may be intentionally created using newly-installed coaxial cables 18. Examples of multimedia devices 16 are digital video recorders, computers, data modems, computer game playing devices, television sets, television set-top boxes, and other audio and visual entertainment devices. The CATV entry adapter 10 is also a part of a conventional CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10 delivers CATV multimedia content or signals from the CATV network 20 to subscriber equipment at the subscriber premises 12. The subscriber equipment includes the multimedia devices 16, but may also include other devices which may or may not operate as a part of the in-home network 14 but which are intended to function as a result of connection to the CATV network 20. Examples of subscriber equipment which may not be part of the in-home network 14 are a modem 56 and a connected voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone set 58 and certain other embedded multimedia terminal adapter-(eMTA) compatible devices (not shown). The CATV entry adapter 10 has beneficial characteristics which allow it to function simultaneously in both the in-home network 14 and in the CATV network 20, thereby benefiting both the in-home network 14 and the CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10 functions as a hub in the in-home network 14, to effectively transfer in-home network signals between the multimedia and subscriber devices 16. The CATV entry adapter 10 also functions in a conventional role as an CATV interface between the CATV network 20 and the subscriber equipment 16 located at the subscriber premises 12, thereby providing CATV service to the subscriber. In addition, the CATV entry adapter 10 securely confines in-home network communications within each subscriber premise and prevents the network signals from entering the CATV network 20 and degrading the strength of the CATV signals conducted by the CATV network 20 four possible recognition by a nearby subscriber. The CATV network 20 has a typical topology. Downstream signals 22 originate from programming sources at a headend 24 of the CATV network 20, and are conducted to the CATV entry adapter 10 in a sequential path through a main trunk cable 26, a signal splitter/combiner 28, secondary trunk cables 30, another signal splitter/combiner 32, distribution cable branches 34, cable taps 36, and drop cables 38. Upstream signals 40 originating from the subscriber equipment 16 and 56/58 are delivered from the CATV entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20, and are conducted to the headend 24 in the same path but in reverse sequence. Interspersed at appropriate locations within the topology of the CATV network 20 are conventional repeater amplifiers 42, which amplify both the downstream CATV signals 22 and the upstream CATV signals 40. Conventional repeater amplifiers may also be included in the cable taps 36. The cable taps 36 and signal splitter/combiners 28 and 32 divide a single downstream signal into multiple separate downstream signals, and combine multiple upstream signals into a single upstream signal. More details concerning the CATV entry adapter 10 are shown in FIG. 2. The CATV entry adapter 10 includes a housing 44 which encloses internal electronic circuit components (shown in FIGS. 3-8). A mounting flange 46 surrounds the housing 44, and holes 48 in the flange 46 allow attachment of the CATV entry adapter 10 to a support structure at a subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1). The CATV entry adapter 10 connects to the CATV network 20 through a CATV connection or entry port 50. The CATV entry adapter 10 receives the downstream signals 22 from, and sends the upstream signals 40 to, the CATV network 20 through the connection port 50. The downstream and upstream signals 22 and 40 are communicated to and from the subscriber equipment through an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA) port 52 and through in-home network ports 54. A conventional modem 56 is connected between a conventional voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone set 58 and the eMTA port 52. The modem 56 converts downstream CATV signals 22 containing data for the telephone set 58 into signals 60 usable by the telephone set 58 in accordance with the VoIP protocol. Similarly, the modem 56 converts the VoIP protocol signals 60 from the telephone set 58 into Upstream CATV signals 40 which are sent through the eMTA port 52 and the CATV entry port 50 to the CATV network 20. Coaxial cables 18 within the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) connect the in-home network ports 54 to coaxial outlets 62. The in-home network 14 uses a new or existing coaxial cable infrastructure in the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) to locate the coaxial outlets 62 in different rooms or locations within the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) and to establish the communication medium for the in-home network 14. In-home network interface devices 64 and 66 are connected to or made a part of the coaxial outlets 62. The devices 64 and 66 send in-home network signals 78 between one another through the coaxial outlets 62, coaxial cables 18, the network ports 54 and the CATV entry adapter 10. The CATV entry adapter 10 internally connects the network ports 54 to transfer the network signals 78 between the ports 54, as shown and discussed below in connection with FIGS. 3-8. Subscriber or multimedia devices 16 are connected to the in-home network interfaces 64 and 66. In-home network signals 78 originating from a subscriber devices 16 connected to one of the network interfaces 64 or 66 are delivered through the in-home network 14 to the interface 64 or 66 of the recipient subscriber device 16. The network interfaces 64 and 66 perform the typical functions of buffering information, typically in digital form as packets, and delivering and receiving the packets over the in-home network 14 in accordance with the communication protocol used by the in-home network, for example the MoCA protocol. Although the information is typically in digital form, it is communication over the in-home network 14 is typically as analog signals in predetermined frequency bands, such as the D-band frequencies used in the MoCA communication protocol. The combination of one of the in-home network interfaces 64 or 66 and the connected subscriber device 16 constitutes one node of the in-home network 14. The present invention takes advantage of typical server-client technology and incorporates it within the in-home network interfaces 64 and 66. The in-home network interface 64 is a server network interface, while the in-home network interfaces 66 are client network interfaces. Only one server network interface 64 is present in the in-home network 14, while multiple client network interfaces 66 are typically present in the in-home network 14. The server network interface 64 receives downstream CATV signals 22 and in-home network signals 68 originating from other client network interfaces 66 connected to subscriber devices 16, extracts the information content carried by the downstream CATV signals 22 and the network signals 78, and stores the information content in digital form on a memory device (not shown) included within the server network interface 64. With respect to downstream CATV signals 22, the server network interface 64 communicates the extracted and stored information to the subscriber device 16 to which that information is destined. Thus the server interface 64 delivers the information derived from the downstream CATV signal 22 to the subscriber device connected to it, or over the in-home network 14 to the client interface 66 connected to the subscriber device 16 to which the downstream CATV signal 22 is destined. The recipient client network interface 66 extracts the information and delivers it to the destined subscriber device connected to that client network interface 66. For network signals 78 originating in one network interface 64 or 66 and destined to another network interlace 64 or 66, those signals are sent directly between the originating and recipient network interfaces 64 or 66, utilizing the communication protocol of the in-home network. For those signals originating in one of the subscriber devices 16 intended as an upstream CATV signal 40 within the CATV network 20, for example a programming content selection signal originating from a set-top box of a television set, the upstream CATV signal is communicated into the CATV network 20 by the in-home server network interface 64, or is alternatively communicated by the network interface 64 or 66 which is connected to the particular subscriber device 16. In some implementations of the present invention, if the upstream CATV signal originates from a subscriber device 16 connected to a client network interface 66, that client network interface 66 encodes the upstream CATV signal, and sends the encoded signal over the in-home network 14 to the server network interface 64; thereafter, the server network interface 64 communicates the upstream CATV signal through the CATV entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20. If the upstream signal originates from the subscriber device connected to the server network interface 64, that interface 64 directly communicates the upstream signal through the entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20. The advantage of using the server network interface 64 to receive the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signals 22 and then distribute that content in network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 for use by the destination subscriber devices 16, is that there is not a substantial degradation in the signal strength of the downstream CATV signal, as would be the case if the downstream CATV signal was split into multiple reduced-power copies and each copy delivered to each subscriber device 16. By splitting downstream CATV signals 22 only a few times, as compared to a relatively large number of times as would be required in a typical in-home network, good CATV signal strength is achieved at the server network interface 64. Multimedia content or other information in downstream CATV signals 22 that are destined for subscriber devices 16 connected to client network interfaces 66 is supplied by the server network interface 64 in network signals 78 which have sufficient strength to ensure good quality of service. Upstream CATV signals generated by the server and client interfaces 64 and 66 are of adequate signal strength since the originating interfaces are capable of delivering signals of adequate signal strength for transmission to the CATV network 20. Different embodiments 10a, 10b, 10c, 10d, 10e and 10f of the CATV entry adapter 10 (FIGS. 1 and 2) are described below in conjunction with FIGS. 3-8, respectively. The CATV entry adapters 10a, 10c and 10e shown respectively in FIGS. 3, 5 and 7 are similar to the corresponding CATV entry adapters 10b, 10d and 10f shown respectively in FIGS. 4, 6 and 8, except for the lack of a dedicated eMTA port 52 and supporting components. In some cases, the eMTA port 52 will not be required or desired. In the CATV entry adapter 10a shown in FIG. 3, the entry port 50 is connected to the CATV network 20. An in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70 is connected between the entry port 50 and an input terminal 72 of a conventional four-way splitter 74. Four output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the in-home network ports 54. Downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 pass through the filter 70, because the filter 70 only rejects signals with frequencies which are in the in-home network frequency band. The frequency band specific to the in-home network 14 is different from the frequency band of the CATV signals 22 and 40. Downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 also pass in both directions through the four-way splitter 74, because the splitter 74 carries signals of all frequencies. The four-way splitter 74, although providing a large degree of isolation between the signals at the output terminals 76, still permits in-home network signals 78 to pass between those output terminals 76. Thus, the four-way splitter 74 splits downstream CATV signals 22 into four copies and delivers the copies to the output terminals 76 connected to the network ports 54, conducts upstream CATV signals 40 from the ports 54 and output terminals 76 to the input terminal 72. The four-way splitter 74 also conducts in-home network signals 78 from one of the output terminals 76 to the other output terminals 76, thereby assuring that all of the network interfaces 64 and 66 are able to communicate with one another using the in-home network communication protocol. One server network interface 64 is connected to one of the ports 54, while one or more client network interfaces 66 is connected to one or more of the remaining ports 54. Subscriber or multimedia devices 16 are connected to each of the network interfaces 64 and 66. The upstream and downstream CATV signals 40 and 22 pass through the splitter 74 to the interface devices 64 and 66 without modification. Those CATV signals are delivered from the interface devices 64 and 66 to the subscriber equipment 16. The network signals 78 pass to and from the interface devices 64 and 66 through the output terminals 76 of the splitter 74. The network signals 78 are received and sent by the interface devices 64 and 66 in accordance with the communication protocol used by the in-home network 14. The rejection filter 70 blocks the in-home network signals 78 from reaching the CATV network 20, and thereby confines the network signals 78 to the subscriber equipment 16 within the subscribers premises. Preventing the network signals 78 from entering the CATV network 20 ensures the privacy of the information contained with the network signals 78 and keeps the network signals 78 from creating any adverse affect on the CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10a allows each of the subscriber devices 16 to directly receive CATV information and signals from the CATV network 20 (FIG. 1). Because the server network interface 64 may store multimedia content received from the CATV network 20, the subscriber devices 16 connected to the client network interfaces 66 may also request the server network interface 64 to store and supply that stored content at a later time. The client network interfaces 66 and the attached subscriber devices 16 request and receive the stored multimedia content from the server network interface 64 over the in-home network 14. In this fashion, the subscriber may choose when to view the stored CATV-obtained multimedia content without having to view that content at the specific time when it was available from the CATV network 20. The in-home network 14 at the subscriber premises 12 permits this flexibility. The CATV entry adapter 10b shown in FIG. 4 contains the same components described above for the adapter 10a (FIG. 3), and additionally includes an eMTA port 52 and a conventional two-way splitter 80. The modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 are connected to the eMTA port 52, for example. An input terminal 82 of the two-way splitter 80 connects to the in-home network rejection filter 70. Output terminals 84 and 85 of the two-way splitter 80 connect to the eMTA port 52 and to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74, respectively. The downstream CATV signals 22 entering the two-way splitter are split into two reduced-power copies and delivered to the output ports 84 and 85. The split copies of the downstream CATV signals 22 are approximately half of the signal strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 delivered from the CATV network 20 to the entry port 50. Consequently, the copy of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied to the eMTA port 52 has a relatively high signal strength, which assures good operation of the modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58. Adequate operation of the modem 56 in the telephone set 58 is particularly important in those circumstances where “life-line” telephone services are provided to the subscriber, because a good quality signal assures continued adequate operation of those services. In the situation where the downstream CATV signal 22 is split multiple times before being delivered to a modem or VoIP telephone set, the multiple split may so substantially reduce the power of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied to the modem and VoIP telephone set that the ability to communicate is substantially compromised. A benefit of the adapter 10b over the adapter 10a (FIG. 3) is the single, two-way split of the downstream CATV signal 22 and the delivery of one of those copies at a relatively high or good signal strength to the dedicated eMTA port 52. A disadvantage of the adapter 10b over the adapter 10a (FIG. 4) is that the downstream CATV signals 22 pass through an extra splitter (the two-way splitter 80) prior to reaching the subscriber devices 16, thereby diminishing the quality of the downstream signal 22 applied from the network ports 54 to the subscriber devices 16. The downstream CATV signals 22 utilized by the subscriber devices 16 are diminished in strength, because the four-way split from the splitter 74 substantially reduces the already-reduced power, thus reducing the amount of signal strength received by the subscriber devices 16. However, the functionality of the subscriber devices 16 is not as critical or important as the functionality of the modem 56 and telephone 58 or other subscriber equipment connected to the eMTA port 52. Upstream CATV signals 40 from the subscriber devices 16 and the voice modem 56 are combined by the splitters 74 and 80 and then sent to the CATV network 20 through the in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70, without substantial reduction in signal strength due to the relatively high strength of those upstream CATV signals 40 supplied by the network interfaces 64 and 66 and the modem 56 or other subscriber equipment 16. The embodiment of the CATV entry adapter 10c shown in FIG. 5 eliminates the need for the in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70 (FIGS. 3 and 4), while preserving the ability to block the in-home network frequency band signals 78 from entering the CATV network 20 and while assuring that a relatively high strength downstream CATV signal 22 will be present for delivery to subscriber equipment at one or more network ports. To do so, the CATV entry adapter 10c uses two conventional diplexers 92 and 94 in conjunction with the splitter 74 and 80. In general, the function of a conventional diplexer is to separate signals received at a common terminal into signals within a high frequency range and within a low frequency range, and to deliver signals in the high and low frequency ranges separately from high and low pass terminals. Conversely, the conventional diplexer will combine separate high frequency and low frequency signals received separately at the high and low frequency terminals into a single signal which has both high frequency and low frequency content and supply that single signal of combined frequency content at the common terminal. In the following discussion of the CATV entry adapters which utilize diplexers, the predetermined low frequency range is the CATV signal frequency range which encompasses both the upstream and downstream CATV signals 22 and 40 (i.e., 5-1002 MHz), and the predetermined high frequency range is the frequency of the in-home network signals 78. When in-home network 14 is implemented by use of MoCA devices and protocol, the in-home frequency band is greater than the frequency band employed for CATV signals (i.e., 1125-1525 MHz). If the in-home network 14 is implemented using other networking technology, the network signals 78 must be in a frequency band which is separate from the frequency band of the upstream and downstream CATV signals. In such a circumstance, the high and low frequency ranges of the diplexers used in the herein-described CATV entry adapters must be selected to separate the CATV signal frequency band from the in-home network signal frequency band. The entry port 50 connects the adapter 10c to the CATV network 20. A two-way splitter 80 has an input terminal 82 which is connected directly to the entry port 50. The two-way splitter 80 splits the downstream CATV signals 22 at the input terminal 82 into two identical copies of reduced signal strength and conducts those copies through the two output terminals 84 and 85. The split copy of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied by the output terminal 84 is conducted to a principal network port 54p of the entry adapter 10c. The network port 54p is regarded as a principal network port because the server network interface 64 is connected to that port 54p. A subscriber devices 16 may or may not be connected to the server network interface 64. The two output terminals 84 and 85 of the splitter 80 are respectively connected to low-pass terminals 88 and 90 of conventional diplexers 92 and 94. The low pass terminals 88 and 90 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals which have a predetermined low frequency range. High pass terminals 104 and 106 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals which have a predetermined high frequency range. Common terminals 96 and 98 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals that have both predetermined high and predetermined low frequency ranges. The common terminal 98 of the diplexer 94 is connected to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. The output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the in-home network ports 54 (FIG. 2) which are designated as secondary ports 54s. Client network interfaces 66 are connected to the secondary ports 54s. Subscriber devices 16 are connected to the client interfaces 66. The network ports 54s to which the client network interfaces 66 are connected are designated as secondary network ports because the server network interface 64 is connected to the principal network port 54p. The high-pass terminals 104 and 106 of the diplexers 92 and 94 are connected to each other. As a consequence, the higher frequency band of the network signals 78 are conducted by the diplexers 92 and 94 through their high pass terminals 104 and 106 and between their common terminals 96 and 98. In this manner, the network signals 78 are confined for transmission only between the network interfaces 64 and 66, through the diplexers 92 and 94 and the four-way splitter 74. The diplexers 92 and 94 also conduct the lower frequency band CATV signals 22 and 40 from their common terminals 96 and 98 through their low-pass terminals 88 and 90 to the principal port 54p and to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. The four-way splitter 74 conducts the lower frequency band CATV signals 22 and 40 to the secondary ports 54s. The CATV signals 22 and 40 are available to all of the network interfaces 64 and 66 and to the subscriber equipment 16 connected to those network interfaces 64 and 66. In this manner, the CATV signals 22 and 40 and the network signals 78 are both made available to each of the network interfaces 64 and 66 so that each of the subscriber devices 16 has the capability of interacting with both the CATV signals and the network signals. The frequency band separation characteristics of the diplexers 92 and 94 perform the function of preventing the high frequency network signals 78 from reaching the CATV network 20. Another advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10c is that the downstream CATV signals 22 are applied to the server network interface 64 and its attached subscriber device 16 with only the relatively small reduction in signal strength caused by splitting the downstream CATV signal 22 in the two-way splitter 80. This contrasts with the substantially greater reduction in signal strength created by passing the downstream CATV signal 22 through the four-way splitter 74 in the entry adapters 10a and 10b (FIGS. 3 and 4) to reach the subscriber devices 16. Minimizing the amount of signal power reduction experienced by the downstream CATV signal 22 received by the server network interface 64 preserves a high quality of the multimedia content contained in the downstream CATV signal 22. Consequently, the server network interface 64 receives high quality, good strength downstream CATV signals, which the server network interface 64 uses to supply high quality of service by sending that content in network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 connected to other subscriber devices. In this manner, the CATV entry adapter 10c may be used to replace the downstream CATV signals directly applied to the client network interfaces with the network signals containing the same content. Another advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10c is that the server network interface 64 can store the multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signal supplied to it. A subscriber may wish to access and view or otherwise use that stored multimedia content at a later time. The stored multimedia content is delivered in high quality network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 over the in-home network 14. Because of the capability of the server network interface 64 to supply high quality network signals, the reduction in signal strength created by the four-way splitter 74 does not significantly impact the quality of the network signals received by the client network interfaces 66. Thus, the CATV entry adapter 10c offers a subscriber the opportunity to utilize directly those CATV signal copies which pass through the four-way splitter 74, or to achieve a higher quality signal when the server network interface 64 converts the content from the downstream CATV signal into network signals 78 which are then made available as high-quality network signals for the client network interfaces 66. Storing the multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signals 22 in the storage medium of the server network interface 64 provides an opportunity for one or more of the client network interfaces 66 to access that stored content and request its transmission over the in-home network 14 to the subscriber devices 16 connected to the requesting client network interface 66. Because the multimedia content has been stored by the server network interface 64, the client network interfaces 66 may request and receive that multimedia content at any subsequent time while that content remains stored on the server network interface 64. The CATV entry adapter 10d shown in FIG. 6 is similar to the CATV entry adapter 10c (FIG. 5) except that the adapter 10d allows a modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 to be connected in a dedicated manner that does not involve use of the in-home network 14. If a modem and VoIP telephone set are connected to the CATV entry adapter 10c (FIG. 5), the modem and VoIP telephone set would be connected as subscriber equipment to the server network interface 64 in that entry adapter 10c. In this circumstance, the proper functionality of the modem and VoIP telephone set depends on proper functionality of the server network interface 64, and that functionality is susceptible to failure due to power outages and the like. In the CATV entry adapter 10d shown in FIG. 6, a three-way splitter 110 is used to divide the downstream CATV signal 22 into three reduced-power identical copies. The three-way splitter has a single input terminal 112 and three output terminals 114, 116 and 118. The input terminal 112 is connected to the entry port 50, and two of the output terminals 114 and 116 are connected to the low pass terminals 88 and 90 of the diplexers 92 and 94. A third output terminal 118 is connected to the eMTA port 52. Although the signal strength of the CATV signal 22 is diminished as a result of the three-way split in the splitter 110, there will be sufficient strength in the copy supplied to the EMTA port 52 from the output terminal 118 to permit the modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 to operate reliably. Upstream signals from the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58 pass through the three-way splitter 110 into the CATV network 20. The advantage to the CATV entry adapter 10d is that the functionality of the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58 does not depend on the functionality of the network interfaces 64 and 66. Thus any adversity which occurs within the in-home network 14 does not adversely influence the capability of the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone to provide continuous telephone service to the subscriber. Continuous telephone service is important when the service is “life-line” telephone service. Other communication with respect to downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 and network signals 78 occur in the manner discussed above in conjunction with the adapter 10c (FIG. 5). The CATV entry adapter 10e, shown in FIG. 7, is distinguished from the previously discussed CATV entry adapters 10a, 10b, 10c and 10d (FIGS. 3-6) by conducting only the CATV signals 22 and 40 between the entry port 50 and the principal port 54p to which the server network interface 64 is connected. In the CATV entry adapter 10e, the entry port 50 is connected to the low pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The common terminal 96 of the diplexer 92 is connected to the principal port 54p. The high pass terminal 104 of the diplexer 92 is connected to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. Output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the secondary ports 54s. The principal and secondary ports 54p and 54s are connected to the server and client network interfaces 64 and 66. In the CATV entry adapter 10e, the downstream CATV signals 22 are not conducted to the client network interfaces 66. Similarly, the upstream CATV signals 22 are not conducted from the client network interfaces 66 to the entry port 50. Instead, all CATV signals 22 and 40 are conducted through the low pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The server network interface 64 converts the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signals 22 into network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66, and all of the information constituting upstream CATV signals 40 is communicated as network signals 78 from the client network interfaces 66 to the server network interface 64. The server network interface 64 converts the information into upstream CATV signals 40 and delivers them to the common terminal 96 of the diplexer 92. A subscriber device connected to a client network interface 66 that wishes to request content from the CATV network 20 sends a signal over the in-home network 14 to the server network interface 64, and the server network interface 64 sends the appropriate upstream CATV signal 40 to the CATV network 20. The CATV network 20 responds by sending downstream CATV signals 22, which are directed through the diplexer 92 only to the server network interface 64. Multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signals 22 is received and stored by the server network interface 64. The storage of the multimedia content on the server network interface 64 may be for a prolonged amount of time, or the storage may be only momentary. The server network interface 64 processes the content of the downstream CATV signals 22 into network signals 78 and delivers those signals over the in-home network 14 to the requesting client network interface 66 for use by its attached subscriber device 16. Even though the network signals 78 sent by the server network interface 64 pass through the four-way splitter 74, the strength of the signals supplied by the server network interface 64 is sufficient to maintain good signal strength of the network signals 78 when received by the client network interfaces 66. The advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10e over the other adapters 10a, 10b, 10c and 10d (FIGS. 3-6) is that the downstream CATV signal 22 reaches the server network interface 64 with substantially no reduction in signal strength. The downstream CATV signal 22 is conducted between the entry port 50 and the principal port 54p without being split. The high strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 is therefore available for use in obtaining the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signal 22. The multimedia content is also maintained at a high quality when transferred from the server network interface 64 to the client network interfaces 66, since the server network interface 64 delivers a high quality network signal 78 to the client network interfaces 66 over the in-home network 14, even when the network signals 78 are passed through the four-way splitter 74. The CATV entry adapter 10e therefore achieves the highest possible signal strength and quality for a passive CATV entry adapter, and enables multimedia content received from the downstream CATV signals 22 to be shared to multiple subscriber devices 16 over the in-home network. The passive nature of the CATV entry adapter 10e improves its reliability. The relatively small number of internal components, i.e. one diplexer 92 and one four-way splitter 74, also reduces the cost of the adapter 10e. A CATV entry adapter 10f shown in FIG. 8 uses an additional two-way splitter 80 and has a eMTA port 52 for connecting the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58, compared to the components of the entry adapter 10e (FIG. 7). The input terminal 82 of the two-way splitter 80 connects to the entry port 50. The output terminal 84 of the splitter 80 connects to the eMTA port 52, and the other output terminal 85 of the splitter 80 connects to the low-pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 are conducted between the entry port 50 and both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p. Copies of the downstream CATV signal 22 reach both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p after having been split only once by the two-way splitter 80. The downstream CATV signals 22 reaching both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p have a relatively high signal strength, since only one split of the downstream CATV signal 22 has occurred. Consequently, the entry adapter 10f delivers high quality downstream CATV signals 22 to both the modem 56 and connected VOIP telephone set 58 and to the server network interface 64. The advantage to the CATV entry adapter 10f is that it provides reliable telephone service through the eMTA port 52, which is not dependent upon the functionality of the network interfaces 64 and 66. Accordingly, reliable telephone service is available. In addition, the entry adapter 10f reliably communicates the content of the downstream CATV signals 22, because the single signal split from the splitter 80 does not diminish the quality of the downstream CATV signal 22 sufficiently to adversely affect the performance of the server network interface 64 in obtaining the CATV content. That high-quality content is preserved when it is communicated as network signals 78 from the server network interface 64 to the client interface devices 66 which are connected to the subscriber devices 16. Other than a slight reduction in signal strength created by the splitter 80, the communication of the downstream CATV signals 22 containing multimedia content for the subscriber devices 16 is essentially the same as that described in connection with the CATV entry adapter 10e (FIG. 7). The CATV entry adapters described within offer numerous advantages over other presently-known CATV entry adapters. Each of the CATV entry adapters is capable of supplying multimedia content from the CATV network to any of the subscriber devices connected to the adapter, either through direct communication of the downstream CATV signal 22 or by use of the network signals 78. Each of the CATV entry adapters also functions as a hub for the in-home network 14. Each of the CATV entry adapters is constructed with passive components and therefore do not require an external power supply beyond the CATV signals 22 and 40 and the network signals 78, thus both improving the reliability of the adapters themselves and reducing service calls. Each CATV entry adapter achieves a substantial strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 by limiting the number of times that the downstream signal 22 is split, compared to conventional CATV entry adapters which require a signal split for each subscriber device in the premises. Critical communications over the CATV network, such as life-line phone service, is preserved by CATV signals communicated over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely affected by multiple splits of the CATV signal. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. These and other benefits and advantages will become more apparent upon gaining a complete appreciation for the improvements of the present invention. Preferred embodiments of the invention and many of its improvements have been described with a degree of particularity. The description is of preferred examples for implementing the invention, and these preferred descriptions are not intended necessarily to limit the scope of the invention. The scope of the invention is defined by the following claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>CATV networks use an infrastructure of interconnected coaxial cables, signal splitters and combiners, repeating amplifiers, filters, trunk lines, cable taps, drop lines and other signal-conducting devices to supply and distribute high frequency “downstream” signals from a main signal distribution facility, known as a “headend,” to the premises (homes and offices) of subscribers to the CATV services. The downstream signals transfer multimedia content to subscriber equipment, such as television sets, telephone sets and computers. In addition, most CATV networks also transmit “upstream” signals from the subscriber equipment back to the headend of the CATV network. For example, the subscriber uses a set top box to select programs for display on the television set. As another example, two-way communication is essential when using a personal computer connected through the CATV infrastructure to the public Internet. As a further example, voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone sets use the CATV infrastructure and the public Internet as the communication medium for transmitting two-way telephone conversations. To permit simultaneous communication of upstream and downstream CATV signals and the interoperability of the subscriber equipment and the equipment associated with the CATV network infrastructure outside of subscriber premises, the downstream and upstream CATV signals are confined to two different frequency bands. The downstream frequency band is within the range of 54-1002 megahertz (MHz) and the upstream frequency band is within the range of 5-42 MHz, in most CATV networks. The entire CATV frequency band is therefore 5-1002 MHz. The downstream signals are delivered from the CATV network infrastructure to the subscriber premises at a CATV entry adapter, which is also commonly referred to as an entry device, terminal adapter or a drop amplifier. The CATV entry adapter is usually a multi-port device which provides a multiplicity of ports or connectors for connecting coaxial cables. A separate coaxial cable is connected to each of the ports and extends within the subscriber premises to the location of the subscriber equipment. Some homes have coaxial cables extending to cable outlets in almost every room, because of the many different types of subscriber equipment used in different rooms. For example, television sets are commonplace throughout the home. The multiple ports of the CATV entry adapter deliver downstream CATV at each cable outlet and conduct upstream CATV signals back through the premises coaxial cables to the CATV entry adapter, which delivers the upstream CATV signals to the CATV network. In addition to television sets, computers and telephones, a relatively large number of other entertainment and multimedia devices are available for use in homes. For example, a digital video recorder (DVR) is used to store broadcast programming, still photography and moving pictures in a memory medium so that the content can be replayed on a display or television set at a later time selected by the user. As another example, computer games are also played at displays or on television sets. Such computer games may be obtained or played over the Internet from the CATV network or from media played on play-back devices or game consoles connected to displays or television sets. As a further example, receivers which receive satellite-broadcast signals may be distributed for viewing or listening throughout the home. These types of devices, including the more-conventional television sets, telephone sets and devices connected to the Internet by the CATV network, are generically referred to as multimedia devices. The desire to use multimedia devices at multiple different locations within the home or subscriber premises has led to the creation of the Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA). MoCA has developed specifications for products to create an in-home entertainment network for interconnecting presently-known and future multimedia devices. The MoCA in-home network uses the subscriber premise or in-home coaxial cable infrastructure originally established for distribution of CATV signals within the subscriber premises, principally because that cable infrastructure already exists in most homes and is capable of carrying much more information than is carried in the CATV frequency band. A MoCA network is established by connecting MoCA interface devices at the cable outlets in the rooms of the subscriber premises. The MoCA network is used to transmit multimedia content from one MoCA interface device to another. The MoCA interface devices implement a MoCA communication protocol which encapsulates the multimedia content normally sent and received by the multimedia devices within MoCA packets and then communicates these MoCA packets between selected ones of the other MoCA interfaces devices connected at other cable outlets. The receiving MoCA interface device removes the encapsulated multimedia content, and delivers it to the connected computer, digital television or set-top box or other multimedia device from which then presents that multimedia content. Each MoCA interface device is capable of communicating with every other MoCA interface device in the MoCA network to deliver the multimedia content throughout the home or subscriber premises. The entertainment or multimedia content that is available from one multimedia device can be displayed, played or otherwise used at a different location within the home, without having to physically relocate the multimedia device from one location to another within the home. The in-home network communication of multimedia content is considered beneficial in more fully utilizing the multimedia devices present in modern homes. The MoCA interface devices also pass the upstream and downstream CATV signals between the CATV entry adapter and the subscriber devices. Since the MoCA network may function simultaneously with the normal operation of the CATV services, the MoCA signals communicated between MoCA interface devices utilize a frequency range of 1125-1525 MHz, which is outside of the frequency band of CATV signals. This so-called D band of MoCA signals is divided into eight different frequency ranges, D1-D8, and these eight different D frequency ranges are used to assure communication between the selected MoCA interface devices. For example, the D-1 band at 1125-1175 MHz may be used to communicate CATV television programming content between a MoCA interface device connected to a set-top box in a main room of the house and another MoCA interface device connected to a television set in bedroom of the house, while a MoCA interface device connected to a computer gaming multimedia device in a basement room of the house simultaneously communicates computer game content over the D-6 band at 1375-1425 MHz to a computer located in a recreation room of the house. The MoCA frequency band also includes other frequency ranges outside of the CATV frequency band, but the D band is is used to establish connections and communicate content between the MoCA interface devices. Using the in-home coaxial cable as the principal communication medium substantially simplifies the implementation of the MoCA network, but there are certain disadvantages in doing so. The D band MoCA frequencies have the capability of passing through the CATV entry adapter and entering the CATV network where they may then enter a nearby subscriber's premises. The presence of the MoCA signals at the nearby subscriber's premises compromises the privacy and security of the information originally intended to be confined within the original subscriber premises. The MoCA signals from the original subscriber premises which enter through the CATV network to the nearby subscriber premises also have the potential to adversely affect the performance of a MoCA network in nearby subscriber's premises. The conflict of the MoCA signals from the original and nearby subscriber premises may cause the MoCA interface devices to malfunction or not operate properly on a consistent basis. Another undesirable aspect of using a MoCA for communication between the various multimedia devices is that a relatively large MoCA network with many cable outlet ports has the effect of deteriorating the strength of the downstream CATV signal. Because in-home multimedia devices frequently require access to the CATV network in order to send upstream CATV signals as well is to receive downstream CATV signals, the in-home coaxial cable infrastructure must commonly connect all of the CATV cables and CATV ports within the home to a common connection with the drop cable that supplies the CATV signal and services to the home. The common connection is usually achieved in the CATV entry adapter, which provides output ports that connect to the coaxial cables extending within the home to each separate location or room. A splitter within the CATV entry adapter divides the CATV downstream signals into two or more reduced-power copies of the input signal, and supplies each copy to a separate outlet port. Similarly, upstream signals from the subscriber equipment connected to each of the coaxial cables are combined in the splitter and then passed upstream through the CATV entry adapter into the CATV network. The typical splitter is passive, which means that the power of the input signal is divided among the copies of the output signals split from the input signal. Each copy of the signal therefore has diminished power or strength, and the lower strength copies will not have the same quality as the input signal. In general terms, the quality is the strength of the signal relative to the strength of the inherent ambient noise. Since the inherent ambient noise generally cannot be diminished and is usually a constant, lowering the strength of the signal relative to the noise reduces the signal-to-noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio is a recognized measure of the quality of a signal. A lower signal-to-noise ratio represents a lesser quality signal. Because many homes require a relatively large number of cable outlet ports, for example six or more, the downstream CATV signal must be split into a comparable relatively large number of copies. The greater number of signal splitters required to generate the requisite number of separate copies of the downstream CATV signal diminishes the strength of the downstream signal copies. The quality of CATV service available in an in-home network with a relatively large number of cable output ports therefore suffers, because the strength of the CATV signal available at each of these ports is substantially diminished due to the extent of signal splitting required. On the other hand, Upstream CATV signals from the subscriber equipment do not occur as frequently as downstream CATV signals. Furthermore, upstream signals are generally of a higher power because they are generated immediately by the subscriber equipment within the home. Consequently, the reduction in CATV signal strength applies principally to downstream CATV signals, which of course provide the multimedia content to the subscriber. It is the quality of the multimedia content observed by the subscriber that forms the basis for the subscriber's opinion of quality of service. To compensate for downstream CATV signal strength reduction caused by splitting, some entry adapters include amplifiers to increase the strength of the copies of the downstream CATV signals. Of course, including an amplifier along with the signal splitter makes the signal transmission dependent upon the presence of adequate electrical power to operate the amplifier. The power for the amplifier is derived from commercial sources within the household. If the commercial power supply is temporarily interrupted, or if the power supply equipment within the home ceases operating properly, the customer perceives a CATV problem and reports the problem to the CATV service provider. The CATV service provider must thereafter send a service or repair person to the home of the subscriber in order to identify and remedy the problem. Such service calls are a significant expense for a CATV service provider. CATV service providers therefore attempt to eliminate as many of the potential points of failure as possible in the equipment supplied by the CATV service provider, to reduce service calls and repair costs. Including an amplifier in a CATV entry adapter creates a potential point of failure, and for that reason most CATV service providers wish to avoid using CATV entry adapters with amplifiers. However, in those relatively large in-home networks with multiple outlets for connecting multiple multimedia devices, there has been little previous choice but to use amplifiers in conjunction with splitters in order to obtain the desired downstream CATV signal strength that represents a high quality of service.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to a cable television (CATV) entry adapter which beneficially provides a high quality and strength downstream CATV signal to multiple subscriber devices while simultaneously contributing to and promoting the establishment of a multimedia in-home network. The CATV entry adapter is preferably passive without an amplifier, and passes the in-home network communication signals between the multiple subscriber devices, and passes the downstream and upstream CATV signals to the subscriber equipment and the CATV network. The in-home network communication signals are effectively communicated in the in-home network and the multimedia content from the upstream and downstream CATV signals is effectively made available to all of the subscriber equipment and to the CATV network without diminishing the quality or strength of the CATV signals to the point where the quality of service is compromised. As a passive device, the CATV entry adapter of the present invention requires no external power source, which eliminates unnecessary service calls. In addition, critical communications over the CATV network, such as “life-line” phone service, are preserved during transmission over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. In accordance with these and other features, one aspect of the invention involves a cable television (CATV) entry adapter for conducting downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at subscriber premises and for conducting in-home network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The CATV signals occupy a CATV frequency band which is different from an in-home network frequency band occupied by the in-home network signals. The in-home network includes a network interface connected to each subscriber device by which to generate and communicate the network signals between the subscriber devices in the in-home network. The CATV entry adapter comprises a CATV entry port for connection to the CATV network, and a plurality of network ports each for connection to the network interface to which each subscriber device is connected. The CATV entry adapter also includes a signal splitter which has an input terminal and two output terminals. The signal splitter operatively splits a signal received at its input terminal into reduced-power copies of the input signal supplied at each of its output terminals. The signal splitter also communicates signals received at each output terminal to the input terminal and to the other output terminal. The CATV entry adapter also includes an in-home network frequency band rejection device connected between the CATV entry port and the input port of the signal splitter. The in-home network frequency band rejection device substantially blocks transmission of the in-home network signals therethrough to the CATV entry port and the CATV network. Another aspect of the invention involves an in-home network for distributing multimedia content to subscriber devices. The multimedia content is obtained from CATV signals communicated over a CATV network and from a subscriber device connected to the in-home network. The in-home network comprises a CATV entry adapter having a CATV entry port and a plurality of network ports. The CATV entry port is connected to the CATV network for receiving multimedia content from CATV signals communicated over the CATV network. The in-home network also comprises a plurality of in-home network interfaces, each of which is connected to a different one of the plurality of network ports. Each of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content to the subscriber devices to which each network interface is connected. All of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content between one another in network signals communicated between the network interfaces. At least one of the network interfaces sends and receives CATV signals and communicates the multimedia content contained in the CATV signals to the subscriber device to which the one network interface is connected, and communicates the multimedia content obtained from the CATV signals in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. Each of the network interfaces communicates multimedia content obtained from a subscriber device connected to that network interface in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. The network signals are located within a network frequency band which is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are located. A further aspect of the invention involves a method of conducting information contained in downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at a subscriber premises and of conducting information contained in network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The method comprises connecting the CATV entry adapter to receive and transmit CATV signals from and to the CATV network, respectively; connecting in-home network interfaces to each subscriber device to form the in-home network among the subscriber devices to which network interfaces are attached; connecting the CATV entry adapter as a hub in the in-home network to pass network signals between network interfaces; confining the network signals to an end-home network frequency band that is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are confined; connecting the CATV adapter to at least one network interface to receive and transmit CATV signals supplied from and to the CATV entry adapter; and preventing transmission of the network signals within the CATV entry adapter onto the CATV network. One subsidiary aspect of the invention which relates to blocking or preventing the transmission of network signals onto the CATV network, involves a frequency rejection device which comprises only passive electronic components, or which functions without a power source separate from the CATV signals and the in-home network signals. The frequency rejection device may take the form of a frequency rejection filter, or the frequency rejection device may take the form of at least one diplexer which divides frequencies into separate frequency bands, and is connected to conduct the network signals in the network frequency band between network interfaces and to conduct the CATV signals in the CATV frequency band to and from the CATV network. Another subsidiary aspect of the invention involves a server network interface and at least one client network interface. The server network interface sends and receives downstream and upstream CATV signals and network signals to communicate information contained in the CATV and network signals to the subscriber device to which the server network interface is connected. Each client network interface sends and receives network signals to communicate information contained in the network signals to the subscriber device to which each client network interface is connected. The server network interface also has a capability for storing information obtained from downstream CATV signals and subsequently supplying network signals to a client network interface which contain the information stored from the downstream CATV signals. An additional subsidiary aspect of the invention involves connecting an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA)-compatible subscriber device including a modem and telephone set to the CATV entry adapter, and splitting downstream CATV signals into reduced-power copies and supplying one of the copies to the eMTA-compatible device. A more complete appreciation of the present invention, as well as the manner in which the present invention achieves the above and other improvements, can be obtained by reference to the following detailed description of presently preferred embodiments taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are briefly summarized below, and by reference to the appended claims.

H04N2143615

20180125

20180531

88957.0

H04N21436

DUBASKY, GIGI L

ENTRY ADAPTERS FOR CONDUCTING CATV SIGNALS AND IN-HOME NETWORK SIGNALS

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04N

PENDING

SECURITY APPARATUS, ATTACK DETECTION METHOD, AND STORAGE MEDIUM

A gateway serving as a security apparatus connected to one or a plurality of buses includes a receiver that receives a frame from a bus, a parameter storage that stores an examination parameter defining a content of an examination of the frame, an updater configured to, in a case where a predetermined condition is satisfied for the frame received by the receiver, update the examination parameter stored in the parameter storage, and an examiner that performs an examination, based on the examination parameter stored in the parameter storage, in terms of judgment of whether or not the frame received by the receiver is an attack frame.

1. A security apparatus connected to at least one bus, comprising: a receiver that receives a frame from the at least one buses; a parameter storage that stores at least one examination parameter defining a content of an examination on a frame; processing circuitry that, in operation, performs operations including: in a case where a predetermined condition is satisfied for the frame received by the receiver, updating the at least one examination parameter stored in the parameter storage; and executing an examination, based on the at least one examination parameter stored in the parameter storage, as to whether the frame received by the receiver is an attack frame. 2. The security apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the security apparatus is installed in a vehicle, and the vehicle includes at least one electronic control unit that transmits and receives a frame via the at least one bus according to Controller Area Network (CAN) protocol. 3. The security apparatus according to claim 2, wherein the operations further include performing a process depending on a result of the execution of the examination such that an influence of an attack frame on the at least one electronic control unit is suppressed. 4. The security apparatus according to claim 3, wherein the at least one examination parameter includes a plurality of examination parameters defining contents of examinations on a frame, the contents being different from each other, and the operations further include judging whether each of a plurality of predetermined conditions is satisfied for the frame received by the receiver, and depending on a result of the judgment, determining an examination parameter to be subjected to updating from the plurality of examination parameters, wherein the updating updates the determined examination parameter. 5. The security apparatus according to claim 4, wherein the frame received by the receiver is a data frame including an ID field storing an ID, Data Length Code (DLC), and a data field, the judging including at least one of the following: judging whether a first condition is satisfied for a value of the ID; judging whether a second condition is satisfied for a value of the DLC; judging whether a third condition is satisfied for a value of the DLC; judging whether a fourth condition is satisfied for a frequency of transmission of one or more frames having the same value of the ID in a predetermined unit time; and judging whether a fifth condition is satisfied for a value stored in the data field; the plurality of examination parameters including an ID examination parameter associated with the examination of the value of the ID; a DLC examination parameter associated with the examination of the value of the DLC; a transmission period examination parameter associated with the examination of the transmission period; a frequency-of-transmission examination parameter associated with the examination of the frequency of transmission; and a data examination parameter associated with the examination of the value of the data stored in the data field, the executing of the examination being performed based on each of the plurality of examination parameters. 6. The security apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the judging is executed by referring to the ID stored in the ID field of the frame received by the receiver at least for one of the plurality of predetermined conditions. 7. The security apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the third condition is that a reception interval between two frames having the same value of the ID is out of a predetermined allowable range. 8. The security apparatus according to claim 7, wherein the plurality of examination parameters include the frequency-of-transmission examination parameter, the frequency-of-transmission examination parameter includes a threshold value indicating an upper limit of an allowable range of the frequency of transmission, in the executing of the examination, in a case where the frequency of transmission of the frame received by the receiver is larger than the threshold value in the frequency-of-transmission examination parameter, it is judged that the frame is an attack frame, and in the updating, in a case where it is judged that the third condition is satisfied, the threshold value in the frequency-of-transmission examination parameter is updated. 9. The security apparatus according to claim 7, wherein the plurality of examination parameters include the data examination parameter, the data examination parameter includes a threshold value indicating an upper limit of an allowable range in which the data stored in the data field is allowed to change, in the executing of the examination, in a case where a change in the data stored in the data field of the frame received by the receiver is greater than the threshold value in the data examination parameter, it is judged that the frame is an attack frame, and in the updating, in a case where it is judged that the third condition is satisfied, the threshold value in the data examination parameter is updated to a smaller value. 10. The security apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the fourth condition is that the frequency of transmission is greater than an upper limit of a predetermined allowable range, the plurality of examination parameters include the transmission period examination parameter, the transmission period examination parameter includes a threshold value indicating an allowable range of the transmission period, and in the updating, in a case where it is judged that the fourth condition is satisfied, the threshold value in the transmission period examination parameter is updated. 11. The security apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the fourth condition is that the frequency of transmission is greater than an upper limit of a predetermined allowable range, each of the plurality of examination parameters is one of the following: the DLC examination parameter; the transmission period examination parameter; and the data examination parameter, the DLC examination parameter includes a threshold value indicating an allowable range of a value of the DLC, the transmission period examination parameter includes a threshold value indicating an allowable range of the transmission period, the data examination parameter includes a threshold value indicating an allowable range of a value of the data, and in the updating, in a case where it is judged that the fourth condition is satisfied for one frame, the threshold value in the plurality of examination parameters used as a content of an examination on a frame having the same ID as the ID of the one frame is updated such that a corresponding allowable range is narrowed. 12. The security apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the executing of the examination is performed after the ID field of the frame is received and before a part following the data field is received. 13. The security apparatus according to claim 4, wherein the operations further include at a point of time when judgment results are obtained for the respective predetermined conditions, determining whether the plurality of examination parameters includes an examination parameter that is to be updated depending on the judgment results, in the updating, in a case where it is determined that updating is to be performed, updating the examination parameter determined to be updated, and performing the executing of the examination depending on a state of updating of each of the plurality of examination parameters. 14. The security apparatus according to claim 3, wherein in the executing of the examination, in a case where the predetermined condition is satisfied for the frame received by the receiver, it is judged that the frame is an attack frame, and In the executing of the process, the process is performed on the frame judged as the attack frame such that an influence of the attack frame on at least one electronic control unit is suppressed. 15. A method for an on-board network system in which a plurality of electronic control units transmit and receive a frame via at least one bus, the method comprising: receiving a frame from the at least one bus; in a case where a predetermined condition is satisfied for the frame received in the receiving, updating an examination parameter defining a content of a frame examination; and performing a judgment, based on the updated examination parameter, as to whether the frame received in the receiving is an attack frame or not. 16. A computer-readable non-transitory storage medium storing a program, the program causing, when executed by a processor disposed in a security apparatus connected to least one bus, the processor to execute a method, the method comprising: receiving a frame from the at least one bus; in a case where a predetermined condition is satisfied for the frame received in the receiving, updating an examination parameter defining a content of a frame examination; and performing a judgment, based on the updated examination parameter, as to whether the frame received in the receiving is an attack frame.

BACKGROUND 1. Technical Field The present disclosure relates to a technique to detect an attack frame which is an invalid frame transmitted in a network used in communication by an electronic control unit installed in a vehicle or the like. 2. Description of the Related Art In systems in vehicles according to recent techniques, many apparatuses called electronic control units (ECUs) are installed. A network via which those ECUs are connected is called an on-board network. There are many standards regarding on-board networks. Among those standards, one of the most major on-board network standards is the CAN (Controller Area Network) standard defined in ISO11898-1. In CAN, a bus including two wires is used as a communication channel, and ECUs connected to the bus are called nodes. Each node connected to the bus transmits and receives a message called a frame. Furthermore, in CAN, no identifier exists to indicate a transmission destination or a transmission source. A transmission node transmits frames (that is, transmits a signal over the bus) each attached with an ID called a message ID. Each reception node receives only frames with predetermined message IDs (that is, reads a signal from the bus). In a system in a vehicle, each of many ECUs transmits and receives various frames. In a case where an ECU having a function of communicating with an external device is attacked from the outside and as a result, this ECU becomes capable of transmitting an invalid message (attack frame), this ECU becomes capable of making an attack by impersonating another ECU and transmitting a frame. This makes it possible for this ECU to control the vehicle in an unauthorized manner. As a technique to detect such an attack and protects therefrom, it is known to detect an attack (invalidity) by comparing a data reception period with a predetermined period (see, International Publication No. WO 2014/115455). SUMMARY However, in the technique disclosed in International Publication No. WO 2014/115455, detectable attacks are limited to those attacks that are transmitted at intervals inconsistent with the predetermined period, and thus, this technique is not necessarily effective to detect various different attacks. One non-limiting and exemplary embodiment provides a security apparatus capable of detecting an attack frame, adaptively to a wide variety of variable attacks, and also provides an attack detection method capable of detecting an attack frame adaptively to a wide variety of variable attacks and a program for causing a security apparatus to perform a process of detecting an attack frame. In one general aspect, the techniques disclosed here feature a security apparatus connected to at least one bus, including a receiver that receives a frame from the at least one buses, a parameter storage that stores at least one examination parameter defining a content of an examination on a frame, processing circuitry that, in operation, performs operations including in a case where a predetermined condition is satisfied for the frame received by the receiver, updating the at least one examination parameter stored in the parameter storage, and executing an examination, based on the at least one examination parameter stored in the parameter storage, as to whether the frame received by the receiver is an attack frame. General or specific embodiments may be implemented by an apparatus, a system, a method, an integrated circuit, a computer program, a computer-readable storage medium such as a CD-ROM, or any selective combination of an apparatus, a system, a method, an integrated circuit, a computer program, and a storage medium. According to the present disclosure, it is possible to update an examination parameter used in the examination as to whether a received frame is an attack frame or not, which makes it possible to properly detect attack frames, adaptively to a wide variety of variable attacks. Additional benefits and advantages of the present disclosure will become apparent from the specification and drawings. The benefits and advantages may be individually obtained by the various embodiments and features of the specification and drawings. However, it does not necessarily need to provide all such benefits and advantages. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a total configuration of an in-vehicle network system according to a first embodiment; FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a data frame format according to the CAN protocol; FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating a configuration of a gateway according to the first embodiment; FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating an example of a reception ID list; FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating an example of a transfer rule used by a gateway; FIG. 6 is a configuration diagram of an invalidity detection process function set according to the first embodiment; FIG. 7 is a diagram illustrating an example of a configuration of a check unit and a check parameter storage of an invalidity detection process function set; FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating an example of an examiner (a filtering unit) and an examination parameter storage of an invalidity detection process function set; FIG. 9 is a configuration diagram of an ECU according to the first embodiment; FIG. 10 is a flow chart illustrating an example of an attack detection process performed by an invalidity detection process function set; FIG. 11 is a flow chart illustrating an example of an operation (a transfer process) of a gateway; FIG. 12 is a configuration diagram of a gateway according to a modification of the first embodiment; FIG. 13 is a block diagram illustrating a configuration of a gateway associated with attack detection according to the first embodiment; FIG. 14 is a flow chart illustrating a first modification of an attack detection process; FIG. 15 is a configuration diagram illustrating a first modification of an invalidity detection process function set; FIG. 16 is a configuration diagram illustrating a second modification of an invalidity detection process function set; FIG. 17 is a flow chart illustrating a second modification of an attack detection process; FIG. 18 is a configuration diagram illustrating a third modification of an invalidity detection process function set; FIG. 19 is a configuration diagram illustrating a fourth modification of an invalidity detection process function set; FIG. 20 is a configuration diagram illustrating a fifth modification of an invalidity detection process function set; FIG. 21 is a configuration diagram illustrating a first modification of an ECU; FIG. 22 is a configuration diagram illustrating a second modification of an ECU; and FIG. 23 is a configuration diagram illustrating a third modification of an ECU. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In an aspect of the present disclosure, a security apparatus connected to at least one bus includes a receiver that receives a frame from the at least one buses, a parameter storage that stores at least one examination parameter defining a content of an examination on a frame, processing circuitry that, in operation, performs operations including in a case where a predetermined condition is satisfied for the frame received by the receiver, updating the at least one examination parameter stored in the parameter storage, and executing an examination, based on the at least one examination parameter stored in the parameter storage, as to whether the received frame is an attack frame. Thus, it is possible to update, depending on the received frame, the examination parameter used in the examination as to whether the frame received by the receiver is an attack frame or not, and thus, it is possible to properly detect attack frames adaptively to a wide variety of variable attacks. In the security apparatus, the security apparatus may be installed in a vehicle, and the vehicle may include at least one electronic control unit that transmits and receives a frame via the at least one bus according to Controller Area Network (CAN) protocol. This makes it possible to properly detect an attack frame when the attack frame is transmitted in an on-board network for transmitting and receiving frames between electronic control units (ECUs) according to the CAN. In the security apparatus, the operations my further include performing a process depending on a result of the execution of the examination such that an influence of an attack frame on the at least one electronic control unit is suppressed. This makes it possible to protect from an attack frame (to suppress an influence of an attack frame on ECUs). In the security apparatus, the at least one examination parameter may include a plurality of examination parameters defining contents of examinations on a frame, the contents being different from each other, the operations may further include judging whether each of a plurality of predetermined conditions is satisfied for the frame received by the receiver, and depending on a result of the judgment, determining an examination parameter to be subjected to updating from the plurality of examination parameters, wherein the updating updates the determined examination parameter. Thus, depending on the result of check in terms of each condition, it is possible to dynamically update various examination parameters used in judging whether the received frame is an attack frame or not, which makes it possible to properly detect attack frames. In the security apparatus, the frame received by the receiver may be a data frame including including an ID field storing an ID, Data Length Code (DLC), and a data field, the judging may include at least one of the following: judging whether a first condition is satisfied for a value of the ID; judging whether a second condition is satisfied for a value of the DLC; judging whether a third condition is satisfied for a value of the DLC; judging whether a fourth condition is satisfied for a frequency of transmission of one or more frames having the same value of the ID in a predetermined unit time; and judging whether a fifth condition is satisfied for a value stored in the data field; the plurality of examination parameters may include an ID examination parameter associated with the examination of the value of the ID; a DLC examination parameter associated with the examination of the value of the DLC; a transmission period examination parameter associated with the examination of the transmission period; a frequency-of-transmission examination parameter associated with the examination of the frequency of transmission; and a data examination parameter associated with the examination of the value of the data stored in the data field, the executing of the examination may be performed based on each of the plurality of examination parameters. This makes it possible to perform each examination to detect an attack frame based on the content of each field of the frame or the transmission period or the frequency of transmission of the frame or the like. Furthermore, it is possible to update an examination parameter such as a threshold value or the like used in each examination, based on the content of each field of the frame or the transmission period or the frequency of transmission of the frame or the like. In the security apparatus, the judging may be executed by referring to the ID stored in the ID field of the frame received by the receiver at least for one of the plurality of predetermined conditions. This makes it possible to perform the examination parameter update based on the result of the judgement in terms of the ID (the message ID). In the security apparatus, the third condition may be that a reception interval between two frames having the same value of the ID is out of a predetermined allowable range. As a result, the examination parameter update is performed depending on the result of the judgement based on the frame transmission period. Therefore, in a case where an attack frame that causes, for example, the transmission period to be disturbed is transmitted, the examination parameter may be updated in response to an occurrence of an abnormal transmission period such that the update makes it possible to more effectively detect the attack frame, thereby making it possible to properly detect the attack frame. In the security apparatus, the plurality of examination parameters may include the frequency-of-transmission examination parameter, the frequency-of-transmission examination parameter may include a threshold value indicating an upper limit of an allowable range of the frequency of transmission, in the executing of the examination, in a case where the frequency of transmission of the frame received by the receiver is larger than the threshold value in the frequency-of-transmission examination parameter, it may be judged that the frame is an attack frame, and in the updating, in a case where it is judged that the third condition is satisfied, the threshold value in the frequency-of-transmission examination parameter may be updated. Thus, the frequency-of-transmission examination parameter associated with the frequency of transmission is updated based on the judgement result in terms of the frame transmission period. Therefore, in a case where an attack frame that causes, for example, the transmission period to be disturbed is transmitted, the frequency-of-transmission examination parameter may be updated in response to an occurrence of an abnormal transmission period such that the update makes it possible to more effectively to detect the attack frame, thereby making it possible to properly detect the attack frame. In the security apparatus, the plurality of examination parameters may include the data examination parameter, the data examination parameter may include a threshold value indicating an upper limit of an allowable range in which the data stored in the data field is allowed to change, in the executing of the examination, in a case where a change in the data stored in the data field of the frame received by the receiver is greater than the threshold value in the data examination parameter, it may be judged that the frame is an attack frame, and in the updating, in a case where it is judged that the third condition is satisfied, the threshold value in the data examination parameter may be updated to a smaller value. Thus, the data examination parameter associated with the upper limit of the change in data is updated depending on the result of the judgement based on the frame transmission period. For example, in response to an occurrence of an abnormal transmission period, the upper limit of the allowable range of the change in data in the data examination parameter may be updated to a smaller value, thereby making it possible to properly detect the attack frame. In the security apparatus, the fourth condition may be that the frequency of transmission is greater than an upper limit of a predetermined allowable range, the plurality of examination parameters may include the transmission period examination parameter, the transmission period examination parameter may include a threshold value indicating an allowable range of the transmission period, and in the updating, in a case where it is judged that the fourth condition is satisfied, the threshold value in the transmission period examination parameter may be updated. Thus, the transmission period examination parameter associated with the allowable range of the transmission period is updated based on the judgement result in terms of the frequency of frame transmission. For example, by changing the allowable range of the transmission period in the transmission period examination parameter to a narrower range in response to a detection of an abnormal frequency of transmission, there is a possibility that it is possible to properly detect an attack frame. In the security apparatus, the fourth condition may be that the frequency of transmission is greater than an upper limit of a predetermined allowable range, each of the plurality of examination parameters may be one of the following: the DLC examination parameter; the transmission period examination parameter; and the data examination parameter, the DLC examination parameter may include a threshold value indicating an allowable range of a value of the DLC, the transmission period examination parameter may include a threshold value indicating an allowable range of the transmission period, and the data examination parameter may include a threshold value indicating an allowable range of a value of the data, in the updating, in a case where it is judged that the fourth condition is satisfied for one frame, the threshold value in the plurality of examination parameters used as a content of an examination on a frame having the same ID as the ID of the one frame may be updated such that a corresponding allowable range is narrowed. The threshold values indicating the allowable range of the DLC value are, for example, threshold values indicating the upper and lower limits of the DLC value, the threshold values indicating the allowable range of the transmission period are, for example, threshold values indicating the upper and lower limits of the allowable range, and the threshold values indicating the allowable range of the value of data are, for example, threshold values indicating the upper and lower limits of the value of data. Thus, in response to a detection of abnormality in the frequency of frame transmission, the threshold values indicating the allowable range for normal frames in the various examination parameters are updated such that the allowable range is narrowed. Therefore, it may become possible to efficiently detect whether a frame is an attack frame or not depending on the possibility (the check result in terms of the frequency of transmission) that the attack frame is transmitted. In the security apparatus, the executing of the examination may be performed after the ID field of the frame is received and before a part following the data field is received. Thus, it may be possible to perform the examination at a point of time at which it is possible to perform the judgement based on the message ID and at which it is possible to protect from the attack frame (to disable the attack frame) by transmitting an error frame. Thus, it may be possible to perform proper protection from an attack. In the security apparatus, the operations may further include at a point of time when judgment results are obtained for the respective predetermined conditions, determining whether the plurality of examination parameters includes an examination parameter that is to be updated depending on the judgment results, in the updating, in a case where it is determined that updating is to be performed, updating the examination parameter determined to be updated, and performing the executing of the examination depending on a state of updating of each of the plurality of examination parameters. This makes it possible to perform the examination, at a proper point of time, as to whether the received frame is an attack frame. Thus, it becomes possible to perform protection from the attack frame at a proper point of time. In the security apparatus, in the executing of the examination, in a case where the predetermined condition is satisfied for the frame received by the receiver, it may be judged that that the frame is an attack frame, and in the executing of the process, the process may be performed on the frame judged as the attack frame such that an influence of the attack frame on at least one electronic control unit is suppressed. Thus, it is possible, in the updater responsible for the condition judgement (check functions) as to the update of examination parameters, to perform the judgement as to whether a frame is an attack frame or not. Therefore, in a case where the updater judges that a frame is an attack frame, is not necessary for the examiner to perform examinations, which may make it possible to quickly perform the judgement in terms of attack frame. According an aspect of the present disclosure, a method, for an on-board network system in which a plurality of electronic control units transmit and receive a frame via at least one bus, includes receiving a frame from the at least one bus, in a case where a predetermined condition is satisfied for the frame received in the receiving, updating an examination parameter defining a content of a frame examination, and performing a judgment, based on the updated examination parameter, as to whether the frame received in the receiving is an attack frame or not. Thus, the examination parameter used in the examination as to whether a frame is an attack frame or not is updated depending on the received frame, and thus, it is possible, in the examination step, to properly detect attack frames, adaptively to a wide variety of variable attacks. According to an aspect, the present disclosure provides a computer-readable non-transitory storage medium storing a program, the program causing, when executed by a processor disposed in a security apparatus connected to least one bus, the processor to execute a method, the method including receiving a frame from the at least one bus, in a case where a predetermined condition is satisfied for the frame received in the receiving, updating an examination parameter defining a content of a frame examination, and performing a judgment, based on the updated examination parameter, as to whether the frame received in the receiving is an attack frame. By installing the program on an apparatus including a processor and executing the program, it becomes possible for the apparatus to function as a security apparatus. This security apparatus is capable of properly detecting attack frames, adaptively to a wide variety of variable attacks. General or specific embodiments may be implemented by a system, a method, an integrated circuit, a computer program, a computer-readable storage medium such as a CD-ROM, or any selective combination of a system, a method, an integrated-circuit, a computer program, and a storage medium. An on-board network system including a security apparatus according to an embodiment is described below with reference to drawings. Note that each embodiment described below is for illustrating a specific example of an implementation of the present disclosure. In the following embodiments, values, constituent elements, locations of elements, manners of connecting elements, steps, the order of steps, and the like are described by way of example but not limitation. Among constituent elements described in the following embodiments, those constituent elements that are not described in independent claims are optional. Note that each drawing is a schematic diagram, which does not necessarily provide a strict description. First Embodiment An attack detection method, used in an on-board network system in which a plurality of electronic control units (ECUs) transmit and receive frames via a bus, and a security apparatus provided in the on-board network system are described below. The attack detection method is a method for detecting an attack frame which is an unauthorized frame when the attack frame is transmitted on a bus used in communication between ECUs installed in a vehicle. The security apparatus (the on-board security apparatus) in the on-board network system is an apparatus having at least an attack detection function (a function of detecting attack frames) relating to the attack detection method. The security apparatus may have a protection function to prevent each ECU from being influenced by attack frames, and the attack detection function is a function based on which the protection is achieved. In a case where the security apparatus transmits an attack detection result to another apparatus, this apparatus may execute the protection function. 1.1 Total Configuration of On-Board Network System 10 FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a total configuration of an on-board network system 10 according to a first embodiment. The on-board network system 10 is an example of a network communication system which performs communication according to the CAN protocol and which is used in a vehicle in which various devices such as a control apparatus, a sensor, an actuator, and a user interface apparatus are installed. The on-board network system 10 includes a plurality of apparatuses configured to transmit and receive frames via a bus and executes the attack detection method. More specifically, as illustrated in FIG. 1, the on-board network system 10 includes ECUs 100a to 100d installed in a vehicle and connected to various devices, buses 200a and 200b, and a gateway 300. Although the on-board network system 10 may further include many ECUs in addition to the gateway 300, the ECUs 100a to 100d, the following explanation will focus on the gateway 300 and the ECUs 100a to 100d. Each ECU is an apparatus which may include, for example, a digital circuit such as a processor (a microprocessor), a memory, and/or the like, an analog circuit, a communication circuit, and/or the like. The memory may be a ROM, a RAM, or the like and may store a control program (a computer program functioning as software) executed by the processor. For example, the processor operates in accordance with the control program (the computer program) such that the ECU realizes various functions. Note that, to realize a particular function, the computer program includes a plurality of instruction codes indicating instructions issued to the processor. The ECUs 100a to 100d are respectively connected to devices such as an engine 101, a brake 102, a door open/close sensor 103, and a window open/close sensor 104. The ECUs 100a to 100d acquires states of the respective devices and periodically transmit frames (data frames) indicating the states over the on-board network including the bus 200a, the bus 200b, and the like. The gateway 300 is a kind of an ECU functioning as a gateway apparatus connected to the bus 200a, to which the ECU 100a and the ECU 100b are connected, and the bus 200b, to which the ECU 100c and the ECU 100d are connected. The gateway 300 has a transfer function to transfer a frame received from one bus to the other bus. Furthermore, the gateway 300 has an attack detection function and thus the gateway 300 also operates as a security apparatus. Each ECU in the on-board network system 10 transmits and receives frames according to the CAN protocol. Frames according to the CAN protocol include a data frame, a remote frame, an overload frame and an error frame. 1.2 Data Frame Format The data frame which is one type of frames used in networks according to the CAN protocol is described below. FIG. 2 a diagram illustrating a data frame format according to the CAN protocol. In the example illustrated in FIG. 2, the data frame is according to a standard ID format defined in the CAN protocol. The data frame includes, as fields, SOF (Start Of Frame), an ID field, RTR (Remote Transmission Request), IDE (Identifier Extension), a reserved bit “r”, DLC (Data Length Code), a data field, a CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) sequence, a CRC delimiter “DEL”, an ACK (Acknowledgement) slot, an ACK delimiter “DEL”, and EOF (End Of Frame). SOF includes a one dominant bit. When the bus is in an idle state, the SOF is in a recessive state. When transmission is started, the SOF is set to dominant thereby providing a notification of start of a frame. The ID field is a field including 11 bits and storing an ID (a message ID) having a value indicating a data type. When a plurality of nodes start transmission at the same time, communication arbitration is performed according to ID fields such that a frame having a smaller ID value is given a higher priority. RTR has a value identifying a data frame and a remote frame. In the case of a data frame, RTR has a 1 dominant bit. IDE and “r” each have one dominant bit. DLC includes 4 bits indicating a length of the data field. Note that IDE, “r”, and DLC are collectively called a control field. The data field has a value including up to 64 bits indicating a content of data to be transmitted. The length is allowed to be adjusted in units of 8 bits. The specification of the data to be transmitted is not defined in the CAN protocol but defined in the on-board network system 10. Therefore, the specification depends on a vehicle type, a manufacturer (a maker), or the like. The CRC sequence includes 15 bits. The value thereof is calculated based on the transmission values of the SOF, the ID field, the control field, and the data field. The CRC delimiter is a delimiter including one recessive bit indicating an end of the CRC sequence. Note that the CRC sequence and the CRC delimiter are collectively called a CRC field. The ACK slot includes 1 bit. When a transmission node performs transmission, the ACK slot is set to recessive. When a reception node normally receives fields until the end of the CRC sequence, the reception node transmits a dominant ACK slot. Dominant bits are higher in priority than recessive bits. Therefore, when a dominant ACK slot is obtained after the transmission, the transmission node recognizes that the fields have been successfully received by some reception node. The ACK delimiter is a delimiter including one recessive bit indicating an end of ACK. EOF includes seven recessive bits to indicate an end of the data frame. 1.3 Configuration of Gateway 300 FIG. 3 is a configuration diagram of the gateway 300. The gateway 300 executes a function (a transfer function) to transfer frames between buses, and the gateway 300 also functions as a security apparatus having an attack detection function. To achieve these functions, the gateway 300 includes, as illustrated in FIG. 3, a frame transmission/reception unit 310, a frame interpreter 320, a reception ID judgement unit 330, a reception ID list storage 340, a frame processor 350, a transfer rule storage 360, an invalidity detection process function set 370, and a frame generator 380. Each of these constituent elements is realized by a communication circuit in the gateway 300, a processor or a digital circuit that executes a control program stored in a memory, or the like. The frame transmission/reception unit 310 transmits and receives, according to the CAN protocol, frames to and from the bus 200a and the bus 200b respectively. The frame transmission/reception unit 310 receives a frame on a bit-by-bit basis from the bus 200a or the bus 200b, and transfers the received frame to the frame interpreter 320. Furthermore, based on a frame and bus information indicating a destination bus received from the frame generator 380, the frame transmission/reception unit 310 transmits a content of the frame to the bus 200a or the bus 200b on a bit-by-bit basis. The frame interpreter 320 receives values of the frame from the frame transmission/reception unit 310 and interprets the values such that the values are mapped to fields according to the frame format defined in the CAN protocol. As for a value determined to be mapped to the ID field, the frame interpreter 320 transfers the value to the reception ID judgement unit 330. According to a judgement result notified from the reception ID judgement unit 330, the frame interpreter 320 determines whether the value of the ID field and the data field (data) following the ID field are to be transferred to the frame processor 350 or the reception of the frame is to be stopped. In a case where the frame interpreter 320 judges that the frame is not according to the CAN protocol, the frame interpreter 320 notifies the frame generator 380 that an error frame is to be transmitted. In a case where the frame interpreter 320 receives an error frame, the frame interpreter 320 discards a following part of the frame being received, that is, the frame interpreter 320 stops the interpretation of the frame. The reception ID judgement unit 330 receives the value of the ID field sent from the frame interpreter 320 and judges, according to a list of message IDs stored in the reception ID list storage 340, whether to receive fields following the ID field in the frame. The reception ID judgement unit 330 notifies the frame interpreter 320 of the determination result. The reception ID list storage 340 stores a reception ID list which is a list of IDs (message IDs) that the gateway 300 receives. An example of a reception ID list will be described later (FIG. 4). The frame processor 350 determines the transfer destination bus depending on the ID of the received frame according to the transfer rule stored in the transfer rule storage 360, and, to perform transferring of the frame, the frame processor 350 notifies the frame generator 380 of bus information associated with the transfer destination bus, the message ID notified from the frame interpreter 320, and the data. Furthermore, the frame processor 350 sends the frame (the message) received from the frame interpreter 320 to the invalidity detection process function set 370 and requests the invalidity detection process function set 370 to detect an attack (that is, judge whether the frame is an attack frame or not). In a case where the frame is judged as an attack frame by the invalidity detection process function set 370, the frame processor 350 stops the process for transferring the frame. That is, as one method of protection from attack frames, the frame processor 350 performs filtering for suppressing transferring, and transfer frames other than attack frames according to the transfer rule. The transfer rule storage 360 stores the transfer rule which is information representing the rule in terms of frame transfer for each bus. An example of a transfer rule will be described later (FIG. 5). The invalidity detection process function set 370 is a function set for realizing an attack detection function to judge whether a frame being received is an attack frame or not, that is, an invalid frame or not. Constituent elements of the invalidity detection process function set 370 will be described later. In accordance with an error frame transmission request received from the frame interpreter 320, the frame generator 380 transfers an error frame to the frame transmission/reception unit 310 and forces the frame transmission/reception unit 310 to transmit the error frame. The frame generator 380 constructs a frame using the message ID and the data received from the frame processor 350 and sends the frame together with bus information to the frame transmission/reception unit 310. 1.4 Example of Reception ID List FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating an example of a reception ID list stored in the reception ID list storage 340 of the gateway 300. The reception ID list illustrated by way of example in FIG. 4 is used to selectively receive and process a frame including a message ID whose value is one of “1”, “2”, “3”, and “4”. This is merely one example, but in the reception ID list, message IDs of frames to be received by the gateway 300 are described. 1.5 Example of Transfer Rule FIG. 5 illustrates an example of a transfer rule stored in the transfer rule storage 360 of the gateway 300. This transfer rule describes a correspondence among a transfer source bus, a transfer destination bus, and an ID (a message ID) to be transferred. In FIG. 5, “*” indicates that frame transmission is performed regardless of the message ID. In the example illustrated in FIG. 5, the rule is set such that a frame received from the bus 200a is transferred to the bus 200b regardless of the message ID. Furthermore, in this example, the rule is also set such that of frames received from the bus 200b, only frames having a message ID of “3” are transferred to the bus 200a. 1.6 Configuration of Invalidity Detection Process Function Set 370 FIG. 6 is a configuration diagram of the invalidity detection process function set 370. The invalidity detection process function set 370 includes an input unit 371, a check unit 372, a check parameter storage 373, an updater 374, an examination parameter storage 375, and an examiner (filtering unit) 376. When the input unit 371 receives a request for attack detection from the frame processor 350, the input unit 371 sends a value of each field of a frame notified from the frame processor 350 (that is, the frame received by the gateway 300 from a bus) to both the check unit 372 and the examiner (the filtering unit) 376 and issues an instruction to perform a check and an examination (for example, an examination for filtering) on the frame. The check unit 372 has a function of performing a judgement on a frame (a judgement, for example, as to whether the frame is an invalid frame or not) based on the content of the frame received from the input unit 371 by judging whether or not the frame (the frame received by the gateway 300 from a bus) satisfies a predetermined condition. The check unit 372 acquires a parameter (referred to as a check parameter) such as a threshold value or the like used in the judgement from the check parameter storage 373. The check parameter storage 373 is realized, for example, in a part of an area of a storage medium such as a memory, and stores the check parameter (the threshold value or the like) used by the check unit 372. FIG. 7 is a diagram illustrating an example of a configuration of the check unit 372 and that of the check parameter storage 373. In the example illustrated in FIG. 7, the check unit 372 includes an ID check function unit that provides a function (an ID check function) of judging whether a value of an ID of an ID field of a frame satisfies a predetermined condition, a DLC check function unit that provides a function (a DLC check function) of judging whether a value (a data length) of DLC of a frame satisfies a predetermined condition, a transmission period check function unit that provides a function (a transmission period check function) of judging whether a transmission period, which is a time interval between transmissions of two frames having equal ID values, satisfies a predetermined condition, and a frequency-of-transmission check function unit that provides a function (a frequency-of-transmission check function) of judging whether a predetermined condition is satisfied for a frequency of transmission indicating a frequency transmitting one or more frames with equal ID values in a predetermined unit time. Each check function unit in the check unit 372 illustrated in FIG. 7 acquires a rule (a condition identified by a check parameter) associated with the corresponding check function stored in the check parameter storage 373 and performs a check process according to the rule. The check parameters include an ID check parameter corresponding to the ID check function, a DLC check parameter corresponding to the DLC check function, a transmission period check parameter corresponding to the transmission period check function, and a frequency-of-transmission check parameter corresponding to the frequency-of-transmission check function. Furthermore, the check unit 372 illustrated in FIG. 7 outputs individually check results (judgement results indicating, for example, whether the predetermined conditions are satisfied or not) in the respective check function units, and also outputs a result obtained as a result of an overall judgment performed by a judgment unit on the check results of the respective check function units. For example, the judgment unit outputs a result of a logic operation (an operation including a combination of one or more of logical AND, logical OR, and the like) using the check results (for example, judgement results indicating whether the respectively conditions are satisfied or not satisfied) in the respective check function units. The ID check function of the check unit 372 functions by way of example such that if the ID check parameters in the check parameter storage 373 include one or more message ID values, and if the message ID in the ID field transmitted to the check unit 372 from the input unit 371 is equal to one of the message IDs included in the ID check parameters, then the ID check function unit of the check unit 372 judges that the predetermined condition is satisfied. Conversely, for example, if the message ID in the ID field transmitted from the input unit 371 is not equal to any one of the message IDs included in the ID check parameters, the check unit 372 judges that the predetermined condition is not satisfied. As a result of the affirmative judgment in terms of the condition by the ID check function unit or the like of the check unit 372, for example, the updater 374 updates one of the examination parameters stored in the examination parameter storage 375. The DLC check function of the check unit 372 functions by way of example such that if the DLC check parameters in the check parameter storage 373 include one or more DLC values, and if the DLC value transmitted to the check unit 372 from the input unit 371 is not equal to any one of the DLC values included in the DLC check parameters, then the DLC check function unit of the check unit 372 judges that the predetermined condition is satisfied. Conversely, for example, if the DLC value transmitted from the input unit 371 is equal to one of the DLC values included in the DLC check parameters, the check unit 372 judges that the predetermined condition is not satisfied. As a result of the affirmative judgment in terms of the condition by the DLC check function unit or the like of the check unit 372, for example, the updater 374 updates one of the examination parameters stored in the examination parameter storage 375. The transmission period check function of the check unit 372 functions by way of example such that if the transmission period check parameters in the check parameter storage 373 includes a fixed range (for example, from 90 msec to 110 msec) of the time interval (period), and if the reception time interval between a present frame transmitted to the check unit 372 from the input unit 371 and a frame, that is an immediately previously received one of frames having the same message ID as that of the present frame, is out of the range of the period included in the transmission period check parameter, then the transmission period check function unit of the check unit 372 judges that the predetermined condition is satisfied. As a result of the affirmative judgment in terms of the condition by the transmission period check function unit or the like of the check unit 372, for example, the updater 374 updates one of the examination parameters stored in the examination parameter storage 375. The frequency-of-transmission check function of the check unit 372 functions by way of example such that if the frequency-of-transmission check parameters in the check parameter storage 373 include a fixed upper limit of the frequency (threshold value), and if, as for a frame transmitted to the check unit 372 from the input unit 371, the frequency of transmission of the frame (the frequency of receiving the frame) is larger than the upper limit of the frequency included in the frequency-of-transmission check parameters, for example, represented by the number (for example, 100), for example, per unit time (for example 1 sec), then the frequency-of-transmission check function unit of the check unit 372 judges that the predetermined condition is satisfied. Note that the frequency-of-transmission check parameter may describe a lower limit of the frequency. If the frame is received a smaller number of times in the unit time than the lower limit, the check unit 372 may judge that the predetermined condition is satisfied. Note that the frequency-of-transmission check parameter may indicate a range (an upper limit and a lower limit) of the frequency. As a result of the affirmative judgment in terms of the condition by the frequency-of-transmission check function unit or the like of the check unit 372, for example, the updater 374 updates one of the examination parameters stored in the examination parameter storage 375. Note that the check unit 372 may output, every unit time, the judgement result made by the frequency-of-transmission check function, and the updater 374 may update the examination parameters in response to the output. The check unit 372 may further include, for example, a data check function unit that provides a function (a data check function) of judging whether a predetermined condition is satisfied or not for a value of data of a data field of a frame. The data check function may include, for example, a fixed data value check function to check whether or not the value of the data is equal to a value specified by the check parameter. Furthermore, the data check function may include, for example, a data range check function to check whether the value of the data is within a range specified by the check parameter. Furthermore, the data check function may include, for example, a lower limit of data check function or an upper limit of data check function to check whether the value of the data is equal to or larger than or equal to or smaller than a value specified by the check parameter. Furthermore, the data check function may include, for example, a data operation result check function to check, for example, whether the value of the data is equal to a result of a particular operation specified by the check parameter. Note that the data to be subjected to the check by the data check function may be a whole data field, or part of one or more bits (which may or may not be successive) of a data field. Each check function described above may be applied regardless of the message ID, or may be applied only to a frame having a specific message ID. Note that the check functions of the check unit 372 described above are merely examples, and the check functions are not limited to those examples. The check unit 372 may include a check function other than those described above or may use only part of the plurality of check functions described above. In response to receiving the judgement result from the check unit 372, the updater 374 determines, according to the judgement result, for example, an examination parameter (a threshold value or the like) to be updated of the plurality of examination parameters in the examination parameter storage 375, and the updater 374 updates the determined examination parameter. The examination parameter updated by the updater 374, the frequency of updating of the examination parameter, and the like are determined according to a predetermined criterion, algorithm, and the like. The criterion, the algorithm, and the like are determined, for example, when the gateway 300 is produced. The examination parameter storage 375 is realized, for example, in a part of an area of a storage medium such as a memory, and stores the examination parameters (threshold values or the like) used by the examiner 376. The examiner 376 performs an examination, based on the examination parameters stored in the examination parameter storage 375, as to whether a frame transmitted from the input unit 371 (a frame received from a bus) is an attack frame or not). The examination performed by the examiner 376 in terms of the judgement as to whether the frame is an attack frame or not is a basis of protection functions such as filtering of frames, and the examiner 376 is capable of functioning as a filtering unit that performs, for example, an examination for filtering. The examiner 376 acquires, from the examination parameter storage 375, the examination parameter defining the threshold value or the like used in judging whether the frame is an attack frame or not. As described above, the examination parameter is updated as required by the updater 374. FIG. 8 illustrates an example of a configuration of the examiner 376 and that of the examination parameter storage 375. In the example illustrated in FIG. 8, the examiner 376 includes an ID examination function unit that provides a function (an ID examination function) of judging whether a value of an ID of an ID field of a frame satisfies a condition identified by an examination parameter, a DLC examination function unit that provides a function (a DLC examination function) of judging whether a value (a data length) of DLC of a frame satisfies a condition identified by an examination parameter, a transmission period examination function unit that provides a function (a transmission period examination function) of judging whether a condition identified by an examination parameter is satisfied for a transmission period indicating a time interval between transmissions of two frames with equal values of the ID, and a frequency-of-transmission examination function unit that provides a function (a frequency-of-transmission examination function) of judging whether a condition identified by an examination parameter is satisfied for a frequency of transmission indicating a frequency of transmitting one or more frames with equal ID values in a predetermined unit time. Each examination function unit in the examiner 376 illustrated in FIG. 8 acquires a rule (a condition identified by an examination parameter) associated with the corresponding examination function stored in the examination parameter storage 375. The examination parameters include an ID examination parameter corresponding to the ID examination function, a DLC examination parameter corresponding to the DLC examination function, a transmission period examination parameter corresponding to the transmission period examination function, and a frequency-of-transmission examination parameter corresponding to the frequency-of-transmission examination function. The examiner 376 illustrated in FIG. 8 outputs a result obtained as a result of an overall judgment performed by a judgment unit on the examination results of the respective examination function units. The ID examination function of the examiner 376 functions by way of example such that if the ID examination parameters in the examination parameter storage 375 include one or more message ID values, and if a message ID in an ID field transmitted to the examiner 376 from the input unit 371 is equal to one of the message IDs included in the ID examination parameters, then the ID examination function unit of the examiner 376 judges that a frame is an attack frame. Conversely, for example, if the message ID in the ID field transmitted from the input unit 371 is not equal to any one of the message IDs included in the ID examination parameters, the examiner 376 judges that the frame is not an attack frame. For example, if the frame is judged as an attack frame by one of the examination function units such as the ID examination function unit of the examiner 376, then, as a result of the judgement, the examiner 376 outputs information indicating that the frame is the attack frame. The DLC examination function of the examiner 376 functions by way of example such that if the DLC examination parameters in the examination parameter storage 375 include one or more DLC values, and if the DLC value transmitted to the examiner 376 from the input unit 371 is not equal to any one of the DLC values included in the DLC examination parameters, the DLC examination function unit of the examiner 376 judges that the frame is an attack frame. Conversely, for example, if the DLC value transmitted from the input unit 371 is equal to one of the DLC values included in the DLC examination parameters, the examiner 376 judges that the frame is not an attack frame. For example, in a case where the DLC value received from the input unit 371 is greater than the DLC value included in the DLC examination parameter, the examiner 376 may judge that the frame is an attack frame, or in a case where the DLC value received from the input unit 371 is smaller than the DLC value included in the DLC examination parameter, the examiner 376 may judge that the frame is an attack frame. The rule of the judgement may be defined, for example, in the examination parameter. The transmission period examination function of the examiner 376 functions by way of example such that if the transmission period examination parameter in the check parameter storage 375 includes a fixed range (for example, from 90 msec to 110 msec) of the time interval (period), and if the reception time interval between a frame transmitted to the examiner 376 from the input unit 371 and a frame, that is an immediately previously received one of frames having the same message ID as that of the present frame, is out of the range of the period included in the transmission period examination parameter, the transmission period examination function unit of the examiner 376 judges that the frame is an attack frame. For example, in a case where the reception time interval between two frames having the same message ID is greater than or small than a threshold value, the examiner 376 may judge that the frames are attack frames. To this end, the threshold value may be described in the transmission period examination parameter, and the transmission period examination parameter may include a description of rule defining what condition is to be satisfied to judge that the fame is an attack frame. The frequency-of-transmission examination function of the examiner 376 functions by way of example such that if the frequency-of-transmission examination parameters in the examination parameter storage 375 include a fixed upper limit of the frequency (threshold value), and if, regarding a frame transmitted to the examiner 376 from the input unit 371, the frequency of the transmitted frame (the frequency of receiving the frame) is larger than the upper limit of the frequency included in the frequency-of-transmission examination parameters, for example, represented by the number (for example, 100), for example, per unit time (for example 1 sec), the frequency-of-transmission examination function unit of the examiner 376 judges that the frame is an attack frame. The examiner 376 may further include, for example, a data examination function unit that provides a function (data examination function) of judging whether the frame is an attack frame or not depending on whether a condition identified by an examination parameter is satisfied or not for a value of data of a data field of the frame. The data examination function may include, for example, a fixed data value examination function unit to determine whether the frame is an attack frame or not by examining whether or not the value of the data is a value specified by the check parameter. Furthermore, the data examination function may include, for example, a data range examination function to examine whether the value of the data is within a range specified by an examination parameter, and a lower limit of data examination function or an upper limit of data examination function to examine whether the value of the data is equal to or larger than or equal to or smaller than a value specified by an examination parameter. The data examination function may include a range of change in data examination function to examine whether an amount of difference in value of data between a present frame and a frame, that is an immediately previously received one of frames having the same message ID as that of the present frame, is within a range specified by an examination parameter. The data examination function may include, for example, a data operation result examination function to examine whether a value of data is equal to a result of a particular operation specified by an examination parameter. Note that the data to be subjected to the examination by the data examination function may be a whole data field, or only part of one or more bits (which may or may not be successive) of a data field. Furthermore, the examination parameter may include a definition of a position in a data field at which data is subjected to the examination. Each examination function described above may be applied regardless of the message ID, or may be applied only to a frame having a specific message ID. The above-described examination functions of the examiner 376 are merely examples, and the examination functions are not limited to those examples. The examiner 376 may include an examination function other than those described above or may use only part of the plurality of examination functions described above. The check unit 372 and the examiner 376 respectively may have check functions and examination functions for similar conditions, or may have check functions and examination functions for different conditions. As an example of a method of updating an examination parameter by the updater 374, when the transmission period check function unit of the check unit 372 judges that the transmission period is out of a predetermined correct range and thus a condition is satisfied, the updater 374 lowers an upper limit (a threshold value) of the frequency in the frequency-of-transmission examination parameter stored in the examination parameter storage 375. In a case where the examiner 376 includes the range of change in data examination function described above, a method of updating an examination parameter by the updater 374 is, for example, such that in a case where the transmission period check function unit of the check unit 372 judges that the transmission period is out of the predetermined correct range and thus a condition is satisfied, the range specified by a parameter, in examination parameters, associated with the range of change in data examination function is narrowed. In a case where the transmission period check function unit judges that the condition is satisfied, there is a possibility that an attack is being received, and thus limiting the allowable range of the change in data value to a narrower range is also useful to improve the attack detection rate. Furthermore, limiting the allowable range of the change in data value to a narrower range also provides an effect of reducing an influence of an attack. Another method of updating an examination parameter by the updater 374 is such that in a case where the frequency-of-transmission check function unit of the check unit 372 judges that the value of the frequency is not equal a to proper value predetermined for each message ID by the frequency-of-transmission check function and thus a condition is satisfied, threshold values associated with various examination functions are changed so as to further increase the degree to which a frame is judged as an attack frame. The degree to which a frame is judged as an attack frame may be further increased, for example, by narrowing the range (the proper range) of the period in transmission period examination parameters stored in the examination parameter storage 375. In this example, when an increase occurs in the frequency of transmission of a frame with a certain message ID, there is a possibility that the frame is an attack frame, and thus, for safety, the range of the period is narrowed to make it possible to more securely detect attacks. In a case where the frequency-of-transmission check function judges that the frequency of transmission is not equal to a predetermined proper value for all frames regardless of the message IDs, and thus a condition is satisfied, a method may be executed to widen the range of the period in transmission period examination parameters stored in the examination parameter storage 375. This method is one of methods of handling a situation in which when an increase in the frequency of frame transmission occurs, there occurs a possibility that a frame and another frame are tried to be transmitted at the same time, and thus a transmission arbitration occurs, which may result in a delay in transmission. The examination parameters stored in the examination parameter storage 375 may include a parameter specifying one or more examination functions, in the plurality of examination functions possessed by the examiner 376, to be executed, and the updater 374 may, by way of example, employ an examination parameter update method in which the parameter specifying the examination function to be executed by the examiner 376 is updated depending on a result in the check unit 372. The examination parameters stored in the examination parameter storage 375 may include a parameter specifying an order in which the plurality of examination functions are executed by the examiner 376, and the updater 374 may, by way of example, employ an examination parameter update method in which the parameter specifying the order in which the plurality of examination functions are executed by the examiner 376 is updated depending on a result in the check unit 372. For example, in the examiner 376 that executes the plurality of examination functions according to the parameter specifying the execution order, when any one of the plurality of examination functions judges that a received frame is an attack frame, it is allowed to stop execution of any examination function whose execution is not yet completed. In another examination parameter update method employable by the updater 374, in a case where the transmission period check function unit of the check unit 372 judges that the frequency is out of the predetermined proper range and thus a condition is satisfied and the data range check function judges that the range of data is out of the predetermined proper range and thus a condition is satisfied, the range of the period in transmission period examination parameters stored in the examination parameter storage 375 may be narrowed. As in this case, an examination parameter may be updated according to results of a plurality of check functions. In the examination parameter update, only a parameter associated with one examination function may be updated, or parameters associated with a plurality of examination functions may be updated. It is assumed above that in the examination parameter update method employed by the updater 374, when a condition predetermined using a check parameter by the check unit 372 is satisfied, an examination parameter is updated. However, conditions (that is, conditions for the update) are not limited to those that are satisfied when a received frame is an unauthorized attack frame or when the frame includes an abnormal part. For example, a condition may be such one that is satisfied when a received frame is a valid frame or the frame is partially valid. For example, in a case where it is determined that a condition is satisfied when the transmission period check function of the check unit 372 judges that a received frame is valid, the updater 374 may update a parameter, in the examination parameters, specifying an upper limit of data examination function or a lower limit of data examination function as the examination function to be executed by the examiner 376, or the updater 374 may update a parameter associated with the upper limit of data examination function or the lower limit of data examination function. The above-described methods of updating examination parameters employed by the updater 374 are merely examples, and other methods of updating may be employed or only part of the methods of updating described above may be employed. 1.7 Configuration ECU 100a FIG. 9 is a configuration diagram of the ECU 100a. The ECU 100a includes a frame transmission/reception unit 110, a frame interpreter 120, a reception ID judgement unit 130, a reception ID list storage 140, a frame processor 150, a data acquisition unit 170, and a frame generator 180. Each of these constituent elements is realized by a communication circuit in the ECU 100a or a processor or a digital circuit or the like that executes a control program stored in a memory. The ECUs 100b to 100d each have a configuration basically similar to the configuration of the ECU 100a. The frame transmission/reception unit 110 transmits and receives frames to or from the bus 200a according to the CAN protocol. A frame is received from the bus 200a on a bit-by-bit basis and transferred to the frame interpreter 120. Furthermore, a content of the frame notified from the frame generator 180 is transmitted to the bus 200a. The frame interpreter 120 receives values of the frame from the frame transmission/reception unit 110 and interprets such that the values are mapped to fields according to the frame format defined by the CAN protocol. A value determined to be mapped to an ID field is transferred to the reception ID judgement unit 130. According to a judgement result notified from the reception ID judgement unit 130, the frame interpreter 120 determines whether the value of the ID field and data fields appearing following the ID field are to be transferred to the frame processor 150 or receiving of frames is to be stopped after the judgement result is received. In a case where a frame is judged, by the frame interpreter 120, as a frame that is not according to the CAN protocol, the frame interpreter 120 notifies the frame generator 180 that an error frame is to be transmitted. In a case where an error frame is received, the frame interpreter 120 discards the frame thereafter, that is, the frame interpreter 120 stops the frame interpretation. The reception ID judgement unit 130 receives the value of the ID field notified from the frame interpreter 120 and determines, according to the list of message IDs stored in the reception ID list storage 140, whether each field of frames following the ID field is to be received or not. A judgement result is notified from the reception ID judgement unit 130 to the frame interpreter 120. The reception ID list storage 140 stores a reception ID list that is a list of message IDs to be received by the ECU 100a. This reception ID list is similar, for example, to the example illustrated in FIG. 4. The frame processor 150 performs different processes depending on ECUs according to data of a received frame. For example, the ECU 100a connected to the engine 101 has a function of generating an alarm sound when the vehicle runs at a speed higher than 30 km/hour with a door being in an open state. The frame processor 150 of the ECU 100a manages data (for example, in formation indicating the door state) received another ECU, and performs a process of generating an alarm sound under a certain condition according to the speed per hour acquired from the engine 101. The ECU 100c has a function of sounding an alarm when a door is opened in a state in which brake is not applied. The ECUs 100b and 100d do nothing. Note that the ECUs 100a to 100d may have a function other than the functions described above. The data acquisition unit 170 acquires data indicating a state of a device connected to an ECU and data indicating a state of a sensor or the like, and notifies the frame generator 180 of the states. The frame generator 180 constructs an error frame according to an error frame transmission command given by the frame interpreter 120, and supplies the error frame to the frame transmission/reception unit 110 and controls the frame transmission/reception unit 110 to transmit the error frame. Furthermore, the frame generator 180 constructs a frame such that a predetermined message ID is attached to a data value notified from the data acquisition unit 170, and supplies the resultant frame to the frame transmission/reception unit 110. 1.8 Attack Detection Process by Invalidity Detection Process Function Set FIG. 10 is a flow chart illustrating an example of an attack detection process performed by the invalidity detection process function set 370. First, the input unit 371 receives each field data of a frame from the frame processor 350 (step S1001). The input unit 371 supplies each received field data to the check unit 372 and the examiner (the filtering unit) 376. Next, the check unit 372 acquires a check parameter from the check parameter storage 373 (step S1002). The check unit 372 then performs a check process to judge, using the acquired check parameter, whether a predetermined condition is satisfied or not (step S1003). The check unit 372 notifies the updater 374 of a result of the judgement by the check process (step S1003). In a case where the check unit 372 performs the judgement, in the check process, in terms of each of a plurality of conditions, the check unit 372 provides a notification of a judgement result in terms of each condition and also a notification of a result of an overall judgement based on the judgement result in terms of each condition. The updater 374 judges, from the judgement result notified from the check unit 372, whether it is necessary or not to update an examination parameter stored in the examination parameter storage 375 (step S1004). In a case where the updater 374 determines in step S1004 that it is necessary to update the examination parameter, the updater 374 updates the examination parameter in the examination parameter storage 375 (step S1005). After the update in step S1005 is performed or in a case where it is determined in step S1004 that it is unnecessary to perform the examination parameter update, the examiner 376 acquires an examination parameter (for example, a parameter used in filtering) from the examination parameter storage 375 (step S1006). Thereafter, the examiner 376 performs an examination process (for example, a filtering process based on which filtering is performed) (step S1007). By this examination process, the examiner 376 judges whether the received frame is an attack frame or not, and notifies the frame processor 350 of a judgement result. In a case where the examiner 376 judges that the received frame is an attack frame, the examiner 376 notifies the frame processor 350 that the received frame is the attack frame. The frame processor 350 performs filtering to disable a transfer process such that the attack frame is disabled. 1.9 Example of Operation of Gateway FIG. 11 is a flow chart illustrating an example of an operation (a transfer process) of the gateway 300. The gateway 300 performs a transfer process to transfer a frame received from one bus to the other bus. The transfer process is assumed here by way of example to be performed such that a frame received from the bus 200a is transferred to the bus 200b. However, the process is similar also in a case where a frame received from the bus 200b is transferred to the bus 200a. First, the frame transmission/reception unit 310 of the gateway 300 receives a frame from the bus 200a (step S1101). The frame transmission/reception unit 310 supplies data of each field of the received frame to the frame interpreter 320. Next, the frame interpreter 320 of the gateway 300 makes a judgement based on a value of the ID field (a message ID) of the received frame, in cooperation with the reception ID judgement unit 330, as to whether it is necessary to receive and process the frame (step S1102). In a case where it is determined in step S1102 that it is necessary to receive and process the frame, the frame interpreter 320 of the gateway 300 notifies the frame processor 350 of a value of each field in the frame. Thereafter, the frame processor 350 determines a transfer destination bus according to the transfer rule stored in the transfer rule storage 360 (step S1103). The frame processor 350 of the gateway 300 requests the invalidity detection process function set 370 to perform an attack detection (a judgment as to whether the frame is an attack frame) by notifying the invalidity detection process function set 370 of a value of each field in the frame. The invalidity detection process function set 370 of the gateway 300 performs the above-described attack detection process to determine, from the value of each field of the frame notified from the frame processor 350, whether the frame is an attack frame or not (step S1104), and the invalidity detection process function set 370 notifies the frame processor 350 of a result of the judgement. In a case where it is determined in step S1104 that the frame is not an attack frame, the frame processor 350 of the gateway 300 requests the frame generator 380 to transfer the frame to the transfer destination bus determined in step S1103. In response to the request from the frame processor 350, the frame generator 380 transfer the frame to the specified transfer destination (step S1105). In step S1105, the frame processor 350 sends the value of each field of the frame to the frame generator 380. In response, the frame generator 380 realizes the transmission of the frame by generating the frame and controlling the frame transmission/reception unit 310 to transmit the frame to the bus 200b. Note that although in the example described above, the determination as to whether the frame is an attack frame or not is performed (in step S1104) after the transfer destination is determined (in step S1103), the processing order is not limited to the example described above. The determination of the transfer destination (step S1103) may be performed after the determination of whether the frame is an attack frame or not (step S1104) is performed, or, for example, the determination of the transfer destination (step S1103) and the determination of whether the frame is an attack frame or not (step S1104) may be performed at the same time. 1.10 Effects of First Embodiment In the on-board network system 10 according to the first embodiment, the invalidity detection process function set 370 performs the attack detection process for the filtering in the transfer process in which the gateway 300 transfers a frame. In the attack detection process, an examination parameter used in examining whether a frame is an attack frame or not may be changed by the check function depending on the received frame under a particular condition. This may result in an increase in a degree (detection accuracy) to which attack frames are properly detected adaptively to a wide variety of variable attacks. The increase in attack frame detection accuracy makes it possible to properly protect from attacks (possible to perform a process such as disabling of transferring to reduce an effect of attack frames on ECUs). 1.11 Modifications of First Embodiment In the gateway 300 described above, the frame processor 350 requests the invalidity detection process function set 370 to perform an attack detection (the judgement in terms of whether a frame is an attack frame or not). Depending on a result of the judgement, the frame is transferred or not transferred thereby protecting from an attack frame. The method of use of the result of the attack detection is not limited to filtering in terms of whether the frame is to be transferred or not. As an example of a modification of the gateway 300 in the on-board network system 10, a gateway 300a is described below. In this gateway 300a, a result of attack detection is used to protect from an attack frame by disabling the attack frame. FIG. 12 a configuration diagram of the gateway 300a according to the modification of the first embodiment. In the gateway 300a, as illustrated in FIG. 12, a frame interpreter 320 sends each field of a received frame to an invalidity detection process function set 370. In a case where an examiner (a filtering unit) 376 of the invalidity detection process function set 370 judges that the frame is an attack frame, the examiner 376 requests a frame generator 380 to transmit an error frame thereby disabling the frame. To this end, the examiner 376 in the invalidity detection process function set 370 performs an examination in terms of determining whether the frame is an attack frame or not, after receiving an ID field of the frame receive by the gateway 300a and before receiving a part (a CRC field) following a data field. At a point of time at which the examiner 376 judges that the frame is an attack frame, the frame generator 380 and the frame transmission/reception unit 310 operate such that an error frame is transmitted to the bus to which the attack frame has been transmitted. As a result, a part of the attack frame at a position before the CRC field is overwritten by the error frame, which makes it possible to prevent each ECU from regarding the attack frame as a valid frame and operating in response to the attack frame. To prevent each ECU from regarding an attack frame as a valid frame and operating in response to the attack frame, it is sufficient to start transmitting the error frame before a last bit of EOF indicating an end of a data frame of the attack frame is transmitted. Therefore, it is allowed to arbitrarily adjust the timing of starting the transmission of the error frame. Note that the examination as to whether the frame is an attack frame or not may by performed at an early stage during the transmission of the frame, and the error frame transmission may start early when it is determined that the frame is an attack frame. This may be useful for a reduction in processing load associated with a CRC check or the like performed by each ECU to detect an attack frame. Note that the frame interpreter 320 in the gateway 300a may send all frames to the invalidity detection process function set 370. Alternatively, the frame interpreter 320 may send only frames that are not included in the reception ID list to the invalidity detection process function set 370. As for frames included in the reception ID list, the frame processor 350 may request the invalidity detection process function set 370 to perform the attack detection. Furthermore, as for a method of using the result of attack detection, attack frames may be subjected to both filtering for suppressing transferring of the frames between buses and disabling by transmitting an error frame to a bus to which each attack frame has been transmitted. FIG. 13 illustrates a configuration of a gateway 300b generalized from the gateway 300 according to the first embodiment and the gateway 300a according to the modifications. In FIG. 13, a configuration associated mainly with the attack detection (including a configuration associated with protection) is represented by solid line blocks. The gateway 300b includes, as the configuration associated with the attack detection, a receiver 410, an updater 420, a storage 430, an examiner 440 and a processor 450. The receiver 410 has a function of receiving a frame from at least one bus, and the receiver 410 is equivalent to, for example, the reception function unit of the frame transmission/reception unit 310 in the gateway 300 or 300a. The updater 420 has a function of, in a case where a predetermined condition is satisfied for a frame received by the receiver 410, updating an examination parameter stored in the storage 430. The updater 420 is equivalent to, for example, a combination of the check unit 372, the check parameter storage 373, and the updater 374 of the invalidity detection process function set 370 in the gateway 300 or 300a. The storage 430 has a function of storing an examination parameter defining a content of a frame examination, and equivalent to, for example, the examination parameter storage 375 of the invalidity detection process function set 370 in the gateway 300 or 300a. The examiner 440 has a function of performing an examination based on the examination parameter stored in the storage 430 to determine whether a frame received by the receiver 410 is an attack frame or not. The examiner 440 is equivalent to, for example, the examiner 376 of the invalidity detection process function set 370 in the gateway 300 or 300a. The processor 450 has a function of performing a process depending on a result of the examination by the examiner 440 such that an influence of an attack frame on an ECU is suppressed. The processor 450 is equivalent to, for example, both or one of the function, possessed by the frame processor 350 of the gateway 300, of preventing an attack frame from being transferred and the function, possessed by the frame generator 380 of the gateway 300a, of transmitting an error frame in response to an attack frame. In this gateway 300b, an examination parameter, stored in the storage 430, for use by the examiner 440 to examine whether a frame is an attack frame or not, is updated by the updater 420 depending on the received frame and under a particular condition. This makes it possible to properly detect attack frames adaptively to a wide variety of variable attacks, and thus the processor 450 is capable of properly protect from attacks. Other Embodiments The first embodiment has been described above as an example of a technique according to the present disclosure. However, the technique according to the present disclosure is not limited to the example described above, but changes, replacements, additions, removals, or the like are possible as required. For example, modifications described below also fall in the scope of aspects of the present disclosure. (1) In the embodiments described above, an example of the attack detection process by the invalidity detection process function set 370 is described above with reference to FIG. 10 in which the check process is performed, and the examination parameter is updated depending on the result of the check process, and thereafter the examination process is performed. However, the attack detection process is not limited to this example. For example, the attack detection process may be performed according to a first modification as described below with reference to FIG. 14. A check process in step S1002 and step S1003 and an examination process (a filtering process) in step S1006 and step S1007 are performed in parallel, and then, depending on a result of the check process, a judgment is performed as to whether it is necessary to update an examination parameter (step S1004). If necessary, the examination parameter is updated (step S1005), the examination process (the filtering process) may be performed using the updated examination parameter (step S1007). Note that the examination process performed in parallel to the check process may be similar in content to the examination process per formed after the examination parameter is updated (step S1005), or may be different in content (among the plurality of the examination functions used in the examination, some examination functions may be different). As described above, the timing of executing the examination process may be the same as or different from the timing of executing the check process for updating the examination parameter. If the examination parameter is updated, the examination process after the update is performed using the updated examination parameter. Furthermore, in the attack detection process, not only the examination parameter but also the check parameter may be updated depending on a content of the frame. (2) The configuration of the invalidity detection process function set 370 according to the embodiment described above is merely an example. For example, the configuration may be modified such that instead of the check unit 372 having various check functions using check parameters stored in the check parameter storage 373, an ID related invalidity detection processor 372a for making a judgment as to invalidity only in term of the ID field may be used as illustrated in FIG. 15. The ID related invalidity detection processor 372a performs a judgement as to the invalidity, using the detection parameter stored in the detection parameter storage 373a. In a case where the judgement indicates invalidity, the updater 374 updates a filter parameter stored in the filter parameter storage 375a. Using this filter parameter, the filtering unit 376a examines a frame for filtering attack frames. The filter parameter storage 375a may be similar to the examination parameter storage 375. Furthermore, the filtering unit 376a may be similar to the examiner (filtering unit) 376. FIG. 16 illustrates another specific example of a modification of the invalidity detection process function set 370. The example illustrated in FIG. 16 includes a period abnormality detection unit 372b that checks the transmission time interval (the transmission period) of frames having the same message ID described in the ID field and detects whether the frames are transmitted at intervals that do not consistent with a rule stored in the period information storage 373b. In a case where period abnormality is detected, the updater 374 may perform a process to narrow the range specified by a filter parameter in terms of the range allowed for valid frames. The updater 374 may change an amount change of the filter parameter depending on an amount of deviation of the period from the allowable range. This example is basically equivalent to a case where the check unit 372 in the invalidity detection process function set 370 according to the first embodiment described above has only the check function of checking, only from the ID field, whether the predetermined condition is satisfied or not. In this case, in the attack detection process by the invalidity detection process function set 370, when the checking of the content of the ID field is being performed, the remaining fields may be received in parallel to the checking, as illustrated in FIG. 17. In the example illustrated in FIG. 17, at a point of time at which an ID field is received, the frame interpreter 320 or the frame processor 350 notifies the input unit 371 of the invalidity detection process function set 370 of a value of the ID field. Thereafter, the frame interpreter 320 or the frame processor 350 receives fields following the ID field, and, at a point of time when the reception is completed, the remaining fields are transmitted to the input unit 371 of the invalidity detection process function set 370. This makes it possible to start the process from step S1002 to S1005 at a time before the reception of the frame is completed. Furthermore, it is possible to perform in parallel the process from step S1002 to S1005 and the process in step S1011. Thus, it is possible to perform in parallel the reception of the data field, the check process, and the examination parameter update, which results in a reduction in the total processing time, and thus it becomes possible to increase the time allocated to the examination process for the filtering using the examination parameter. (3) The configuration of the invalidity detection process function set 370 according to the embodiment described above may be modified, for example, as illustrated in FIG. 18. An invalidity detection process function set 370c according to the modification illustrated in FIG. 18 includes a first filtering unit 372c that is realized by adding an examination function for filtering attack frames to the check unit 372. The filter parameter storage 375c may be similar to the examination parameter storage 375. The second filtering unit 376c may be similar to the examiner (filtering unit) 376. In this configuration, the first filtering unit 372c and the second filtering unit 376c may be the same or may be different in terms of the content of the examination process for filtering. Although in the example illustrated in FIG. 18, it is assumed by way of example but not limitation that the first filtering unit 372c and the second filtering unit 376c use the same filter parameter storage 375c. However, the first filtering unit 372c and the second filtering unit 376c may perform examination using different filter parameters (examination parameters). Note that as for a frame determined as an attack frame by the first filtering unit 372c, the examination process by the second filtering unit 376c may not be performed on this frame. Therefore, in a case where an attack frame is detected by the first filtering unit 372c, it is possible to execute, at an early stage, protection from the attack (it is possible to prevent the attack frame from being transferred, disabling the attack frame by transmitting an error frame). Even in a case where a frame is not determined as an attack frame by the first filtering unit 372c, it becomes possible to detect this attack frame by the second filtering unit 376c by updating a filter parameter (examination parameter). The first filtering unit 372c may be, as illustrated in FIG. 19, an ID field related filtering unit 372d that performs only filtering based on the ID field. FIG. 19 illustrates an invalidity detection process function set 370d modified such that the invalidity detection process function set 370d includes an ID field related filtering unit 372d, a filter parameter storage 375d, a filtering unit 376d, etc. In this configuration, it is possible to start an examination process for filtering at a point of time when an ID field is received, and thus it is possible to perform, in parallel, reception of a data field, and the examination process for filtering based on the ID field and the updating of parameters stored in the filter parameter storage 375d, and thus it becomes possible to increase the time allocated to the examination process for the filtering by the filtering unit 376d. (4) The configuration of the invalidity detection process function set 370 according to the embodiment described above may be modified, for example, as illustrated in FIG. 20. In this invalidity detection process function set 370e according to the modification illustrated in FIG. 20, a filter controller 377 is provided between the check unit 372 and the examiner (the filtering unit) 376 and the updater 374. In the invalidity detector 372, each time a check process by any one of the check functions (the ID check function, the DLC check function, the transmission period check function, the frequency-of-transmission check function, etc.) is completed and a judgment result is obtained, the judgment result (the check result) is immediately sent to the filter controller 377. At a point of time when a check result necessary in updating an examination parameter is obtained, the filter controller 377 controls the updater 374 to update the examination parameter. Furthermore, the filter controller 377 manages the parameters associated with the respective examination functions of the examiner 376 (the ID examination function, the DLC examination function, the transmission period examination function, the frequency-of-transmission examination function, and the like) in terms of whether the parameters are updated into states usable in the examinations. When a parameter is updated into a usable state, the filter controller 377 controls the examiner 376 to execute a corresponding examination function. For example, the filter controller 377 may control a specific examination function to be executed after a check function associated with updating a parameter, of examination parameters, used by this specific examination function in receiving one frame (after the parameter is updated depending on the check result). Thus, at a stage in which all check results of check functions have not yet obtained, it is possible to perform an examination associated with a part of examination functions (for example, an examination for filtering), which makes it possible to quickly handle an attack frame for protection. (5) The configuration of the ECU (ECUs 100a to 100d) in the on-board network system 10 according to the embodiment described above, is not limited to the example illustrated in FIG. 9. For example, as with an ECU 100e illustrated in FIG. 21, an invalidity detection process function set 370 may be provided. In the ECU according to the modification illustrated in FIG. 21, the frame processor 150 may request the invalidity detection process function set 370 to detect an attack (to judge whether a frame is an attack frame or not), or the frame interpreter 120 may request the invalidity detection process function set 370 to detect an attack. The configuration of the ECU may be modified, for example, as in an ECU 100f illustrated in FIG. 22, such that the ECU includes a frame transmission/reception unit 110, a frame interpreter 120, a frame generator 180, and an invalidity detection process function set 370. In the ECU according to the modification illustrated in FIG. 22, the frame interpreter 120 receives all frames and requests the invalidity detection process function set 370 to detect an attack. Furthermore, in addition to elements in the configuration of the ECU 100f illustrated in FIG. 22, the ECU may further include the reception ID judgement unit 130 and the reception ID list storage 140 illustrated in FIG. 9, and the ECU may receive only a frame whose message ID is equal to one of message IDs described in a reception ID list stored in the reception ID list storage 140, and the frame interpreter 120 requests the invalidity detection process function set 370 to detect an attack (to determine whether this frame is an attack frame or not). Thus in the on-board network system 10, as described above, not only the gateway 300 but also other ECUs are capable of functioning as a security apparatus that detects a frame being transmitted over a bus is an attack frame or not. The ECU may also be modified so as to have a configuration, for example, similar to a configuration of an ECU 100g illustrated in FIG. 23. The ECU according to the modification illustrated in FIG. 23 includes a transmission data acquisition unit 171 that acquires, from an external apparatus (for example, a car navigation apparatus), data to be transmitted to the bus 200, and the invalidity detection process function set 370 judges whether the data received from the transmission data acquisition unit 171 is an attack frame or not. Only in a case where it is determined that the data is not an attack frame, the invalidity detection process function set 370 may request the frame generator 180 to transmit a frame. By employing this configuration, in a case where an attack frame is transmitted to the ECU from a car navigation apparatus or the like, it becomes possible to detect an attack and protect from the attack. (6) In the embodiments described above, in response to receiving the judgement result from the check unit 372, the updater 374 determines an examination parameter (a threshold value or the like) which is necessary to be updated, and the updater 374 updates the determined examination parameter. However, the updater 374 may update an examination parameter taking into account a condition other than a judgement result by the check unit 372. For example, in the determination of an examination parameter necessary to be updated or determination of a value to which the examination parameter it to be updated, in addition to a judgement result by the check unit 372, the updater 374 may also take into account a state of a vehicle (for example, a vehicle speed, a stopped state, a running state), a configuration of a device (ECU or the like) connected to a bus in the on-board network system 10, a previous judgement result given by the check unit 372, or the like. For example, in a case where an examination parameter is updated based on a state of a vehicle, the examination parameter update may not be performed if the vehicle is in a stopped state, or the examination parameter may be updated by a small amount. In a case where a vehicle including the on-board network system 10 has a plurality of drive assist functions, when some particular drive assist function is in operation, a parameter (a threshold value or the like) in terms of a frame associated with another drive assist function that never operates when that particular drive assist function is in operation may be changed so as to increase the probability that this frame is determined as an attack frame. In the determination as to whether the frame is this attack frame or not, the judgement may be simply made only based on a message ID, or the determination of the attack frame may be performed by examining a specific bit of a data field. In a case where the process of updating an examination parameter is performed also taking into account the configuration of a device connected to a bus, for example, in a situation in which the number of devices such as a car navigation apparatus capable of communicating with an external device is equal to or greater than a particular value, an examination parameter may be changed so as to increase the probability that frames are determined as attack frames. (7) In the embodiments described above, the criterion or the algorithm used in determining examination parameters to be updated by the updater 374 or the degree to which examination parameter are updated is determined when the gateway 300 is produced. However, alternatively, the criterion or the algorithm may be changed after the gateway 300 is produced (after the gateway 300 is shipped from a factory). As for the method of changing the criterion, the algorithm, or the like, data associated with changing may be received from the outside and the changing may be performed using this data, or data may be read out from a removable storage medium (an optical disk, a magnetic disk, a semiconductor medium, or the like) and the changing may be performed using this data. (8) The receiver 410, the updater 420, the storage 430, the examiner 440 and the processor 450, which are components of the gateway 300b according to the modification of the first embodiment, may be disposed not in the gateway but in the ECU (ECUs 100a to 100g, etc.). In this case, the receiver 410 is a reception function unit of the frame transmission/reception unit 110. The storage 430 may be, for example, the examination parameter storage 375 of the invalidity detection process function set 370 or 370e or the filter parameter storages 375a to 375d of the invalidity detection process function sets 370a to 370d, or the like. The storage 430 stores a plurality of examination parameters different from each other and defining contents of examinations on frames. The plurality of examination parameters include, for example, one or more of the following: an ID examination parameter associated with an examination of an ID value; a DLC examination parameter associated with an examination of a DCL value; a transmission period examination parameter associated with an examination of a transmission period; a frequency-of-transmission examination parameter associated with an examination of the frequency of transmission; and a data examination parameter associated with an examination of a value of data stored in a data field. The frequency-of-transmission examination parameter may include a threshold value indicating an upper limit of an allowable range of the frequency of transmission, the data examination parameter may include a threshold value indicating an upper limit of an allowable range of a change in data stored in the data field, the transmission period examination parameter may include a threshold value indicating an allowable range of the transmission period, and the DLC examination parameter may include a threshold value indicating an allowable range of a value of the DLC. The data examination parameter may include a threshold value indicating an allowable range of a value of the data. The updater 420 may be a combination of the check unit 372, the check parameter storage 373, and the updater 374 which are components of the invalidity detection process function set 370 or 370e, or a combination of the ID related invalidity detection processor 372a, the detection parameter storage 373a, and the updater 374 which are components of the invalidity detection process function set 370a, or a combination of the period abnormality detection unit 372b, the period information storage 373b, and the updater 374 which are components of the invalidity detection process function set 370b, or a combination of the first filtering unit 372c, part or all of the filter parameter storage 375c, and the updater 374 which are components of the invalidity detection process function set 370c, or a combination of the ID field related filtering unit 372d, part or all of the filter parameter storage 375d, and the updater 374. To determine whether each of a plurality of predefined conditions is satisfied or not for a frame received from the receiver 410, the updater 420 has check functions corresponding to respective conditions, and the updater 420 determines which one of a plurality of examination parameters stored in the storage 430 is to be subjected to updating depending on a judgement result of each check function, and the updater 420 updates the examination parameter. The updater 420 may have one or more check functions including, for example, the ID check function, the DLC check function, the transmission period check function, the frequency-of-transmission check function, and the data check function. For example, in the transmission period check function, when the reception interval between two frames having the same ID value is out of a predetermined allowable range, it may be determined that a condition corresponding to the transmission period check function is satisfied. For example, in a case where it is determined that the condition corresponding to the transmission period check function is satisfied, the updater 420 may update one of a plurality of examination parameters. When the transmission period check function judges that the condition is satisfied, the updater 420 may update the threshold value in the frequency-of-transmission examination parameter. When the transmission period check function judges that the condition is satisfied, the updater 420 may update the threshold value in the data examination parameter to a smaller value. When the frequency of transmission is greater than the upper limit of the predetermined allowable range, the updater 420 may judge that the condition corresponding to the frequency-of-transmission check function is satisfied and the updater 420 may update the threshold value in the transmission period examination parameter. When the frequency-of-transmission check function judges that the condition is satisfied for one frame, the updater 420 may update the threshold value in the plurality of examination parameters used as contents of examinations on frames having the same ID as the ID of the one frame such that the corresponding allowable range is narrowed. Furthermore, when a predetermined condition is satisfied for a frame received by the receiver 410, the updater 420 may judge that this frame is an attack frame. The examiner 440 may be the examiner (filtering unit) 376 of the invalidity detection process function set 370 or 370e, may be the filtering unit 376a of the invalidity detection process function set 370a, may be the filtering unit 376b of the invalidity detection process function set 370b, may be the second filtering unit 376c of the invalidity detection process function set 370c, and may be the filtering unit 376d of the invalidity detection process function set 370d. The processor 450 may be at least one of the frame processor 150 and the frame generator 180 in the ECU. The examiner 440 may perform an examination based on each of the plurality of examination parameters stored, for example, in the storage 430, and, for example, in a case where the frequency of transmission of a frame received by the receiver 410 is greater than the threshold value in the frequency-of-transmission examination parameter, the examiner 440 may judge that this frame is an attack frame. In a case where a change in data stored in the data field of a frame received by the receiver 410 is greater than the threshold value in the data examination parameter, the examiner 440 may judge that this frame is an attack frame. The examiner 440 may perform an examination after the ID field of a frame received by the receiver 410 and before a part (the CRC field) following the data field is received, and the processor 450 may transmit an error frame in response to an attack frame. In the gateway, the ECU, or the like, a control unit similar to the filter controller 377 of the invalidity detection process function set 370e (see FIG. 20) may be provided. At a point of time when judgement results of check functions are obtained for respective check functions possessed by the updater 420, the control unit determines whether any one of the plurality of examination parameter is to be updated based on the judgement results. If some examination parameter is to be updated, the control unit controls the updater 420 to update the examination parameter determined to be updated, and control unit controls the examiner 440 to perform examinations based on the respective associated examination parameters depending on the states of updating of the respective examination parameters. (9) In the embodiments described above, the on-board network has been described as an example of a network communication system that performs communication according to the CAN protocol. The technique according to the present disclosure is not limited for use in the on-board network. The technique according to the present disclosure may be used in a network associated with a robot, an industrial apparatus, or the like, or network communication systems, other than the on-board network, that perform communication according to the CAN protocol. As for the CAN protocol, it should be understood that derivative versions of CAN protocol such as CANOpen used in an embedded system in an automation system or the like, TTCAN (Time-Triggered CAN), CANFD (CAN with Flexible Data Rate), etc. also fall in the scope of CAN protocol. In the on-board network system 10, communication protocols other than the CAN protocol, such as Ethernet (registered trademark), MOST (registered trademark), FlexRay (registered trademark), etc. may be used. (10) The execution order of various processes disclosed in the embodiments described above (for example, processing procedures illustrated in FIG. 10, FIG. 11, FIG. 14, and FIG. 17) is not limited to the order described above, but modifications of the execution order such as reordering, parallel execution of a plurality of procedures, removal of part of the procedures, or the like are possible without departing from the scope of the disclosure. (11) In the embodiments described above, the gateway and other ECUs are apparatuses which include, for example, a digital circuit such as a processor, a memory, or the like, an analog circuit, a communication circuit, or the like. However they may include other hardware components such as a hard disk apparatus, a display, a keyboard, a mouse, or the like. Instead of realizing functions by means of software by executing controls programs stored in a memory by a process, functions may be realized by dedicated hardware (a digital circuit or the like). (12) Part or all of the constituent elements of each apparatus in the embodiment described above may be implemented in a single system LSI (Large Scale Integration). The system LSI is a super-multifunction LSI produced such that a plurality of parts are integrated on a single chip. More specifically, the system LSI is a computer system including a microprocessor, a ROM, a RAM, and so on. A computer program is stored in the RAM. In the system LSI, the microprocessor operates according to the computer program thereby achieving the function of the system LSI. Each of the constituent elements of each apparatus described above may be integrated separately on a single chip, or part of all of the apparatus may be integrated on a single chip. The LSI here may be referred to as an IC, a system LSI, a super LSI, or an ultra LSI depending on a difference in the degree of integration. The technique of implementing an integrated circuit is not limited to the LSI and may be realized by using a dedicated circuit or a general-purpose processor. In addition, a FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) that may be programmed after the manufacture of the LSI or a reconfigurable processor in which the connections and the settings of circuit cells disposed inside the LSI may be reconfigured may be used. If future integrated circuit technology replaces LSIs as a result of the advancement of semiconductor technology or other derivative technology, the functional blocks may be integrated using the future integrated circuit technology. Biotechnology can also be applied. (13) Part or all of the constituent elements of each apparatus described above may be implemented in the form of an IC card attachable to the apparatus or in the form of a single module. The IC card or the module is a computer system including a microprocessor, a ROM, a RAM, and so on. The IC card or the module may include the super-multifunction LSI described above. In the IC card or the module, the microprocessor operates according to the computer program thereby achieving the function of the IC card or the module. The IC card or the module may be configured so as to be resistant against tampering. (14) According to an aspect, the present disclosure may provide an attack detection method including all or part of processing procedures illustrated, for example, in FIG. 10, FIG. 14, FIG. 17, or elsewhere. For example, the attack detection method is used in the on-board network system 10 in which a plurality of ECUs transmit and receive frames via one or a plurality of buses, and the attack detection method includes a reception step, an update step, and an examination step. In the reception step, a frame is received from a bus. In the update step, in a case where a condition predefined is satisfied for a frame received in the reception step, an examination parameter defining a content of an examination on the frame is updated. In the examination step, based on the examination parameter updated in the update step, an examination is performed as to a determination of whether the frame received in the reception step is an attack frame or not. A process (an attack detection process) associated with the attack detection method may be implemented in a computer program (a control program) executed by a computer or may be implemented by a digital signal related to the computer program. For example, the control program is for causing a processor to execute the attack detection process including the reception step (for example, step S1001), the update step (for example, steps S1002 to S1005), and the examination step (for example, steps S1006 and S1007). In an aspect, the present disclosure may be implemented by a computer readable storage medium, such as a flexible disk, a hard disk, a CD-ROM, an MO disk, a DVD disk, a DVD-ROM disk, a DVD-RAM disk, a BD (Blu-ray Disc), a semiconductor memory, or the like in which the computer program or the digital signal are stored. The present disclosure may be implemented by the digital signal stored in the storage medium described above. In an aspect, the present disclosure may be implemented by transmitting the computer program or the digital signal via a telecommunication line, a wired or wireless communication line, a network typified by the Internet, data broadcasting, or the like. In an aspect, the present disclosure may be implemented by a computer system including a microprocessor and a memory, wherein the computer program is stored in the memory and the microprocessor operates according to the computer program. The program or the digital signal may be stored in the storage medium and the storage medium may be transported, or the program or the digital signal may be transferred via the network or the like thereby allowing the present disclosure to be implemented in another computer system. (15) Any embodiment realized by an arbitrary combination of constituent elements and functions disclosed above in the embodiments and modifications also fall in the scope of the present disclosure. The present disclosure is usable to properly detect a transmission of an attack frame in an on-board network.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>However, in the technique disclosed in International Publication No. WO 2014/115455, detectable attacks are limited to those attacks that are transmitted at intervals inconsistent with the predetermined period, and thus, this technique is not necessarily effective to detect various different attacks. One non-limiting and exemplary embodiment provides a security apparatus capable of detecting an attack frame, adaptively to a wide variety of variable attacks, and also provides an attack detection method capable of detecting an attack frame adaptively to a wide variety of variable attacks and a program for causing a security apparatus to perform a process of detecting an attack frame. In one general aspect, the techniques disclosed here feature a security apparatus connected to at least one bus, including a receiver that receives a frame from the at least one buses, a parameter storage that stores at least one examination parameter defining a content of an examination on a frame, processing circuitry that, in operation, performs operations including in a case where a predetermined condition is satisfied for the frame received by the receiver, updating the at least one examination parameter stored in the parameter storage, and executing an examination, based on the at least one examination parameter stored in the parameter storage, as to whether the frame received by the receiver is an attack frame. General or specific embodiments may be implemented by an apparatus, a system, a method, an integrated circuit, a computer program, a computer-readable storage medium such as a CD-ROM, or any selective combination of an apparatus, a system, a method, an integrated circuit, a computer program, and a storage medium. According to the present disclosure, it is possible to update an examination parameter used in the examination as to whether a received frame is an attack frame or not, which makes it possible to properly detect attack frames, adaptively to a wide variety of variable attacks. Additional benefits and advantages of the present disclosure will become apparent from the specification and drawings. The benefits and advantages may be individually obtained by the various embodiments and features of the specification and drawings. However, it does not necessarily need to provide all such benefits and advantages.

H04L630209

20180126

20180614

57644.0

H04L2906

TRUONG, THANHNGA B

SECURITY APPARATUS, ATTACK DETECTION METHOD, AND STORAGE MEDIUM

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04L

PENDING

TREATMENT AND DIAGNOSIS OF MELANOMA

The present invention discloses novel agents and methods for diagnosis and treatment of melanoma. Also disclosed are related arrays, kits, and screening methods.

1. A method for treating cancer, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof, a LXR agonist, wherein said LXR agonist is administered in an amount sufficient to increase the expression level or activity level of ApoE to a level sufficient to slow the spread of metastasis of said cancer. 2. A method for treating cancer, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof, an ApoE polypeptide in an amount sufficient to treat said cancer. 3. A method of slowing the spread of a migrating cancer, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof, a LXR agonist or an ApoE polypeptide in an amount sufficient to slow the spread of said migrating cancer. 4. The method of any one of claims 1-3, wherein said LXR agonist is a LXRβ agonist. 5. The method of any one of claims 1-4, wherein said LXR agonist increases the expression level of ApoE at least 2.5-fold in vitro. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein said LXRβ agonist is selective for LXRβ over LXRα. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein said LXRβ agonist has activity for LXRβ that is at least 2.5-fold greater than the activity of said agonist for LXRα. 8. The method of claim 6 or 7, wherein said LXRβ agonist has activity for LXRβ that is at least 10-fold greater than the activity of said agonist for LXRα. 9. The method of any one of claims 6-8, wherein said LXRβ agonist has activity for LXRβ that is at least 100-fold greater than the activity of said agonist for LXRα. 10. The method of any one of claims 1-5, wherein said LXR agonist has activity for LXRβ that is at least within 2.5-fold of the activity of said agonist for LXRα. 11. The method of any one of claims 4-10, wherein said migrating cancer is metastatic cancer. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the metastatic cancer comprises cells exhibiting migration and/or invasion of migrating cells. 13. The method of claim 11 or 12, wherein said metastatic cancer comprises cells exhibiting endothelial recruitment and/or angiogenesis. 14. The method of any one of claims 4-11, wherein said migrating cancer spreads via seeding the surface of the peritoneal, pleural, pericardial, or subarachnoid spaces. 15. The method of any one of claims 4-11, wherein said migrating cancer spreads via the lymphatic system. 16. The method of any one of claims 4-11, wherein said migrating cancer spreads hematogenously. 17. The method of any one of claims 4-11, wherein said migrating cancer is a cell migration cancer. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein said cell migration cancer is a non-metastatic cell migration cancer. 19. The method of claim 18, where said migrating cancer is ovarian cancer, mesothelioma, or primary lung cancer. 20. A method for inhibiting proliferation or growth of cancer stem cells or cancer initiating cells, comprising contacting the cell with a LXR agonist or an ApoE polypeptide in an amount sufficient to inhibit proliferation or growth of said cell. 21. A method of reducing the rate of tumor seeding of a cancer comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a LXR agonist or an ApoE polypeptide in an amount sufficient to reduce tumor seeding. 22. A method of reducing or treating metastatic nodule-forming of cancer comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a LXR agonist or an ApoE polypeptide in an amount sufficient to treat said metastatic nodule-forming of cancer. 23. The method of any one of claims 1-22, wherein said cancer is selected from the list consisting of breast cancer, colon cancer, renal cell cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, gastric cancer, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, esophageal cancer, prostate cancer, sarcoma, and melanoma. 24. The method of claim 23, wherein said cancer is melanoma. 25. The method of claim 23, wherein said cancer is breast cancer. 26. The method of claim 23, wherein said cancer is renal cell cancer. 27. The method of claim 23, wherein said cancer is pancreatic cancer. 28. The method of claim 23, wherein said cancer is non-small cell lung cancer. 29. The method of claim 23, wherein said cancer is colon cancer. 30. The method of claim 23, wherein said cancer is ovarian cancer. 31. The method of any one of claims 1-30, wherein said cancer is a drug resistant cancer. 32. The method of any one of claims 1-31, wherein said cancer is resistant to vemurafenib, dacarbazine, a CTLA4 inhibitor, a BRAF inhibitor, a MEK inhibitor, a PD1 inhibitor, or a PDL1 inhibitor. 33. The method of any one of claims 1-32, wherein said method comprises administering an LXR agonist selected from the list consisting of a compound of any one of Formula I-IV or any of compound numbers 1-39, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. 34. The method of claim 33, wherein said LXR agonist is compound 1 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 35. The method of claim 33, wherein said LXR agonist is compound 2 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 36. The method of claim 33, wherein said LXR agonist is compound 3 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 37. The method of claim 33, wherein said LXR agonist is compound 12 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 38. The method of claim 33, wherein said LXR agonist is compound 25 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 39. The method of claim 33, wherein said LXR agonist is compound 38 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 40. The method of claim 33, wherein said LXR agonist is compound 39 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 41. The method of any one of claims 1-32, wherein said method comprises administering an ApoE polypeptide. 42. The method of 41, wherein the ApoE polypeptide increases the activity level or expression level of LRP1 or LRP8. 43. The method of claim 41 or 42, wherein the ApoE polypeptide binds to LRP1, LRP8, the ApoE2 receptor, the LDL receptor, or the VLDL receptor. 44. The method of any claims 41-43, wherein the ApoE polypeptide is the receptor binding region (RBR) of ApoE. 45. The method of any one of claims 33-40, further comprising administering an antiproliferative, wherein said LXR agonist and said antiproliferative are administered in an amount that together, is sufficient to slow the progression of migrating cancer. 46. The method of claim 45, wherein said LXR agonist and said antiproliferative are administered within 28 days of each other in amounts that together are effective to treat the subject. 47. The method of any one of claims 41-44, further comprising administering an antiproliferative, wherein said ApoE polypeptide and said antiproliferative are administered in an amount that together, is sufficient to slow the progression of migrating cancer. 48. The method of claim 47, wherein said ApoE polypeptide and said antiproliferative are administered within 28 days of each other in amounts that together are effective to treat the subject. 49. A method for treating melanoma in a subject in need thereof, comprising (a) increasing in the subject the expression level or activity level of a metastasis suppressor factor selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, Liver X Receptor (LXR), and miR-7 or (b) decreasing in the subject the expression level or activity level of a metastasis promoter factor selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF. 50. The method of claim 49, wherein the melanoma is metastatic. 51. The method of claim 49 or 50, wherein the increasing step is carried out by administering to the subject one or more of the followings: (i) a polypeptide having a sequence of DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, or LXR; (ii) a nucleic acid having a sequence encoding DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, or LXR; (iii) a ligand for LRP1, LRP8, or LXR; and (iv) an RNAi agent encoding miR-7. 52. The method of claim 49 or 50, wherein the increasing step is carried out by decreasing the expression level or activity level of a microRNA selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908. 53. The method of claim 52, where the decreasing step is carried out by miR-Zip technology. 54. The method of claim 52, wherein the decreasing step is carried out by Locked Nucleic Acid (LNA) technology. 55. The method of claim 52, wherein the decreasing step is carried out by antagomirs. 56. The method of claim 52, wherein the ligand for LRP1 or the ligand for LRP8 is a small molecule or antibody. 57. The method of claim 50, wherein the step of increasing ApoE or DNAJA expression level is carried out by increasing the activity level or expression level of LXR. 58. The method of claim 57, wherein the step of increasing LXR activity level is carried out by administering to the subject a LXR agonist. 59. The method of claim 58, wherein the LXR agonist is a compound of any one of Formula I-IV. 60. A method for determining whether a subject has, or is at risk of having, metastatic melanoma, comprising, obtaining from the subject a sample; measuring in the sample (i) a first expression level of a metastasis promoter factor selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF, or (ii) a second expression level of a metastasis suppressor factor selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, Liver X Receptor (LXR), and miR-7; and comparing the first expression level with a first predetermined reference value, or the second expression level with a second predetermined reference value; whereby the subject is determined to have, or to be at risk of having, metastatic melanoma if (a) the first expression level is above a first predetermined reference value or (b) the second expression level is below a second predetermined reference value. 61. The method of claim 60, wherein the first and second predetermined reference values are obtained from a control subject that does not have metastatic melanoma. 62. The method of claim 60, wherein the sample is a body fluid sample. 63. The method of claim 60, wherein the sample is a tumor sample. 64. The method of claim 60, wherein the sample is a nevus sample. 65. The method of claim 60, wherein the sample is a human skin sample. 66. The method of claim 60, wherein the measuring step comprises measuring both the first expression level and the second expression level. 67. The method of claim 66, wherein the sample is a body fluid sample. 68. The method of claim 66, wherein the sample is a tumor sample, a nevus sample, or a human skin sample. 69. An array comprising a support having a plurality of unique locations, and any combination of (i) at least one nucleic acid having a sequence that is complementary to a nucleic acid encoding a metastasis promoter factor selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF or a complement thereof, or (ii) at least one nucleic acid having a sequence that is complementary to a nucleic acid encoding a metastasis suppressor factor selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, Liver X Receptor (LXR), and miR-7 or a complement thereof, wherein each nucleic acid is immobilized to a unique location of the support. 70. A kit for diagnosing a metastatic potential of melanoma in a subject, comprising a first reagent that specifically binds to an expression product of a metastasis suppressor gene selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, Liver X Receptor (LXR), and miR-7; or a second reagent that specifically binds to an expression product of a metastasis promoter gene selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF. 71. The kit of claim 70, wherein the second agent is a probe having a sequence complementary to the suppressor or promoter gene or a complement thereof. 72. The kit of claim 70, further comprising reagents for performing an immunoassay, a hybridization assay, or a PCR assay. 73. The kit of claim 70, wherein the kit comprises the array of claim 69. 74. A method of identifying a compound useful for treating melanoma or for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis, comprising (i) obtaining a test cell expressing a reporter gene encoded by a nucleic acid operatively linked to a promoter of a marker gene selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF.; (ii) exposing the test cell to a test compound; (iii) measuring the expression level of the reporter gene in the test cell; (iv) comparing the expression level with a control level; and (v) selecting the test compound as a candidate useful for treating melanoma or for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cancer cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis, if the comparison indicates that the expression level is lower than the control level. 75. A method of identifying a compound useful for treating melanoma or for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis, comprising (i) obtaining a test cell expressing a reporter gene encoded by a nucleic acid operatively linked to a promoter of a marker gene selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, Liver X Receptor (LXR), and miR-7; (ii) exposing the test cell to a test compound; (iii) measuring the expression level of the reporter gene in the test cell; (iv) comparing the expression level with a control level; and (v) selecting the test compound as a candidate useful for treating melanoma or for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cancer cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis, if the comparison indicates that the expression level is higher than the control level. 76. The method of claim 74 or 75, wherein the control level is obtained from a control cell that is the same as the test cell except that the control cell has not been exposed to the test compound. 77. The method of claim 74 or 75, wherein the reporter gene is the same as the marker gene. 78. A method for inhibiting endothelial recruitment in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to the subject an agent that inhibits expression or activity of CTGF. 79. The method of claim 78, wherein the subject has a disorder characterized by pathological angiogenesis. 80. The method of claim 79, wherein the disorder is cancer, an eye disorder, or an inflammatory disorder. 81. The method of claim 80, wherein the cancer is metastatic melanoma. 82. A method for inhibiting tumor cell invasion in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to the subject an agent that inhibits expression or activity of CTGF. 83. The method of claim 82 wherein the tumor cell is a metastatic melanoma cell. 84. A method for treating metastatic cancer in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to the subject an agent that inhibits expression or activity of CTGF, wherein the cancer is melanoma. 85. The method of any claims 78-84, wherein the agent is an antibody, a nucleic acid, a polypeptide, or a small molecule compound. 86. The method of claim 85, wherein the antibody is a monoclonal antibody. 87. A method for treating metastatic cancer in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to the subject an agent that increases expression or activity of miR-7. 88. The method of claim 87, wherein the cancer is metastatic melanoma. 89. The method of claim 87 or 88, wherein the agent is an antibody, a nucleic acid, a polypeptide, or a small molecule compound. 90. The method of any of claims 87-89, wherein the agent has miR-7 activity. 91. The method of claim 89, wherein the nucleic acid is an oligonucleotide. 92. The method of claim 91, wherein the oligonucleotide comprises a sequence selected from the group consisting of Seq. ID Nos. 36-38.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/650,480, filed Jul. 14, 2017, which is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/228,643, filed Aug. 4, 2016, Now U.S. Pat. No. 9,707,195, which is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/486,477, filed Sep. 15, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,526,710, which is a Continuation of International Application No. PCT/US2013/54690 filed Aug. 13, 2013, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/682,339 filed Aug. 13, 2012 and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/784,057 filed Mar. 14, 2013. The contents of the applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to diagnosis and treatment of migrating cancers and melanoma. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Melanoma, a malignant tumor, develops from abnormal melanocytes in the lower epidermis and can metastasize to distant sites in the body via the blood and lymph systems. Although it accounts for less than 5% of skin cancer cases, melanoma is much more dangerous and responsible for a large majority of the deaths associated with skin cancer. Across the world the incidence of melanoma has been increasing at an alarming rate, with a lifetime risk of developing melanoma as high as 1/58 for males in the U.S. (Jemal et al., 2008, C A: Cancer J. Clin. 58:71-96). The mortality rate of malignant melanoma also continues to rise dramatically throughout the world. According to a 2006 WHO report, about 48,000 melanoma related deaths occur worldwide per year (Lucas et al. (2006) Environmental Burden of Disease Series. 13. World Health Organization. ISBN 92-4-159440-3). In the United States, it was estimated that almost 70,000 people were diagnosed with melanoma during 2010 and approximately 9,000 people would be expected to die from the disease (American Cancer Society; www.cancer.org). Although some conventional cancer therapies have been used in treating metastatic melanoma, they are not effective. Metastatic melanoma therefore remains one of the most difficult cancers to treat and one of the most feared neoplasms. Accordingly, there is a need for new agents and methods for diagnosis and treatment of melanoma. SUMMARY OF INVENTION This invention addresses the above-mentioned need by providing agents and methods for diagnosis and treatment of melanoma. The invention is based, at least in part, on an unexpected discovery of a cooperative miRNA-protein network deregulated in metastatic melanoma. This network includes a number of metastasis suppressor factors and metastasis promoter factors. In one aspect, the invention features a method for treating cancer, including administering to a subject in need thereof, a LXR agonist, wherein the LXR agonist is administered in an amount sufficient to increase the expression level or activity level of ApoE to a level sufficient to slow the spread of metastasis of the cancer. In another aspect, the invention features a method for treating cancer, including administering to a subject in need thereof, an ApoE polypeptide in an amount sufficient to treat the cancer. In another aspect, the invention features a method of slowing the spread of a migrating cancer, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof, a LXR agonist or an ApoE polypeptide. In some embodiments of any of the aforementioned methods, the LXR agonist is a LXRβ agonist. In certain embodiments, the LXR agonist increases the expression level of ApoE at least 2.5-fold in vitro. In certain embodiments, the LXRβ agonist is selective for LXRβ over LXRα. In other embodiments, the LXRβ agonist has activity for LXRβ that is at least 2.5-fold greater than the activity of said agonist for LXRα. In some embodiments, the LXRβ agonist has activity for LXRβ that is at least 10-fold greater than the activity of said agonist for LXRα. In further embodiments, the LXRβ agonist has activity for LXRβ that is at least 100-fold greater than the activity of said agonist for LXRα. In certain embodiments, the LXR agonist has activity for LXRβ that is at least within 2.5-fold of the activity of said agonist for LXRα. In some embodiments the migrating cancer is metastatic cancer. The metastatic cancer can include cells exhibiting migration and/or invasion of migrating cells and/or include cells exhibiting endothelial recruitment and/or angiogenesis. In other embodiments, the migrating cancer is a cell migration cancer. In still other embodiments, the cell migration cancer is a non-metastatic cell migration cancer. The migrating cancer can be a cancer spread via seeding the surface of the peritoneal, pleural, pericardial, or subarachnoid spaces. Alternatively, the migrating cancer can be a cancer spread via the lymphatic system, or a cancer spread hematogenously. In particular embodiments, the migrating cancer is a cell migration cancer that is a non-metastatic cell migration cancer, such as ovarian cancer, mesothelioma, or primary lung cancer. In a related aspect, the invention provides a method for inhibiting or reducing metastasis of cancer comprising administering a LXR agonist or an ApoE polypeptide. In another aspect, the invention provides a method for inhibiting proliferation or growth of cancer stem cells or cancer initiating cells, including contacting the cell with a LXR agonist or an ApoE polypeptide in an amount sufficient to inhibit proliferation or growth of said cell. In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of reducing the rate of tumor seeding of a cancer including administering to a subject in need thereof a LXR agonist or an ApoE polypeptide in an amount sufficient to reduce tumor seeding. In still a further aspect, the invention provides a method of reducing or treating metastatic nodule-forming of cancer including administering to a subject in need thereof a LXR agonist or an ApoE polypeptide in an amount sufficient to treat said metastatic nodule-forming of cancer. In other embodiments, the cancer is breast cancer, colon cancer, renal cell cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, gastric cancer, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, esophageal cancer, prostate cancer, sarcoma, or melanoma. In some embodiments, the cancer is melanoma. In other embodiments, the cancer is breast cancer. In certain embodiments, the cancer is renal cell cancer. In further embodiments, the cancer is pancreatic cancer. In other embodiments, the cancer is non-small cell lung cancer. In some embodiments the cancer is colon cancer. In further embodiments, the cancer is ovarian cancer. In other embodiments, the cancer is a drug resistant cancer. In further embodiments, the cancer is resistant to vemurafenib, dacarbazine, a CTLA4 inhibitor, a PD1 inhibitor, or a PDL1 inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering an LXR agonist selected from the list consisting of a compound of any one of Formula I-IV or any of compound numbers 1-39, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. In some embodiments, the LXR agonist is compound 1 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In other embodiments, the LXR agonist is compound 2 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In certain embodiments, the LXR agonist is compound 3 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In further embodiments, the LXR agonist is compound 12 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In some embodiments, the LXR agonist is compound 25 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In other embodiments, the LXR agonist is compound 38 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In further embodiments, the LXR agonist is compound 39 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. The method can further include administering an antiproliferative, wherein said LXR agonist and said antiproliferative are administered in an amount that together, is sufficient to slow the progression of migrating cancer. For example, the antiproliferative and LXR agonist can be administered within 28 days of each (e.g., within 21, 14, 10, 7, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 days) or within 24 hours (e.g., 12, 6, 3, 2, or 1 hours; or concomitantly) other in amounts that together are effective to treat the subject. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering an ApoE polypeptide. The ApoE polypeptide fragment can increase the activity level or expression level of LRP1 or LRP8, and/or the ApoE polypeptide can bind to LRP1 or LRP8, the ApoE polypeptide can be the receptor binding region (RBR) of ApoE. The method can further include administering an antiproliferative, wherein said ApoE polypeptide and said antiproliferative are administered in an amount that together, is sufficient to slow the progression of migrating cancer. For example, the antiproliferative and ApoE polypeptide can be administered within 28 days of each (e.g., within 21, 14, 10, 7, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 days) or within 24 hours (e.g., 12, 6, 3, 2, or 1 hours; or concomitantly) other in amounts that together are effective to treat the subject. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition may further comprise an additional compound having antiproliferative activity. The additional compound having antiproliferative activity can be selected from the group of compounds such as chemotherapeutic and cytotoxic agents, differentiation-inducing agents (e.g. retinoic acid, vitamin D, cytokines), hormonal agents, immunological agents and anti-angiogenic agents. Chemotherapeutic and cytotoxic agents include, but are not limited to, alkylating agents, cytotoxic antibiotics, antimetabolites, vinca alkaloids, etoposides, and others (e.g., paclitaxel, taxol, docetaxel, taxotere, cis-platinum). A list of additional compounds having antiproliferative activity can be found in L. Brunton, B. Chabner and B. Knollman (eds). Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, Twelfth Edition, 2011, McGraw Hill Companies, New York, N.Y. The method may further include administering a antiproliferative compound selected from the group consisting of alkylating agents, platinum agents, antimetabolites, topoisomerase inhibitors, antitumor antibiotics, antimitotic agents, aromatase inhibitors, thymidylate synthase inhibitors, DNA antagonists, farnesyltransferase inhibitors, pump inhibitors, histone acetyltransferase inhibitors, metalloproteinase inhibitors, ribonucleoside reductase inhibitors, TNF alpha agonists/antagonists, endothelin A receptor antagonist, retinoic acid receptor agonists, immuno-modulators, hormonal and antihormonal agents, photodynamic agents, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, antisense compounds, corticosteroids, HSP90 inhibitors, proteosome inhibitors (for example, NPI-0052), CD40 inhibitors, anti-CSI antibodies, FGFR3 inhibitors, VEGF inhibitors, MEK inhibitors, cyclin D1 inhibitors, NF-kB inhibitors, anthracyclines, histone deacetylases, kinesin inhibitors, phosphatase inhibitors, COX2 inhibitors, mTOR inhibitors, calcineurin antagonists, IMiDs, or other agents used to treat proliferative diseases. Examples of such compounds are provided in Tables 1. In another aspect, the invention features a method for treating melanoma (e.g., metastatic melanoma) in a subject in need thereof. The method includes (a) increasing in the subject the expression level or activity level of a metastasis suppressor factor selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, Apolipoprotein E (ApoE), LRP1, LRP8, Liver X Receptor (LXR, e.g., both LXR-alpha and LXR-beta), and miR-7 or (b) decreasing in the subject the expression level or activity level of a metastasis promoter factor selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF. In the method, the increasing step can be carried out by administering to the subject one or more of the followings: (i) a polypeptide having a sequence of DNAJA4, ApoE or an ApoE fragment, LRP1, LRP8, or LXR; (ii) a nucleic acid having a sequence encoding DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, or LXR; (iii) a ligand for LRP1, LRP8, or LXR; and (iv) an RNAi agent encoding miR-7. Examples of the LRP1 or LRP8 ligand include the receptor binding portion of ApoE, anti-LRP1 or anti-LRP8 antibodies, and small molecule ligands. In one example, increasing the ApoE expression level can be carried out by increasing the activity level or expression level of LXR. Increasing the DNAJA4 expression level can also be carried out by increasing the activity level or expression level of LXR. The LXR activity level can be increased by administering to the subject a ligand of LXR, such as compounds of Formula I-IV as disclosed below. The increasing step can also be carried out by decreasing the expression level or activity level of a microRNA selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908. To this end, one can use a number of techniques known in the art, including, but not limited to, the miR-Zip technology, Locked Nucleic Acid (LNA), and antagomir technology as described in the examples below. In another aspect, the invention provides a method for determining whether a subject has, or is at risk of having, metastatic melanoma. The method includes obtaining from the subject a sample; measuring in the sample (i) a first expression level of a metastasis promoter factor selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF, or (ii) a second expression level of a metastasis suppressor factor selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, LXR, and miR-7; and comparing the first expression level with a first predetermined reference value, or the second expression level with a second predetermined reference value. The subject is determined to have, or to be at risk of having, metastatic melanoma if (a) the first expression level is above a first predetermined reference value or (b) the second expression level is below a second predetermined reference value. The first and second predetermined reference values can be obtained from a control subject that does not have metastatic melanoma. In one embodiment, the measuring step includes measuring both the first expression level and the second expression level. The sample can be a body fluid sample, a tumor sample, a nevus sample, or a human skin sample. In a another aspect, the invention provides an array having a support having a plurality of unique locations, and any combination of (i) at least one nucleic acid having a sequence that is complementary to a nucleic acid encoding a metastasis promoter factor selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF or a complement thereof, or (ii) at least one nucleic acid having a sequence that is complementary to a nucleic acid encoding a metastasis suppressor factor selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, LXR, and miR-7 or a complement thereof. Preferably, each nucleic acid is immobilized to a unique location of the support. This array can be used for metastatic melanoma diagnosis and prognosis. Accordingly, the invention also provides a kit for diagnosing a metastatic potential of melanoma in a subject. The kit includes a first reagent that specifically binds to an expression product of a metastasis suppressor gene selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, LXR, and miR-7; or a second reagent that specifically binds to an expression product of a metastasis promoter gene selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF. The second agent can be a probe having a sequence complementary to the suppressor or promoter gene or a complement thereof. The kit can further contain reagents for performing an immunoassay, a hybridization assay, or a PCR assay. In one embodiment, the kit contained the above-mentioned array. In a another aspect, the invention provides a method of identifying a compound useful for treating melanoma or for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis. The method includes (i) obtaining a test cell expressing a reporter gene encoded by a nucleic acid operatively liked to a promoter of a marker gene selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF; (ii) exposing the test cell to a test compound; (iii) measuring the expression level of the reporter gene in the test cell; (iv) comparing the expression level with a control level; and (v) selecting the test compound as a candidate useful for treating melanoma or for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cancer cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis, if the comparison indicates that the expression level is lower than the control level. The invention provides another method of identifying a compound useful for treating melanoma or for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis. The method includes (i) obtaining a test cell expressing a reporter gene encoded by a nucleic acid operatively liked to a promoter of a marker gene selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, LXR, and miR-7; (ii) exposing the test cell to a test compound; (iii) measuring the expression level of the reporter gene in the test cell; (iv) comparing the expression level with a control level; and (v) selecting the test compound as a candidate useful for treating melanoma or for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cancer cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis, if the comparison indicates that the expression level is higher than the control level. In the above-mentioned identification methods, the reporter gene can be a standard reporter gene (such as LaxZ, GFP, or luciferase gene, or the like), known in the art, or one of the aforementioned metastasis suppressor genes or metastasis promoter genes. In the methods, the control level can be obtained from a control cell that is the same as the test cell except that the control cell has not be exposed to the test compound. In a another aspect, the invention provides a method for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, inhibiting tumor cell invasion, or treating metastatic cancer in a subject in need thereof, by administering to the subject an agent that inhibits expression or activity of CTGF. The subject can be one having a disorder characterized by pathological angiogenesis, including but not limited to cancer (e.g., metastatic melanoma), an eye disorder, and an inflammatory disorder. An example of the tumor cell is a metastatic melanoma cell. Examples of the agent include an antibody, a nucleic acid, a polypeptide, and a small molecule compound. In a preferred embodiment, the antibody is a monoclonal antibody. In a another aspect, the invention provides a method for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, inhibiting tumor cell invasion, or treating metastatic cancer in a subject in need thereof, by administering to the subject an agent that increases expression or activity of miR-7. An example of the tumor cell is a metastatic melanoma cell. Examples of the agent include an antibody, a nucleic acid, a polypeptide, and a small molecule compound. In one example, the agent has miR-7 activity. The nucleic acid can be an oligonucleotide. And, the oligonucleotide can include a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID Nos. 36-38. As used herein, “migrating cancer” refers to a cancer in which the cancer cells forming the tumor migrate and subsequently grow as malignant implants at a site other than the site of the original tumor. The cancer cells migrate via seeding the surface of the peritoneal, pleural, pericardial, or subarachnoid spaces to spread into the body cavities; via invasion of the lymphatic system through invasion of lymphatic cells and transport to regional and distant lymph nodes and then to other parts of the body; via haematogenous spread through invasion of blood cells; or via invasion of the surrounding tissue. Migrating cancers include metastatic tumors and cell migration cancers, such as ovarian cancer, mesothelioma, and primary lung cancer, each of which is characterized by cellular migration. As used herein, “slowing the spread of migrating cancer” refers to reducing or stopping the formation of new loci; or reducing, stopping, or reversing the tumor load. As used herein, “metastatic tumor” refers to a tumor or cancer in which the cancer cells forming the tumor have a high potential to or have begun to, metastasize, or spread from one location to another location or locations within a subject, via the lymphatic system or via haematogenous spread, for example, creating secondary tumors within the subject. Such metastatic behavior may be indicative of malignant tumors. In some cases, metastatic behavior may be associated with an increase in cell migration and/or invasion behavior of the tumor cells. As used herein, “slowing the spread of metastasis” refers to reducing or stopping the formation of new loci; or reducing, stopping, or reversing the tumor load. The term “cancer” refers to any cancer caused by the proliferation of malignant neoplastic cells, such as tumors, neoplasms, carcinomas, sarcomas, leukimias, lymphomas, and the like. As used herein, “drug resistant cancer” refers to any cancer that is resistant to an antiproliferative in Table 2. Examples of cancers that can be defined as metastatic include but are not limited to non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, colorectal cancer, biliary tract cancer, bladder cancer, brain cancer including glioblastomas and medullablastomas, cervical cancer, choriocarcinoma, endometrial cancer, esophageal cancer, gastric cancer, hematological neoplasms, multiple myeloma, leukemia, intraepithelial neoplasms, livercancer, lymphomas, neuroblastomas, oral cancer, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, sarcoma, skin cancer including melanoma, basocellular cancer, squamous cell cancer, testicular cancer, stromal tumors, germ cell tumors, thyroid cancer, and renal cancer. “Proliferation” as used in this application involves reproduction or multiplication of similar forms (cells) due to constituting (cellular) elements. “Cell migration” as used in this application involves the invasion by the cancer cells into the surrounding tissue and the crossing of the vessel wall to exit the vasculature in distal organs of the cancer cell. By “cell migration cancers” is meant cancers that migrate by invasion by the cancer cells into the surrounding tissue and the crossing of the vessel wall to exit the vasculature in distal organs of the cancer cell. “Non-metastatic cell migration cancer” as used herein refers to cancers that do not migrate via the lymphatic system or via haematogenous spread. As used herein, “cell to cell adhesion” refers to adhesion between at least two cells through an interaction between a selectin molecule and a selectin specific ligand. Cell to cell adhesion includes cell migration. A “cell adhesion related disorder” is defined herein as any disease or disorder which results from or is related to cell to cell adhesion or migration. A cell adhesion disorder also includes any disease or disorder resulting from inappropriate, aberrant, or abnormal activation of the immune system or the inflammatory system. Such diseases include but are not limited to, myocardial infarction, bacterial or viral infection, metastatic conditions, e.g. cancer. The invention further features methods for treating a cell adhesion disorder by administering a LXR agonist or ApoE polypeptide. As used herein, “cancer stem cells” or “cancer initiating cells” refers to cancer cells that possess characteristics associated with normal stem cells, specifically the ability to give rise to all cell types found in a particular cancer sample. Cancer stem cells are therefore tumorgenic or tumor forming, perhaps in contrast to other non-tumorgenic cancer cells. Cancer stem cells may persist in tumors as a distinct population and cause cancer recurrence and metastasis by giving rise to new tumors. As used herein, “tumor seeding” refers to the spillage of tumor cell clusters and their subsequent growth as malignant implants at a site other than the site of the original tumor. As used herein, “metastatic nodule” refers to an aggregation of tumor cells in the body at a site other than the site of the original tumor. The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and from the claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E and 1F. Systematic Identification of miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, and miR-199a-5p as Endogenous Promoters of Human Melanoma Metastasis (1A) Heat map illustrating variance-normalized microarray expression values of miRNAs up-regulated in independent MeWo and A375 metastatic derivatives relative to their respective parental cells. Standard deviation changes from the mean of each heat map row are indicated by color map. (1B) miRNAs found to be up-regulated by microarray hybridization were validated by qRT-PCR in MeWo-LM2 metastatic derivatives. n=3. (1C) Bioluminescence imaging plot of lung metastatic colonization following intravenous injection of 4×104 parental MeWo cells over-expressing the precursors for miR-199a, miR-1908, miR-214, or a control hairpin. Lungs were extracted 63 days post-injection and H&E-stained. n=5. (1D) Bioluminescence imaging plot and H&E-stained lungs corresponding to lung metastasis following intravenous injection of 4×104 LM2 cells expressing a short hairpin (miR-Zip) inhibiting miR-1908 (m1908 KD), miR-199a-3p (m199a3p KD), miR-199a-5p (m199a5p KD), or a control sequence (shCTRL). Lungs were extracted and H&E-stained 49 days post-injection n=5-8. (1E) Lung colonization by 2×105 A375-LM3 metastatic derivatives with miR-Zip-induced silencing of miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, or a control sequence was quantified at day 42 by bioluminescence imaging. n=5-8 (1F) The expression levels of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 were determined in a blinded fashion by qRT-PCR in a cohort of non-metastatic (n=38) and metastatic (n=33) primary melanoma skin lesions from MSKCC patients. n=71. All data are represented as mean±SEM. *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001. See also FIG. 12. FIGS. 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, 2E, 2F, 2G and 2H. MiR-1908, miR-199a-3p, and miR-199a-5p Display Dual Cell-Autonomous/Non-Cell-Autonomous Roles in Regulating Melanoma Metastatic Progression (2A) 1×106 parental MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin were injected subcutaneously into immuno-deficient mice, and primary tumor volume was monitored over time. n=4-6. (2B) 1×105 parental MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin were allowed to invade through a trans-well matrigel-coated insert for 24 hours, and the number of cells invaded into the basal side of each insert was quantified. n=7. (2C-2D) 1×105 highly metastatic MeWo-LM2 (2C) and A375-LM3 (2D) cells with miR-Zip-induced inhibition of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, or a control sequence were subjected to the cell invasion assay. n=6-8. (2E) 5×104 MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin were seeded on the bottom of a well, and 1×105 human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC's) were allowed to migrate towards the cancer cells for 16 hours through a trans-well insert. Endothelial recruitment capacity was measured by quantifying the number of HUVEC' s migrated to the basal side of each insert. n=7. (2F-2G) Endothelial recruitment by 5×104 MeWo-LM2 (2F) and A375-LM3 (2G) cells inhibited for miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, or a control sequence. n=6-10. (2H) Cumulative fraction plot of the percentage blood vessel density distribution for metastatic nodules formed following intravenous injection of 2×105 highly metastatic MeWo-LM2 cells depleted for miR-199-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, or a control sequence. Lung sections were immunohistochemically double-stained for human vimentin (blue) and MECA-32 (red), and the percentage MECA-32 positive area within each metastatic nodule, demarcated based on vimentin staining, was quantified. n=211 nodules (control KD); n=60 nodules (m199a3p KD); n=138 nodules (m199a5p KD); n=39 nodules (m1908 KD). All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bar, 100 μm. See also FIG. 13. FIGS. 3A, 3B, 3C, 3D, 3E, 3F, 3G, 3H and 3I. Identification of ApoE and DNAJA4 as Common Target Genes of miR-199a and miR-1908 (3A) Heat map depicting mRNA levels of ApoE and DNAJA4, measured by qRT-PCR, in poorly metastatic MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin and in highly metastatic MeWo-LM2 cells. Color map illustrates standard deviation changes from the mean of each heat map column. (3B) Heterologous luciferase reporter assays measuring the stability of wild-type ApoE and DNAJA4 3′UTR/CDS luciferase fusions or miRNA target-site mutant ApoE and DNAJA4 3′UTR/CDS fusions in parental MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin. n=3-4. (3C) Stability of wild-type ApoE and DNAJA4 3′UTR/CDS luciferase fusions in MeWo-LM2 cells with silenced expression of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, or a control sequence. n=4. (3D) Schematic of experimentally derived model of ApoE and DNAJA4 3′UTR/CDS targeting by miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908. (3E) Luciferase activity of wild-type and miRNA target-site mutant ApoE and DNAJA4 3′UTR/CDS luciferase fusions in highly metastatic MeWo-LM2 derivatives and their poorly metastatic parental cell line. n=4. (3F) Matrigel invasion capacity by 1×105 MeWo-LM2 cells expressing a control vector or over-expressing ApoE or DNAJA4. n=4. (3G) Endothelial recruitment ability by 5×104 MeWo-LM2 cells transduced with a control vector or an over-expression vector for ApoE or DNAJA4. n=6. (3H-3I) Poorly metastatic parental MeWo cells transduced with lentiviral short hairpins targeting ApoE, DNAJA4, or a control sequence were assessed for their matrigel invasion capacity (3H) and ability to recruit endothelial cells (3I). n=6-8. All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bar, 100 μm. See also FIG. 14. FIGS. 4A, 4B, 4C, 4D, 4E, 4F, 4G, 4H, 4I, 4J and 4K. Direct Targeting of ApoE and DNAJA4 by miR-199a and miR-1908 Promotes Metastatic Invasion, Endothelial Recruitment, and Colonization (4A-4D) Highly metastatic LM2 cells expressing a control shRNA or shRNAs targeting ApoE or DNAJA4 in the context of miR-1908 inhibition (m1908 KD; 4A, 4B) or miR-199a-5p inhibition (m199a5p KD; 4C, 4D) were subjected to the cell invasion (4A, 4C) and endothelial recruitment assays (4B, 4D). n=6-8. (4E-4F) Bioluminescence imaging plot and H&E-stained lungs representative of lung metastasis after intravenous injection of 1×105 LM2 cells expressing a control hairpin or hairpins targeting ApoE, DNAJA4, or a control sequence in the setting of miR-1908 silencing (4E) or miR-199a-5p silencing (4F). n=5. (4G-4H) Parental MeWo cells over-expressing ApoE or DNAJA4 or expressing a control vector in the context of miR-1908 over-expression were analyzed for the matrigel invasion (4G) and endothelial recruitment (4H) phenotypes. (4I-4J) A375-LM3 derivatives expressing a control shRNA or shRNAs targeting ApoE and DNAJA4 were transduced with a cocktail of LNAs targeting miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 or a control LNA and analyzed in the matrigel invasion (4I) and endothelial recruitment (4J) assays. n=4. (4K) Blood vessel density distribution, represented in a cumulative fraction plot, for metastatic nodules formed by MeWo-LM2 cells inhibited for miR-1908 and transduced with shRNAs targeting ApoE, DNAJA4, or a control sequence. Lung sections from FIG. 4E were immunocytochemically double-stained for human vimentin (blue) and the endothelial marker MECA-32 (red). The percentage MECA-32 positive area within each vimentin-positive nodule was quantified. n=39 nodules (shCTRL); n=97 (shAPOEl); n=38 (shAPOE2); n=200 (shDNAJA41); n=19 (shDNAJA42). All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bar, 100 μm. See also FIG. 15. FIGS. 5A, 5B, 5C, 5D, 5E, 5F, 5G, 5H, 5I, 5J, 5K, 5L and 5M. Melanoma-Cell Secreted ApoE Inhibits Melanoma Invasion and Endothelial Recruitment, while Genetic Deletion of ApoE Accelerates Metastasis (5A-5B) Extracellular ApoE levels quantified by ELISA in conditioned media from MeWo-LM2 metastatic derivatives and their parental cells (5A) and LM2 cells silenced for miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, or a control sequence (5B). n=3. (5C) ApoE-neutralizing antibody 1D7 (10-40 μg/mL) or IgG (40 μg/mL) was added to the cell media, and matrigel invasion by parental MeWo cells was assessed. n=4-6. (5D) Endothelial recruitment by parental MeWo cells in the presence of 1D7 (40 μg/mL) or a control IgG antibody (40 μg/mL). n=4. (5E) The matrigel invasion and endothelial recruitment phenotypes were assessed in LM2 cells in the presence of bovine serum albumin (BSA) (100 μM) or recombinant ApoE3 (100 μM) added to the cell media. n=7-10. (5F-5G) LM2 cells with silenced expression of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, or a control sequence were examined for matrigel invasion capacity (5F) and endothelial recruitment ability (5G) in the presence of IgG or ApoE-neutralizing 1D7 antibodies (40 μg/mL). n=5-6. (5H) ApoE levels quantified by ELISA in conditioned media from parental MeWo cells transduced with shRNAs targeting DNAJA4 or a control sequence. n=3. (5I-5J) Parental MeWo cells with shRNA-induced silencing of DNAJA4 were analyzed for the matrigel invasion (5I) and endothelial recruitment (5J) phenotypes in the presence of either BSA (100 μM) or recombinant ApoE3 (100 μM). n=4. (5K) Array-based ApoE expression levels in nevi (n=9), primary melanomas (n=6), and distant melanoma metastases samples (n=19). (5L) Highly metastatic MeWo-LM2 cells were incubated in the presence of recombinant ApoE3 or BSA at 100 μg/mL. After 24 hours, 4×104 cells were intravenously injected into NOD-SCID mice, and lung colonization was monitored by bioluminescence imaging. n=6. (5M) Lung metastasis by 5×104 B16F10 mouse melanoma cells intravenously injected into ApoE genetically null C57BL/6 mice or their wild-type control littermates. Lung bioluminescence quantification and representative H&E-stained lungs correspond to 19 days post-injection. n=8-18. All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bar, 100 μm. FIGS. 6A, 6B, 6C, 6D, 6E, 6F, 6G, 6H, 6I and 6J. Identification of Distinct Melanoma and Endothelial Cell Receptors that Mediate the Effects of ApoE on Melanoma Invasion and Endothelial Recruitment (6A) Matrigel invasion capacity was examined in 1×105 LM2 cells transduced with siRNAs targeting LDLR, VLDLR, LRP8, LRP1, or a control sequence in the presence of either BSA (100 μM) or recombinant ApoE3 (100 μM). n=4-7. (6B) 1×105 MeWo-LM2 cells transduced with short hairpins targeting miR-1908 or a control sequence were transfected with siRNAs targeting LRP1 or a control siRNA and subjected to the matrigel invasion assay. n=4. (6C) Bioluminescence imaging of lung colonization by 1×105 LM2 cells transduced with siRNAs targeting LRP1 or a control sequence in the setting of miR-1908 inhibition. n=5. (6D) 1×105 endothelial cells pre-incubated with BSA (100 μM) or recombinant ApoE3 (100 μM) for 24 hours were analyzed for the endothelial recruitment phenotype by 5×105 LM2 cells. n=3-4. (6E) 1×105 endothelial cells were transduced with siRNAs targeting LDLR, VLDLR, LRP1, LRP8, or a control sequence and allowed to migrate in a trans-well system towards LM2 cells inhibited for miR-1908 or a control sequence. n=4-12. (6F) Trans-well migration by 1×105 endothelial cells in the presence of IgG (40 μg/mL) or 1D7 antibodies (40 μg/mL) added to the cell media. n=6-8. (6G) Trans-well migration by 1×105 endothelial cells transduced with siRNAs targeting LRP8 or a control sequence in the presence of BSA (100 μM) or recombinant ApoE3 (100 μM). n=6-7. (6H) 1×105 endothelial cells were transduced with siRNAs targeting LRP8 or a control sequence, and trans-well chemotactic migration was assessed along an ApoE gradient. n=6-8. (6I) Endothelial recruitment into matrigel plugs, implanted subcutaneously above the ventral flank of mice, containing BSA (10 μg/mL), VEGF (400 ng/mL)+BSA (10 μg/mL), or VEGF (400 ng/mL)+recombinant ApoE3 (10 μg/mL). n=3-6.(6J) Blood vessel density within lung metastatic nodules formed following intravenous injection of 5×104 B16F10 mouse melanoma cells into wild-type or ApoE genetically null mice. Lung sections from FIG. 5M were immunohistochemically stained for MECA-32, and the percentage MECA-32 positive area within each metastatic nodule, outlined based on cell pigmentation, was quantified. n=17-20. All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bar, 100 μm. FIGS. 7A, 7B, 7C, 7D, 7E, 7F, 7G, 7H, 7I AND 7K. Clinical and Therapeutic Cooperativity among miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 in Melanoma Metastasis (7A-7D). Kaplan-Meier curves for the MSKCC cohort (N=7I) representing metastasis-free survival of patients as a function of their primary melanoma lesion's miR-199a-3p (7A), miR-199a-5p (7B), miR-1908 (7C), or aggregate three miRNA expression levels (7D). Patients whose primary tumors' miRNA expression or aggregate miRNA expression levels (sum of the expression values of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908) were greater than the median for the population were classified as miRNA expression positive (red), while those whose primary tumors expressed the given miRNAs at a level below the median were classified as miRNA expression negative (blue). (7E) Lung metastasis by highly metastatic LM2 cells transfected with LNAs individually targeting each miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, or miR-199a-5p, a combination of LNAs targeting all three miRNAs, or a control LNA. 48 hours post-transfection, 1×105 cells were intravenously injected into immuno-deficient mice. n=5-6. (7F) Systemic metastasis by 1×105 MeWo-LM2 cells transfected with a control LNA (LNA-CTRL) or a cocktail of LNAs targeting miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p (LNA-3 miRNAs) 48 hours prior to intracardiac injection into athymic nude mice. n=5. (7G) Number of systemic metastatic foci arising from LNA-CTRL and LNA-3 miRNAs LM2 cells at day 28 post-intracardiac injection. n=5. (7H-7I) Bioluminescence signal quantification of bone metastasis (7H) and brain metastasis (7I) at day 28 post-intracardiac injection of LNA-CTRL and LNA-3 miRNAs LM2 cells. n=5. (7J) 4×104 highly metastatic MeWo-LM2 cells were tail-vein injected into immuno-compromised mice, and the mice were intravenously treated with a cocktail of in vivo-optimized LNAs targeting miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, and miR-199a-5p at a total dose of 12.5 mg/kg or a mock PBS control on a bi-weekly basis for four weeks. Lung colonization was assessed by bioluminescence imaging, and representative H&E-stained lungs extracted at day 56 are shown. n=5-6. (7K) Model of miRNA-dependent regulation of metastatic invasion, endothelial recruitment, and colonization in melanoma through targeting of ApoE-mediated melanoma cell LRP1 and endothelial cell LRP8 receptor signaling. FIGS. 8A, 8B, 8C, 8D and 8E. MiRNA-dependent targeting of ApoE/LRP1 signaling promotes cancer cell invasion and endothelial recruitment through CTGF induction. (8A) A heat-map of variance-normalized CTGF expression levels, determined by qRT-PCR analysis, in (1) MeWo parental and MeWo-LM2 cells, (2) MeWo parental cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin, and (3) MeWo parental cells transduced with short hairpins targeting ApoE or a control sequence. Color-map indicates the standard deviations change from the mean. (8B) CTGF levels in conditioned media from MeWo parental cells with ApoE knock-down determined by ELISA. n=6; p-values based on a one-sided student's t-test. (8C) CTGF levels, quantified by ELISA, in conditioned media from highly metastatic MeWo-LM2 cells treated with recombinant ApoE in the setting of LRP1 knock-down or a control knock-down. n=3-4; p-values based on a one-sided student's t-test. (8D-8E) Parental MeWo cells with shRNA-induced ApoE knock-down were (1) transfected with independent siRNAs targeting CTGF or a control sequence or (2) incubated in the presence of a CTGF neutralizing antibody (20 μg/mL) or an IgG control antibody (20 μg/mL), and the cells were subjected to cell invasion (8D) and endothelial recruitment (8E) assays. n=6-8; p-values based on a one-sided student's t-test; scale bar indicates 100 μM. All data are represented as mean±SEM. FIGS. 9A, 9B and 9C. CTGF mediates miRNA-dependent metastatic invasion, endothelial recruitment, and colonization. (9A) 1×105 parental MeWo cells expressing a control hairpin or over-expressing miR-199a or miR-1908 were subjected to a trans-well cell invasion assay in the presence of a blocking antibody targeting CTGF (20 μg/mL) or a control IgG antibody (20 μg/mL) as indicated in the figure. n=4-10; p-values based on a one-sided student's t-test. All data are represented as mean±SEM. (9B) Endothelial recruitment by parental MeWo cells expressing a control hairpin or over-expressing miR-199a or miR-1908. At the beginning of the assay, a neutralizing antibody targeting CTGF (20 μg/mL) or a control IgG antibody (20 μg/mL) were added to endothelial cells as indicated, and 1×105 endothelial cells were allowed to migrate towards 5×104 cancer cells in a trans-well migration assay. n=3-8; p-values based on a one-sided student's t-test. (9C) Bioluminescence imaging of lung metastasis by 5×104 parental MeWo cells knocked down for CTGF in the setting of miR-199a or miR-1908 over-expression. n=5-6; p-values obtained using a one-way Mann-Whitney t-test. All data are represented as mean±SEM. FIGS. 10A, 10B, 10C, 10D and 10E. Treatment with the LXR agonist GW3965 elevates melanoma cell ApoE levels and suppresses cancer cell invasion, endothelial recruitment, and metastatic colonization. (10A-10B) Parental MeWo cells were incubated in the presence of DMSO or GW3965 at the indicated concentrations. After 48 hours, total RNA was extracted, and the levels of ApoE (10A) and DNAJA4 (10B) were determined by qRT-PCR. n=3. (10C) Cell invasion by 1×105 parental MeWo cells pre-treated with GW3965 or DMSO for 48 hours. n=6-7. p-values based on a one-sided student's t-test. All data are represented as mean±SEM. (10D) Endothelial recruitment by 5×104 parental MeWo cells pre-treated with GW3965 or DMSO for 48 hours. n=6-7. p-values based on a one-sided student's t-test. (10E) Mice were fed with grain-based chow diet containing GW3965 (20mg/kg) or a control diet. After 10 days, 4×104 parental MeWo cells were tail-vein injected into mice, and the mice were continuously fed with GW3965-containing chow or a control diet throughout the experiment. Lung colonization was assessed by bioluminescence imaging. n=5-6; p-values obtained using a one-way Mann-Whitney t-test All data are represented as mean±SEM. FIGS. 11A and 11B. Identification of miR-7 as an endogenous suppressor of melanoma metastasis. (11A) Bioluminescence imaging plot of lung metastatic colonization following intravenous injection of 4×104 parental MeWo cells expressing a short hairpin (miR-Zip) inhibiting miR-7 (miR-7 KD). Lungs were extracted 63 days post-injection and H&E-stained. n=5. (11B). Lung metastasis by 4×104 LM2 cells over-expressing the precursor for miR-7 or a control hairpin. Lung colonization was monitored weekly by bioluminescence imaging, and lungs were extracted at day 77 post-injection. n=5. All data are represented as mean±SEM; p-values were determined using a one-way Mann-Whitney t-test. *p<0.05, **p<0.01. FIGS. 12A, 12B, 12C, 12D, 12E and 12F. In Vivo Selection For Highly Metastatic Human Melanoma Cell Line Derivatives and Identification of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 as Metastasis-Promoter miRNAs (12A-12B) Bioluminescence imaging of lung metastasis and representative images of H&E-stained lungs corresponding to MeWo-LM2 (12A) and A375-LM3 metastatic derivatives (12B) and their respective parental cell lines. 4×104 MeWo-Par/MeWo-LM2 cells and 1×105 A375-Par/A375-LM3 cells were intravenously injected into NOD-SCID mice, and lungs were extracted and H&E stained on day 72 and day 49, respectively. n=4-5. (12C) Expression levels of miR-199a-5p, miR-199a-3p, miR-1908, and miR-214 were determined by qRT-PCR in A375-LM3 metastatic derivatives and their parental cells. n=3. (12D) Parental MeWo cells were transduced with retrovirus expressing a control hairpin or a pre-miRNA hairpin construct giving rise to miR-199a (both miR-199a-3p and miR-199a-5p), miR-1908, or miR-214. The expression levels of the target miRNAs were determined by qRT-PCR.12 n=3. (12E) H&E-stained lung sections from FIG. 1C were analyzed for the number of metastatic nodules resulting from parental MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin. n=3. (12F) The number of metastatic nodules formed by LM2 cells with silenced expression of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, or a control sequence was analyzed in H&E-stained lung sections from FIG. 1D. n=3. All data are represented as mean±SEM. FIGS. 13A, 13B, 13C, 13D, 13E, 13F, 13G and 13H. MiR-199a and miR-1908 Inhibit Proliferation in vitro and Selectively Promote Cell Invasion and Endothelial Recruitment (13A) 2.5×104 MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin were seeded in triplicate, and viable cells were counted after 5 days. n=3. (13B) 1×105 poorly metastatic parental MeWo and highly metastatic LM2 cells were compared for their ability to invade though matrigel in a trans-well assay. n=3-4. (13C) 1×105 endothelial cells were seeded in a 6-well plate and allowed to form a monolayer. 2×105 parental MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin were seeded on top of the endothelial monolayer and incubated for 30 minutes. Each monolayer was subsequently imaged, and the number of cancer cells adhering to endothelial cells was quantified. n=3. (13D) 1×106 parental MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin were seeded in low adherent plates containing cell media supplemented with 0.2% methylcellulose. Following 48 hours in suspension, the numbers of dead and viable cells were quantified. n=3. (13E) 5×105 parental MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin were seeded in a 6-well plate and incubated in low-serum media for 48 hours, after which the number of viable cells was quantified. n=4. (13F) Colony formation by parental MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin. 50 cells were seeded in a 6-cm plate, and the number of colonies formed was quantified 2 weeks later. n=4. (13G) 5×104 parental MeWo and LM2 cells were seeded on the bottom of a well and assessed for their ability to recruit endothelial cells. n=6-8. (13H) Percentage blood vessel density, shown as a cumulative fraction plot, for metastatic nodules formed by parental MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin. Lung sections from FIG. 1C were immunohistochemically double-stained for human vimentin and MECA-32, and the MECA-32 positive area relative to the total nodule area, given by human vimentin staining, was quantified using ImageJ. n=43 nodules (control); n=117 nodules (miR-199a OE); n=55 nodules (miR-1908 OE). All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bar, 100 μm. FIGS. 14A, 14B, 14C, 14D, 14E, 14F, 14G. MiR-199a and miR-1908 Convergently and Cooperatively Target ApoE and DNAJA4 (14A) Venn diagram showing the integrative experimental approach that lead to the identification of putative target genes common to miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908. Transcriptomic profiling of genes down-regulated by greater than 1.5-fold upon each miRNA over-expression were overlapped with genes up-regulated by more than 1.5-fold upon each miRNA silencing and with genes down-regulated by more than 1.5-fold in metastatic LM2 cells relative to their parental cell line. (14B, 14C, 14D) Expression levels of ApoE and DNAJA4 measured by qRT-PCR in parental MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin (14B), in parental MeWo cells and their highly metastatic LM2 derivative cell line (14C), and in MeWo-LM2 cells with miR-Zip-based silencing of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, or a control sequence (14D). n=3. (14E) Heterologous luciferase reporter assays measuring the stability of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, or miR-1908 target site mutant ApoE and DNAJA4 3′UTR/CDS luciferase fusions in highly metastatic LM2 cells with inhibition of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, or a control sequence. n=3-4. (14F) MeWo-LM2 cells were transduced with retrovirus expressing a control vector or an over-expression vector giving rise to ApoE or DNAJA4. The expression levels of the target genes were determined by qRT-PCR. (14G) Expression levels of ApoE and DNAJA4, determined by qRT-PCR, in parental MeWo cells were transduced with lentiviral shRNAs targeting ApoE, DNAJA4, or a control sequence. All data are represented as mean±SEM. FIGS. 15A, 15B, 15C, 15D, 15E, 15F, 15G, 15H, 15I and 15K. Epistatic Interactions between miR-199a/miR-1908 and ApoE/DNAJA4 (15A, 15B, 15C and 15D). MeWo-LM2 cells were transduced with lentiviral shRNAs targeting ApoE (15A, 15C), DNAJA4 (15B, 5D), or a control shRNA in the setting of miR-Zip-induced silencing of miR-1908 (15A, 15B), miR-199a-5p (15C, 15D), or a control sequence. The levels of the target genes were analyzed by qRT-PCR. (15E) Bioluminescence imaging of lung metastasis by 1×105 LM2 cells expressing a control hairpin or shRNAs (independent from the shRNAs used in FIG. 4E) targeting ApoE, DNAJA4, or a control sequence in the setting of miR-1908 inhibition. Representative bioluminescence images and H&E-stained lungs correspond to day 42 post-injection. n=5. (15F-15G) The expression levels of ApoE and DNAJA4 were analyzed by qRT-PCR in parental MeWo cells transduced with retrovirus expressing a control vector or an over-expression vector for ApoE or DNAJA4 in the setting of miR-1908 (15F) or miR-199a (15G) over-expression. (15H-15I). Parental MeWo cells over-expressing ApoE or DNAJA4 or expressing a control vector in the setting of miR-199a over-expression were examined for the invasion (15H) and endothelial recruitment (15I) phenotypes. n=7-8. (15J) Bioluminescence imaging of lung metastasis by 4×104 parental MeWo cells over-expressing ApoE or DNAJA4 or expressing a control vector in the setting of miR-1908 over-expression. Representative bioluminescence images and H&E-stained lungs correspond to day 56 post-injection n=4-8. (15K). Expression levels of ApoE and DNAJA4, determined by qRT-PCR, in highly metastatic A375-LM3 derivatives transduced with lentivirus expressing shRNA constructs targeting ApoE and DNAJA4 or a control sequence. All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bar, 100 μm. FIGS. 16A, 16B, 16C, 16C, 16D, 16E, 16F, 16G, 16H and 16I. Extracellular ApoE Inhibits Melanoma Invasion and Endothelial Recruitment Phenotypes Independent of Any Effects on Cancer or Endothelial Cell Proliferation and Survival (16A) Extracellular ApoE levels were measured by ELISA in conditioned media from MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin. n=3. (16B-16C) 3×104 MeWo-LM2 cells (16B) or endothelial cells (16C) were cultured in the presence of BSA (100 μM) or APOE (100 μM), and cell proliferation was monitored over time by counting the number of viable cells at each indicated time-point. n=3. (16D-16E) Survival of MeWo-LM2 cells (16D) or endothelial cells (16E) in the context of serum starvation in the presence of BSA (100 μM) or APOE (100 μM). n=3. (16F-16G) The mRNA expression levels of ApoE were assessed in parental MeWo cells transduced with lentivirus expressing a control hairpin or short hairpin constructs targeting DNAJA4 (16F) and in LM2 cells transduced with retrovirus expressing a control vector or an over-expression vector for DNAJA4 (16G). n=3. (H-I) LM2 cells transduced with retrovirus expressing a control vector or an over-expression vector for DNAJA4 were assessed for their ability to invade through matrigel (16H; n=6-8) and recruit endothelial cells in a trans-well assay (16I; n=4) in the presence of IgG (40m/mL) or 1D7 (40m/mL) ApoE neutralization antibodies. All data are represented as mean±SEM. FIGS. 17A, 17B, 17C, 17D and 17E. ApoE Inhibits Cell Invasion and Endothelial Recruitment by Targeting Melanoma Cell LRP1 and Endothelial Cell LRP8 Receptors (17A) 1×105 LM2 cells transduced with siRNAs against LRP1 or a control sequence were analyzed for the ability to invade through matrigel. n=9-12. (17B) 1×105 MeWo-LM2 cells inhibited for miR-199a-5p or a control sequence were transfected with siRNAs targeting LRP1 or a control siRNA and examined for their matrigel invasion capacity. n=4. (17C) Representative H&E-stained lungs extracted at day 56 from NOD-SCID mice injected with MeWo-LM2 miR-1908 KD cells transduced with a control siRNA or siRNAs targeting LRP1 (See FIG. 6C). (17D-17E) 1×105 endothelial cells were transfected with siRNAs targeting LRP8 or a control sequence and allowed to trans-well migrate towards 5×104 MeWo-LM2 cells expressing a short control hairpin (17D; n=8) or 5×104 MeWo-LM2 cells inhibited for miR-199a-5p or a control sequence (17E; n=4). All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bar, 100 μm. FIGS. 18A, 18B, and 18C. LNA-Based Inhibition of miR-199a and miR-1908 Suppresses Melanoma Metastasis (18A) In vitro cell proliferation by 2.5×104 MeWo-LM2 cells transduced with a control LNA or a cocktail of LNAs targeting miR-199a-3p, miR199a-5p and miR-1908. The number of viable cells was quantified after five days. n=3. (18B) Lung colonization by highly metastatic A375-LM3 derivatives transfected with a control LNA or a cocktail of LNAs targeting miR-199a-3p, miR199a-5p, and miR-1908. 48 hours post-transfection, 5×105 cells were injected intravenously into NOD-SCID mice, and lung colonization was determined by measuring bioluminescence 35 days later. n=5-6. (18C) The weight of mice treated with a cocktail of LNAs targeting the three miRNAs or a mock PBS control treatment (FIG. 7J) was monitored bi-weekly. n=5-6. All data are represented as mean±SEM. FIGS. 19A, 19B, 19C, 19D, 19E, 19F and 19G. Activation of LXRβ Signaling Suppresses Melanoma Cell Invasion and Endothelial Recruitment. (19A) Heat-map depicting microarray-based expression levels of LXR and RXR isoforms in the NCI-60 melanoma cell line collection. The heat map for these genes is extracted from the larger nuclear hormone receptor family heat map (FIG. 20). Color-map key indicates the change in standard deviations for the expression value of each receptor relative to the average expression value of all microarray-profiled genes (>39,000 transcript variants) in each cell line. (19B) Cell invasion by 1×105 MeWo, 5×104 HT-144, 5×105 SK-Me1-2, and 5×104 SK-Mel-334.2 human melanoma cells. Cells were treated with DMSO, GW3965, T0901317, or Bexarotene at 1 μM for 72 hours and subjected to a trans-well matrigel invasion assay. n=4-8. (19C) 5×104 MeWo, HT-144, SK-Me1-2, and SK-Mel334.2 human melanoma cells were tested for their ability to recruit 1×105 endothelial cells in a trans-well migration assay, following treatment of the melanoma cells with DMSO, GW3965 , T0901317, or Bexarotene at 1 μM for 72 hours. n=4-8. (19D-19E) 1×105 MeWo (19D) and 1×105 HT-144 (19E) melanoma cells expressing a control shRNA or shRNAs targeting LXRα or LXRβ were subjected to the cell invasion assay following treatment of the cells with DMSO, GW3965, or T0901317 at 1 μM for 72 hours. n=4-12. (19F-19G) 5×104 MeWo (19F) and 5×104 HT-144 (19G) cells, transduced with lentiviral shRNAs targeting LXRα or LXRβ or a control shRNA, were treated with DMSO, GW3965, or T0901317 at 1 μM for 72 hours and tested for their ability to recruit 1×105 endothelial cells in a trans-well migration assay. n=7-8. All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bar, 50 μm. *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001, ****p<0.0001. FIGS. 20A, 20B, 20C, 20D, 20E, 20F and 20G. Analysis of Nuclear Hormone Receptor Expression in Melanoma and Effects of LXR and RXR Agonists on In Vitro Cell Growth, Related to FIG. 19(A-G). (20A) Heat-map showing microarray-based expression levels of all nuclear hormone receptor family members across the NCI-60 collection of melanoma lines. The expression levels of each receptor is presented as the number of standard deviations below or above the average expression levels of all genes (>39,000 transcript variants) detected by the microarray in each respective cell line. (20B) 2.5×104 MeWo, HT-144, or SK-Mel-334.2 human melanoma cells were seeded in 6-well plates and cultured in the presence of DMSO, GW3965, T0901317, or Bexarotene at 1 μM. Viable cells were counted on day 5 post-seeding. n=3-6. (20C) 2.5×104 MeWo, HT-144, or SK-Mel-334.2 cells were plated in triplicates and incubated in media containing DMSO, GW3965, T0901317, or Bexarotene at 1 μM for 5 days, after which the number of dead cells was quantified using trypan blue dead cell stain. n=3. (20D-20G) Relative expression of LXRα and LXRβ, determined by qRT-PCR, in MeWo (20D, 20E) and HT-144 (20F, 20G) human melanoma cells expressing a control shRNA or shRNAs targeting LXRα or LXRβ. All data are represented as mean±SEM. FIGS. 21A, 21B, 21C, 21D, 21E, 21F, 21G, 21H, 21J, 21K and 21L. Therapeutic LXR Activation Inhibits Melanoma Tumor Growth. (21A-21B) Primary tumor growth by 5×104 B16F10 mouse melanoma cells subcutaneously injected into C57BL/6-WT mice. Following tumor growth to 5-10 mm3 in volume, mice were continuously fed a control chow or a chow supplemented with GW3965 (20 mg/kg/day or 100 mg/kg/day) (21A) or T0901317 (20 mg/kg/day) (21B). Representative tumor images shown correspond to tumors extracted at the final day (d12). n=10-18 (21A), 8-10 (21B). (21C-21E) Primary tumor growth by 1×106 MeWo (21C), 7.5×105 SK-Mel-334.2 (21D), and 2×106 SK-Mel-2 (21E) human melanoma cells subcutaneously injected into immunocompromised mice. Following tumor growth to 5-10 mm3 in volume, mice were randomly assigned to a control diet or a diet supplemented with GW3965 (20 mg/kg or 100 mg/kg, as indicated). Tumor images shown correspond to last day of measurements. n=6-34 (21C), 8 (21D), 5 (21E). (21F) 5×104 B16F10 cells were injected subcutaneously into C57BL/6-WT mice. Upon tumor growth to 150 mm3, mice were fed continuously with a control chow or a chow containing GW3965 (150 mg/kg), and tumor growth was measured daily. n=6-13. (21G-21I) Mouse overall survival following subcutaneous grafting of 5×104 B16F10 (21G), 1×106 MeWo (21H), and 7.5×105 SK-Mel-334.2 cells (21I) into mice that were administered a normal chow or a chow supplemented with GW3965 (100 mg/kg) upon formation of tumors measuring 5-10 mm3 in volume. n=6-9 (21F), 4-7(21H), 3-6 (21I). (21J, 21K, 21L) Tumor endothelial cell density, determined by immunohistochemical staining for the mouse endothelial cell antigen MECA-32 (21J), tumor cell proliferation, determined by staining for the proliferative marker Ki-67 (21K), and tumor cell apoptosis, determined by staining for cleaved caspase-3 (21L), in subcutaneous melanoma tumors formed by 1×106 MeWo human melanoma cells in response to mouse treatment with a control diet or a GW3965-supplemented diet (20 mg/kg) for 35 days. n=5. Tumor volume was calculated as (small diameter)2×(large diameter)/2. All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bars, 5 mm (21A, 21B, 21C, 21D), 50 μm (21J, 21K), 25 μm (21L). FIG. 22. LXRβ Agonism Suppresses Melanoma Tumor Growth, Related to FIG. 21(A-E). Weight measurements of mice fed a control diet or a diet supplemented with GW3965 (20 mg/kg/day or 100 mg/kg/day) or T0901317 (20 mg/kg) for 65 days. n=5-6. FIGS. 23A, 23B, 23C, 23D, 23E, 23F, 23G, 23H, 23I, 23J and 23K. LXR Agonism Suppresses Melanoma Metastasis to the Lung and Brain. (23A) MeWo cells were pre-treated with DMSO or GW3965 (1 μM) for 48 hours and 4×104 cells were intravenously injected via the tail-vein into NOD Scid mice. Lung colonization was monitored by weekly bioluminescence imaging. Representative H&E-stained lungs correspond to the final day (d70) are shown. n=4-5. (23B-23C) Bioluminescence imaging of lung metastasis by 4×104 MeWo cells intravenously injected into NOD Scid mice that were fed a control chow or a chow containing GW3965 (20 mg/kg) or T0901317 (20 mg/kg) starting 10 days prior to cancer cell injection. Representative H&E-stained lungs correspond to final imaging day n=5-6. (23B-23C) Bioluminescence imaging of lung metastasis by 4×104 MeWo cells intravenously injected into NOD Scid mice that were fed a control chow or a chow containing GW3965 (20 mg/kg) or T0901317 (20 mg/kg) starting 10 days prior to cancer cell injection. Representative H&E-stained lungs correspond to final imaging day n=5-6. (23F) Systemic and brain photon flux following intracardiac injection of 1×105 MeWo brain metastatic derivative cells into athymic nude mice that were fed a control diet or a GW3965-supplemented diet (100 mg/kg) starting on day 0 post-injection. n=7. (23G) Schematic of experimental orthotopic metastasis model used to assess the ability of GW3965 treatment to suppress lung metastasis post-tumor excision. (23H) Ex-vivo lung photon flux, determined by bioluminescence imaging, in NOD Scid mice that were administered a control chow or a chow containing GW3965 (100 mg/kg) for 1 month following the excision of size-matched (˜300-mm3 in volume) subcutaneous melanoma tumors formed by 1×106 MeWo melanoma cells. Representative lungs stained for human vimentin are also shown. n=7-9. (23I) 4×104 MeWo cells were intravenously injected into NOD Scid mice. Following initiation of metastases, detected by bioluminescence imaging on d42, mice were administered a control diet or a GW3965 diet (100 mg/kg) as indicated, and lung colonization progression was measured weekly. n=6. (23J) Number of macroscopic metastatic nodules in H&E-stained lungs extracted at the final day (d77) from NOD Scid mice administered a control diet or a diet supplemented with GW3965 (100 mg/kg), as indicated in (23I). n=4-5. (23K) Overall mouse survival following intravenous injection of 4×104 MeWo cells into NOD-Scid mice that were continuously fed a control chow or a GW3965-supplemented chow (20 mg/kg) starting 10 days prior to cancer cell injection. n=5-6. All data are represented as mean±SEM. FIGS. 24A, 24B, 24C, 24D, 24E and 24F. Suppression of Genetically-Driven Melanoma Progression by LXR Activation Therapy. (24A) Overall survival of Tyr::CreER; BrafV600E/+; Ptenlox/+ C57BL/6 mice following general melanoma induction by intraperitoneal administration of 4-HT (25 mg/kg) on three consecutive days. After the first 4-HT injection, mice were randomly assigned to a control diet or a diet supplemented with GW3965 (100 mg/kg). n=10-11. (24B) Melanoma tumor burden, expressed as the percentage of dorsal skin area, measured on day 35 in Tyr::CreER; BrafV600E/+; Ptenlox/lox mice administered a control chow or a chow supplemented with GW3965 (100 mg/kg) upon melanoma induction as described in (24A). n=4-5. (24C) Number of macroscopic metastatic nodules to the salivary gland lymph nodes detected post-mortem in Tyr::CreER; BrafV600E/+; Ptenlox/lox mice that were fed a control chow or a chow containing GW3965 (100 mg/kg) following global induction of melanoma progression as described in (24A). n=7-8. (24D) Tumor growth following subcutaneous injection of 1×105 BrafV600E/+; Pten−/−; CDKN2A−/− primary melanoma cells into syngeneic C57BL/6-WT mice. Upon tumor growth to 5-10 mm3 in volume, mice were fed with a control chow or a chow supplemented with GW3965 (100 mg/kg). n=16-18. (24E) Overall survival of C57BL/6-WT mice subcutaneously injected with 1×105 BrafV600E/+; Pten−/−; CDKN2A−/− melanoma cells and treated with a GW3965 diet (100 mg/kg) or a control diet following tumor growth to 5-10 mm3 in volume. n=7-8. (24F) Lung colonization by 1×105 BrafV600E/+; Pten−/−; CDKN2A−/− primary melanoma cells intravenously injected into C57BL/6-WT mice. Immediately following cancer cell injection, mice were randomly assigned to a control diet or a GW3965-supplemented diet (100 mg/kg) for the remainder of the experiment. n=14-15. All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bar, 2 mm (24B), 5 mm (24D). FIGS. 25A and 25B. LXR-Mediated Suppression of Melanoma Progression in a Genetically-Driven Melanoma Mouse Model, Related to FIG. 24(A-C). (25A) Overall survival of Tyr::CreER; BrafV600E/+; Ptenlox/lox C57BL/6 mice following general melanoma induction by intraperitoneal administration of 4-HT (25 mg/kg) on three consecutive days. After the first 4-HT injection, mice were randomly assigned to a control diet or a diet supplemented with GW3965 (100 mg/kg). n=7. (25B) Representative images of Tyr::CreER; BrafV600E/+; Ptenlox/lox C57BL/6 mice fed a control diet of GW3965-supplemented diet (100 mg/kg) taken 43 days following melanoma induction by intraperitoneal 4-HT administration. FIG. 26. A List of the 50 most upregulated genes in MeWo human melanoma cells in response to GW3965 treatment. FIGS. 27A, 27B, 27C, 27D, 27E, 27F, 27G, 27H, 27I, 27J and 27K. LXRβ Activation Induces ApoE Expression in Melanoma Cells; ApoE mediates LXRβ-Dependent Suppression of In Vitro Melanoma Progression Phenotypes. (27A, 27B, 27C) MeWo (27A), HT-144 (27B), and WM-266-4 (27C) human melanoma cells were treated with GW3965 or T0901317 at the indicated concentrations for 48 hours, and the expression levels of ApoE were analysed by qRT-PCR. n=3. (27D) Extracellular ApoE protein levels, quantified by ELISA, in serum-free conditioned media collected from HT-144 human melanoma cells treated with DMSO, GW3965, or T0901317 at 1 μM for 72 hours. n=3-4. (27E-27F) 5×104 HT-144 cells, treated with DMSO, GW3965, or T0901317 at 1 μM for 72 hours, were tested for the cell invasion (27E) and endothelial recruitment phenotypes (27F) in the presence of an ApoE neutralization antibody (1D7) or an IgG control antibody added at 40 μg/mL to each trans-well at the start of the assay. n=4. (27G-27H) Cell invasion (27G) and endothelial recruitment (27F) by 1×105 and 5×104 MeWo cells, respectively, expressing a control shRNA or an shRNA targeting ApoE and treated with DMSO or GW3965 at 1 μM for 72 hours prior to each assay. n=7-8. (27I-27J) Relative ApoE expression, quantified by qRT-PCR, in MeWo (I) and HT-144 (27J) cells transduced with a control shRNA or shRNAs targeting LXRα or LXRβ and subsequently treated with DMSO, GW3965, or T0901317 at 1 μM for 48 hours. n=3-9. (27K) Extracellular ApoE protein levels, measured by ELISA, in serum-free conditioned media harvested from HT-144 cells transduced with a control shRNA or an shRNA targeting LXRα or LXRβ and treated with DMSO or GW3965 at 1 μM for 72 hours. n=3. All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bar, 50 μm. FIGS. 28A, 28B, 28C, 28D, 28E, 28F, 28G, 28H and 28I. LXRβ Activation Suppresses Melanoma Invasion and Endothelial Recruitment by Transcriptionally Enhancing Melanoma-Cell ApoE Expression. (28A) Luciferase activity driven off the ApoE promoter fused downstream of multi-enhancer element 1 (ME.1) or multi-enhancer element 2 (ME.2) sequences and transfected into MeWo cells treated with DMSO, GW3965, or T0901317 at 1 μM for 24 hours. n=4-8. (28B) Extracellular ApoE protein levels were quantified by ELISA in serum-free conditioned media harvested from MeWo cells treated with DMSO, GW3965, or T0901317 at 1 μM for 72 hours. n=3-4. (28C) Cell invasion by 1×105 MeWo cells pre-treated with DMSO, GW3965, or T0901317 at 1 μM for 72 hours. At the start of the assay, an ApoE neutralization antibody (1D7) or an IgG control antibody was added at 40 μg/mL to each trans-well, as indicated. n=7-8. (28D) 5×104 MeWo cells, pre-treated with DMSO, GW3965, or T0901317 at 1 μM for 72 hours, were tested for their ability to recruit 1×105 endothelial cells in the presence of 1D7 or IgG antibodies at 40 μg/mL. n=6-8. (28E) Extracellular ApoE protein levels, quantified by ELISA, in serum-free conditioned media from SK-Mel-334.2 primary human melanoma cells treated with DMSO or GW3965 at 1 μM for 72 hours. n=4. (28F-28G) 5×104 SK-Mel-334.2 cells, pre-treated with GW3965 at 1 μM for 72 hours, were subjected to the cell invasion (28F) and endothelial recruitment (28G) assays in the presence of 1D7 or IgG antibodies at 40 μg/mL. n=7-8. (28H) Activity of the ApoE promoter fused to ME.1 or ME.2 enhancer elements was determined through measuring luciferase reporter activity in MeWo cells expressing a control shRNA or shRNAs targeting LXRα or LXRβ in the presence of DMSO or GW3965 (1 μM) for 24 hours. n=3-8. (28I) Extracellular ApoE protein levels, quantified by ELISA, were assessed in serum-free conditioned media collected from human MeWo melanoma cells expressing a control shRNA or shRNAs targeting LXRα or LXRβ in response to treatment with GW3965 or T0901317 (1 μM) for 72 hours. n=3-8. All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bar, 50 μm. FIGS. 29A, 29B, 29C, 29D, 29E, 29F, 29G, 29H, 29I, 29J and 29K. Therapeutic Delivery of LXR Agonists Upregulates Melanoma-Derived and Systemic ApoE Expression. (29A-29B) ApoE expression levels, quantified by qRT-PCR, in subcutaneous tumors formed by B16F10 mouse melanoma cells injected into C57BL/6 mice. After 5-mm3 tumor formation, mice were fed a control diet or diet containing GW3965 (20 mg/kg) (29A) or T0901317 (20 mg/kg) (29B) for 7 days. n=3-4. (29C, 29D, 29E) ApoE transcript expression in primary tumors (29C), lung metastases (29D), and brain metastases (29E) formed by MeWo human melanoma cells grafted onto NOD Scid mice that were administered control chow or chow supplemented with GW3965 (20 mg/kg). ApoE levels were assessed on day 35 (29C), day 153 (29D), and day 34 (29E) post-injection of the cancer cells. n=3-5. (29F) Relative expression levels of LXRα, LXRβ, and ApoE were determined by qRT-PCR in B16F10 mouse melanoma cells expressing a control hairpin or an shRNA targeting mouse LXRα (sh_mLXRα), mouse LXRβ (sh_mLXRβ), or mouse ApoE (sh_mApoE). (29G-29H) ApoE (29G) and ABCA1 (29H) mRNA levels, measured by qRT-PCR, in B16F10 cells expressing a control shRNA or shRNAs targeting mouse LXRβ or mouse ApoE. The cells were treated with DMSO or GW3965 at 5 μM for 48 hours. n=3. (29I) ABCA1 mRNA levels, measured by qRT-PCR, in systemic white blood cells extracted from LXRα −/− or LXRβ −/− mice fed a control diet or a GW3965-supplemented diet (20 mg/kg) for 10 days. n=3-4. (29J) Relative expression of ApoE mRNA, expressed as the frequency of SAGE tags, in mouse skin and lung tissues was determined using the public mSAGE Expression Matrix database available through the NCI-funded Cancer Genome Anatomy Project (CGAP). (29K) Relative expression of ApoE mRNA, determined by qRT-PCR, in MeWo melanoma cells dissociated from lung metastatic nodules (LM2) or primary tumors relative to control unselected MeWo parental cells. n=3. FIGS. 30A, 30B, 30C, 30D, 30E, 30F, 30G, 30H and 30I. LXRβ Agonism Suppresses Melanoma Tumor Growth and Metastasis by Inducing Melanoma-Derived and Systemic ApoE Expression. (30A) Western blot measurements of ApoE protein levels in adipose, lung, and brain tissue lysates extracted from wild-type mice fed with a control chow or a chow supplemented with GW3965 (20 mg/kg) or T0901317 (20 mg/kg) for 10 days. (30B) Quantification of ApoE protein expression based on western blots shown in (30A). Total tubulin was used as an endogenous control for normalization. n=3-5. (30C) Expression levels of ApoE, determined by qRT-PCR, in systemic white blood cells from mice fed a control diet or a diet supplemented with GW3965 or T0901317 at 20 mg/kg for 10 days. n=3-6. (30D) B16F10 control cells or B16F10 cells expressing shRNAs targeting mouse LXRα (sh_mLXRα) or mouse LXRβ (sh_mLXRβ) were subcutaneously injected into C57BL/6-WT, LXRα−/−, or LXRβ−/− mice. Once the tumors reached 5-10 mm3 in volume, mice were fed a control diet or a diet supplemented with GW3965 (20 mg/kg) for 7 days, after which final tumor volume was measured. Representative tumor images extracted at the end point are shown in the right panel. n=6-18. (30E) ApoE transcript levels, quantified by qRT-PCR, in systemic white blood cells extracted from LXRα−/− or LXRβ−/− mice fed a control diet or a GW3965-supplemented diet (20 mg/kg) for 10 days. n=3-5. (30F) Subcutaneous tumor growth by 5×104 B16F10 control cells or B16F10 cells expressing an shRNA targeting mouse ApoE (sh_mApoE) in C57BL/6-WT or ApoE−/− mice. Following the formation of tumors measuring 5-10 mm3 in volume, mice were fed a control diet or a diet supplemented with GW3965 (20 mg/kg) for 7 days, and final tumor volume was quantified. Representative images of tumors extracted at the final day of measurement (d12) are shown on the right. n=8-18. (30G) Lung colonization by 5×104 B16F10 cells transduced with a control shRNA or sh_mApoE and intravenously injected into C57BL/6-WT or ApoE−/− mice. Starting 10 days prior to cancer cell injection, mice were assigned to a control diet or a GW3965-supplemented diet (20 mg/kg) treatment. Lung metastasis was quantified on d22 by bioluminescence imaging. Representative lungs extracted at the end point (d22) are shown in the right panel. n=5-10. (30H) ApoE protein expression, determined by blinded immunohistochemical analysis, in non-metastatic (n=39) and metastatic (n=34) primary melanoma skin lesion samples obtained from patients at MSKCC. The fraction of ApoE-positively staining cell area was quantified as a percentage of total tumor area. (30I) Kaplan-Meier curves for the MSKCC cohort (n=71) depicting the metastasis-free survival of patients as a function of ApoE protein expression in patients' primary melanoma lesions. Melanomas that had ApoE levels above the median of the population were classified as ApoE-positive (pos), whereas tumors with ApoE expression below the median were classified as ApoE-negative (neg). All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bar, 5 mm (30D and 30F), 100 μm (30H). FIGS. 31A, 31B, 31C, 31D, 31E, 31F, 31G, 31H and 31I. Activation of LXRβ Suppresses the In Vivo Growth of Melanoma Lines Resistant to Dacarbazine and Vemurafenib. (31A) In vitro cell growth by 2.5×104 B16F10 parental cells and in vitro-derived B16F10 DTIC-resistant cells in response to varying doses of dacarbazine (DTIC) added to the cell media for 4 days. n=3. (31B-31D) Tumor growth by 5×104 DTIC-sensitive B16F10 parental cells (31B) or 5×104 DTIC-resistant B16F10 cells (31C) subcutaneously injected into C57BL/6-WT mice. Following tumor growth to 5-10 mm3 in volume, mice were treated with dacarbazine (50 mg/kg, i.p., daily) or a control vehicle and randomly assigned to regular chow or a chow supplemented with GW3965 (100 mg/kg). Final day tumor volume measurements are shown in (31D). n=8-16 (31B), 7-8 (31C). (31E-31F) Tumor growth by DTIC-sensitive MeWo parental cells and in vivo-derived DTIC-resistant MeWo human melanoma cells in response to DTIC or GW3965 treatments. 5×105 cells were subcutaneously injected into NOD Scid gamma mice. After formation of tumors measuring 5-10 mm3 in volume, mice were blindedly assigned to a control treatment, a DTIC treatment (50 mg/kg, i.p., administered daily in 5-day cycles with 2-day off-treatment intervals), or a GW3965-supplemented diet treatment (100 mg/kg). Final day tumor measurements are show in (31F). n=6-8. (31G) Tumor growth by 2×106 SK-Mel-239 vemurafenib-resistant clone cells subcutaneously injected into NOD Scid gamma mice that were assigned to a control diet or a diet supplemented with GW3965 (100 mg/kg) subsequent to growth of tumors to 5-10 mm3 in volume. n=7-8. (31H) Overall mouse survival post-grafting of 2×106 SK-Mel-239 vemurafenib-resistant cells. Upon the growth of tumors to 5-10 mm3 in volume, mice were continuously fed a control diet or a diet supplemented with GW3965 (100 mg/kg). n=7. (31I) Experimentally derived model depicting the engagement of systemic and melanoma-autonomous ApoE by LXRβ activation therapy in mediating the suppression of melanoma progression phenotypes. Extracellular ApoE suppresses melanoma metastasis by coordinately inhibiting melanoma cell invasion and non-cell-autonomous endothelial recruitment through targeting melanoma-cell LRP1 and endothelial-cell LRP8 receptors, respectively. All data are represented as mean±SEM. Scale bar, 5 mm. FIG. 32. Dacarbazine-Induced Suppression of Tumor Growth by Human Melanoma Cells. Tumor growth by 5×105 DTIC-sensitive MeWo parental cells subcutaneously injected into Nod SCID gamma mice. When tumors reached 5-10 mm3 volume, mice were treated with a control vehicle or DTIC (50 mg/kg, i.p., administered daily in 5-day cycles with 2-day off-treatment intervals), and tumor volume was measured twice a week. n=6. FIGS. 33A, 33B, 33C, 33D, 33E, 33F, 33G, 33H and I. ApoE-mediated suppression of cell invasion across multiple cancer types. (33A-33B) 5×104 MUM2B and OCM1 human uveal melanoma cells, (33C-33E) 5×104 MDA-231, MDA-468, and BT 549 human triple-negative breast cancer cells, (33F-33G) 5×104 PANC1 and BXPC-3 human pancreatic cancer cells, and (33H-33I) 5×104 786-00 and RCC4 human renal cancer cells were tested for their ability to invade through matrigel-coated trans-well inserts in vitro. BSA or recombinant ApoE were added to the cell media at 100m/mL at the start of the assay. n=4. All data are represented as mean±SEM; *p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001. FIGS. 34A, 34B, 34C and 34D. Effects of LXR agonists LXR-623, WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19, WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9, and SB742881 on ApoE expression in human melanoma cells. (34A-34D) MeWo human melanoma cells were treated with DMSO or the LXR agonists LXR-623 (34A), WO-2007-002563 (34B), WO-2010-0138598 (34C), or SB742881 (34D) at 500 nM, 1 μM, or 2 μM for 48 hours. The expression levels of ApoE were subsequently quantified by qRT-PCR. n=3. All data are represented as mean±SEM. *p<0.05, **p<0.01. FIGS. 35A, 35B and 35C. Treatment with the LXR agonist GW3965 inhibits In Vitro tumor cell invasion of renal cancer, pancreatic cancer, and lung cancer. (35A, 35B, 35C) Trans-well matrigel invasion by 5×104 RCC human renal cancer cells (35A), 5×104 PANC1 human pancreatic cancer cells (35B), and 5×104 H460 human lung cancer cells (35C) that were treated with DMSO or GW3965 at 1μM for 72 hours prior to the assay. n=4. All data are represented as mean±SEM. *p<0.05, **p<0.01. FIG. 36. Treatment with the LXR agonist GW3965 inhibits breast cancer tumor growth In Vivo. Primary tumor growth by 2×106 MDA-468 human breast cancer cells injected into the mammary fat pads of NOD Scid gamma mice. Two days prior to cancer cell injection, the mice were assigned to a control diet treatment or a diet supplemented with GW3965 (75 mg/kg) and maintained on the corresponding diet throughout the experiment. n=8. All data are represented as mean±SEM. ***p<0.001. FIGS. 37A and 37B. Effects of LXR agonists LXR-623, WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19, WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9, and SB742881 on in vitro melanoma progression phenotypes. (37A) Cell invasion by 1×105 MeWo human melanoma cells pre-treated with DMSO, LXR-623, WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19, WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9, or SB742881 at 1 μM each for 72 hours. The number of cells invading into the basal side of matrigel-coated trans-well inserts was quantified. n=5. (37B) Endothelial recruitment by 5×104 MeWo cells pre-treated with DMSO, LXR-623, WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19, WO-2010-0138598 Ex.9, or SB742881 at 1 μM each for 72 hours. Cancer cells were seeded at the bottom of a 24-well plate. Endothelial cells were seeded in a trans-well insert fitted into each well and allowed to migrate towards the cancer cells. The number of endothelial cells migrating to the basal side of each trans-well insert was quantified. n=4-5. All data are represented as mean±SEM. *p<0.05, **p<0.01. FIGS. 38A, 38B, 38C and 38D. Effects of LXR agonists LXR-623, WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19, WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9, and SB742881 on in vivo tumor growth. (38A, 38B, 38C, 38D) Tumor growth by 5×104 B16F10 mouse melanoma cells subcutaneously injected into 7-week-old C57BL/6 mice. After tumors reached 5-10 mm3 in volume, the mice were randomly assigned to a control diet treatment, an LXR-623-supplemented diet treatment at 20 mg/kg/day (38A) a WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19-supplemented diet treatment at 100 mg/kg/day (38B), a WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 19-supplemented diet treatment at 10 mg/kg/day or 100 mg/kg/day (38C), or an SB742881-supplemented diet treatment at 100 mg/kg/day (38D). n=8-10. All data are represented as mean±SEM. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention features methods for preventing or reducing aberrant proliferation, differentiation, or survival of cells. For example, compounds of the invention may be useful in reducing the risk of, or preventing, tumors from increasing in size or from reaching a metastatic state. The subject compounds may be administered to halt the progression or advancement of cancer. In addition, the instant invention includes use of the subject compounds to reduce the risk of, or prevent, a recurrence of cancer. Metastatic progression requires that sets of effector proteins involved in common cellular phenotypes be coherently expressed (Gupta and Massagué, 2006 Cell 127, 679-695; Hanahan and Weinberg, 2011 Cell 144, 646-674; Talmadge and Fidler, 2010 Cancer Res. 70, 5649-5669; Hynes, 2003 Cell 113, 821-823). Such concerted expression states are apparent in gene expression profiles of primary breast cancers that metastasize (Wang et al., 2005 Lancet 365, 671-679), as well as profiles of human cancer cell clones that display enhanced metastatic activity (Kang et al., 2003 Cancer Cell 3, 537-549; Minn et al., 2005 Nature 436, 518-524). In recent years, post-transcriptional regulation has emerged as a pervasive and robust mode of concerted expression-state and phenotype-level control. The most studied class of post-transcriptional regulators with metastatic regulatory activity are small non-coding RNAs (miRNAs) (Bartel, 2009 Cell 136, 215-233; Fabian et al., 2010 Annu. Rev. Biochem, 79, 351-379; Filipowicz et al., 2008 Nat. Rev. Genet. 9, 102-114). Metastasis promoter miRNAs (Ma et al., 2007 Nature 449, 682-688; Huang et al., 2008 Nat. Cell Biol. 10, 202-210) and suppressor miRNAs (Tavazoie et al., 2008 Nature 451, 147-152) were originally discovered in breast cancer. Subsequent studies revealed many more miRNAs with regulatory roles in the tumorigenesis and metastasis of other cancer types (Hatziapostolou et al., 2011 Cell 147, 1233-1247; Hurst et al., 2009 Cancer Res. 69, 7495-7498; Olson et al., 2009 Genes Dev. 23, 2152-2165; Zhang et al., 2010 Oncogene 29, 937-948) In many cases, the expression levels of these miRNAs in human cancer samples have supported their experimental roles in metastasis. Thus, deregulated miRNA expression (Garzon et al., 2010 Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 9, 775-789; Lujambio and Lowe, 2012 Nature 482, 347-355) and, more recently, deregulated expression of long non-coding RNAs (Calin et al., 2007 Nat. Rev. Cancer 6, 857-866; Gupta et al., 2010 Nature 464, 1071-1076; Guttman et al., 2009 Nature 458, 223-227; Huarte et al., 2010 .Cell 142, 409-419; Loewer et al., 2010 Nat. Genet. 42, 1113-1117) as well as non-coding pseudogenes competing for endogenous miRNA binding (Poliseno et al., 2010 Nature 465, 1033-1038) appear to be pervasive features of human cancer. Clues regarding the robust control exerted by specific miRNAs on metastatic progression came from early work showing that concerted targeting of multiple metastasis genes by a single metastasis suppressor miRNA was responsible for the dramatic metastasis suppression effects (Tavazoie et al., 2008 Nature 451, 147-152). Such divergent gene targeting by miRNAs has appeared to be a defining feature of these regulators. At a conceptual level, the need for divergent regulation of gene expression in cancer is readily understood. A miRNA could exert robust metastatic suppression by virtue of its ability to target multiple genes required for metastasis. The miRNA's silencing through genetic or epigenetic mechanisms would readily promote cancer progression by de-repressing multiple promoters of metastasis (Png et al., 2011 Nature 481, 190-194). A role for convergent regulation of a single gene by multiple metastasis regulatory miRNAs is more nuanced. This scenario would emerge if there existed a key gene that acted as a robust suppressor of metastatic progression. Convergent and cooperative targeting of this gene by multiple miRNAs could achieve maximal silencing of such a key metastasis suppressor gene. This scenario, as opposed to genetic deletion, may be seen in cases where complete loss of a target gene could not be tolerated by the cell, and the gene would be required at low levels to mediate metabolic actions, for example. Given this possibility, a search for cooperative metastasis promoter miRNAs may uncover novel genes that are pivotal for metastasis suppression and may provide therapeutic insights into more effective treatments for metastasis prevention. As disclosed herein, via a systematic, in vivo selection-based approach, a set of miRNAs were identified to be deregulated in multiple independent metastatic lines derived from multiple patients with melanoma—a highly prevalent cancer with increasing incidence (Garbe and Leiter, 2009 Clin. Dermatol. 27, 3-9). As disclosed herein, miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, and miR-199a-5p act as robust endogenous promoters of melanoma metastasis through convergent targeting of the metabolic gene ApoE and the heat-shock protein DNAJA4. Through loss-of-function, gain-of-function, and epistatic analyses, a cooperative miRNA network that maximally silences ApoE signaling is delineated. Cancer cell-secreted ApoE inhibits metastatic invasion and endothelial recruitment, which is mediated through its actions on distinct receptors on melanoma and endothelial cells. These miRNAs display significant prognostic capacity in identifying patients that develop melanoma metastatic relapse, while therapeutic delivery of LNAs targeting these miRNAs significantly inhibits melanoma metastasis. The current lack of effective therapies for the prevention of melanoma metastasis after surgical resection (Garbe et al., 2011 Oncologist 16, 5-24) requires an improved molecular and mechanistic understanding of melanoma metastatic progression. To this end, the findings disclosed herein reveal a number of key novel non-coding and coding genes involved in melanoma progression and offer a novel avenue for both identifying patients at high-risk for melanoma metastasis and treating them. Listed below are the nucleic acid and amino acid sequences of the members of the above-mentioned network and a number of other sequences. APOE-RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 1) gggatccttgagtcctactcagccccagcggaggtgaaggacgtccttccccaggagccgactggccaatcacaggcaggaagatgaag gttctgtgggctgcgttgctggtcacattcctggcaggatgccaggccaaggtggagcaagcggtggagacagagccggagcccgagct gcgccagcagaccgagtggcagagcggccagcgctgggaactggcactgggtcgctifigggattacctgcgctgggtgcagacactgt ctgagcaggtgcaggaggagctgctcagctcccaggtcacccaggaactgagggcgctgatggacgagaccatgaaggagttgaaggc ctacaaatcggaactggaggaacaactgaccccggtggcggaggagacgcgggcacggctgtccaaggagctgcaggcggcgcagg cccggctgggcgcggacatggaggacgtgtgcggccgcctggtgcagtaccgcggcgaggtgcaggccatgctcggccagagcacc gaggagctgcgggtgcgcctcgcctcccacctgcgcaagctgcgtaagcggctcctccgcgatgccgatgacctgcagaagcgcctgg cagtgtaccaggccggggcccgcgagggcgccgagcgcggcctcagcgccatccgcgagcgcctggggcccctggtggaacaggg ccgcgtgcgggccgccactgtgggctccctggccggccagccgctacaggagcgggcccaggcctggggcgagcggctgcgcgcgc ggatggaggagatgggcagccggacccgcgaccgcctggacgaggtgaaggagcaggtggcggaggtgcgcgccaagctggagga gcaggcccagcagatacgcctgcaggccgaggccttccaggcccgcctcaagagctggttcgagcccctggtggaagacatgcagcgc cagtgggccgggctggtggagaaggtgcaggctgccgtgggcaccagcgccgcccctgtgcccagcgacaatcactgaacgccgaag cctgcagccatgcgaccccacgccaccccgtgcctcctgcctccgcgcagcctgcagcgggagaccctgtccccgccccagccgtcctc ctggggtggaccctagtttaataaagattcaccaagtttcacgcaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa APOE-Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 2) mkvlwaallv tflagcqakv eqavetepep elrqqtewqs gqrwelalgr fwdylrwvqt lseqvqeell ssqvtqelra lmdetmkelk aykseleeql tpvaeetrar lskelqaaqa rlgadmedvc grlvqyrgev qamlgqstee lrvrlashlr klrkrllrda ddlqkrlavy qagaregaer glsairerlg plveqgrvra atvgslagqp lqeraqawge rlrarmeemg srtrdrldev keqvaevrak leeqaqqirl qaeafqarlk swfeplvedm qrqwaglvek vqaavgtsaa pvpsdnh (Underlined residues 136-150 represent the LRP-binding domain of Apo E) DNAJA4 isoform-RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 3) agucccacccuucggcgcagggcuccggccaacacagcccuccaggccgccuacucuccagccagccggcuccacggacccacg gaagggcaagggggcggccucggggcggcgggacaguugucggagggcgcccuccaggcccaagccgccuucuccggccccc gccauggcccggggcggcagucagagcuggagcuccggggaaucagacgggcagccaaaggagcagacgcccgagaagcccag acacaagauggugaaggagacccaguacuaugacauccugggcgugaagcccagcgcguccccggaggagaucaagaaggccu aucggaagcuggcgcucaaguaccacccggacaagaacccggaugagggcgagaaguuuaaacucauaucccaggcauaugaa gugcuuucagauccaaagaaaagggauguuuaugaccaaggcggagagcaggcaauuaaagaaggaggcucaggcagcccca gcuucucuucacccauggacaucuuugacauguucuuugguggugguggacggauggcuagagagagaagaggcaagaaug uuguacaccaguuaucuguaacucuugaagaucuauauaauggagucacgaagaaauuggcccuccagaaaaauguaauuug ugagaaaugugaagguguuggugggaagaagggaucgguggagaagugcccgcugugcaaggggcgggggaugcagaucca cauccagcagaucgggccgggcaugguacagcagauccagaccgugugcaucgagugcaagggccagggugagcgcaucaac cccaaggaccgcugcgagagcugcagcggggccaaggugauccgugagaagaagauuaucgagguacauguugaaaaaggua ugaaagaugggcaaaagauacuauuucauggagaaggagaucaggagccugagcuggagccuggugaugucauaauugugcu ugaucagaaggaucauagugucuuucagagacgaggccaugacuugaucaugaaaaugaaaauucagcuuucugaagcucuu uguggcuucaagaagacgauaaaaacauuggacaaucgaauucuuguuauuacauccaaagcaggugaggugauaaagcacg gggaccugagaugcgugcgcgaugaaggaaugcccaucuacaaagcaccccuggaaaaagggauucugaucauacaguuuuu aguaaucuuuccugaaaaacacuggcuuucucuggaaaagcuuccucagcuggaagcuuuacucccuccucgacagaaaguga ggauuacagaugacauggaucagguggagcugaaggaguuuugucccaaugagcagaacuggcgucagcacagggaggccua cgaggaggacgaagacgggccccaggcuggagugcagugccagacggcaugacguggugcggggcagcguggccccaccgga cuagcacaugaugaauguaaaguuggcacaaugaaaaugacaucgcuuuaauggccuuguguuugggauguccuguguaug uguucagcauucuuaauugcugagugucuuuuuggcuuuucuuuugguuguaacuuaaguuauagcuuaauuuauauuua aauguuuuaaguauaaaucaccucuagucugcauauggaaucuguucauuucuauuuucaggauauacuuuugagauguca gugauugcaccaauacuuugugcuucuaguggcuuugccauaauucagugucaccaauaaggcacagcccaguuagcagcuu agccccccuagcaaaccccaaggcacaaagugggcauccugacucaucucuaggucugugguuucuccccucuucccuuggca gaguuauugagggcaugaucucagggcugcuaagauaacauuucugaggauucuagaugauccucuuaaagaauaaaagcac auccguggaucggacauggcugcaugugccugcuuaacagggccaacuuaguuccuacuguucugugcccuucaguggaug gaacgugagugucugaucaucucucuuggaaguuuucugaaccuuccaagcucuguggugaggacaaaccaguguuugaauc auaugcugauaacuguuugccugugacccucacaccuuguucuucaggguuuuaaugauuuucuguugacaacuuuugcaa ugcuuucccaccaaagugcuuacuuguaaagaaaacuaaauccuucuguguccccggcagccucagugcagcaacagaagcca agggagaaugcugcugguuuggcccauggcacagccagcuucucugaccaguaauccggggugacuugagggucugcaaagg cauagaacuccccaguguuuuccaccucauucucccagauugagcucccuuccaaaggaucguuccucucauugcacagccau auuacaaaggguuuccugcucaagugauguuuugguaagaacuucgcugaguuccacuguggauuacaguuuguauggacu acuacuguaaauuauagcuuguuuggagggauauuagucauuauuuuauucaugacagguagacuacaauucgaacuuagg guuaccucagucuuuagccauuacugcuuauuucuuuuccccaagucacaaaaaacuuguaagcugcuggguuaaagcagag gccaccugucagaucuacccuacccuuauuugguuacauggcaccugagaguuucacucagaccagggaucuuccuuaggag ggucaaagugcagaucagaccaugcagguaaggugaaccagcugcacggaccagguucccgcaaaacauugccagcuagugag gcauaauuugcucaaaguauagaaacagcccaccugugcccacuuugaccauuggugaggauagauauaaaaucacuucuucc aacgaagccuaggugaaaaucuauuuauaaauggaccacaacucuggggugucguuuuugugcugugacuuccuaauuauug cuaaagaacuacuguuuaguugguaaugguguaaaauuacauucagcuccuucuugucauauaaaaggaauuuggagggug ucgcuuaaaauuuuauuccaccuguacauuugucacuuuaaaauuaaaauugagcugguaugagagauaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aaaa DNAJA4 isoform-Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 4) marggsqsws sgesdgqpke qtpekprhkm vketqyydil gvkpsaspee ikkayrklal kyhpdknpde gekfldisqa yevlsdpkkr dvydqggeqa ikeggsgsps fsspmdifdm ffggggrmar errgknvvhq lsvtledlyn gvtkklalqk nvicekcegv ggkkgsvekc plckgrgmqi hiqqigpgmv qqiqtvciec kgqgerinpk drcescsgak virekkiiev hvekgmkdgq kilfhgegdq epelepgdvi ivldqkdhsv fqrrghdlim kmkiqlseal cgfkktikti dnrilvitsk agevikhgdl revrdegmpi ykaplekgil iiqflvifpe khwlsleklp qleallpprq kvritddmdq velkefcpne qnwrqhreay eededgpqag vqcqta DNAJA4 isoform 2-RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 5) gugaccgugacgcgcgagcgggcggcgggggcgcgggccaggggcgcgggccagggugccggcaggggcguccggggcgcu cugaccggccucgcccgccccccccgcagacacaagauggugaaggagacccaguacuaugacauccugggcgugaagcccag cgcguccccggaggagaucaagaaggccuaucggaagcuggcgcucaaguaccacccggacaagaacccggaugagggcgaga aguuuaaacucauaucccaggcauaugaagugcuuucagauccaaagaaaagggauguuuaugaccaaggcggagagcaggc aauuaaagaaggaggcucaggcagccccagcuucucuucacccauggacaucuuugacauguucuuugguggugguggacgg auggcuagagagagaagaggcaagaauguuguacaccaguuaucuguaacucuugaagaucuauauaauggagucacgaaga aauuggcccuccagaaaaauguaauuugugagaaaugugaagguguuggugggaagaagggaucgguggagaagugcccgc ugugcaaggggcgggggaugcagauccacauccagcagaucgggccgggcaugguacagcagauccagaccgugugcaucga gugcaagggccagggugagcgcaucaaccccaaggaccgcugcgagagcugcagcggggccaaggugauccgugagaagaag auuaucgagguacauguugaaaaagguaugaaagaugggcaaaagauacuauuucauggagaaggagaucaggagccugagc uggagccuggugaugucauaauugugcuugaucagaaggaucauagugucuuucagagacgaggccaugacuugaucauga aaaugaaaauucagcuuucugaagcucuuuguggcuucaagaagacgauaaaaacauuggacaaucgaauucuuguuauuac auccaaagcaggugaggugauaaagcacggggaccugagaugcgugcgcgaugaaggaaugcccaucuacaaagcaccccugg aaaaagggauucugaucauacaguuuuuaguaaucuuuccugaaaaacacuggcuuucucuggaaaagcuuccucagcugga agcuuuacucccuccucgacagaaagugaggauuacagaugacauggaucagguggagcugaaggaguuuugucccaaugag cagaacuggcgucagcacagggaggccuacgaggaggacgaagacgggccccaggcuggagugcagugccagacggcaugac guggugcggggcagcguggccccaccggacuagcacaugaugaauguaaaguuggcacaaugaaaaugacaucgcuuuaaug gccuuguguuugggauguccuguguauguguucagcauucuuaauugcugagugucuuuuuggcuuuucuuuugguugua acuuaaguuauagcuuaauuuauauuuaaauguuuuaaguauaaaucaccucuagucugcauauggaaucuguucauuucua uuuucaggauauacuuuugagaugucagugauugcaccaauacuuugugcuucuaguggcuuugccauaauucagugucac caauaaggcacagcccaguuagcagcuuagccccccuagcaaaccccaaggcacaaagugggcauccugacucaucucuaggu cugugguuucuccccucuucccuuggcagaguuauugagggcaugaucucagggcugcuaagauaacauuucugaggauuc uagaugauccucuuaaagaauaaaagcacauccguggaucggacauggcugcaugugccugcuuaacagggccaacuuaguu ccuacuguucugugcccuucaguggauggaacgugagugucugaucaucucucuuggaaguuuucugaaccuuccaagcuc uguggugaggacaaaccaguguuugaaucauaugcugauaacuguuugccugugacccucacaccuuguucuucaggguuu uaaugauuuucuguugacaacuuuugcaaugcuuucccaccaaagugcuuacuuguaaagaaaacuaaauccuucugugucc ccggcagccucagugcagcaacagaagccaagggagaaugcugcugguuuggcccauggcacagccagcuucucugaccagua auccggggugacuugagggucugcaaaggcauagaacuccccaguguuuuccaccucauucucccagauugagcucccuucc aaaggaucguuccucucauugcacagccauauuacaaaggguuuccugcucaagugauguuuugguaagaacuucgcugagu uccacuguggauuacaguuuguauggacuacuacuguaaauuauagcuuguuuggagggauauuagucauuauuuuauuca ugacagguagacuacaauucgaacuuaggguuaccucagucuuuagccauuacugcuuauuucuuuuccccaagucacaaaa aacuuguaagcugcuggguuaaagcagaggccaccugucagaucuacccuacccuuauuugguuacauggcaccugagaguu ucacucagaccagggaucuuccuuaggagggucaaagugcagaucagaccaugcagguaaggugaaccagcugcacggaccag guucccgcaaaacauugccagcuagugaggcauaauuugcucaaaguauagaaacagcccaccugugcccacuuugaccauug gugaggauagauauaaaaucacuucuuccaacgaagccuaggugaaaaucuauuuauaaauggaccacaacucugggguguc guuuuugugcugugacuuccuaauuauugcuaaagaacuacuguuuaguugguaaugguguaaaauuacauucagcuccuu cuugucauauaaaaggaauuuggagggugucgcuuaaaauuuuauuccaccuguacauuugucacuuuaaaauuaaaauuga gcugguaugagagauaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa DNAJA4 isoform-Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 6) mvketqyydi lgvkpsaspe eikkayrkla lkyhpdknpd egekfklisq ayevlsdpkk rdvydqggeq aikeggsgsp sfsspmdifd mffggggrma rerrgknvvh qlsvtledly ngvtkklalq knvicekceg vggkkgsvek cplckgrgmq ihiqqigpgm vqqiqtvcie ckgqgerinp kdrcescsga kvirekkiie vhvekgmkdg qkilfhgegd qepelepgdv iivldqkdhs vfqrrghdli mkmkiqlsea lcgfkktikt ldnrilvits kagevikhgd lrcvrdegmp iykaplekgi liiqflvifp ekhwlslekl pqleallppr qkvritddmd qvelkefcpn eqnwrqhrea yeededgpqa gvqcqta DNAJA4 isoform 3-RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 7) acauuucagcaagcuggcuaaagacaugugggaaagccugacccuggauucaggucaaaucucagcacucacaagauuuaaac ucauaucccaggcauaugaagugcuuucagauccaaagaaaagggauguuuaugaccaaggcggagagcaggcaauuaaagaa ggaggcucaggcagccccagcuucucuucacccauggacaucuuugacauguucuuugguggugguggacggauggcuaga gagagaagaggcaagaauguuguacaccaguuaucuguaacucuugaagaucuauauaauggagucacgaagaaauuggccc uccagaaaaauguaauuugugagaaaugugaagguguuggugggaagaagggaucgguggagaagugcccgcugugcaagg ggcgggggaugcagauccacauccagcagaucgggccgggcaugguacagcagauccagaccgugugcaucgagugcaaggg ccagggugagcgcaucaaccccaaggaccgcugcgagagcugcagcggggccaaggugauccgugagaagaagauuaucgag guacauguugaaaaagguaugaaagaugggcaaaagauacuauuucauggagaaggagaucaggagccugagcuggagccug gugaugucauaauugugcuugaucagaaggaucauagugucuuucagagacgaggccaugacuugaucaugaaaaugaaaau ucagcuuucugaagcucuuuguggcuucaagaagacgauaaaaacauuggacaaucgaauucuuguuauuacauccaaagca ggugaggugauaaagcacggggaccugagaugcgugcgcgaugaaggaaugcccaucuacaaagcaccccuggaaaaaggga uucugaucauacaguuuuuaguaaucuuuccugaaaaacacuggcuuucucuggaaaagcuuccucagcuggaagcuuuacu cccuccucgacagaaagugaggauuacagaugacauggaucagguggagcugaaggaguuuugucccaaugagcagaacugg cgucagcacagggaggccuacgaggaggacgaagacgggccccaggcuggagugcagugccagacggcaugacguggugcgg ggcagcguggccccaccggacuagcacaugaugaauguaaaguuggcacaaugaaaaugacaucgcuuuaauggccuugugu uugggauguccuguguauguguucagcauucuuaauugcugagugucuuuuuggcuuuucuuuugguuguaacuuaaguu auagcuuaauuuauauuuaaauguuuuaaguauaaaucaccucuagucugcauauggaaucuguucauuucuauuuucagga uauacuuuugagaugucagugauugcaccaauacuuugugcuucuaguggcuuugccauaauucagugucaccaauaaggca cagcccaguuagcagcuuagccccccuagcaaaccccaaggcacaaagugggcauccugacucaucucuaggucugugguuuc uccccucuucccuuggcagaguuauugagggcaugaucucagggcugcuaagauaacauuucugaggauucuagaugauccu cuuaaagaauaaaagcacauccguggaucggacauggcugcaugugccugcuuaacagggccaacuuaguuccuacuguucu gugcccuucaguggauggaacgugagugucugaucaucucucuuggaaguuuucugaaccuuccaagcucuguggugagga caaaccaguguuugaaucauaugcugauaacuguuugccugugacccucacaccuuguucuucaggguuuuaaugauuuucu guugacaacuuuugcaaugcuuucccaccaaagugcuuacuuguaaagaaaacuaaauccuucuguguccccggcagccucag ugcagcaacagaagccaagggagaaugcugcugguuuggcccauggcacagccagcuucucugaccaguaauccggggugac uugagggucugcaaaggcauagaacuccccaguguuuuccaccucauucucccagauugagcucccuuccaaaggaucguuc cucucauugcacagccauauuacaaaggguuuccugcucaagugauguuuugguaagaacuucgcugaguuccacuguggau uacaguuuguauggacuacuacuguaaauuauagcuuguuuggagggauauuagucauuauuuuauucaugacagguagac uacaauucgaacuuaggguuaccucagucuuuagccauuacugcuuauuucuuuuccccaagucacaaaaaacuuguaagcu gcuggguuaaagcagaggccaccugucagaucuacccuacccuuauuugguuacauggcaccugagaguuucacucagacca gggaucuuccuuaggagggucaaagugcagaucagaccaugcagguaaggugaaccagcugcacggaccagguucccgcaaa acauugccagcuagugaggcauaauuugcucaaaguauagaaacagcccaccugugcccacuuugaccauuggugaggauag auauaaaaucacuucuuccaacgaagccuaggugaaaaucuauuuauaaauggaccacaacucuggggugucguuuuugugc ugugacuuccuaauuauugcuaaagaacuacuguuuaguugguaaugguguaaaauuacauucagcuccuucuugucauaua aaaggaauuuggagggugucgcuuaaaauuuuauuccaccuguacauuugucacuuuaaaauuaaaauugagcugguaugag agauaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa DNAJA4 isoform 3-Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 8) mwesltldsg qisaltrfkl isqayevlsd pkkrdvydqg geqaikeggs gspsfsspmd ifdmffgggg rmarerrgkn vvhqlsvtle dlyngvtkkl alqknvicek cegvggkkgs vekcplckgr gmqihiqqig pgmvqqiqtv cieckgqger inpkdrcesc sgakvirekk iievhvekgm kdgqkilfhg egdqepelep gdviivldqk dhsvfqrrgh dlimkmkiql sealcgfkkt iktldnrilv itskagevik hgdlrcvrde gmpiykaple kgiliiqflv ifpekhwls1 eklpqleall pprqkvritd dmdqvelkef cpneqnwrqh reayeededg pqagvqcqta LRP1-RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 9) cagcggugcgagcuccaggcccaugcacugaggaggcggaaacaaggggagcccccagagcuccaucaagcccccuccaaagg cuccccuacccgguccacgccccccacccccccuccccgccuccucccaauugugcauuuuugcagccggaggcggcuccgag auggggcugugagcuucgcccggggagggggaaagagcagcgaggagugaagcggggggguggggugaaggguuuggauu ucggggcagggggcgcacccccgucagcaggcccuccccaaggggcucggaacucuaccucuucacccacgccccuggugcgc uuugccgaaggaaagaauaagaacagagaaggaggagggggaaaggaggaaaagggggaccccccaacuggggggggugaag gagagaaguagcaggaccagaggggaaggggcugcugcuugcaucagcccacaccaugcugaccccgccguugcuccugcug cugccccugcucucagcucuggucgcggcggcuaucgacgccccuaagacuugcagccccaagcaguuugccugcagagauca aauaaccuguaucucaaagggcuggcggugcgacggugagagggacugcccagacggaucugacgaggccccugagauuugu ccacagaguaaggcccagcgaugccagccaaacgagcauaacugccuggguacugagcuguguguucccaugucccgccucug caaugggguccaggacugcauggacggcucagaugaggggccccacugccgagagcuccaaggcaacugcucucgccugggc ugccagcaccauuguguccccacacucgaugggcccaccugcuacugcaacagcagcuuucagcuucaggcagauggcaagac cugcaaagauuuugaugagugcucaguguacggcaccugcagccagcuaugcaccaacacagacggcuccuucauauguggc uguguugaaggauaccuccugcagccggauaaccgcuccugcaaggccaagaacgagccaguagaccggcccccugugcugu ugauagccaacucccagaacaucuuggccacguaccugaguggggcccaggugucuaccaucacaccuacgagcacgcggcag accacagccauggacuucagcuaugccaacgagaccguaugcugggugcauguuggggacagugcugcucagacgcagcuca agugugcccgcaugccuggccuaaagggcuucguggaugagcacaccaucaacaucucccucagucugcaccacguggaacag auggccaucgacuggcugacaggcaacuucuacuuuguggaugacaucgaugauaggaucuuugucugcaacagaaaugggg acacaugugucacauugcuagaccuggaacucuacaaccccaagggcauugcccuggacccugccauggggaagguguuuuu cacugacuaugggcagaucccaaagguggaacgcugugacauggaugggcagaaccgcaccaagcucgucgacagcaagauug uguuuccucauggcaucacgcuggaccuggucagccgccuugucuacugggcagaugccuaucuggacuauauugaagugg uggacuaugagggcaagggccgccagaccaucauccagggcauccugauugagcaccuguacggccugacuguguuugagaa uuaucucuaugccaccaacucggacaaugccaaugcccagcagaagacgagugugauccgugugaaccgcuuuaacagcaccg aguaccagguugucacccggguggacaaggguggugcccuccacaucuaccaccagaggcgucagccccgagugaggagcca ugccugugaaaacgaccaguaugggaagccggguggcugcucugacaucugccugcuggccaacagccacaaggcgcggacc ugccgcugccguuccggcuucagccugggcagugacgggaagucaugcaagaagccggagcaugagcuguuccucguguaug gcaagggccggccaggcaucauccggggcauggauaugggggccaaggucccggaugagcacaugauccccauugaaaaccu caugaacccccgagcccuggacuuccacgcugagaccggcuucaucuacuuugccgacaccaccagcuaccucauuggccgcc agaagauugauggcacugagcgggagaccauccugaaggacggcauccacaauguggaggguguggccguggacuggaugg gagacaaucuguacuggacggacgaugggcccaaaaagacaaucagcguggccaggcuggagaaagcugcucagacccgcaag acuuuaaucgagggcaaaaugacacaccccagggcuauugugguggauccacucaauggguggauguacuggacagacuggg aggaggaccccaaggacagucggcgugggcggcuggagagggcguggauggauggcucacaccgagacaucuuugucaccuc caagacagugcuuuggcccaaugggcuaagccuggacaucccggcugggcgccucuacuggguggaugccuucuacgaccgc aucgagacgauacugcucaauggcacagaccggaagauuguguaugaagguccugagcugaaccacgccuuuggccuguguc accauggcaacuaccucuucuggacugaguaucggaguggcagugucuaccgcuuggaacgggguguaggaggcgcaccccc cacugugacccuucugcgcagugagcggccccccaucuuugagauccgaauguaugaugcccagcagcagcaaguuggcacca acaaaugccgggugaacaauggcggcugcagcagccugugcuuggccaccccugggagccgccagugcgccugugcugagga ccagguguuggacgcagacggcgucacuugcuuggcgaacccauccuacgugccuccaccccagugccagccaggcgaguuu gccugugccaacagccgcugcauccaggagcgcuggaagugugacggagacaacgauugccuggacaacagugaugaggccc cagcccucugccaucagcacaccugccccucggaccgauucaagugcgagaacaaccggugcauccccaaccgcuggcucugc gacggggacaaugacugugggaacagugaagaugaguccaaugccacuuguucagcccgcaccugcccccccaaccaguucuc cugugccaguggccgcugcauccccaucuccuggacgugugaucuggaugacgacuguggggaccgcucugaugagucugc uucgugugccuaucccaccugcuucccccugacucaguuuaccugcaacaauggcagauguaucaacaucaacuggagaugcg acaaugacaaugacuguggggacaacagugacgaagccggcugcagccacuccuguucuagcacccaguucaagugcaacagc gggcguugcauccccgagcacuggaccugcgauggggacaaugacugcggagacuacagugaugagacacacgccaacugcac caaccaggccacgaggcccccugguggcugccacacugaugaguuccagugccggcuggauggacuaugcaucccccugcgg uggcgcugcgauggggacacugacugcauggacuccagcgaugagaagagcugugagggagugacccacgucugcgauccca gugucaaguuuggcugcaaggacucagcucggugcaucagcaaagcgugggugugugauggcgacaaugacugugaggaua acucggacgaggagaacugcgagucccuggccugcaggccacccucgcacccuugugccaacaacaccucagucugccugccc ccugacaagcugugugauggcaacgacgacuguggcgacggcucagaugagggcgagcucugcgaccagugcucucugaaua acgguggcugcagccacaacugcucaguggcaccuggcgaaggcauuguguguuccugcccucugggcauggagcuggggcc cgacaaccacaccugccagauccagagcuacugugccaagcaucucaaaugcagccaaaagugcgaccagaacaaguucagcgu gaagugcuccugcuacgagggcuggguccuggaaccugacggcgagagcugccgcagccuggaccccuucaagccguucauc auuuucuccaaccgccaugaaauccggcgcaucgaucuucacaaaggagacuacagcguccuggugcccggccugcgcaacac caucgcccuggacuuccaccucagccagagcgcccucuacuggaccgacgugguggaggacaagaucuaccgcgggaagcugc uggacaacggagcccugacuaguuucgagguggugauucaguauggccuggccacacccgagggccuggcuguagacuggau ugcaggcaacaucuacuggguggagaguaaccuggaucagaucgagguggccaagcuggaugggacccuccggaccacccug cuggccggugacauugagcacccaagggcaaucgcacuggauccccgggaugggauccuguuuuggacagacugggaugcca gccugccccgcauugaggcagccuccaugaguggggcugggcgccgcaccgugcaccgggagaccggcucugggggcuggcc caacgggcucaccguggacuaccuggagaagcgcauccuuuggauugacgccaggucagaugccauuuacucagcccguuac gacggcucuggccacauggaggugcuucggggacacgaguuccugucgcacccguuugcagugacgcuguacgggggggag gucuacuggacugacuggcgaacaaacacacuggcuaaggccaacaaguggaccggccacaaugucaccgugguacagaggac caacacccagcccuuugaccugcagguguaccaccccucccgccagcccauggcucccaaucccugugaggccaaugggggcc agggccccugcucccaccugugucucaucaacuacaaccggaccguguccugcgccugcccccaccucaugaagcuccacaag gacaacaccaccugcuaugaguuuaagaaguuccugcuguacgcacgucagauggagauccgagguguggaccuggaugcuc ccuacuacaacuacaucaucuccuucacggugcccgacaucgacaacgucacagugcuagacuacgaugcccgcgagcagcgu guguacuggucugacgugcggacacaggccaucaagcgggccuucaucaacggcacaggcguggagacagucgucucugcag acuugccaaaugcccacgggcuggcuguggacugggucucccgaaaccuguucuggacaagcuaugacaccaauaagaagcag aucaauguggcccggcuggauggcuccuucaagaacgcaguggugcagggccuggagcagccccauggccuugucguccacc cucugcgugggaagcucuacuggaccgauggugacaacaucagcauggccaacauggauggcagcaaucgcacccugcucuu caguggccagaagggccccgugggccuggcuauugacuucccugaaagcaaacucuacuggaucagcuccgggaaccauacca ucaaccgcugcaaccuggaugggagugggcuggaggucaucgaugccaugcggagccagcugggcaaggccaccgcccuggc caucaugggggacaagcuguggugggcugaucaggugucggaaaagaugggcacaugcagcaaggcugacggcucgggcucc gugguccuucggaacagcaccacccuggugaugcacaugaaggucuaugacgagagcauccagcuggaccauaagggcaccaa ccccugcagugucaacaacggugacugcucccagcucugccugcccacgucagagacgacccgcuccugcaugugcacagccg gcuauagccuccggaguggccagcaggccugcgagggcguagguuccuuucuccuguacucugugcaugagggaaucaggg gaauuccccuggaucccaaugacaagucagaugcccuggucccaguguccgggaccucgcuggcugucggcaucgacuucca cgcugaaaaugacaccaucuacuggguggacaugggccugagcacgaucagccgggccaagcgggaccagacguggcgugaa gacguggugaccaauggcauuggccguguggagggcauugcaguggacuggaucgcaggcaacaucuacuggacagaccagg gcuuugaugucaucgaggucgcccggcucaauggcuccuuccgcuacguggugaucucccagggucuagacaagccccgggc caucaccguccacccggagaaaggguacuuguucuggacugaguggggucaguauccgcguauugagcggucucggcuagau ggcacggagcguguggugcuggucaacgucagcaucagcuggcccaacggcaucucaguggacuaccaggaugggaagcugu acuggugcgaugcacggacagacaagauugaacggaucgaccuggagacaggugagaaccgcgaggugguucuguccagcaa caacauggacauguuuucagugucuguguuugaggauuucaucuacuggagugacaggacucaugccaacggcucuaucaag cgcgggagcaaagacaaugccacagacuccgugccccugcgaaccggcaucggcguccagcuuaaagacaucaaagucuucaa ccgggaccggcagaaaggcaccaacgugugcgcgguggccaauggcgggugccagcagcugugccuguaccggggccguggg cagcgggccugcgccugugcccacgggaugcuggcugaagacggagcaucgugccgcgaguaugccggcuaccugcucuacu cagagcgcaccauucucaagaguauccaccugucggaugagcgcaaccucaaugcgcccgugcagcccuucgaggacccugag cacaugaagaacgucaucgcccuggccuuugacuaccgggcaggcaccucuccgggcacccccaaucgcaucuucuucagcga cauccacuuugggaacauccaacagaucaacgacgauggcuccaggaggaucaccauuguggaaaacgugggcuccguggaag gccuggccuaucaccguggcugggacacucucuauuggacaagcuacacgacauccaccaucacgcgccacacaguggaccag acccgcccaggggccuucgagcgugagaccgucaucacuaugucuggagaugaccacccacgggccuucguuuuggacgagu gccagaaccucauguucuggaccaacuggaaugagcagcaucccagcaucaugcgggcggcgcucucgggagccaauguccu gacccuuaucgagaaggacauccguacccccaauggccuggccaucgaccaccgugccgagaagcucuacuucucugacgcca cccuggacaagaucgagcggugcgaguaugacggcucccaccgcuaugugauccuaaagucagagccuguccaccccuucgg gcuggccguguauggggagcacauuuucuggacugacugggugcggcgggcagugcagcgggccaacaagcacgugggcag caacaugaagcugcugcgcguggacaucccccagcagcccaugggcaucaucgccguggccaacgacaccaacagcugugaac ucucuccaugccgaaucaacaacgguggcugccaggaccugugucugcucacucaccagggccaugucaacugcucaugccga gggggccgaauccuccaggaugaccucaccugccgagcggugaauuccucuugccgagcacaagaugaguuugagugugcca auggcgagugcaucaacuucagccugaccugcgacggcgucccccacugcaaggacaaguccgaugagaagccauccuacugc aacucccgccgcugcaagaagacuuuccggcagugcagcaaugggcgcuguguguccaacaugcuguggugcaacggggccg acgacuguggggauggcucugacgagaucccuugcaacaagacagccuguggugugggcgaguuccgcugccgggacgggac cugcaucgggaacuccagccgcugcaaccaguuuguggauugugaggacgccucagaugagaugaacugcagugccaccgac ugcagcagcuacuuccgccugggcgugaagggcgugcucuuccagcccugcgagcggaccucacucugcuacgcacccagcu gggugugugauggcgccaaugacuguggggacuacagugaugagcgcgacugcccaggugugaaacgccccagaugcccucu gaauuacuucgccugcccuagugggcgcugcauccccaugagcuggacgugugacaaagaggaugacugugaacauggcgag gacgagacccacugcaacaaguucugcucagaggcccaguuugagugccagaaccaucgcugcaucuccaagcaguggcugug ugacggcagcgaugacuguggggauggcucagacgaggcugcucacugugaaggcaagacgugcggccccuccuccuucucc ugcccuggcacccacgugugcguccccgagcgcuggcucugugacggugacaaagacugugcugauggugcagacgagagca ucgcagcugguugcuuguacaacagcacuugugacgaccgugaguucaugugccagaaccgccagugcauccccaagcacuu cgugugugaccacgaccgugacugugcagauggcucugaugagucccccgagugugaguacccgaccugcggccccagugag uuccgcugugccaaugggcgcugucugagcucccgccagugggagugugauggcgagaaugacugccacgaccagagugacg aggcucccaagaacccacacugcaccagccaagagcacaagugcaaugccucgucacaguuccugugcagcagugggcgcugu guggcugaggcacugcucugcaacggccaggaugacuguggcgacagcucggacgagcguggcugccacaucaaugaguguc ucagccgcaagcucaguggcugcagccaggacugugaggaccucaagaucggcuucaagugccgcugucgcccuggcuuccg gcugaaggacgacggccggacgugugcugauguggacgagugcagcaccaccuuccccugcagccagcgcugcaucaacacuc auggcagcuauaagugucuguguguggagggcuaugcaccccgcggcggcgacccccacagcugcaaggcugugacugacga ggaaccguuucugaucuucgccaaccgguacuaccugcgcaagcucaaccuggacggguccaacuacacguuacuuaagcagg gccugaacaacgccguugccuuggauuuugacuaccgagagcagaugaucuacuggacagaugugaccacccagggcagcau gauccgaaggaugcaccuuaacgggagcaaugugcagguccuacaccguacaggccucagcaaccccgaugggcuggcugug gacuggguggguggcaaccuguacuggugcgacaaaggccgggacaccaucgagguguccaagcucaauggggccuaucgga cggugcuggucagcucuggccuccgugagcccagggcucuggugguggaugugcagaauggguaccuguacuggacagacu ggggugaccauucacugaucggccgcaucggcauggauggguccagccgcagcgucaucguggacaccaagaucacauggcc caauggccugacgcuggacuaugucacugagcgcaucuacugggccgacgcccgcgaggacuacauugaauuugccagccug gauggcuccaaucgccacguugugcugagccaggacaucccgcacaucuuugcacugacccuguuugaggacuacgucuacu ggaccgacugggaaacaaaguccauuaaccgagcccacaagaccacgggcaccaacaaaacgcuccucaucagcacgcugcacc ggcccauggaccugcaugucuuccaugcccugcgccagccagacgugcccaaucaccccugcaaggucaacaaugguggcugc agcaaccugugccugcugucccccgggggagggcacaaaugugccugccccaccaacuucuaccugggcagcgaugggcgcac cuguguguccaacugcacggcuagccaguuuguaugcaagaacgacaagugcauccccuucugguggaagugugacaccgag gacgacugcggggaccacucagacgagcccccggacugcccugaguucaagugccggcccggacaguuccagugcuccacagg uaucugcacaaacccugccuucaucugcgauggcgacaaugacugccaggacaacagugacgaggccaacugugacauccacg ucugcuugcccagucaguucaaaugcaccaacaccaaccgcuguauucccggcaucuuccgcugcaaugggcaggacaacugc ggagauggggaggaugagagggacugccccgaggugaccugcgcccccaaccaguuccagugcuccauuaccaaacggugca ucccccgggucugggucugcgaccgggacaaugacuguguggauggcagugaugagcccgccaacugcacccagaugaccug ugguguggacgaguuccgcugcaaggauucgggccgcugcaucccagcgcguuggaagugugacggagaggaugacugugg ggauggcucggaugagcccaaggaagagugugaugaacgcaccugugagccauaccaguuccgcugcaagaacaaccgcugc gugcccggccgcuggcagugcgacuacgacaacgauugcggugacaacuccgaugaagagagcugcaccccucggcccugcuc cgagagugaguucuccugugccaacggccgcugcaucgcggggcgcuggaaaugcgauggagaccacgacugcgcggacggc ucggacgagaaagacugcaccccccgcugugacauggaccaguuccagugcaagagcggccacugcaucccccugcgcuggcg cugugacgcagacgccgacugcauggacggcagcgacgaggaggccugcggcacuggcgugcggaccugcccccuggacgag uuccagugcaacaacaccuugugcaagccgcuggccuggaagugcgauggcgaggaugacuguggggacaacucagaugaga accccgaggagugugcccgguucgugugcccucccaaccggcccuuccguugcaagaaugaccgcgucugucuguggaucgg gcgccaaugcgauggcacggacaacuguggggaugggacugaugaagaggacugugagccccccacagcccacaccacccacu gcaaagacaagaaggaguuucugugccggaaccagcgcugccucuccuccucccugcgcugcaacauguucgaugacugcgg 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agcauccggcucaauggcacggaccccauuguggcugcugacagcaaacgaggccuaagucaccccuucagcaucgacgucuu ugaggauuacaucuauggugucaccuacaucaauaaucgugucuucaagauccauaaguuuggccacagccccuuggucaac cugacagggggccugagccacgccucugacgugguccuuuaccaucagcacaagcagcccgaagugaccaacccaugugaccg caagaaaugcgaguggcucugccugcugagccccagugggccugucugcaccugucccaaugggaagcggcuggacaacggc acaugcgugccugugcccucuccaacgccccccccagaugcuccccggccuggaaccuguaaccugcagugcuucaacggugg cagcuguuuccucaaugcacggaggcagcccaagugccgcugccaaccccgcuacacgggugacaagugugaacuggaccagu gcugggagcacugucgcaaugggggcaccugugcugccucccccucuggcaugcccacgugccggugccccacgggcuucac gggccccaaaugcacccagcaggugugugcgggcuacugugccaacaacagcaccugcacugucaaccagggcaaccagcccc agugccgaugccuacccggcuuccugggcgaccgcugccaguaccggcagugcucuggcuacugugagaacuuuggcacaug ccagauggcugcugauggcucccgacaaugccgcugcacugccuacuuugagggaucgaggugugaggugaacaagugcagc cgcugucucgaaggggccuguguggucaacaagcagaguggggaugucaccugcaacugcacggauggccggguggccccca gcugucugaccugcgucggccacugcagcaauggcggcuccuguaccaugaacagcaaaaugaugccugagugccagugccc accccacaugacagggccccggugugaggagcacgucuucagccagcagcagccaggacauauagccuccauccuaaucccuc ugcuguugcugcugcugcugguucugguggccggagugguauucugguauaagcggcgaguccaaggggcuaagggcuucc agcaccaacggaugaccaacggggccaugaacguggagauuggaaaccccaccuacaagauguacgaaggcggagagccugau gaugugggaggccuacuggacgcugacuuugcccuggacccugacaagcccaccaacuucaccaaccccguguaugccacacu cuacauggggggccauggcagucgccacucccuggccagcacggacgagaagcgagaacuccugggccggggcccugaggac gagauaggggaccccuuggcauagggcccugccccgucggacugcccccagaaagccuccugcccccugccggugaaguccuu cagugagccccuccccagccagcccuucccuggccccgccggauguauaaauguaaaaaugaaggaauuacauuuuauaugug agcgagcaagccggcaagcgagcacaguauuauuucuccauccccucccugccugcuccuuggcacccccaugcugccuucag ggagacaggcagggagggcuuggggcugcaccuccuacccucccaccagaacgcaccccacugggagagcugguggugcagc cuuccccucccuguauaagacacuuugccaaggcucuccccucucgccccaucccugcuugcccgcucccacagcuuccugag ggcuaauucugggaagggagaguucuuugcugccccugucuggaagacguggcucugggugagguaggcgggaaaggaugg aguguuuuaguucuugggggaggccaccccaaaccccagccccaacuccaggggcaccuaugagauggccaugcucaaccccc cucccagacaggcccucccugucuccagggcccccaccgagguucccagggcuggagacuuccucugguaaacauuccuccag ccuccccuccccuggggacgccaaggaggugggccacacccaggaagggaaagcgggcagccccguuuuggggacgugaacg uuuuaauaauuuuugcugaauuccuuuacaacuaaauaacacagauauuguuauaaauaaaauuguaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa aa LRP1-Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 10) mltpp11111 pllsalvaaa idapktcspk qfacrdqitc iskgwrcdge rdcpdgsdea peicpqskaq rcqpnehncl gtelcvpmsr lcngvqdcmd gsdegphcre lqgncsrlgc qhhcvptldg ptcycnssfq lqadgktckd fdecsvygtc sqlctntdgs ficgcvegyl lqpdnrscka knepvdrppv lliansqnil atylsgaqvs titptstrqt tamdfsyane tvcwvhvgds aaqtqlkcar mpglkgfvde htinislslh hveqmaidwl tgnfyfvddi ddrifvenrn gdtcvtlldl elynpkgial dpamgkvfft dygqipkver cdmdgqnrtk lvdskivfph gitldlvsrl vywadayldy ievvdyegkg rqtiiqgili ehlygltvfe nylyatnsdn anaqqktsvi rvnrfnstey qvvtrvdkgg alhiyhqrrq prvrshacen dqygkpggcs dicllanshk artcrcrsgf slgsdgksck kpehelflvy gkgrpgiirg mdmgakvpde hmipienlmn praldfhaet gfiyfadtts yligrqkidg teretilkdg ihnvegvavd wmgdnlywtd dgpkktisva rlekaaqtrk tliegkmthp raivvdping wmywtdweed pkdsrrgrle rawmdgshrd ifytsktylw pnglsldipa grlywydafy drietillng tdrkivyegp elnhafglch hgnylfwtey rsgsvyrler gvggapptvt lirserppif eirmydaqqq qvgtnkcrvn nggcsslcla tpgsrqcaca edqvldadgv tclanpsyvp ppqcqpgefa cansrciqer wkcdgdndcl dnsdeapalc hqhtcpsdrf kcennrcipn rwlcdgdndc gnsedesnat csartcppnq fscasgrcip iswtcdlddd cgdrsdesas cayptcfplt qftcnngrci ninwrcdndn dcgdnsdeag cshscsstqf kcnsgrcipe hwtcdgdndc gdysdethan ctnqatrppg gchtdefqcr ldglciplrw rcdgdtdcmd ssdekscegv thvcdpsvkf gckdsarcis kawvcdgdnd cednsdeenc eslacrppsh pcanntsycl ppdklcdgnd dcgdgsdege lcdqcslnng gcshncsvap gegivcscpl gmelgpdnht cqiqsycakh lkcsqkcdqn kfsvkcscye gwvlepdges crsldpfkpf iifsnrheir ridlhkgdys vlvpglrnti aldfhlsqsa lywtdvvedk iyrgklldng altsfevviq yglatpegla vdwiagniyw vesnldqiev akldgtirtt llagdiehpr aialdprdgi lfwtdwdasl prieaasmsg agrrtvhret gsggwpnglt vdylekrilw idarsdaiys arydgsghme vlrghefish pfavtlygge vywtdwrtnt lakankwtgh nytyvqrtnt qpfdlqvyhp srqpmapnpc eanggqgpcs hiclinynrt vscacphlmk lhkdnttcye fkkfflyarq meirgvdlda pyynyiisft vpdidnytvl dydareqrvy wsdvrtqaik rafingtgve tvvsadlpna hglavdwvsr nlfwtsydtn kkqinvarld gsfknavvqg leqphglvvh plrgklywtd gdnismanmd gsnrtllfsg qkgpvglaid fpesklywis sgnhtinrcn ldgsglevid amrsqlgkat alaimgdklw wadqvsekmg tcskadgsgs vvirnsttly mhmkvydesi qldhkgtnpc synngdcsql clptsettrs cmctagyslr sgqqacegvg sfllysvheg irgipldpnd ksdalvpvsg tslavgidfh aendtiywvd mglstisrak rdqtwredvy tngigrvegi avdwiagniy wtdqgfdvie varingsfry vvisqgldkp raitvhpekg ylfwtewgqy priersrldg tervylvnys iswpngisvd yqdgklywcd artdkierid letgenrevy lssnnmdmfs vsvfedfiyw sdrthangsi krgskdnatd svplrtgigy qlkdikvfnr drqkgtnvca vanggcqqlc lyrgrgqrac acahgmlaed gascreyagy llysertilk sihlsdernl napvqpfedp ehmknviala fdyragtspg tpnriffsdi hfgniqqind dgsrritive nvgsveglay hrgwdtlywt syttstitrh tvdqtrpgaf eretvitmsg ddhprafvld ecqnlmfwtn wneqhpsimr aalsganylt liekdirtpn glaidhraek lyfsdatldk ierceydgsh ryvilksepv hpfglavyge hifwtdwvrr avqrankhvg snmkllrvdi pqqpmgiiav andtnscels perinnggcq dlcllthqgh vncscrggri lqddltcrav nsscraqdef ecangecinf sltcdgvphc kdksdekpsy cnsrrckktf rqcsngrcvs nmlwcngadd cgdgsdeipc nktacgvgef rcrdgtcign ssrcnqfvdc edasdemncs atdcssyfrl gykgylfqpc ertslcyaps wvcdgandcg dysderdcpg vkrprcpiny facpsgrcip mswtcdkedd cehgedethc nkfcseaqfe cqnhrciskq wlcdgsddcg dgsdeaahce gktcgpssfs cpgthycype rwlcdgdkdc adgadesiaa gclynstcdd refmcqnrqc ipkhfvcdhd rdcadgsdes peceyptcgp sefrcangrc lssrqwecdg endchdqsde apknphctsq ehkcnassqf lcssgrcvae allcngqddc gdssdergch ineclsrkls gcsqdcedlk igfkercrpg frlkddgrtc advdecsttf pcsqrcinth gsykcicveg yaprggdphs ckavtdeepf lifanryylr klnldgsnyt llkqglnnav aldfdyreqm iywtdvttqg smirrmhlng snvqvlhrtg lsnpdglavd wvggnlywcd kgrdtievsk ingayrtylv ssglrepral vvdvqngyly wtdwgdhsli grigmdgssr svivdtkitw pngltldyvt eriywadare dyiefasldg snrhyvlsqd iphifaltlf edyvywtdwe tksinrahkt tgtnktllis tlhrpmdlhv fhalrqpdvp nhpckvnngg csnlcllspg gghkcacptn fylgsdgrtc vsnctasqfv ckndkcipfw wkcdteddcg dhsdeppdcp efkcrpgqfq cstgictnpa ficdgdndcq dnsdeancdi hyclpsqfkc tntnrcipgi frcngqdncg dgederdcpe vtcapnqfqc sitkrcipry wvcdrdndcv dgsdepanct qmtcgvdefr ckdsgrcipa rwkcdgeddc gdgsdepkee cdertcepyq frcknnrcvp grwqcdydnd cgdnsdeesc tprpcsesef scangrciag rwkcdgdhdc adgsdekdct prcdmdqfqc ksghciplrw rcdadadcmd gsdeeacgtg vrtcpldefq cnntickpla wkcdgeddcg dnsdenpeec arfvcppnrp frckndrycl wigrqcdgtd ncgdgtdeed cepptahtth ckdkkeficr nqrclssslr cnmfddcgdg sdeedcsidp kltscatnas icgdearcvr tekaaycacr sgfhtvpgqp gcqdineclr fgtcsqlcnn tkgghlcsca rnfmkthntc kaegseyqvl yiaddneirs lfpghphsay eqafqgdesv ridamdvhvk agrvywtnwh tgtisyrslp paappttsnr hrrqidrgvt hlnisglkmp rgiaidwvag nvywtdsgrd vievaqmkge nrktlisgmi dephaivvdp lrgtmywsdw gnhpkietaa mdgtlretly qdniqwptgl avdyhnerly wadaklsvig siringtdpi vaadskrgls hpfsidvfed yiygvtyinn rvfkihkfgh splvnitggl shasdvvlyh qhkqpevtnp cdrkkcewlc llspsgpvct cpngkrldng tcypvpsptp ppdaprpgtc nlqcfnggsc flnarrqpkc rcqprytgdk celdqcwehc rnggtcaasp sgmptcrcpt gftgpkctqq vcagycanns tctvnqgnqp qcrclpgflg drcqyrqcsg ycenfgtcqm aadgsrqcrc tayfegsrce vnkcsrcleg acvvnkqsgd vtcnctdgrv apscltcvgh csnggsctmn skmmpecqcp phmtgprcee hvfsqqqpgh iasiliplll llllvlvagv vfwykrrvqg akgfqhqrmt ngamnveign ptykmyegge pddyggllda dfaldpdkpt nftnpvyatl ymgghgsrhs lastdekrel lgrgpedeig dpla LRP8 isoform 1-RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 11) gcuggcggcggccgcccagggccggggccgcgcgcccagccugagcccgccccgccgccgagcgucaccgaaccugcuugaaa ugcagccgaggagccggggcgggcggcagcggcggcggcggcggcggcgggggcagcggcaaccccggcgccgcggcaagga cucggagggcugagacgcggcggcggcggcgcggggagcgcggggcgcggcggccggagccccgggcccgccaugggccucc ccgagccgggcccucuccggcuucuggcgcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcagcuccagcaucuugcggc ggcagcggcugauccgcugcucggcggccaagggccggccaaggauugcgaaaaggaccaauuccagugccggaacgagcgc ugcauccccucuguguggagaugcgacgaggacgaugacugcuuagaccacagcgacgaggacgacugccccaagaagaccug ugcagacagugacuucaccugugacaacggccacugcauccacgaacgguggaagugugacggcgaggaggaguguccugau ggcuccgaugaguccgaggccacuugcaccaagcagguguguccugcagagaagcugagcuguggacccaccagccacaagu guguaccugccucguggcgcugcgacggggagaaggacugcgaggguggagcggaugaggccggcugugcuaccuugugcg ccccgcacgaguuccagugcggcaaccgcucgugccuggccgccguguucgugugcgacggcgacgacgacuguggugacgg cagcgaugagcgcggcugugcagacccggccugcgggccccgcgaguuccgcugcggcggcgauggcggcggcgccugcauc ccggagcgcugggucugcgaccgccaguuugacugcgaggaccgcucggacgaggcagccgagcucugcggccguccgggcc ccggggccacguccgcgcccgccgccugcgccaccgccucccaguucgccugccgcagcggcgagugcgugcaccugggcug gcgcugcgacggcgaccgcgacugcaaagacaaaucggacgaggccgacugcccacugggcaccugccguggggacgaguucc aguguggggaugggacauguguccuugcaaucaagcacugcaaccaggagcaggacuguccagaugggagugaugaagcugg cugccuacaggggcugaacgagugucugcacaacaauggcggcugcucacacaucugcacugaccucaagauuggcuuugaa ugcacgugcccagcaggcuuccagcuccuggaccagaagaccuguggcgacauugaugagugcaaggacccagaugccugca gccagaucugugucaauuacaagggcuauuuuaagugugagugcuacccuggcuacgagauggaccuacugaccaagaacug caaggcugcugcuggcaagagcccaucccuaaucuucaccaaccggcacgaggugcggaggaucgaccuggugaagcggaacu auucacgccucauccccaugcucaagaaugucguggcacuagauguggaaguugccaccaaucgcaucuacuggugugaccu cuccuaccguaagaucuauagcgccuacauggacaaggccagugacccgaaagagcaggagguccucauugacgagcaguugc acucuccagagggccuggcaguggacuggguccacaagcacaucuacuggacugacucgggcaauaagaccaucucaguggcc acaguugaugguggccgccgacgcacucucuucagccguaaccucagugaaccccgggccaucgcuguugacccccugcgag gguucauguauuggucugacuggggggaccaggccaagauugagaaaucugggcucaacgguguggaccggcaaacacugg ugucagacaauauugaauggcccaacggaaucacccuggaucugcugagccagcgcuuguacuggguagacuccaagcuacac caacuguccagcauugacuucaguggaggcaacagaaagacgcugaucuccuccacugacuuccugagccacccuuuugggau agcuguguuugaggacaagguguucuggacagaccuggagaacgaggccauuuucagugcaaaucggcucaauggccuggaa aucuccauccuggcugagaaccucaacaacccacaugacauugucaucuuccaugagcugaagcagccaagagcuccagaugc cugugagcugaguguccagccuaauggaggcugugaauaccugugccuuccugcuccucagaucuccagccacucucccaag uacacaugugccuguccugacacaauguggcuggguccagacaugaagaggugcuaccgagcaccucaaucuaccucaacuac gacguuagcuucuaccaugacgaggacaguaccugccaccacaagagcccccgggaccaccguccacagauccaccuaccagaa ccacagcacagagacaccaagccugacagcugcagucccaagcucaguuaguguccccagggcucccagcaucagcccgucuac ccuaagcccugcaaccagcaaccacucccagcacuaugcaaaugaagacaguaagaugggcucaacagucacugccgcuguua ucgggaucaucgugcccauaguggugauagcccuccugugcaugaguggauaccugaucuggagaaacuggaagcggaagaa caccaaaagcaugaauuuugacaacccagucuacaggaaaacaacagaagaagaagacgaagaugagcuccauauagggagaac ugcucagauuggccaugucuauccugcagcaaucagcagcuuugaucgcccacugugggcagagcccugucuuggggagacc agagaaccggaagacccagccccugcccucaaggagcuuuuugucuugccgggggaaccaaggucacagcugcaccaacuccc gaagaacccucuuuccgagcugccugucgucaaauccaagcgaguggcauuaagccuugaagaugauggacuacccugagga ugggaucacccccuucgugccucauggaauucagucccaugcacuacacucuggaugguguaugacuggaugaauggguuuc uauauaugggucugugugaguguaugugugugugugauuuuuuuuuuaaauuuauguugcggaaagguaaccacaaaguu augaugaacugcaaacauccaaaggaugugagaguuuuucuauguauaauguuuuauacacuuuuuaacugguugcacuacc caugaggaauucguggaauggcuacugcugacuaacaugaugcacauaaccaaaugggggccaauggcacaguaccuuacuca ucauuuaaaaacuauauuuacagaagauguuugguugcugggggggcuuuuuuagguuuuggggcauuuguuuuuuguaa auaagaugauuaugcuuuguggcuauccaucaacauaaguaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaacacuucaacucccucccccauuuagau uauuuauuaacauauuuuaaaaaucagaugaguucuauaaauaauuuagagaagugagaguauuuauuuuuggcauguuug gcccaccacacagacucuguguguguauguguguguuuauauguguaugugugugacagaaaaaucuguagagaagaggca caucuauggcuacuguucaaauacauaaagauaaauuuauuuucacacaguccacaagggguauaucuuguaguuuucagaa aagccuuuggaaaucuggaucagaaaauagauaccaugguuugugcaauuauguaguaaaaaaggcaaaucuuuucaccucu ggcuauuccugagaccccaggaagucaggaaaagccuuucagcucacccauggcugcugugacuccuaccagggcuuucuug gcuuuggcgaaggucaguguacagacauuccaugguaccagagugcucagaaacucaagauaggauaugccucacccucagc uacuccuuguuuuaaaguucagcucuuugaguaacuucuucaauuucuuucaggacacuuggguugaauucaguaaguuuc cucugaagcacccugaagggugccauccuuacagagcuaaguggagacguuuccagaucagcccaaguuuacuauagagacu ggcccaggcacugaaugucuaggacaugcuguggaugaagauaaagaugguggaauagguuuuaucacaucucuuauuucuc uuuuccccuuacucucuaccauuuccuuuauguggggaaacauuuuaagguaauaaauagguuacuuaccaucauauguuca uauagaugaaacuaauuuuuggcuuaagucagaacaacuggccaaaauugaagucauauuugaggggggaaauggcauacgc aauauuauauuauauuggauauuuauguucacacaggaauuugguuuacugcuuuguaaauaaaaggaaaaacuccggguau auguauagauguucuucauuauagacaucuucuuugcuuuucuuggccuugggggaggaagggagaagugcucuuuucuac uuguggggucucccauuggaaacauaauccuauagucccagaaggauucaguccccaguggcuuucccauccaaagagaaaga guuugaguuucuuaacucugcuguucugccacuuacucccacuagacaaccagggacaaggugcaacauggaaguguuugac uuaaguaggagcagaggagcugcaucuaaucucaucauaccuggaacuugacacacuuaagcaaaugccuucccaucccuacc ugccagaugcccccaacucaaugaaguuggaugucucaccagcuugauacccuuugaauuuucagucagacauucuggaguu cuagcauccuguaccuaggaccuuccucugugucacucuuggccuccuaaacucuaagaaaauaacuauauucuggagcuug ggcaguguguuuugcauaauccagcaaucuccucaugacaugcauguguugauaguccugaaacauucauugagaggguaaa ugcaguugaccuagaaugaccaauaccaaacagaauuuuaagaacagguggccaacuccuauggagcuuacucacauauuacu auucuuuuaagaacggaaaguaaaauuauuuuugacugaagaaaaaugaugacagugaaaaacauggaaauguacucaaaaca agugacuuuuucuguaaccuuccaaagaaacugaauuuuccaaggaauuaaaugauaacaguggcuaaggcauaguuucuaa acuuucaguaagauccuggcauucacagaaaaaaaugaugaauggggucuggacauacagccugagaucucaaaaugacaaug aaauucacaacuuuuucucagagacauucauguuuccugcauaugcuacaacugcaguuugaaagaggcagcaaugggagca acccuuuacaagaaacaaauugugauauauucauguguuggacggcaguaaauaagaugaaaccugaggagucagauccaccu ucccccauucauagaggcuuuucagccucauuuugagguacaguuacauaucuuuugccuuuugcccccgugcauagcuauc uacagccaaucacagaucacagagucacuggacuauagagcuggaaggaagcucagagacaaugccaagggggcagaaaauuu aucagaagccagucccagugcguuuccuccauuuccuucugcaggaagacuauuuugggcugccugaacauuguaucaaacc ugcuaccuauacuauggucuaccuuuccuccaguggaauuacaaaggcacuaacugaaaugccuucuagaaacagagaaaacg aaacuguacuuauuuacucuugauacacagauuauuuauaaaacagauugaaguaaccuguuaacuggcaaaaagagaaugag aucggauuuaaauguauggcaguaaguccuauugaucccuccaguuaucucaguaugacugcaguauauucauucacuaaaa ccacucacuagauaccaacuacacaccuggcacugcagauguaaaggucagucacacauguucugacuuuacagaguucacag uagcaguggaggaugauauauguggaaacaaaaaaggcauugauucuauucagagcacuguuagggcucaaaggagagaggg gucuuuccaccuaagaaaugaggaauagggucaucauagaagugaccuuaagucuuaaaaauuaagaaggggauuccaagcu gcuucagacagagacacaucgagcuaaaacacagagguaugaaagagcacagggacuuuaggaauugcacaguucauucuaac aggaacaaaaggcucaaggggggcaagaaaugaggcuguauggaaagagauucaauguaagcacuuuauaaaauagauuaau uucugauucaaugaagcauuucuugaucauuguguacaaggcacuacaugcaucauggaaaauucauuaggaugcauugcca gcacuuugcagaacugauauuauucagccucaagcuuuccaguggccaaagggaaaugcugacugcuuuucauauauuugag ucaaagauuuuuuauauggucaaugaagacuaauauaagggcagugggauuuucacagaugcaugccauguugucgagagcc ucuuagauuuucucaacugugagaaagaaaaacgaaaauguugaagacguugagucuggagaggggauacuaaucacugucc aguugggcacuggugggaauggggaaauggcacaggaaugcaagccucuccacccuaccccccgaacuccagccauacacuca ucguuucacaaaauauaaaugaguuagcauuaaauguuucagaguaaauaauuccuuuucccgaaaugcaugaagauagagu aacagacuucucacacuguauuuuuaggguauggagaauuuagaagguuaaagaauuacugcuucaauuuuucaguuaaaaa aaaaucaggaagcucuguucauucaggcuaugcaccaugugcacagucaagaauuagcagaaacccucugcauuuacaaacac uuugugcuauaaaaaaguaauuuuuaaaaagccacguguguguguguguauauauauauauauauauauauuuaaagccaag guuuugauacuuuuuuacaaaaacuacaagagaaaacaaauauaccuguccaaaccauauacuuuuaaaagagcauuuuuuuu uccauacaagcuguuguuaauuuggggguaaagugcugauuugcaaacuucaucaaauuguucccaaguggauucuccuug uuugucucccccuaccaaccccaaaguuaccauauuugauguaagaaucaggcauguuagaauguugugucacacuaacuga uucugcucuuuuugucuugucauucaaguuccguuagcuucuguacgcggugcccuuugcagucuggugucucuuccagag gcgagggggcugaggauggggugcugcaucucacuagcuauacuggcaucaucuugguaaacugaaaaccaaauguggacau uuguaaaaucagugcacuguuucuagagagagauuaaauucauuuaaaaaaaa LRP8 isoform 1-Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 12) mglpepgplr llalllllll llllqlqhla aaaadpllgg qgpakdcekd qfqcrnerci psvwrcdedd dcldhsdedd cpkktcadsd ftcdnghcih erwkcdgeee cpdgsdesea tctkqvcpae klscgptshk cvpaswrcdg ekdceggade agcaticaph efqcgnrscl aavfvcdgdd dcgdgsderg cadpacgpre frcggdggga ciperwvcdr qfdcedrsde aaelcgrpgp gatsapaaca tasqfacrsg ecvhlgwrcd gdrdckdksd eadcplgtcr gdefqcgdgt cvlaikhcnq eqdcpdgsde agclqglnec lhnnggcshi ctdlkigfec tcpagfqlld qktcgdidec kdpdacsqic vnykgyfkce cypgyemdll tknckaaagk spsliftnrh evrridlvkr nysrlipmlk nvvaldveva tnriywcdls yrkiysaymd kasdpkeqev lideqlhspe glavdwvhkh iywtdsgnkt isvatvdggr rrtlfsrnls epraiavdpl rgfmywsdwg dqakieksgl ngvdrqtivs dniewpngit ldllsqrlyw vdsklhqlss idfsggnrkt lisstdflsh pfgiavfedk vfwtdlenea ifsanringl eisilaenln nphdivifhe lkqprapdac elsvqpnggc eylclpapqi sshspkytca cpdtmwlgpd mkrcyrapqs tstttlastm trtvpattra pgttvhrsty qnhstetpsl taavpssysv prapsispst lspatsnhsq hyanedskmg stvtaavigi ivpivviall cmsgyliwrn wkrkntksmn fdnpvyrktt eeededelhi grtaqighvy paaissfdrp lwaepclget repedpapal kelfvlpgep rsqlhqlpkn plselpvvks krvalsledd gip LRP8 isoform 2-RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 13) gcuggcggcggccgcccagggccggggccgcgcgcccagccugagcccgccccgccgccgagcgucaccgaaccugcuugaaa ugcagccgaggagccggggcgggcggcagcggcggcggcggcggcggcgggggcagcggcaaccccggcgccgcggcaagga cucggagggcugagacgcggcggcggcggcgcggggagcgcggggcgcggcggccggagccccgggcccgccaugggccucc ccgagccgggcccucuccggcuucuggcgcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcagcuccagcaucuugcggc ggcagcggcugauccgcugcucggcggccaagggccggccaaggauugcgaaaaggaccaauuccagugccggaacgagcgc ugcauccccucuguguggagaugcgacgaggacgaugacugcuuagaccacagcgacgaggacgacugccccaagaagaccug ugcagacagugacuucaccugugacaacggccacugcauccacgaacgguggaagugugacggcgaggaggaguguccugau ggcuccgaugaguccgaggccacuugcaccaagcagguguguccugcagagaagcugagcuguggacccaccagccacaagu guguaccugccucguggcgcugcgacggggagaaggacugcgaggguggagcggaugaggccggcugugcuaccuggcuga acgagugucugcacaacaauggcggcugcucacacaucugcacugaccucaagauuggcuuugaaugcacgugcccagcaggc uuccagcuccuggaccagaagaccuguggcgacauugaugagugcaaggacccagaugccugcagccagaucugugucaauu acaagggcuauuuuaagugugagugcuacccuggcuacgagauggaccuacugaccaagaacugcaaggcugcugcuggcaa gagcccaucccuaaucuucaccaaccggcacgaggugcggaggaucgaccuggugaagcggaacuauucacgccucaucccca ugcucaagaaugucguggcacuagauguggaaguugccaccaaucgcaucuacuggugugaccucuccuaccguaagaucua uagcgccuacauggacaaggccagugacccgaaagagcaggagguccucauugacgagcaguugcacucuccagagggccug gcaguggacuggguccacaagcacaucuacuggacugacucgggcaauaagaccaucucaguggccacaguugaugguggcc gccgacgcacucucuucagccguaaccucagugaaccccgggccaucgcuguugacccccugcgaggguucauguauugguc ugacuggggggaccaggccaagauugagaaaucugggcucaacgguguggaccggcaaacacuggugucagacaauauugaa uggcccaacggaaucacccuggaucugcugagccagcgcuuguacuggguagacuccaagcuacaccaacuguccagcauuga cuucaguggaggcaacagaaagacgcugaucuccuccacugacuuccugagccacccuuuugggauagcuguguuugaggac aagguguucuggacagaccuggagaacgaggccauuuucagugcaaaucggcucaauggccuggaaaucuccauccuggcug agaaccucaacaacccacaugacauugucaucuuccaugagcugaagcagccaagagcuccagaugccugugagcugaguguc cagccuaauggaggcugugaauaccugugccuuccugcuccucagaucuccagccacucucccaaguacacaugugccugucc ugacacaauguggcuggguccagacaugaagaggugcuaccgagcaccucaaucuaccucaacuacgacguuagcuucuacca ugacgaggacaguaccugccaccacaagagcccccgggaccaccguccacagauccaccuaccagaaccacagcacagagacac caagccugacagcugcagucccaagcucaguuaguguccccagggcucccagcaucagcccgucuacccuaagcccugcaacc agcaaccacucccagcacuaugcaaaugaagacaguaagaugggcucaacagucacugccgcuguuaucgggaucaucgugcc cauaguggugauagcccuccugugcaugaguggauaccugaucuggagaaacuggaagcggaagaacaccaaaagcaugaau uuugacaacccagucuacaggaaaacaacagaagaagaagacgaagaugagcuccauauagggagaacugcucagauuggcca ugucuauccugcagcaaucagcagcuuugaucgcccacugugggcagagcccugucuuggggagaccagagaaccggaagac ccagccccugcccucaaggagcuuuuugucuugccgggggaaccaaggucacagcugcaccaacucccgaagaacccucuuuc cgagcugccugucgucaaauccaagcgaguggcauuaagccuugaagaugauggacuacccugaggaugggaucacccccuu cgugccucauggaauucagucccaugcacuacacucuggaugguguaugacuggaugaauggguuucuauauaugggucug ugugaguguaugugugugugugauuuuuuuuuuaaauuuauguugcggaaagguaaccacaaaguuaugaugaacugcaaa cauccaaaggaugugagaguuuuucuauguauaauguuuuauacacuuuuuaacugguugcacuacccaugaggaauucgu ggaauggcuacugcugacuaacaugaugcacauaaccaaaugggggccaauggcacaguaccuuacucaucauuuaaaaacua uauuuacagaagauguuugguugcugggggggcuuuuuuagguuuuggggcauuuguuuuuuguaaauaagaugauuaug cuuuguggcuauccaucaacauaaguaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaacacuucaacucccucccccauuuagauuauuuauuaacauau uuuaaaaaucagaugaguucuauaaauaauuuagagaagugagaguauuuauuuuuggcauguuuggcccaccacacagacu cuguguguguauguguguguuuauauguguaugugugugacagaaaaaucuguagagaagaggcacaucuauggcuacugu ucaaauacauaaagauaaauuuauuuucacacaguccacaagggguauaucuuguaguuuucagaaaagccuuuggaaaucu ggaucagaaaauagauaccaugguuugugcaauuauguaguaaaaaaggcaaaucuuuucaccucuggcuauuccugagacc ccaggaagucaggaaaagccuuucagcucacccauggcugcugugacuccuaccagggcuuucuuggcuuuggcgaagguca guguacagacauuccaugguaccagagugcucagaaacucaagauaggauaugccucacccucagcuacuccuuguuuuaaag uucagcucuuugaguaacuucuucaauuucuuucaggacacuuggguugaauucaguaaguuuccucugaagcacccugaag ggugccauccuuacagagcuaaguggagacguuuccagaucagcccaaguuuacuauagagacuggcccaggcacugaaugu cuaggacaugcuguggaugaagauaaagaugguggaauagguuuuaucacaucucuuauuucucuuuuccccuuacucucua ccauuuccuuuauguggggaaacauuuuaagguaauaaauagguuacuuaccaucauauguucauauagaugaaacuaauuu uuggcuuaagucagaacaacuggccaaaauugaagucauauuugaggggggaaauggcauacgcaauauuauauuauauugg auauuuauguucacacaggaauuugguuuacugcuuuguaaauaaaaggaaaaacuccggguauauguauagauguucuuca uuauagacaucuucuuugcuuuucuuggccuugggggaggaagggagaagugcucuuuucuacuuguggggucucccauug gaaacauaauccuauagucccagaaggauucaguccccaguggcuuucccauccaaagagaaagaguuugaguuucuuaacuc ugcuguucugccacuuacucccacuagacaaccagggacaaggugcaacauggaaguguuugacuuaaguaggagcagagga gcugcaucuaaucucaucauaccuggaacuugacacacuuaagcaaaugccuucccaucccuaccugccagaugcccccaacuc aaugaaguuggaugucucaccagcuugauacccuuugaauuuucagucagacauucuggaguucuagcauccuguaccuagg accuuccucugugucacucuuggccuccuaaacucuaagaaaauaacuauauucuggagcuugggcaguguguuuugcauaa uccagcaaucuccucaugacaugcauguguugauaguccugaaacauucauugagaggguaaaugcaguugaccuagaauga ccaauaccaaacagaauuuuaagaacagguggccaacuccuauggagcuuacucacauauuacuauucuuuuaagaacggaaa guaaaauuauuuuugacugaagaaaaaugaugacagugaaaaacauggaaauguacucaaaacaagugacuuuuucuguaacc uuccaaagaaacugaauuuuccaaggaauuaaaugauaacaguggcuaaggcauaguuucuaaacuuucaguaagauccugg cauucacagaaaaaaaugaugaauggggucuggacauacagccugagaucucaaaaugacaaugaaauucacaacuuuuucuc agagacauucauguuuccugcauaugcuacaacugcaguuugaaagaggcagcaaugggagcaacccuuuacaagaaacaaau ugugauauauucauguguuggacggcaguaaauaagaugaaaccugaggagucagauccaccuucccccauucauagaggcu uuucagccucauuuugagguacaguuacauaucuuuugccuuuugcccccgugcauagcuaucuacagccaaucacagauca cagagucacuggacuauagagcuggaaggaagcucagagacaaugccaagggggcagaaaauuuaucagaagccagucccagu gcguuuccuccauuuccuucugcaggaagacuauuuugggcugccugaacauuguaucaaaccugcuaccuauacuaugguc uaccuuuccuccaguggaauuacaaaggcacuaacugaaaugccuucuagaaacagagaaaacgaaacuguacuuauuuacuc uugauacacagauuauuuauaaaacagauugaaguaaccuguuaacuggcaaaaagagaaugagaucggauuuaaauguaug gcaguaaguccuauugaucccuccaguuaucucaguaugacugcaguauauucauucacuaaaaccacucacuagauaccaac uacacaccuggcacugcagauguaaaggucagucacacauguucugacuuuacagaguucacaguagcaguggaggaugaua uauguggaaacaaaaaaggcauugauucuauucagagcacuguuagggcucaaaggagagaggggucuuuccaccuaagaaa ugaggaauagggucaucauagaagugaccuuaagucuuaaaaauuaagaaggggauuccaagcugcuucagacagagacaca ucgagcuaaaacacagagguaugaaagagcacagggacuuuaggaauugcacaguucauucuaacaggaacaaaaggcucaag gggggcaagaaaugaggcuguauggaaagagauucaauguaagcacuuuauaaaauagauuaauuucugauucaaugaagca uuucuugaucauuguguacaaggcacuacaugcaucauggaaaauucauuaggaugcauugccagcacuuugcagaacugau auuauucagccucaagcuuuccaguggccaaagggaaaugcugacugcuuuucauauauuugagucaaagauuuuuuauaug gucaaugaagacuaauauaagggcagugggauuuucacagaugcaugccauguugucgagagccucuuagauuuucucaacu gugagaaagaaaaacgaaaauguugaagacguugagucuggagaggggauacuaaucacuguccaguugggcacugguggga auggggaaauggcacaggaaugcaagccucuccacccuaccccccgaacuccagccauacacucaucguuucacaaaauauaaa ugaguuagcauuaaauguuucagaguaaauaauuccuuuucccgaaaugcaugaagauagaguaacagacuucucacacugu auuuuuaggguauggagaauuuagaagguuaaagaauuacugcuucaauuuuucaguuaaaaaaaaaucaggaagcucuguu cauucaggcuaugcaccaugugcacagucaagaauuagcagaaacccucugcauuuacaaacacuuugugcuauaaaaaagua auuuuuaaaaagccacguguguguguguguauauauauauauauauauauauuuaaagccaagguuuugauacuuuuuuac aaaaacuacaagagaaaacaaauauaccuguccaaaccauauacuuuuaaaagagcauuuuuuuuuccauacaagcuguuguu aauuuggggguaaagugcugauuugcaaacuucaucaaauuguucccaaguggauucuccuuguuugucucccccuaccaac cccaaaguuaccauauuugauguaagaaucaggcauguuagaauguugugucacacuaacugauucugcucuuuuugucuug ucauucaaguuccguuagcuucuguacgcggugcccuuugcagucuggugucucuuccagaggcgagggggcugaggaugg ggugcugcaucucacuagcuauacuggcaucaucuugguaaacugaaaaccaaauguggacauuuguaaaaucagugcacug uuucuagagagagauuaaauucauuuaaaaaaaa LRP8 isoform 2-Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 14) mglpepgplr llalllllll llllqlqhla aaaadpllgg qgpakdcekd qfqcrnerci psywrcdedd dcldhsdedd cpkktcadsd ftcdnghcih erwkcdgeee cpdgsdesea tctkqvcpae klscgptshk cvpaswrcdg ekdceggade agcatwlnec lhnnggcshi ctdlkigfec tcpagfqlld qktcgdidec kdpdacsqic vnykgyfkce cypgyemdll tknckaaagk spsliftnrh evrridlvkr nysrlipmlk nvvaldveva tnriywcdls yrkiysaymd kasdpkeqev lideqlhspe glavdwvhkh iywtdsgnkt isvatvdggr rrtlfsrnls epraiavdpl rgfmywsdwg dqakieksgl ngvdrqtivs dniewpngit ldllsqrlyw vdsklhqlss idfsggnrkt lisstdflsh pfgiavfedk vfwtdlenea ifsanringl eisilaenln nphdivifhe lkqprapdac elsvqpnggc eylclpapqi sshspkytca cpdtmwlgpd mkrcyrapqs tstttlastm trtvpattra pgttvhrsty qnhstetpsl taavpssysy prapsispst lspatsnhsq hyanedskmg stvtaavigi ivpivviall cmsgyliwrn wkrkntksmn fdnpvyrktt eeededelhi grtaqighvy paaissfdrp lwaepclget repedpapal kelfylpgep rsqlhqlpkn plselpvvks krvalsledd gip LRP8 isoform 3-RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 15) gcuggcggcggccgcccagggccggggccgcgcgcccagccugagcccgccccgccgccgagcgucaccgaaccugcuugaaa ugcagccgaggagccggggcgggcggcagcggcggcggcggcggcggcgggggcagcggcaaccccggcgccgcggcaagga cucggagggcugagacgcggcggcggcggcgcggggagcgcggggcgcggcggccggagccccgggcccgccaugggccucc ccgagccgggcccucuccggcuucuggcgcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcagcuccagcaucuugcggc ggcagcggcugauccgcugcucggcggccaagggccggccaaggauugcgaaaaggaccaauuccagugccggaacgagcgc ugcauccccucuguguggagaugcgacgaggacgaugacugcuuagaccacagcgacgaggacgacugccccaagaagaccug ugcagacagugacuucaccugugacaacggccacugcauccacgaacgguggaagugugacggcgaggaggaguguccugau ggcuccgaugaguccgaggccacuugcaccaagcagguguguccugcagagaagcugagcuguggacccaccagccacaagu guguaccugccucguggcgcugcgacggggagaaggacugcgaggguggagcggaugaggccggcugugcuaccucacugg gcaccugccguggggacgaguuccaguguggggaugggacauguguccuugcaaucaagcacugcaaccaggagcaggacug uccagaugggagugaugaagcuggcugccuacaggggcugaacgagugucugcacaacaauggcggcugcucacacaucugc acugaccucaagauuggcuuugaaugcacgugcccagcaggcuuccagcuccuggaccagaagaccuguggcgacauugaug agugcaaggacccagaugccugcagccagaucugugucaauuacaagggcuauuuuaagugugagugcuacccuggcuacga gauggaccuacugaccaagaacugcaaggcugcugcuggcaagagcccaucccuaaucuucaccaaccggcacgaggugcgga ggaucgaccuggugaagcggaacuauucacgccucauccccaugcucaagaaugucguggcacuagauguggaaguugccac caaucgcaucuacuggugugaccucuccuaccguaagaucuauagcgccuacauggacaaggccagugacccgaaagagcagg agguccucauugacgagcaguugcacucuccagagggccuggcaguggacuggguccacaagcacaucuacuggacugacuc gggcaauaagaccaucucaguggccacaguugaugguggccgccgacgcacucucuucagccguaaccucagugaaccccggg ccaucgcuguugacccccugcgaggguucauguauuggucugacuggggggaccaggccaagauugagaaaucugggcucaa cgguguggaccggcaaacacuggugucagacaauauugaauggcccaacggaaucacccuggaucugcugagccagcgcuug uacuggguagacuccaagcuacaccaacuguccagcauugacuucaguggaggcaacagaaagacgcugaucuccuccacuga cuuccugagccacccuuuugggauagcuguguuugaggacaagguguucuggacagaccuggagaacgaggccauuuucag ugcaaaucggcucaauggccuggaaaucuccauccuggcugagaaccucaacaacccacaugacauugucaucuuccaugagc ugaagcagccaagagcuccagaugccugugagcugaguguccagccuaauggaggcugugaauaccugugccuuccugcucc ucagaucuccagccacucucccaaguacacaugugccuguccugacacaauguggcuggguccagacaugaagaggugcuacc gagaugcaaaugaagacaguaagaugggcucaacagucacugccgcuguuaucgggaucaucgugcccauaguggugauagc ccuccugugcaugaguggauaccugaucuggagaaacuggaagcggaagaacaccaaaagcaugaauuuugacaacccagucu acaggaaaacaacagaagaagaagacgaagaugagcuccauauagggagaacugcucagauuggccaugucuauccugcacga guggcauuaagccuugaagaugauggacuacccugaggaugggaucacccccuucgugccucauggaauucagucccaugca cuacacucuggaugguguaugacuggaugaauggguuucuauauaugggucugugugaguguaugugugugugugauuuu uuuuuuaaauuuauguugcggaaagguaaccacaaaguuaugaugaacugcaaacauccaaaggaugugagaguuuuucuau guauaauguuuuauacacuuuuuaacugguugcacuacccaugaggaauucguggaauggcuacugcugacuaacaugaugc acauaaccaaaugggggccaauggcacaguaccuuacucaucauuuaaaaacuauauuuacagaagauguuugguugcuggg ggggcuuuuuuagguuuuggggcauuuguuuuuuguaaauaagaugauuaugcuuuguggcuauccaucaacauaaguaaa aaaaaaaaaaaaacacuucaacucccucccccauuuagauuauuuauuaacauauuuuaaaaaucagaugaguucuauaaauaa uuuagagaagugagaguauuuauuuuuggcauguuuggcccaccacacagacucuguguguguauguguguguuuauaugu guaugugugugacagaaaaaucuguagagaagaggcacaucuauggcuacuguucaaauacauaaagauaaauuuauuuuca cacaguccacaagggguauaucuuguaguuuucagaaaagccuuuggaaaucuggaucagaaaauagauaccaugguuugug caauuauguaguaaaaaaggcaaaucuuuucaccucuggcuauuccugagaccccaggaagucaggaaaagccuuucagcuca cccauggcugcugugacuccuaccagggcuuucuuggcuuuggcgaaggucaguguacagacauuccaugguaccagagugc ucagaaacucaagauaggauaugccucacccucagcuacuccuuguuuuaaaguucagcucuuugaguaacuucuucaauuu cuuucaggacacuuggguugaauucaguaaguuuccucugaagcacccugaagggugccauccuuacagagcuaaguggaga cguuuccagaucagcccaaguuuacuauagagacuggcccaggcacugaaugucuaggacaugcuguggaugaagauaaaga ugguggaauagguuuuaucacaucucuuauuucucuuuuccccuuacucucuaccauuuccuuuauguggggaaacauuuu aagguaauaaauagguuacuuaccaucauauguucauauagaugaaacuaauuuuuggcuuaagucagaacaacuggccaaaa uugaagucauauuugaggggggaaauggcauacgcaauauuauauuauauuggauauuuauguucacacaggaauuugguu uacugcuuuguaaauaaaaggaaaaacuccggguauauguauagauguucuucauuauagacaucuucuuugcuuuucuug gccuugggggaggaagggagaagugcucuuuucuacuuguggggucucccauuggaaacauaauccuauagucccagaagga uucaguccccaguggcuuucccauccaaagagaaagaguuugaguuucuuaacucugcuguucugccacuuacucccacuag acaaccagggacaaggugcaacauggaaguguuugacuuaaguaggagcagaggagcugcaucuaaucucaucauaccugga acuugacacacuuaagcaaaugccuucccaucccuaccugccagaugcccccaacucaaugaaguuggaugucucaccagcuu gauacccuuugaauuuucagucagacauucuggaguucuagcauccuguaccuaggaccuuccucugugucacucuuggccu ccuaaacucuaagaaaauaacuauauucuggagcuugggcaguguguuuugcauaauccagcaaucuccucaugacaugcau guguugauaguccugaaacauucauugagaggguaaaugcaguugaccuagaaugaccaauaccaaacagaauuuuaagaaca gguggccaacuccuauggagcuuacucacauauuacuauucuuuuaagaacggaaaguaaaauuauuuuugacugaagaaaa augaugacagugaaaaacauggaaauguacucaaaacaagugacuuuuucuguaaccuuccaaagaaacugaauuuuccaagg aauuaaaugauaacaguggcuaaggcauaguuucuaaacuuucaguaagauccuggcauucacagaaaaaaaugaugaaugg ggucuggacauacagccugagaucucaaaaugacaaugaaauucacaacuuuuucucagagacauucauguuuccugcauau gcuacaacugcaguuugaaagaggcagcaaugggagcaacccuuuacaagaaacaaauugugauauauucauguguuggacg gcaguaaauaagaugaaaccugaggagucagauccaccuucccccauucauagaggcuuuucagccucauuuugagguacag uuacauaucuuuugccuuuugcccccgugcauagcuaucuacagccaaucacagaucacagagucacuggacuauagagcug gaaggaagcucagagacaaugccaagggggcagaaaauuuaucagaagccagucccagugcguuuccuccauuuccuucugca ggaagacuauuuugggcugccugaacauuguaucaaaccugcuaccuauacuauggucuaccuuuccuccaguggaauuaca aaggcacuaacugaaaugccuucuagaaacagagaaaacgaaacuguacuuauuuacucuugauacacagauuauuuauaaaa cagauugaaguaaccuguuaacuggcaaaaagagaaugagaucggauuuaaauguauggcaguaaguccuauugaucccucc aguuaucucaguaugacugcaguauauucauucacuaaaaccacucacuagauaccaacuacacaccuggcacugcagaugua aaggucagucacacauguucugacuuuacagaguucacaguagcaguggaggaugauauauguggaaacaaaaaaggcauug auucuauucagagcacuguuagggcucaaaggagagaggggucuuuccaccuaagaaaugaggaauagggucaucauagaag ugaccuuaagucuuaaaaauuaagaaggggauuccaagcugcuucagacagagacacaucgagcuaaaacacagagguaugaa agagcacagggacuuuaggaauugcacaguucauucuaacaggaacaaaaggcucaaggggggcaagaaaugaggcuguaug gaaagagauucaauguaagcacuuuauaaaauagauuaauuucugauucaaugaagcauuucuugaucauuguguacaaggc acuacaugcaucauggaaaauucauuaggaugcauugccagcacuuugcagaacugauauuauucagccucaagcuuuccag uggccaaagggaaaugcugacugcuuuucauauauuugagucaaagauuuuuuauauggucaaugaagacuaauauaagggc agugggauuuucacagaugcaugccauguugucgagagccucuuagauuuucucaacugugagaaagaaaaacgaaaauguu gaagacguugagucuggagaggggauacuaaucacuguccaguugggcacuggugggaauggggaaauggcacaggaaugc aagccucuccacccuaccccccgaacuccagccauacacucaucguuucacaaaauauaaaugaguuagcauuaaauguuucag aguaaauaauuccuuuucccgaaaugcaugaagauagaguaacagacuucucacacuguauuuuuaggguauggagaauuua gaagguuaaagaauuacugcuucaauuuuucaguuaaaaaaaaaucaggaagcucuguucauucaggcuaugcaccaugugc acagucaagaauuagcagaaacccucugcauuuacaaacacuuugugcuauaaaaaaguaauuuuuaaaaagccacgugugug uguguguauauauauauauauauauauauuuaaagccaagguuuugauacuuuuuuacaaaaacuacaagagaaaacaaaua uaccuguccaaaccauauacuuuuaaaagagcauuuuuuuuuccauacaagcuguuguuaauuuggggguaaagugcugauu ugcaaacuucaucaaauuguucccaaguggauucuccuuguuugucucccccuaccaaccccaaaguuaccauauuugaugua agaaucaggcauguuagaauguugugucacacuaacugauucugcucuuuuugucuugucauucaaguuccguuagcuucu guacgcggugcccuuugcagucuggugucucuuccagaggcgagggggcugaggauggggugcugcaucucacuagcuaua cuggcaucaucuugguaaacugaaaaccaaauguggacauuuguaaaaucagugcacuguuucuagagagagauuaaauuca uuuaaaaaaaa LRP8 isoform 3-Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 16) mglpepgplr llalllllll llllqlqhla aaaadpllgg qgpakdcekd qfqcrnerci psvwrcdedd dcldhsdedd cpkktcadsd ftcdnghcih erwkcdgeee cpdgsdesea tctkqvcpae klscgptshk cvpaswrcdg ekdceggade agcatslgtc rgdefqcgdg tcvlaikhcn qeqdcpdgsd eagclqglne clhnnggcsh ictdlkigfe ctcpagfqll dqktcgdide ckdpdacsqi cvnykgyfkc ecypgyemdl ltknckaaag kspsliftnr hevrridlvk rnysrlipml knvvaldvev atnriywcdl syrkiysaym dkasdpkeqe vlideqlhsp eglavdwvhk hiywtdsgnk tisvatvdgg rrrtlfsrnl sepraiavdp lrgfmywsdw gdqakieksg lngvdrqtiv sdniewpngi tldllsqrly wvdsklhqls sidfsggnrk tlisstdfls hpfgiavfed kvfwtdlene aifsanring leisilaenl nnphdivifh elkqprapda celsvqpngg ceylclpapq isshspkytc acpdtmwlgp dmkrcyrdan edskmgstvt aavigiivpi vviallcmsg yliwrnwkrk ntksmnfdnp vyrktteeed edelhigrta qighvypary alsleddglp LRP8 isoform-RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 17) gcuggcggcggccgcccagggccggggccgcgcgcccagccugagcccgccccgccgccgagcgucaccgaaccugcuugaaa ugcagccgaggagccggggcgggcggcagcggcggcggcggcggcggcgggggcagcggcaaccccggcgccgcggcaagga cucggagggcugagacgcggcggcggcggcgcggggagcgcggggcgcggcggccggagccccgggcccgccaugggccucc ccgagccgggcccucuccggcuucuggcgcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcugcagcuccagcaucuugcggc ggcagcggcugauccgcugcucggcggccaagggccggccaaggauugcgaaaaggaccaauuccagugccggaacgagcgc ugcauccccucuguguggagaugcgacgaggacgaugacugcuuagaccacagcgacgaggacgacugccccaagaagaccug ugcagacagugacuucaccugugacaacggccacugcauccacgaacgguggaagugugacggcgaggaggaguguccugau ggcuccgaugaguccgaggccacuugcaccaagcagguguguccugcagagaagcugagcuguggacccaccagccacaagu guguaccugccucguggcgcugcgacggggagaaggacugcgaggguggagcggaugaggccggcugugcuaccuugugcg ccccgcacgaguuccagugcggcaaccgcucgugccuggccgccguguucgugugcgacggcgacgacgacuguggugacgg cagcgaugagcgcggcugugcagacccggccugcgggccccgcgaguuccgcugcggcggcgauggcggcggcgccugcauc ccggagcgcugggucugcgaccgccaguuugacugcgaggaccgcucggacgaggcagccgagcucugcggccguccgggcc ccggggccacguccgcgcccgccgccugcgccaccgccucccaguucgccugccgcagcggcgagugcgugcaccugggcug gcgcugcgacggcgaccgcgacugcaaagacaaaucggacgaggccgacugcccacugggcaccugccguggggacgaguucc aguguggggaugggacauguguccuugcaaucaagcacugcaaccaggagcaggacuguccagaugggagugaugaagcugg cugccuacaggggcugaacgagugucugcacaacaauggcggcugcucacacaucugcacugaccucaagauuggcuuugaa ugcacgugcccagcaggcuuccagcuccuggaccagaagaccuguggcgacauugaugagugcaaggacccagaugccugca gccagaucugugucaauuacaagggcuauuuuaagugugagugcuacccuggcuacgagauggaccuacugaccaagaacug caaggcugcugcuggcaagagcccaucccuaaucuucaccaaccggcacgaggugcggaggaucgaccuggugaagcggaacu auucacgccucauccccaugcucaagaaugucguggcacuagauguggaaguugccaccaaucgcaucuacuggugugaccu cuccuaccguaagaucuauagcgccuacauggacaaggccagugacccgaaagagcaggagguccucauugacgagcaguugc acucuccagagggccuggcaguggacuggguccacaagcacaucuacuggacugacucgggcaauaagaccaucucaguggcc acaguugaugguggccgccgacgcacucucuucagccguaaccucagugaaccccgggccaucgcuguugacccccugcgag gguucauguauuggucugacuggggggaccaggccaagauugagaaaucugggcucaacgguguggaccggcaaacacugg ugucagacaauauugaauggcccaacggaaucacccuggaucugcugagccagcgcuuguacuggguagacuccaagcuacac caacuguccagcauugacuucaguggaggcaacagaaagacgcugaucuccuccacugacuuccugagccacccuuuugggau agcuguguuugaggacaagguguucuggacagaccuggagaacgaggccauuuucagugcaaaucggcucaauggccuggaa aucuccauccuggcugagaaccucaacaacccacaugacauugucaucuuccaugagcugaagcagccaagagcuccagaugc cugugagcugaguguccagccuaauggaggcugugaauaccugugccuuccugcuccucagaucuccagccacucucccaag uacacaugugccuguccugacacaauguggcuggguccagacaugaagaggugcuaccgagcaccucaaucuaccucaacuac gacguuagcuucuaccaugacgaggacaguaccugccaccacaagagcccccgggaccaccguccacagauccaccuaccagaa ccacagcacagagacaccaagccugacagcugcagucccaagcucaguuaguguccccagggcucccagcaucagcccgucuac ccuaagcccugcaaccagcaaccacucccagcacuaugcaaaugaagacaguaagaugggcucaacagucacugccgcuguua ucgggaucaucgugcccauaguggugauagcccuccugugcaugaguggauaccugaucuggagaaacuggaagcggaagaa caccaaaagcaugaauuuugacaacccagucuacaggaaaacaacagaagaagaagacgaagaugagcuccauauagggagaac ugcucagauuggccaugucuauccugcacgaguggcauuaagccuugaagaugauggacuacccugaggaugggaucacccc cuucgugccucauggaauucagucccaugcacuacacucuggaugguguaugacuggaugaauggguuucuauauaugggu cugugugaguguaugugugugugugauuuuuuuuuuaaauuuauguugcggaaagguaaccacaaaguuaugaugaacugc aaacauccaaaggaugugagaguuuuucuauguauaauguuuuauacacuuuuuaacugguugcacuacccaugaggaauuc guggaauggcuacugcugacuaacaugaugcacauaaccaaaugggggccaauggcacaguaccuuacucaucauuuaaaaac uauauuuacagaagauguuugguugcugggggggcuuuuuuagguuuuggggcauuuguuuuuuguaaauaagaugauua ugcuuuguggcuauccaucaacauaaguaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaacacuucaacucccucccccauuuagauuauuuauuaaca uauuuuaaaaaucagaugaguucuauaaauaauuuagagaagugagaguauuuauuuuuggcauguuuggcccaccacacag acucuguguguguauguguguguuuauauguguaugugugugacagaaaaaucuguagagaagaggcacaucuauggcuac uguucaaauacauaaagauaaauuuauuuucacacaguccacaagggguauaucuuguaguuuucagaaaagccuuuggaaa ucuggaucagaaaauagauaccaugguuugugcaauuauguaguaaaaaaggcaaaucuuuucaccucuggcuauuccugag accccaggaagucaggaaaagccuuucagcucacccauggcugcugugacuccuaccagggcuuucuuggcuuuggcgaagg ucaguguacagacauuccaugguaccagagugcucagaaacucaagauaggauaugccucacccucagcuacuccuuguuuua aaguucagcucuuugaguaacuucuucaauuucuuucaggacacuuggguugaauucaguaaguuuccucugaagcacccug aagggugccauccuuacagagcuaaguggagacguuuccagaucagcccaaguuuacuauagagacuggcccaggcacugaa ugucuaggacaugcuguggaugaagauaaagaugguggaauagguuuuaucacaucucuuauuucucuuuuccccuuacuc ucuaccauuuccuuuauguggggaaacauuuuaagguaauaaauagguuacuuaccaucauauguucauauagaugaaacua auuuuuggcuuaagucagaacaacuggccaaaauugaagucauauuugaggggggaaauggcauacgcaauauuauauuaua uuggauauuuauguucacacaggaauuugguuuacugcuuuguaaauaaaaggaaaaacuccggguauauguauagauguu cuucauuauagacaucuucuuugcuuuucuuggccuugggggaggaagggagaagugcucuuuucuacuuguggggucucc cauuggaaacauaauccuauagucccagaaggauucaguccccaguggcuuucccauccaaagagaaagaguuugaguuucu uaacucugcuguucugccacuuacucccacuagacaaccagggacaaggugcaacauggaaguguuugacuuaaguaggagc agaggagcugcaucuaaucucaucauaccuggaacuugacacacuuaagcaaaugccuucccaucccuaccugccagaugccc ccaacucaaugaaguuggaugucucaccagcuugauacccuuugaauuuucagucagacauucuggaguucuagcauccugu accuaggaccuuccucugugucacucuuggccuccuaaacucuaagaaaauaacuauauucuggagcuugggcaguguguuu ugcauaauccagcaaucuccucaugacaugcauguguugauaguccugaaacauucauugagaggguaaaugcaguugaccu agaaugaccaauaccaaacagaauuuuaagaacagguggccaacuccuauggagcuuacucacauauuacuauucuuuuaaga acggaaaguaaaauuauuuuugacugaagaaaaaugaugacagugaaaaacauggaaauguacucaaaacaagugacuuuuuc uguaaccuuccaaagaaacugaauuuuccaaggaauuaaaugauaacaguggcuaaggcauaguuucuaaacuuucaguaaga uccuggcauucacagaaaaaaaugaugaauggggucuggacauacagccugagaucucaaaaugacaaugaaauucacaacuu uuucucagagacauucauguuuccugcauaugcuacaacugcaguuugaaagaggcagcaaugggagcaacccuuuacaaga aacaaauugugauauauucauguguuggacggcaguaaauaagaugaaaccugaggagucagauccaccuucccccauucaua gaggcuuuucagccucauuuugagguacaguuacauaucuuuugccuuuugcccccgugcauagcuaucuacagccaaucac agaucacagagucacuggacuauagagcuggaaggaagcucagagacaaugccaagggggcagaaaauuuaucagaagccagu cccagugcguuuccuccauuuccuucugcaggaagacuauuuugggcugccugaacauuguaucaaaccugcuaccuauacu auggucuaccuuuccuccaguggaauuacaaaggcacuaacugaaaugccuucuagaaacagagaaaacgaaacuguacuuau uuacucuugauacacagauuauuuauaaaacagauugaaguaaccuguuaacuggcaaaaagagaaugagaucggauuuaaa uguauggcaguaaguccuauugaucccuccaguuaucucaguaugacugcaguauauucauucacuaaaaccacucacuaga uaccaacuacacaccuggcacugcagauguaaaggucagucacacauguucugacuuuacagaguucacaguagcaguggagg augauauauguggaaacaaaaaaggcauugauucuauucagagcacuguuagggcucaaaggagagaggggucuuuccaccu aagaaaugaggaauagggucaucauagaagugaccuuaagucuuaaaaauuaagaaggggauuccaagcugcuucagacaga gacacaucgagcuaaaacacagagguaugaaagagcacagggacuuuaggaauugcacaguucauucuaacaggaacaaaagg cucaaggggggcaagaaaugaggcuguauggaaagagauucaauguaagcacuuuauaaaauagauuaauuucugauucaau gaagcauuucuugaucauuguguacaaggcacuacaugcaucauggaaaauucauuaggaugcauugccagcacuuugcaga acugauauuauucagccucaagcuuuccaguggccaaagggaaaugcugacugcuuuucauauauuugagucaaagauuuuu uauauggucaaugaagacuaauauaagggcagugggauuuucacagaugcaugccauguugucgagagccucuuagauuuuc ucaacugugagaaagaaaaacgaaaauguugaagacguugagucuggagaggggauacuaaucacuguccaguugggcacug gugggaauggggaaauggcacaggaaugcaagccucuccacccuaccccccgaacuccagccauacacucaucguuucacaaa auauaaaugaguuagcauuaaauguuucagaguaaauaauuccuuuucccgaaaugcaugaagauagaguaacagacuucuc acacuguauuuuuaggguauggagaauuuagaagguuaaagaauuacugcuucaauuuuucaguuaaaaaaaaaucaggaag cucuguucauucaggcuaugcaccaugugcacagucaagaauuagcagaaacccucugcauuuacaaacacuuugugcuauaa aaaaguaauuuuuaaaaagccacguguguguguguguauauauauauauauauauauauuuaaagccaagguuuugauacuu uuuuacaaaaacuacaagagaaaacaaauauaccuguccaaaccauauacuuuuaaaagagcauuuuuuuuuccauacaagcu guuguuaauuuggggguaaagugcugauuugcaaacuucaucaaauuguucccaaguggauucuccuuguuugucuccccc uaccaaccccaaaguuaccauauuugauguaagaaucaggcauguuagaauguugugucacacuaacugauucugcucuuuu ugucuugucauucaaguuccguuagcuucuguacgcggugcccuuugcagucuggugucucuuccagaggcgagggggcug aggauggggugcugcaucucacuagcuauacuggcaucaucuugguaaacugaaaaccaaauguggacauuuguaaaaucag ugcacuguuucuagagagagauuaaauucauuuaaaaaaaa LRP8 isoform 4-Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 18) mglpepgplr llalllllll llllqlqhla aaaadpllgg qgpakdcekd qfqcrnerci psvwrcdedd dcldhsdedd cpkktcadsd ftcdnghcih erwkcdgeee cpdgsdesea tctkqvcpae klscgptshk cvpaswrcdg ekdceggade agcaticaph efqcgnrscl aavfvcdgdd dcgdgsderg cadpacgpre frcggdggga ciperwvcdr qfdcedrsde aaelcgrpgp gatsapaaca tasqfacrsg ecvhlgwrcd gdrdckdksd eadcplgtcr gdefqcgdgt cvlaikhcnq eqdcpdgsde agclqglnec lhnnggcshi ctdlkigfec tcpagfqlld qktcgdidec kdpdacsqic vnykgyfkce cypgyemdll tknckaaagk spsliftnrh evrridlvkr nysrlipmlk nvvaldveva tnriywcdls yrkiysaymd kasdpkeqev lideqlhspe glavdwvhkh iywtdsgnkt isvatvdggr rrtlfsrnls epraiavdpl rgfmywsdwg dqakieksgl ngvdrqtivs dniewpngit ldllsqrlyw vdsklhqlss idfsggnrkt lisstdflsh pfgiavfedk vfwtdlenea ifsanringl eisilaenln nphdivifhe lkqprapdac elsvqpnggc eylclpapqi sshspkytca cpdtmwlgpd mkrcyrapqs tstttlastm trtvpattra pgttvhrsty qnhstetpsl taavpssysv prapsispst lspatsnhsq hyanedskmg stvtaavigi ivpivviall cmsgyliwrn wkrkntksmn fdnpvyrktt eeededelhi grtaqighvy parvalsled dglp CTGF-RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 19) aaacucacacaacaacucuuccccgcugagaggagacagccagugcgacuccacccuccagcucgacggcagccgccccggccg acagccccgagacgacagcccggcgcgucccgguccccaccuccgaccaccgccagcgcuccaggccccgccgcuccccgcucg ccgccaccgcgcccuccgcuccgcccgcagugccaaccaugaccgccgccaguaugggccccguccgcgucgccuucgugguc cuccucgcccucugcagccggccggccgucggccagaacugcagcgggccgugccggugcccggacgagccggcgccgcgcu gcccggcgggcgugagccucgugcuggacggcugcggcugcugccgcgucugcgccaagcagcugggcgagcugugcaccga gcgcgaccccugcgacccgcacaagggccucuucugugacuucggcuccccggccaaccgcaagaucggcgugugcaccgcca aagauggugcucccugcaucuucggugguacgguguaccgcagcggagaguccuuccagagcagcugcaaguaccagugcac gugccuggacggggcggugggcugcaugccccugugcagcauggacguucgucugcccagcccugacugccccuucccgagg agggucaagcugcccgggaaaugcugcgaggagugggugugugacgagcccaaggaccaaaccgugguugggccugcccucg cggcuuaccgacuggaagacacguuuggcccagacccaacuaugauuagagccaacugccugguccagaccacagaguggagc gccuguuccaagaccugugggaugggcaucuccacccggguuaccaaugacaacgccuccugcaggcuagagaagcagagccg ccugugcauggucaggccuugcgaagcugaccuggaagagaacauuaagaagggcaaaaagugcauccguacucccaaaaucu ccaagccuaucaaguuugagcuuucuggcugcaccagcaugaagacauaccgagcuaaauucuguggaguauguaccgacgg ccgaugcugcaccccccacagaaccaccacccugccgguggaguucaagugcccugacggcgaggucaugaagaagaacauga uguucaucaagaccugugccugccauuacaacugucccggagacaaugacaucuuugaaucgcuguacuacaggaagaugua cggagacauggcaugaagccagagagugagagacauuaacucauuagacuggaacuugaacugauucacaucucauuuuucc guaaaaaugauuucaguagcacaaguuauuuaaaucuguuuuucuaacugggggaaaagauucccacccaauucaaaacauu gugccaugucaaacaaauagucuaucaaccccagacacugguuugaagaauguuaagacuugacaguggaacuacauuaguac acagcaccagaauguauauuaagguguggcuuuaggagcagugggaggguaccagcagaaagguuaguaucaucagauagca ucuuauacgaguaauaugccugcuauuugaaguguaauugagaaggaaaauuuuagcgugcucacugaccugccuguagccc cagugacagcuaggaugugcauucuccagccaucaagagacugagucaaguuguuccuuaagucagaacagcagacucagcuc ugacauucugauucgaaugacacuguucaggaaucggaauccugucgauuagacuggacagcuuguggcaagugaauuugcc uguaacaagccagauuuuuuaaaauuuauauuguaaauauuguguguguguguguguguguauauauauauauauguacag uuaucuaaguuaauuuaaaguuguuugugccuuuuuauuuuuguuuuuaaugcuuugauauuucaauguuagccucaauu ucugaacaccauagguagaauguaaagcuugucugaucguucaaagcaugaaauggauacuuauauggaaauucugcucaga uagaaugacaguccgucaaaacagauuguuugcaaaggggaggcaucaguguccuuggcaggcugauuucuagguaggaaau gugguagccucacuuuuaaugaacaaauggccuuuauuaaaaacugagugacucuauauagcugaucaguuuuuucaccugg aagcauuuguuucuacuuugauaugacuguuuuucggacaguuuauuuguugagagugugaccaaaaguuacauguuugca ccuuucuaguugaaaauaaaguguauauuuuuucuauaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa CTGF-Amino Acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 20) mtaasmgpvr vafvvllalc srpavgqncs gpercpdepa prcpagvslv ldgcgccrvc akqlgelcte rdpcdphkgl fcdfgspanr kigvctakdg apcifggtvy rsgesfqssc kyqctcldga vgcmplcsmd vrlpspdcpf prrvklpgkc ceewvcdepk dqtvvgpala ayrledtfgp dptmirancl vqttewsacs ktcgmgistr vtndnascrl ekqsrlcmvr pceadleeni kkgkkcirtp kiskpikfel sgctsmktyr akfcgvctdg rcctphrttt 1pvefkcpdg evmkknmmfi ktcachyncp gdndifesly yrkmygdma LXR-a isoform 1: RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 21) aggaaggagggguggccugaccccucggcagucccuccccucagccuuuccccaaauugcuacuucucuggggcuccagguc cugcuugugcucagcuccagcucacuggcuggccaccgagacuucuggacaggaaacugcaccauccucuucucccagcaagg gggcuccagagacugcccacccaggaagucugguggccuggggauuuggacagugccuugguaaugaccagggcuccaggaa gagauguccuuguggcugggggccccugugccugacauuccuccugacucugcgguggagcuguggaagccaggcgcacag gaugcaagcagccaggcccagggaggcagcagcugcauccucagagaggaagccaggaugccccacucugcuggggguacug cagggguggggcuggaggcugcagagcccacagcccugcucaccagggcagagcccccuucagaacccacagagauccgucca caaaagcggaaaaaggggccagcccccaaaaugcuggggaacgagcuaugcagcguguguggggacaaggccucgggcuucc acuacaauguucugagcugcgagggcugcaagggauucuuccgccgcagcgucaucaagggagcgcacuacaucugccacag uggcggccacugccccauggacaccuacaugcgucgcaagugccaggagugucggcuucgcaaaugccgucaggcuggcaug cgggaggaguguguccugucagaagaacagauccgccugaagaaacugaagcggcaagaggaggaacaggcucaugccacauc cuugccccccagggcuuccucacccccccaaauccugccccagcucagcccggaacaacugggcaugaucgagaagcucgucg cugcccagcaacaguguaaccggcgcuccuuuucugaccggcuucgagucacgccuuggcccauggcaccagauccccauagc cgggaggcccgucagcagcgcuuugcccacuucacugagcuggccaucgucucugugcaggagauaguugacuuugcuaaac agcuacccggcuuccugcagcucagccgggaggaccagauugcccugcugaagaccucugcgaucgaggugaugcuucugga gacaucucggagguacaacccugggagugagaguaucaccuuccucaaggauuucaguuauaaccgggaagacuuugccaaa gcagggcugcaaguggaauucaucaaccccaucuucgaguucuccagggccaugaaugagcugcaacucaaugaugccgagu uugccuugcucauugcuaucagcaucuucucugcagaccggcccaacgugcaggaccagcuccagguagagaggcugcagca cacauauguggaagcccugcaugccuacgucuccauccaccauccccaugaccgacugauguucccacggaugcuaaugaaac uggugagccuccggacccugagcagcguccacucagagcaaguguuugcacugcgucugcaggacaaaaagcucccaccgcug cucucugagaucugggaugugcacgaaugacuguucuguccccauauuuucuguuuucuuggccggauggcugaggccugg uggcugccuccuagaaguggaacagacugagaagggcaaacauuccugggagcugggcaaggagauccucccguggcauuaa aagagagucaaaggguugcgaguuuuguggcuacugagcaguggagcccucgcuaacacugugcugugucugaagaucaug cugaccccacaaacggaugggccugggggccacuuugcacaggguucuccagagcccugcccauccugccuccaccacuuccu guuuuucccacagggccccaagaaaaauucuccacugucaaaaaaaaa LXR-a (NR1H3) isoform 1: Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 22) mslwlgapvp dippdsavel wkpgaqdass qaqggsscil reearmphsa ggtagvglea aeptalltra eppsepteir pqkrkkgpap kmlgnelcsv cgdkasgfhy nvlscegckg ffrrsvikga hyichsgghc pmdtymrrkc qecrlrkcrq agmreecvls eeqirlkklk rqeeeqahat slpprasspp qilpqlspeq lgmieklvaa qqqcnrrsfs drirvtpwpm apdphsrear qqrfahftel aivsvqeivd fakqlpgflq lsredqiall ktsaievmll etsrrynpgs esitflkdfs ynredfakag lqvefinpif efsramnelq lndaefalli aisifsadrp nvqdqlqver lqhtyvealh ayvsihhphd rlmfprmlmk lvslrtlssv hseqvfalrl qdkklpplls eiwdvhe LXR-a (NR1H3) isoform 2: RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 23) aggaaggagggguggccugaccccucggcagucccuccccucagccuuuccccaaauugcuacuucucuggggcuccagguc cugcuugugcucagcuccagcucacuggcuggccaccgagacuucuggacaggaaacugcaccauccucuucucccagcaagg gggcuccagagacugcccacccaggaagucugguggccuggggauuuggacagugccuugguaaugaccagggcuccaggaa gagauguccuuguggcugggggccccugugccugacauuccuccugacucugcgguggagcuguggaagccaggcgcacag gaugcaagcagccaggcccagggaggcagcagcugcauccucagagaggaagccaggaugccccacucugcuggggguacug cagggguggggcuggaggcugcagagcccacagcccugcucaccagggcagagcccccuucagaacccacagagauccgucca caaaagcggaaaaaggggccagcccccaaaaugcuggggaacgagcuaugcagcguguguggggacaaggccucgggcuucc acuacaauguucugagcugcgagggcugcaagggauucuuccgccgcagcgucaucaagggagcgcacuacaucugccacag uggcggccacugccccauggacaccuacaugcgucgcaagugccaggagugucggcuucgcaaaugccgucaggcuggcaug cgggaggaguguguccugucagaagaacagauccgccugaagaaacugaagcggcaagaggaggaacaggcucaugccacauc cuugccccccagggcuuccucacccccccaaauccugccccagcucagcccggaacaacugggcaugaucgagaagcucgucg cugcccagcaacaguguaaccggcgcuccuuuucugaccggcuucgagucacggugaugcuucuggagacaucucggaggua caacccugggagugagaguaucaccuuccucaaggauuucaguuauaaccgggaagacuuugccaaagcagggcugcaagug gaauucaucaaccccaucuucgaguucuccagggccaugaaugagcugcaacucaaugaugccgaguuugccuugcucauug cuaucagcaucuucucugcagaccggcccaacgugcaggaccagcuccagguagagaggcugcagcacacauauguggaagcc cugcaugccuacgucuccauccaccauccccaugaccgacugauguucccacggaugcuaaugaaacuggugagccuccggac ccugagcagcguccacucagagcaaguguuugcacugcgucugcaggacaaaaagcucccaccgcugcucucugagaucugg gaugugcacgaaugacuguucuguccccauauuuucuguuuucuuggccggauggcugaggccugguggcugccuccuaga aguggaacagacugagaagggcaaacauuccugggagcugggcaaggagauccucccguggcauuaaaagagagucaaaggg uugcgaguuuuguggcuacugagcaguggagcccucgcuaacacugugcugugucugaagaucaugcugaccccacaaacgg augggccugggggccacuuugcacaggguucuccagagcccugcccauccugccuccaccacuuccuguuuuucccacaggg ccccaagaaaaauucuccacugucaaaaaaaaa LXR-a (NR1H3) isoform 2 : Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 24) mslwlgapvp dippdsavel wkpgaqdass qaqggsscil reearmphsa ggtagvglea aeptalltra eppsepteir pqkrkkgpap kmlgnelcsv cgdkasgfhy nvlscegckg ffrrsvikga hyichsgghc pmdtymrrkc qecrlrkcrq agmreecvls eeqirlkklk rqeeeqahat slpprasspp qilpqlspeq lgmieklvaa qqqcnrrsfs drlrvtvmll etsrrynpgs esitflkdfs ynredfakag lqvefinpif efsramnelq lndaefalli aisifsadrp nvqdqlqver lqhtyvealh ayvsihhphd rlmfprmlmk lvslrtlssv hseqvfalrl qdkklpplls eiwdvhe LXR-a (NR1H3) isoform 3: RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 25) aucuuacuuagggaccugcuggggugcggggaaaaggcgcagucucggugggauugcgugcaggagggucguggucuggcu guggcggaggagcauaagaagacucugcgguggagcuguggaagccaggcgcacaggaugcaagcagccaggcccagggagg cagcagcugcauccucagagaggaagccaggaugccccacucugcuggggguacugcagggguggggcuggaggcugcagag cccacagcccugcucaccagggcagagcccccuucagaacccacagagauccguccacaaaagcggaaaaaggggccagccccc aaaaugcuggggaacgagcuaugcagcguguguggggacaaggccucgggcuuccacuacaauguucugagcugcgagggcu gcaagggauucuuccgccgcagcgucaucaagggagcgcacuacaucugccacaguggcggccacugccccauggacaccuac augcgucgcaagugccaggagugucggcuucgcaaaugccgucaggcuggcaugcgggaggaguguguccugucagaagaac agauccgccugaagaaacugaagcggcaagaggaggaacaggcucaugccacauccuugccccccagggcuuccucacccccc caaauccugccccagcucagcccggaacaacugggcaugaucgagaagcucgucgcugcccagcaacaguguaaccggcgcuc cuuuucugaccggcuucgagucacgccuuggcccauggcaccagauccccauagccgggaggcccgucagcagcgcuuugcc cacuucacugagcuggccaucgucucugugcaggagauaguugacuuugcuaaacagcuacccggcuuccugcagcucagcc gggaggaccagauugcccugcugaagaccucugcgaucgaggugaugcuucuggagacaucucggagguacaacccugggag ugagaguaucaccuuccucaaggauuucaguuauaaccgggaagacuuugccaaagcagggcugcaaguggaauucaucaac cccaucuucgaguucuccagggccaugaaugagcugcaacucaaugaugccgaguuugccuugcucauugcuaucagcaucu ucucugcagaccggcccaacgugcaggaccagcuccagguagagaggcugcagcacacauauguggaagcccugcaugccuac gucuccauccaccauccccaugaccgacugauguucccacggaugcuaaugaaacuggugagccuccggacccugagcagcgu ccacucagagcaaguguuugcacugcgucugcaggacaaaaagcucccaccgcugcucucugagaucugggaugugcacgaa ugacuguucuguccccauauuuucuguuuucuuggccggauggcugaggccugguggcugccuccuagaaguggaacagac ugagaagggcaaacauuccugggagcugggcaaggagauccucccguggcauuaaaagagagucaaaggguugcgaguuuug uggcuacugagcaguggagcccucgcuaacacugugcugugucugaagaucaugcugaccccacaaacggaugggccugggg gccacuuugcacaggguucuccagagcccugcccauccugccuccaccacuuccuguuuuucccacagggccccaagaaaaau ucuccacugucaaaaaaaaa LXR-a (NR1H3) isoform 3: Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 26) mphsaggtag vgleaaepta lltraeppse pteirpqkrk kgpapkmlgn elcsvcgdka sgfhynvlsc egckgffrrs vikgahyich sgghcpmdty mrrkcqecrl rkcniagmre ecvlseeqir lkklkrqeee qahatslppr assppqilpq lspeqlgmie klvaaqqqcn rrsfsdrlry tpwpmapdph srearqqrfa hftelaivsv qeivdfakql pgfiqlsred qiallktsai evmlletsrr ynpgsesitf lkdfsynred fakaglqvef inpifefsra mnelqlndae falliaisif sadrpnvqdq lqverlqhty vealhayvsi hhphdrlmfp rmlmklvslr tlssvhseqv falrlqdkkl ppllseiwdv he LXR-a (NR1H3) isoform 4: RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 27) gauucuaacuuagcuaagcaaugcuacuggagaccauaggcaaagccaagguacagcuucagggaagucuuuggugagccca ucucucauuaccaagguaacgaagcgcagacuccgggcccgggugggcggcaucaccaccagguucacgccgagaaggagcug gaggagagccgcccggcuccagccggaccgcuugcccgccaucaccguuguaaucuaugcagcaaacaagcuggaacccgcug gguggcaccugcaagcagccgcccggacgcacccacucugegguggagcuguggaagccaggcgcacaggaugcaagcagcca ggcccagggaggcagcagcugcauccucagagaggaagccaggaugccccacucugcuggggguacugcagggguggggcug gaggcugcagagcccacagcccugcucaccagggcagagcccccuucagaacccacagagauccguccacaaaagcggaaaaag gggccagcccccaaaaugcuggggaacgagcuaugcagcguguguggggacaaggccucgggcuuccacuacaauguucuga gcugcgagggcugcaagggauucuuccgccgcagcgucaucaagggagcgcacuacaucugccacaguggeggccacugccc cauggacaccuacaugcgucgcaagugccaggagugucggcuucgcaaaugccgucaggcuggcaugcgggaggaguguguc cugucagaagaacagauccgccugaagaaacugaagcggcaagaggaggaacaggcucaugccacauccuugccccccagggc uuccucacccccccaaauccugccccagcucagcccggaacaacugggcaugaucgagaagcucgucgcugcccagcaacagu guaaccggcgcuccuuuucugaccggcuucgagucacgccuuggcccauggcaccagauccccauagccgggaggcccguca gcagcgcuuugcccacuucacugagcuggccaucgucucugugcaggagauaguugacuuugcuaaacagcuacccggcuuc cugcagcucagccgggaggaccagauugcccugcugaagaccucugcgaucgaggugaugcuucuggagacaucucggaggu acaacccugggagugagaguaucaccuuccucaaggauuucaguuauaaccgggaagacuuugccaaagcagggcugcaagu ggaauucaucaaccccaucuucgaguucuccagggccaugaaugagcugcaacucaaugaugccgaguuugccuugcucauu gcuaucagcaucuucucugcagaccggcccaacgugcaggaccagcuccagguagagaggcugcagcacacauauguggaagc ccugcaugccuacgucuccauccaccauccccaugaccgacugauguucccacggaugcuaaugaaacuggugagccuccgga cccugagcagcguccacucagagcaaguguuugcacugcgucugcaggacaaaaagcucccaccgcugcucucugagaucugg gaugugcacgaaugacuguucuguccccauauuuucuguuuucuuggccggauggcugaggccugguggcugccuccuaga aguggaacagacugagaagggcaaacauuccugggagcugggcaaggagauccucccguggcauuaaaagagagucaaaggg uugcgaguuuuguggcuacugagcaguggagcccucgcuaacacugugcugugucugaagaucaugcugaccccacaaacgg augggccugggggccacuuugcacaggguucuccagagcccugcccauccugccuccaccacuuccuguuuuucccacaggg ccccaagaaaaauucuccacugucaaaaaaaaa LXR-a (NR1H3) isoform 4: Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 28) mqqtswnplg gtckqppgrt hsavelwkpg aqdassqaqg gsscilreea rmphsaggta gvgleaaept alltraepps epteirpqkr kkgpapkmlg nelcsvcgdk asgfhynvls cegckgffrr svikgahyic hsgghcpmdt ymrrkcqecr lrkcrqagmr eecvlseeqi rlkklkrqee eqahatslpp rassppqilp qlspeqlgmi eklvaaqqqc nrrsfsdrlr vtpwpmapdp hsrearqqrf ahftelaivs vqeivdfakq 1pgflqlsre dqiallktsa ievmlletsr rynpgsesit flkdfsynre dfakaglqve finpifefsr amnelqlnda efalliaisi fsadrpnvqd qlqverlqht yvealhayvs ihhphdrlmf prmlmklvsl rtlssvhseq vfalrlqdkk lppllseiwd vhe LXR-b (NR1H2) isoform 1: RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 29) ucgucaaguuucacgcuccgccccucuuccggacgugacgcaagggcgggguugccggaagaaguggcgaaguuacuuuuga ggguauuugaguagcggcggugugucaggggcuaaagaggaggacgaagaaaagcagagcaagggaacccagggcaacagga guaguucacuccgcgagaggccguccacgagacccccgcgcgcagccaugagccccgccccccgcuguugcuuggagaggggc gggaccuggagagaggcugcuccgugaccccaccauguccucuccuaccacgaguucccuggauaccccccugccuggaaaug gccccccucagccuggcgccccuucuucuucacccacuguaaaggaggaggguccggagccguggcccggggguccggaccc ugaugucccaggcacugaugaggccagcucagccugcagcacagacugggucaucccagaucccgaagaggaaccagagcgca agcgaaagaagggcccagccccgaagaugcugggccacgagcuuugccgugucuguggggacaaggccuccggcuuccacua caacgugcucagcugcgaaggcugcaagggcuucuuccggcgcagugugguccgugguggggccaggcgcuaugccugccg ggguggcggaaccugccagauggacgcuuucaugcggcgcaagugccagcagugccggcugcgcaagugcaaggaggcaggg augagggagcagugcguccuuucugaagaacagauccggaagaagaagauucggaaacaacagcagcaggagucacagucaca gucgcagucaccuguggggccgcagggcagcagcagcucagccucugggccuggggcuuccccugguggaucugaggcaggc agccagggcuccggggaaggcgaggguguccagcuaacagcggcucaagaacuaaugauccagcaguugguggcggcccaac ugcagugcaacaaacgcuccuucuccgaccagcccaaagucacgcccuggccccugggcgcagacccccagucccgagaugccc gccagcaacgcuuugcccacuucacggagcuggccaucaucucaguccaggagaucguggacuucgcuaagcaagugccugg uuuccugcagcugggccgggaggaccagaucgcccuccugaaggcauccacuaucgagaucaugcugcuagagacagccagg cgcuacaaccacgagacagaguguaucaccuucuugaaggacuucaccuacagcaaggacgacuuccaccgugcaggccugca gguggaguucaucaaccccaucuucgaguucucgcgggccaugcggcggcugggccuggacgacgcugaguacgcccugcuc aucgccaucaacaucuucucggccgaccggcccaacgugcaggagccgggccgcguggaggcguugcagcagcccuacgugg aggcgcugcuguccuacacgcgcaucaagaggccgcaggaccagcugcgcuucccgcgcaugcucaugaagcuggugagccu gcgcacgcugagcucugugcacucggagcaggucuucgccuugcggcuccaggacaagaagcugccgccucugcugucggag aucugggacguccacgagugaggggcuggccacccagccccacagccuugccugaccacccuccagcagauagacgccggcac cccuuccucuuccuaggguggaaggggcccugggccgagccuguagaccuaucggcucucaucccuugggauaagccccagu ccagguccaggaggcucccucccugcccagcgagucuuccagaaggggugaaaggguugcaggucccgaccacugacccuucc cggcugcccucccuccccagcuuacaccucaagcccagcacgcagugcaccuugaacagagggaggggaggacccauggcucu ccccccuagcccgggagaccagggccuuccucuuccucugcuuuuauuuaauaaaaacuaaaaacagaaacaggaaaauaaaa uaugaauacaauccagcccggagcuggagugca LXR-b (NR1H2) isoform 1: Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 30) msspttssld tplpgngppq pgapsssptv keegpepwpg gpdpdvpgtd eassacstdw vipdpeeepe rkrkkgpapk mlghelcrvc gdkasgfhyn vlscegckgf frrsvvrgga rryacrgggt cqmdafmrrk cqqcrlrkck eagmreqcvl seeqirkkki rkqqqqesqs qsqspvgpqg ssssasgpga spggseagsq gsgegegvql taaqelmiqq lvaaqlqcnk rsfsdqpkvt pwplgadpqs rdarqqrfah ftelaiisvq eivdfakqvp gflqlgredq iallkastie imlletarry nhetecitfl kdftyskddf hraglqvefi npifefsram rrlglddaey alliainifs adrpnvqepg rvealqqpyv eallsytrik rpqdqlrfpr mlmklvslrt lssvhseqvf alrlqdkklp pllseiwdvh e LXR-b (NR1H2) isoform 2: RNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 31) ucgucaaguuucacgcuccgccccucuuccggacgugacgcaagggcgggguugccggaagaaguggcgaaguuacuuuuga ggguauuugaguagcggcggugugucaggggcuaaagaggaggacgaagaaaagcagagcaagggaacccagggcaacagga guaguucacuccgcgagaggccguccacgagacccccgcgcgcagccaugagccccgccccccgcuguugcuuggagaggggc gggaccuggagagaggcugcuccgugaccccaccauguccucuccuaccacgaguucccuggauaccccccugccuggaaaug gccccccucagccuggcgccccuucuucuucacccacuguaaaggaggaggguccggagccguggcccggggguccggaccc ugaugucccaggcacugaugaggccagcucagccugcagcacagacuggggcguccuuucugaagaacagauccggaagaag aagauucggaaacaacagcagcaggagucacagucacagucgcagucaccuguggggccgcagggcagcagcagcucagccuc ugggccuggggcuuccccugguggaucugaggcaggcagccagggcuccggggaaggcgaggguguccagcuaacagcggc ucaagaacuaaugauccagcaguugguggcggcccaacugcagugcaacaaacgcuccuucuccgaccagcccaaagucacgc has-miR-7-3 sequence (SEQ ID NO: 38) AGAUUAGAGUGGCUGUGGUCUAGUGCUGUGUGGAAGACUAGUGAUUUUGUUGUU CUGAUGUACUACGACAACAAGUCACAGCCGGCCUCAUAGCGCAGACUCCCUUCGA C miR-Zip 199a-3p sequence (SEQ ID NO: 39) GATCCGACAGTAGCCTGCACATTAGTCACTTCCTGTCAGTAACCAATGTGCAGACTA CTGTTTTTTGAATT miR-Zip 199a-5p sequence (SEQ ID NO: 40) GATCCGCCCAGTGCTCAGACTACCCGTGCCTTCCTGTCAGGAACAGGTAGTCTGA ACACTGGGTTTTTGAATT miR-Zip 1908 sequence (SEQ ID NO: 41) GATCCGCGGCGGGAACGGCGATCGGCCCTTCCTGTCAGGACCAATCGCCGTCCCCG CCGTTTTTGAATT miR-Zip 7 sequence (SEQ ID NO: 42) GATCCGTGGAAGATTAGTGAGTTTATTATCTTCCTGTCAGACAACAAAATCACTAGT CTTCCATTTTTGAATT The members of this network can be used as targets for treating metastatic melanoma. In addition, the members can be used a biomarkers for determining whether a subject has, or is at risk of having, a metastatic melanoma or for determining a prognosis or surveillance of patient having the disorder. Accordingly, the present invention encompasses methods of treating metastatic melanoma by targeting one or more of the members, methods of determining the efficacy of therapeutic regimens for inhibiting the cancer, and methods of identifying anti-cancer agent. Also provided are methods of diagnosing whether a subject has, or is at risk for having, metastatic melanoma, and methods of screening subjects who are thought to be at risk for developing the disorder. The invention also encompasses various kits suitable for carrying out the above mentioned methods. ApoE Polypeptides The term “polypeptide or peptide” as used herein includes recombinantly or synthetically produced fusion or chimeric versions of any of the aforementioned metastasis suppressors, having the particular domains or portions that are involved in the network. The term also encompasses an analog, fragment, elongation or derivative of the peptide (e.g. that have an added amino-terminal methionine, useful for expression in prokaryotic cells). “Apolipoprotein polypeptide or ApoE polypeptide” as used herein means a peptide, drug, or compound that mimics a function of the native apolipoprotein either in vivo or in vitro including apolipoprotein analogs, fragments, elongations or derivatives that are a peptide of between 10 and 200 amino acid residues in length, such peptides can contain either natural, or non-natural amino acids containing amide bonds. Apolipoprotein peptide fragments may be modified to improve their stability or bioavailability in vivo as known in the art and may contain organic compounds bound to the amino acid side chains through a variety of bonds. In one aspect, our invention is a method for using an isolated apoEpI. B peptide having the amino acid sequence TQQIRLQAEIFQAR (murine)(SEQ. ID. No.43) or AQQIRLQAEAFQAR (human)(SEQ. ID. No.44) or an analog, fragment, elongation or derivative of the peptide. The invention also includes a nucleic acid molecule encoding the apoEpI.B peptide, or an analog, fragment, elongation or derivative thereof. The term “analog” includes any peptide having an amino acid residue sequence substantially identical to the native peptide in which one or more residues have been conservatively substituted with a functionally similar residue and which displays the ability to mimic the native peptide. Examples of conservative substitutions include the substitution of one non-polar (hydrophobic) residue such as alanine, isoleucine, valine, leucine or methionine for another, the substitution of one polar (hydrophilic) residue for another such as between arginine and lysine, between glutamine and asparagine, between glycine and serine, the substitution of one basic residue such as lysine, arginine or histidine for another, or the substitution of one acidic residue, such as aspartic acid or glutamic acid for another. The phrase “conservative substitution” also includes the use of a chemically derivatized residue in place of a nonderivatized residue provided that such polypeptide displays the requisite activity. Analogs of the peptides include peptides having the following sequences: TAQIRLQAEIFQAR (SEQ.ID.NO.:45); TQAIRLQAEIFQAR (SEQ.ID.NO.:46); TQQARLQAEIFQAR (SEQ.ID.NO.:47) and TQQIALQAEIFQAR (SEQ.ID.NO.:48). “Derivative” refers to a peptide having one or more residues chemically derivatized by reaction of a functional side group. Such derivatized molecules include for example, those molecules in which free amino groups have been derivatized to form amine hydrochlorides, p-toluene sulfonyl groups, carbobenzoxy groups, t-butyloxycarbonyl groups, chloroacetyl groups or formyl groups. Free carboxyl groups may be derivatized to form salts, methyl and ethyl esters or other types of esters or hydrazides. Free hydroxyl groups may be derivatized to form O-acyl or O-alkyl derivatives. The imidazole nitrogen of histidine may be derivatized to form N-im-benzylhistidine. Also included as derivatives are those peptides which contain one or more naturally occurring amino acid derivatives of the twenty standard amino acids. For examples: 4-hydroxyproline may be substituted for proline; 5-hydroxylysine may be substituted for lysine; 3-methylhistidine may be substituted for histidine; homoserine may be substituted for serine; and ornithine may be substituted for lysine. Polypeptides of the present invention also include any polypeptide having one or more additions and/or deletions or residues relative to the sequence of a polypeptide whose sequence is shown herein, so long as the requisite activity is maintained. The term “fragment” refers to any subject peptide having an amino acid residue sequence shorter than that of a peptide whose amino acid residue sequence is shown herein. The term “elongation” refers to any subject peptide having an amino acid sequence longer by one or two amino acids (either at the carboxy or amino terminal end) than that of a peptide of the present invention. Preferably, the elongation occurs at the amino terminal end. Fragments and elongations of the peptides include peptides that have the following sequences: QTQQIRLQAEIFQAR (SEQ.ID.NO.:49) and QQIRLQAEIFQAR (SEQ.ID.NO.:50). ApoE polypeptides and methods for their preparation are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,652,860, incorporated herein by reference. LXR Agonists The methods of the invention can include administering a LXR agonist for the prevention and treatment of metastasis. The LXR agonist can be a compound according to the Formula I, II, III, or IV shown below. Formula I is provided below: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein Ar is an aryl group; R1 is a member selected from the group consisting of —OH, —CO2H, —O—(C1-C7)alkyl, —OC(O)—, —(C1-C7)heteroalkyl, —OC (O)—(C1-C7)heteroalkyl, —NH2, —NH(C1-C7) alkyl, —N((C1-C7)alkyl)2 and —NH—S(O)2(C1-C5)alkyl; R2 is a member selected from the group consisting of (C1-C7)alkyl, (C1-C7)heteroalkyl, aryl and aryl (C1-C7)alkyl; X1, X2, X3, X4, X5 and X6 are each independently a member selected from the group consisting of: H, (C1-C5)alkyl, (C1-C5)heteroalkyl, F and CI, with the proviso that no more than three of X1 through X6 are H, (C1-C5)alkyl, (C1-C5)heteroalkyl; and Y is a divalent linking group selected from the group consisting of: —N(R12)S(O)m—, —N(R12)S(O)mN(R13)—, —N(R12)C(O)—, —N(R12)C(O)N(R13)—, —N(R12)C(S)— and —N(R2)C(O)O—; wherein R12 and R13 are each independently selected from the group consisting of: H, (C1-C7)alkyl, (C1-C7)heteroalkyl, aryl and aryl(C1-C7)alkyl, and optionally when Y is —N(R12)S(O)m— or —N(R12)S(O)mN(R13)—, R12 forms a five- or six-membered ring fused to Ar or to R2 through covalent attachment to Ar or to R2, respectively; and the subscript m is an integer of from 1 to 2; with the proviso that when R1 is OH, and —Y—R2 is —N(R12)S(O)m—R2 or —N(R12)C(O)N(R13)—R2 and is attached to a position para to the quaternary carbon attached to Ar, and when R2 is phenyl, benzyl, or benzoyl, then i) at least one of R12 or R13 is other than hydrogen and contains an electron-withdrawing substituent, or ii) R2 is substituted with a moiety other than amino, acetamido, di(C1-C7)alkylamino, (C1-C7)alkylamino, halogen, hydroxy, nitro, or (C1-C7)alkyl, or iii) the benzene ring portion of R2 is substituted with at least three independently selected groups in addition to the Y group or point of attachment to Y. In some embodiments, Y is —N(R12)S(O)2- and R1 is OH. Accordingly, the compounds of Formula I include but are not limited the compound with the structure shown below: Compounds of Formula I can be synthesized as described by U.S. Pat. No. 6,316,503, incorporated herein by reference. Formula II is provided below: wherein: R1 is-H; X1 is a bond, C1 to C5 alkyl, —C(O)—, —C(═CR8R9)—, —O—, —S(O)t—, —NR8—, —CR8R9—, —CHR23, —CR8(CR9)—, —C(CR8)2—, —CR8(OC(O)R9)—, —C═NOR9—, —C(O)NR8—, —CH2O—, —CH2S—, —CH2NR8—, —OCH2—, —SCH2—, —NR8CH2—, or R2 is H, C1 to C6alkyl, C2to C6alkenyl, C2to C6alkynyl, C3 to C6 cycloalkyl, —CH2OH, C7 to C11 arylalkyl, phenyl, naphthyl, C1 to C3 perfluoroalkyl, CN, C(O)NH2, CO2R12 or phenyl substituted independently by one or more of the groups independently selected from C1 to C3 alkyl, C2to C4 alkenyl, C2 to C4 alkynyl, C1 to C3 alkoxy, C1 to C3 perfluoroalkyl, halogen, —NO2, —NR8R9, —CN, —OH, and C1 to C3alkyl substituted with 1 to 5 fluorines, or R2 is a heterocycle selected from the group consisting of pyridine, thiophene, benzisoxazole, benzothiophene, oxadiazole, pyrrole, pyrazole, imidazole, and furan, each of which may be optionally substituted with one to three groups independently selected from C1 to C3alkyl, C1 to C3 alkoxy, C1 to C3 perfluoroalkyl, halogen, —NO2, —NR8R9, —CN, and C1 to C3alkyl substituted with 1 to 5 fluorines; X2 is a bond or —CH2—; R3 is phenyl, naphthyl, or phenyl or naphthyl substituted independently by one to four groups independently selected from C1 to C3 alkyl, hydroxy, phenyl, acyl, halogen, —NH2,—CN, —NO2, C1 to C3 alkoxy, C1 to C3perfluoroalkyl, C1 to C3 alkyl substituted with 1 to 5 fluorines, NR14R15, —C(O)R10, —C(O)NR1R11, —C(O)NR11A, —C≡CR8, —CH═CHR8, —WA, —C≡CA, —CH═CHA, —WYA, —WYR11A, —WYR10, —WY(CH2)jA, —WCHR11(CH2)jA, —W(CH2)jA, —W(CH2)jR10, —CHR11W(CH2)jR10, —CHR11W(CH2)jA, —CHR11NR12YA, —CHR11NR12YR10, pyrrole, —W(CH2)jA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —W(CR18R19)A(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —(CH2)jWA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —CH═CHA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —C≡CA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —W(CH2)jC≡CA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, and —W(CH2)jZ, or R3 is a heterocycle selected from pyrimidine, thiophene, furan, benzothiophene, indole, benzofuran, benzimidazole, benzothiazole, benzoxazole, and quinoline, each of which may be optionally substituted with one to three groups independently selected from C1 to C3alkyl, C1 to C3 alkoxy, hydroxy, phenyl, acyl, halogen, —NH2, —CN, —NO2, C1 to C3 perfluoroalkyl, C1 to C3 alkyl substituted with 1 to 5 fluorines, —C(O)R10, —C(O) NR10R11, —C(O)NR11A, —C≡CR8, —CH═CHR8, —WA, —C≡CA, —CH═CHA, —WYA, —WYR10, —WY(CH2)jA, —W(CH2)jA, —W(CH2)jR10, —CHR11W(CH2)jR10, —CHR11W(CH2)jA, —CHR11NR12YA, —CHR11NR12Y10, —WCHR11(CH2)jA, —W(CH2)jA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —W(CR18R19)A(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —(CH2)jWA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —CH═CHA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —C≡CA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, W(CH2)jC≡CA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, and —W(CH2)jZ; W is a bond, -0-, —S—, —S(O)—, —S(O)2—, —NR11—, or —N(COR12)—; Y is —CO—, —S(O)2—, —CONR13,—CONR13CO—,—CONR13SO2—, —C(NCN)—, —CSNR13, —C(NH)NR13, or —C(O)O—; j is 0 to 3; k is 0 to 3; t is 0 to 2; D is a bond, —CH═CH—, —C≡C—,—C═,—C(O)—, phenyl, —O—, —NH—, —S—, —CHR14—, —CR14R15—, —OCHR14, —OCR14R15—, or —CH(OH)CH(OH)—; p is 0 to 3; Z is —CO2R11, —CONR10R11, —C(NR10)NR11R12, —CONH2NH2,—CN, —CH2OH, —NR16R17, phenyl, CONHCH(R20)COR12, phthalimide, pyrrolidine-2,5dione, thiazolidine-2,4-dione, tetrazolyl, pyrrole, indole, oxazole, 2-thioxo-1,3-thiazolinin-4-one, C1 to C7 amines, C3 to C7 cyclic amines, or C1 to C3 alkyl substituted with one to two OH groups; wherein said pyrrole is optionally substituted with one or two substituents independently selected from the group consisting of-CO2CH3,—CO2H,—COCH3,—CONH2, and —CN; wherein said C1 to C7amines are optionally substituted with one to two substituents independently selected from the group consisting of —OH, halogen, —OCH3,and —C≡CH; wherein said phenyl is optionally substituted with CO2R11, and wherein said C3 to C7 cyclic amines are optionally substituted with one or two substituents independently selected from the group consisting of —OH —CH2OH, C1 to C3 alkyl, —CH2OCH3,—CO2CH3, and —CONH2, and wherein said oxazole is optionally substituted with CH2CO2R11; A is phenyl, naphthyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, indan or biphenyl, each of which may be optionally substituted by one to four groups independently selected from halogen, C1 to C3 alkyl, C2 to C4 alkenyl, C2 to C4 alkynyl, acyl, hydroxy, halogen, —CN, —NO2, —CO2R11, —CH2CO2R11, phenyl, C1 to C3perfluoroalkoxy, C1 to C3 perfluoroalkyl, —NR10R11, —CH2NR10R11, —SR11, C1 to C6 alkyl substituted with 1 to 5 fluorines, C1 to C3alkyl substituted with 1 to 2-OH groups, C1 to C6 alkoxy optionally substituted with 1 to 5 fluorines, or phenoxy optionally substituted with 1 to 2 CF3 groups; or A is a heterocycle selected from pyrrole, pyridine, pyridine-N-oxide, pyrimidine, pyrazole, thiophene, furan, quinoline, oxazole, thiazole, imidazole, isoxazole, indole, benzo[1,3]-dioxole, benzo[1,2,5]-oxadiazole, isochromen-l-one, benzothiophene, benzofuran,2,3-di-5 hydrobenzo[1,4]-dioxine, bitheinyl, quinazolin-2,4-9[3H]dione, and 3-H-isobenzofuran-1-one, each of which may be optionally substituted by one to three groups independently selected from halogen, C1 to C3 alkyl, acyl, hydroxy, —CN,—NO2,C1 to C3perfluoroalkyl, —NR10R11, —CH2NR10R11, —SR11, C1 to C3 alkyl substituted with 1 to 5 fluorines, and C1 to C3 alkoxy optionally substituted with 1 to 5 fluorines; R4, R5, and R6 are each, independently, —H or —F; R7 is C1 to C4 alkyl, C1 to C4 perfluoroalkyl, halogen, —NO2, —CN, phenyl or phenyl substituted with one or two groups independently selected from halogen, C1 to C2alkyl and OH; provided that if X1R2 forms hydrogen, then R3 is selected from: (a) phenyl substituted by —W(CH2)jA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —W(CR18R19)A(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —(CH2)jWA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —CH═CHA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —C≡CA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, or —W(CH2)jC≡CA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, wherein the phenyl moiety is further optionally substituted with one or two groups independently selected from C1 to C2 alkyl, C1 to C2perfluoroalkyl, halogen, and CN; and (b) a heterocycle selected from pyrimidine, thiophene, and furan, each of which is substituted by one of —W(CH2)jA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —W(CR18R19)A(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —(CH2)jWA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, ——CH═CHA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, —C≡CA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ, or —W(CH2)jC≡CA(CH2)kD(CH2)pZ; each R8 is independently-H, or C1 to C3alkyl; each R9 is independently-H, or C1 to C3alkyl; each R10 is independently-H, —CH, C1 to C3alkoxy, C1 to C7 alkyl, C3 to C7 alkenyl, C3 to C7 alkynyl, C3 to C7 cycloalkyl, —CH2CH2OCH3, 2-methyl-tetrahydro-furan, 2-methyl-tetrahydro-pyran, 4-methyl-piperidine, morpholine, pyrrolidine, or phenyl optionally substituted with one or two C1 to C3alkoxy groups, wherein said C1 to C7 alkyl is optionally substituted with 1, 2 or 3 groups independently selected from C1 to C3 alkoxy, C1 to C3thioalkoxy, and CN; each R11 is independently-H, C1 to C3alkyl or R22; or R10 and R11, when attached to the same atom, together with said atom form: a 5 to 7 membered saturated ring, optionally substituted by 1 to 2 groups independently selected from C1 to C3 alkyl, OH and C1-C3alkoxy; or a 5 to 7 membered ring containing 1 or 2 heteroatoms, optionally substituted by 1 to 2 groups independently selected from C1 to C3alkyl, OH and C1-C3 alkoxy; each R12 is independently-H, or C1 to C3alkyl; each R13 is independently-H, or C1 to C3alkyl; each R14 and R15 is, independently, C1 toC7 alkyl, C3 to C8 cycloalkyl, C2 to C7 alkenyl, C2 to C7 alkynyl,—CH, —F, C7 to C14arylalkyl, where said arylalkyl is optionally substituted with 1 to 3 groups independently selected from NO2, C1 to C6 alkyl, C1 toC3perhaloalkyl, halogen, CH2CO2R11, phenyl and C1 to C3 alkoxy, or R12 and R15 together with the atom to which they are attached can form a 3 to 7 membered saturated ring; each R16 and R17 is, independently, hydrogen, C1 to C3 alkyl, C1 to C3alkenyl, C1 to C3 alkynyl, phenyl, benzyl or C3 to C8 cycloalkyl, wherein said C1 to C3 alkyl is optionally substituted with one OH group, and wherein said benzyl is optionally substituted with 1 to 3 groups selected from C1 to C3alkyl and C1 to C3alkoxy; or R16 and R17, together with the atom to which they are attached, can form a 3 to 8 membered heterocycle which is optionally substituted with one or two substituents independently selected from the group consisting of C1 to C3alkyl,—OH, CH2OH, —CH2OCH3,—CO2CH3, and-CONH2; each R18 and R19 is, independently, C1 to C3alkyl; each R2° is independently H, phenyl, or the side chain of a naturally occurring alpha amino acid; each R22 is independently arylalkyl optionally substituted with CH2COOH; and each R23 is phenyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Compounds of Formula II can be synthesized as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,576,215, incorporated herein by reference. The compound of formula II can be any of compounds 26-32, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. Formula III is provided below: wherein: X is selected from hydrogen, C1-C8 alkyl, halo, —OR10, —NR10R11, nitro, cyano, —COOR10, or —COR10. Z is CH, CR3 or N, wherein when Z is CH or CR3, k is 0-4 and t is 0 or 1, and when Z is N, k is 0-3 and t is 0; Y is selected from —O—, —S—, —N(R12)—, and —C(R4)(R5)—; W1 is selected from C1-C6 alkyl, C0-C6 alkyl, C3-C6 cycloalkyl, aryl and Het, wherein said C1-C8 alkyl, C3-C8 cycloalkyl, Ar and Het are optionally unsubstituted or substituted with one or more groups independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, C1-C6 alkyl, C3-C6 alkenyl, C3-C6 alkynyl,—C0-C6 alkyl-CO2R12, —C0-C6alkyl-C(O)SR12, —C0-C6alkyl-CONR13R14, —C0-C6 alkyl-COR15, —C0-C6 alkyl—NR13R14, —C0-C6 alkyl-SR12, —C0-C6alkyl-OR12, —C0-C6alkyl-SO3H, —C0-C6alkyl-SO2NR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-SO2R12, —C0-C6alkyl-SOR15, —C0-C6alkylOCOR15, —C0-C6alkyl-OC(O)NR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-OC(O)OR15, —C0-C6 alkyl-NR13C(O)OR15, —C0-C6 alkyl-NR13C(O)NR13R14 and—C0-C6 alkyl-NR13COR15, where said C1-C6 alkyl, is optionally unsubstituted or substituted by one or more halo substituents; W2 is selected from H, halo, C1-C6alkyl, C2-C6alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, —C0-C6 alkyl-NR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-SR12, —C0-C6 alkyl-OR12, —C0-C6alkylCO2R12, —C0-C6alkyl-C(O)SR12, —C0-C6 alkylCONR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-COR15, —C0-C6 alkylOCOR15, —C0-C6alkyl-OCONR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-NR13CONR13R14, —C0-C6 alkyl-NR13COR15, —C0-C6alkyl-Het, —C0-C6alkyl-Ar and —C0-C6alkyl-C3-C7 cycloalkyl, wherein said C1-C6 alkyl is optionally unsubstituted or substituted by one or more halo substituents, and wherein the C3-C7cycloalkyl, Ar and Het moieties of said —C0-C6alkyl-Het, —C0-C6alkyl-Ar and —C0-C6alkyl-C3-C7cycloalkyl are optionally unsubstituted or substituted with one or more groups independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, C1-C6 alkyl, C3-C6 alkenyl, C3-C6 alkynyl, —C0-C6alkyl-CO2R12, —C0-C6 alkyl-C(O)SR12, —C0-C6alkyl-CONR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-COR15, —C0-C6alkyl-NR13R14,—C0-C6alkyl-SR12, —C0-C6alkyl-OR12, —C0-C6 alkyl-SO3H, —C0-C6alkyl-SO2NR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-SO2R12, —C0-C6alkyl-SOR15, —C0-C6alkyl-OCOR15, —C0-C6alkylOC(O)NR13R14,—C0-C6alkyl-OC(O)OR15, —C0-C6alkyl-NR13C(O)OR15, —C0-C6alkyl-NR13C(O)NR13R14, and —C0-C6alkyl-NR13COR15, where said C1-C6 alkyl, is optionally unsubstituted or substituted by one or more halo substituents; W3 is selected from the group consisting of: H, halo, C1-C6 alkyl, —C0-C6 alkyl-NR13R14,—C0-C6alkylSR12, —C0-C6alkyl-OR12, —C0-C6alkyl-CO2R12, —C0-C6alkyl-C(O)SR12, —C0-C6alkyl-CONR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-COR15, —C0-C6alkyl-OCOR15, —C0-C6 alkyl-OCONR13R14, —C0-C6alkylNR13CONR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-NR13COR15, —C0-C6alkyl-Het, —C1-C6alkyl-Ar and —C1-C6alkyl-C3-C7cycloalkyl, wherein said C1-C6 alkyl is optionally unsubstituted or substituted by one or more halo substituents; Q is selected from C3-C8cycloalkyl, Ar and Het; wherein said C3-C8cycloalkyl, Ar and Het are optionally unsubstituted or substituted with one or more groups independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, C1-C6alkyl, C3-C6alkenyl, C3-C6alkynyl,—C0-C6alkylCO2R12, —C0-C6 alkyl-C(O)SR12, —C0-C6alkylCONR13R14, —C0-C6 alkyl-COR15, —C0-C6alkylNR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-SR12, —C0-C6alkyl-OR12, —C0-C6 alkyl-SO3H, —C0-C6 alkyl-SO2NR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-SO2R12, —C0-C6alkyl-SOR15, —C0-C6alkyl-OCOR15, —C0-C6alkyl-OC(O)NR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-OC(O)OR15,—C0-C6alkylNR13C(O)OR15, —C0-C6 alkyl-NR13C(O)NR13R14, and —C0-C6alkyl-NR13COR15, where said C1-C6alkyl is optionally unsubstituted or substituted by one or more halo substituents; p is 0-8; n is 2-8; m is 0 or 1; q is 0 or 1; t is 0 or 1; each R1 and R2 are independently selected from H, halo, C1-C6alkyl, C3-C6alkenyl, C3-C6 alkynyl, —C0-C6alkyl-NR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-OR12, —C0-C6 alkyl-SR12, —C1-C6alkyl-Het, —C1-C6alkyl-Ar and —C1-C6alkyl-C3-C7cycloalkyl, or R1 and R2 together with the carbon to which they are attached form a 3-5 membered carbocyclic or heterocyclic ring, wherein said heterocyclic ring contains one, or more heteroatoms selected from N, O, and S, where any of said C1-C6 alkyl is optionally unsubstituted or substituted by one or more halo substituents; each R3 is the same or different and is independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, C1-C6 alkyl, C3-C6alkenyl, C3-C6alkynyl, —C0-C6alkyl-Ar, —C0-C6alkyl-Het, —C0-C6alkyl-C3-C7cycloalkyl, —C0-C6alkyl-CO2R12, —C0-C6alkyl-C(O)SR12, —C0-C6alkyl-CONR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-COR15, —C0-C6alkyl-NR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-SR12, —C0-C6alkyl-OR12, —C0-C6alkyl-SO3H, —C0-C6alkylSO2NR13R14,—C0-C6 alkyl-SO2R12, —C0-C6alkylSOR15, —C0-C6alkyl-OCOR15, —C0-C6 alkyl-OC(O)NR13R14, —C0-C6alkyl-OC(O)OR15, —C0-C6alkyl-NR13C(O)OR15, —C0-C6alkyl-NR13C(O)NR13R14, and —C0-C6alkyl-NR13COR15, wherein said C1-C6alkyl is optionally unsubstituted or substituted by one or more halo substituents; each R4 and R5 is independently selected from H, halo, C1-C6alkyl, —C0-C6alkyl-Het, —C0-C6alkyl-Ar and —C0-C6alkyl-C3-C7cycloalkyl; R6 and R7 are each independently selected from H, halo, C1-C6 alkyl, —C0-C6alkyl-Het, —C0-C6 alkyl-Ar and —C0-C6alkyl-C3-C7cycloalkyl; R8 and R9 are each independently selected from H, halo, C1-C6 alkyl, —C0-C6alkyl-Het, —C0-C6 alkyl-Ar and —C0-C6alkyl-C3-C7 cycloalkyl; R10 and R″ are each independently selected from H, C1-C12 alkyl, C3-C12alkenyl, C3-C12alkynyl, —C0-C8alkyl-Ar, —C0-C8 alkyl-Het, —C0-C8 alkyl-C3-C7 cycloalkyl, —C0-C8 alkyl-O—Ar, —C0-C8alkyl-O-Het, —C0-C8 alkyl-O-C3-C7cycloalkyl, —C0-C8alkyl-S(O)x-C0-C6alkyl, —C0-C8alkyl-S(O)x—Ar, —C0-C8 alkyl-S(O)x-Het, —C0-C8 alkyl-S(O)x—C3-C7cycloalkyl, —C0-C8alkyl-NH—Ar, —C0-C8alkyl-NH-Het, —C0-C8alkyl-NH—C3-C7cycloalkyl, —C0-C8alkyl-N(C1-C4 alkyl)-Ar, —C0-C8alkyl-N(C1-C4alkyl)-Het, —C0-C8alkyl-N(C1-C4alkyl-C3-C7cycloalkyl, —C0-C8alkyl-Ar, —C0-C8alkyl-Het and —C0-c8alkyl-C3-C7cycloalkyl, where x is 0, 1, or 2, or R10 and R11, together with the nitrogen to which they are attached, form a 4-7 membered heterocyclic ring which optionally contains one or more additional heteroatoms selected from N, O, and S, wherein said C1-C12alkyl, C3-C12 alkenyl, or C3-C12alkynyl is optionally substituted by one or more of the substituents independently selected from the group halo, —OH, —SH, —NH2, —NH(unsubstituted C1-C6alkyl), —N(unsubstituted C1-C6 alkyl)(unsubstituted C1-C6alkyl), unsubstituted-OC1-C6 alkyl, —CO2H, —CO2(unsubstituted C1-C6 alkyl), —CONH2, —CONH(unsubstituted C1-C6 alkyl), —CON(unsubstituted C1-C6 alkyl)(unsubstituted C1-C6 alkyl), —SO3H, —SO2NH2, —SO2NH(unsubstituted C1-C6alkyl) and —SO2N(unsubstituted C1-C6alkyl)(unsubstituted C1-C6 alkyl); R12 is selected from H, C1-C6 alkyl, C3-C6alkenyl, C3-C6alkynyl, -C0-C6alkyl-Ar, —C0-C6alkyl-Het and —C0-C6alkyl-C3-C7cycloalkyl; each R13 and each R14 are independently selected from H, C1-C6alkyl, C3-C6alkenyl, C3-C6alkynyl, —C0-C6alkyl-Ar, —C0-C6alkyl-Het and-C0-C6alkyl-C3-C7cycloalkyl, or R13 and R14 together with the nitrogen to which they are attached form a 4-7 membered heterocyclic ring which optionally contains one or more additional heteroatoms selected from N, O, and S; and R15 is selected from C1-C6alkyl, C3-C6 alkenyl, C3-C6alkynyl, —C0-C6alkyl-Ar, —C0-C6 alkyl-Het and —C0-C6 alkyl-C3-C7 cycloalkyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In some embodiments, X is hydrogen, p is 0, t is 0, Z is CH, and Y is —O—. In further embodiments, X is hydrogen, p is 0, t is 0, Z is CH, and Y is —O—, W1 and W2 are phenyl, W3 is hydrogen, q is 1, and R8 and R9 are hydrogen. In other embodiments, X is hydrogen, p is 0, t is 0, Z is CH, and Y is —O—, W1 and W2 are phenyl, W3 is hydrogen, q is 1, R8 and R9 are hydrogen, and Q is Ar. Accordingly, the compounds of Formula III include but are not limited the compounds with structures shown below GW3965 2 and SB742881 25: Compounds of Formula III can be synthesized as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,365,085 and 7,560,586 incorpoarated herein by reference. Formula IV is shown below: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: J11 is-N═ and J21 is —CR300—,or J11 is —CR200— and J21 is ═N—; R00 G1, G21, or RN; R200 is G1, G21, or RC; R300 and R400 are independently RC or Q, provided one and only one of R300, R400, and R500 is Q; Q is C3-6 cycloalkyl, heteroaryl or heterocyclyl, each optionally substituted with 1 to 4RQ, or Q is —X— Y—Z; wherein each RQ is independently aryloxy, aralkyloxy, aryloxyalkyl, arylC0-C6alkylcarboxy, C(R110)═C(R110)—COOH, oxo, ═S, —Z, —Y′—Z, or —X— Y—Z, wherein each RQ is optionally substituted with 1 to 4 R80; R500 is G1 G21, Q, or RC; provided that only one of R00, R200, and R500 is G1 and only one of R00, N═, and R500 is G21; G21 is -J0-Ko, wherein J0 and K0 are independently aryl or heteroaryl, each optionally substituted with one to four RK groups; each RK is independently hydrogen, halogen, CR110═CR110COOR110, nitro, —Z, —Y—Z, or —X—Y—Z; G1 is -L10-R, wherein L10 is a bond, L50, L60, -L50-L60-L50-, or -L60-L50-L50-, wherein each L50 is independently —[C(R150)2]m—; each L60 is independently —CS—, —CO—, —SO2—, —O—, —CON(R110)—, —CONR110N(R110)—, —C(═NR110)—, —C(NOR11)—, —C(═N—N(R110)2)—, —C3-C8cycloalkyl-, or -heterocyclyl-, wherein the) cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl is optionally substituted with one to 4 R14° groups; or or each L60 is independently C2-C6 alidiyl, wherein the alidiyl chain is optionally interrupted by —C(R100)2—, —C(R110)2C(R110)z—, —C(R11)C (R110)—, —C(R110)2O—, —C(R110)zNR110—, —C C—, —O—, —S—, —N(RO)CO—, —N(R100)CO2—, —CON(R110)—, —CO—, —CO2—, —OC(═O)—, —OC(═O)N(R100)—, —SO2—, —N(R100)SO2—, or R is aryl, heterocyclyl, heteroaryl or —(C3-C6)cycloalkyl, wherein R is optionally substituted with 1 to 4 RA, wherein each RA is independently halogen, nitro, heterocyclyl, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, C3-C8 cycloalkyl, (C3-C8 cycloalkyl)-C1-C6 alkyl-, (C3-C8 cycloalkenyl)-C1-C6 alkyl-, (C3-C8 cycloalkyl)-C1C6 alkenyl-, arylalkyl, aryloxy, arylC1-6 alkoxy, C1-C6 haloalkyl, SO2R110, OR110, SR110, N3, SOR110, COR110, SO2N(R110)2, SO2NR110C0R110, C≡N, C(O)OR110, CON(R110)2, —CON(R110)OR110, OCON(R110)2, —NR110COR110, NR110CON(R110)2, NR110COOR110, —C(≡N—OH)R110, —C(═S)N(R110)2, —S(═O)N(R110)2, —S(═O)OR110, —N(R110)S(50 O)2R110, —C(═O)N(R110)N(R110)2, —OC(═O)—R110, —OC(═O)—OR110 or N(R11)2, wherein each RA is optionally substituted with 1 to 4 groups which independently are -halogen, —C1-C6 alkyl, aryloxy, C0-6 alkylSO2R110, C0-6 alkylCOOR110, C1-6 alkoxyaryl, C1-C6 haloalkyl, —SO2R110, —OR110, —SR110,—N3, —SO2R110, —COR110, —SO2N(R110)2, —SO2NR110COR110, —C≡N, —C(O)OR110, —CON(R110)2, —CON(R110)OR110, —OCON(R110)2, —NR110COR110, —NR110CON(R110)2, —NR110COOR110, or —N(R110)2; RN is -L31-R60, wherein L31 is a bond, —X3(CHz)n—X3—, —(CH2)m—X3-(CH2)n— or —(CH2)1+w, —Y3—(CH2)w—, wherein each w is independently 0-5: and each X3 is independently a bond, —C(R110)2—, —C(R110)2—, —C(R110)═C(R110 )—, —C≡C—, —CO—, —CS—, —CONR100—, —C(═N)(R100)—, —C(═N—OR110)—, —C[═N—N(R110)2], —CO2—, —SO2—, or —SO2N(R110)—; and Y3 is —O—, —S—, —NR70—, —N(R100)CO—, —N(R110)CO2-, —OCO—, —OC(═O)N (R100)—, —NR100CONR100—, —N(R110)SO2—, or —NR100CSNR100—; or L31 is C2-6 alidiyl chain wherein the alidiyl chain is optionally interrupted by —C(R110)2—, C(R110)2C(R110)2—, —C(R110)═C(R110)—, —C(R110)2O—, —C(R110)2NR110—, —C≡C—, —O—, —S—, —N(R100)CO—, —N(R100)CO2—, —CON(R100)—, —CO—, —CO2—, —OC(═O)—,—OC(═O)N(R110)—, —SO2—, —N(R100)SO2—, or —SO2N(R100); and R60 is C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 halo alkyl, aryl, C3-C8 cycloalkyl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, —CN, —C(═O)R110, —C(═O)OR110, —C(═O)N(R110)2, —N(R110)2, —SO2R110, —S(═O)2N(R110)2, —C(50 O)N(R110)N(R110)2, or —C(═O)N(R11)(OR110), wherein the aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, or heterocyclyl is optionally substituted with 1 to 4 R60a, wherein each R60a is independently —Z, —Y′—Z, or-X—Y—Z; each RC is independently -L30-R70, wherein each L30 is independently a bond or-(CH2)m—V10—(CH2)n—, wherein V10 is —C(R110)2—, —C(R110)2C(R110)2, —C(R110)═C(R110)—, —C(R110)2O—, —C(R110)2NR110—, —C≡C—, —O—, —S—, —NR10—, —N(R100)CO—, —N(R100)CO2-, —OCO—, —CO—, —CS—, —CONR100—, —C(═N—R110)—, —C(═N—OR110)—, —C[═N—N(R110)2], —CO2—, —OC(═O)—, —OC(═O)N(R100)—, SO2—, —N(R100)SO2—, —SO2N(R100)—, —NR100CONR100—, —NR100CSNR100—, C3-C6cyclo alkyl, or C3-C6 cyclohaloalkyl; or each L30 is independently C2-C6 alidiyl, wherein the alidiyl chain is optionally interrupted by —C(R110)2—, —C(R110)2C(R110)2—, —C(R110)C(R110)—, —C(R110)2O—, —C(R110)2NR110—, —C≡C—, —O—, —S—, —N(R100)CO—, —N(R100)CO2—, NR110—, —CON(R100)—, —CO—, —CO2—, —O(C═O)—, —O(C═O)N(R100)—, —SO2—, —N(R100)SO2—, or —SO2N(R100)—; each R70 is independently hydrogen, halogen, nitro, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocyclyl, —Z, —Y—Z, or-X—YZ, wherein the aryl, heteroaryl, and heterocyclyl, are each optionally substituted with 1 to 4 R70a, wherein each R70a is independently aryloxy, aralkyloxy, aryloxyalkyl, arylCo-C6alkylcarboxy, C(R110)═C(R110)COOH, oxo, —Z, —Y′—Z, or —X— Y—Z, wherein each R70a is optionally substituted with 1 to 4 R80, and wherein each R80 is independently halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, C1-C8haloalkyl, C1-C8 haloalkyl(OR110, C0-C6 alkylOR110, C0-C6 alkylCON(R110)2, C0-C6 alkylCOR110, C0-C6 alkylCOOR110, or C0-C6 alkylSO2R110; each R100 is independently —R110, —C(═O)R110, —CO2R110, or-SO2R110; each R110 is independently -hydrogen, —C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C1-C6 alkynyl, —C1-C6 haloalkyl, or —N(R12)2, wherein any of R110 is optionally substituted with 1 to 4 radicals of R120; each R120 is independently halogen, cyano, nitro, oxo, —B(OR130), C0-C6 alkylN(R13)2, C1-C6haloalkyl, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, (C0-C6 alkyl)C═O(OR130), C0-C6 alkylOR130, C0-C6 alkylCOR130, C0-C6alkylSO2R130, Co-C6alkylCON(R13)2, C0-C6alkylCONR130OR130, C0-C6alkylS02N(R130)2, C0-C6alkylSR130, C0-C6 haloalkylOR130, C0-C6alkylCN, —C0-C6alkyN(R13)2, —NR13S02R13, or-OCO-6 alkylCOOR130; each R130 is independently hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, or C2-C6 alkynyl; each R140 is independently C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkoxy, halogen, C1-C6 haloalkyl, C0-C6 alkylCON(R110)o, C0-C6 alkylCONR110R10, C0-C6 alkylOR110, or C0-C6 alkylCOOR110; and each R150 is independently hydrogen, halogen, OR130, (C1-C6)alkyl or (C1-C6)haloalkyl, wherein each alkyl is optionally substituted with at least one group which are each independently halogen, cyano, nitro, azido, OR130, C(O)R130, C(O)OR13C(O)N(R130)2, N(R130)2, N(R130)C(O)R130, N(R130)S(O)2R130, —OC(O)OR130, OC(O)N(R130)2, N(R130)C(O)OR130, N(R130)C(O)N(R130), SR130, S(O)R130, S(O)2R′, or S(O)2N(R130)2; or two R150 (bonded to same or different atoms) can be taken together to form a C3-C6 cycloalkyl; each X is independently —O—, —S—, or —N(R100)—; each Y is independently —[C(R150)2]p—, or-C2-C6 alkenyl, wherein p is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6; each Y′ is independently —[C(R150)2]p—, —C2-C6 alkenyl C3-C8 cycloalkyl, or heterocyclyl, wherein the cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl is optionally substituted with 1 to 3 Z groups; each Z is independently —H, halogen, —OR110, —SR110, —C(═O)R110, —C(═O)R110, —C(═O)N(R110)2, —N(R100)2, —N3, —NO2, —C(═N—OH)R110, —C(═S)N(R110)2, —CN, —S(═O)R110, —S(═O)N(R110)2, —S(═O)OR110, —S(═O)2R110, S(═O)2N(R110)2, —NR110COR110, —N(R110)C(═O)N(R110)2, —N(R110)COOR110, —N(R110)S(═O)2R110, —C(═O)N(R110)N(R110)2, —C(═O)N(R110)(OR110), —OC(═O)—R110, —OC(═O)—OR110, or —OC(═O)—N(R110)2; and each m and n is independently 0, 1,2,3,4,5, or 6. In some embodiments the compound of Formula IV has a structure of Formula V or VI: In other embodiments the compound of Formula VI has a structure of Formula VII: In yet other embodiments the compound of Formula VI has a structure of Formula VIII: In still further embodiments the compound of Formula VI has a structure of Formula IX: Accordingly, the compounds of Formula IV which can be useful in the methods of the invention include, but are not limited to, compounds having the structures are shown below, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof: and selected from the list comprising: 33 2-(1-(3 chloro-3′-fluoro-4′-(hydroxymethyl)-5′-(methylsulfonyl)biphenyl-4-yl)-2-(2-(2,6dichlorophenyl) propan-2-yl)-1H-imidazol-4-yl)propan-2-ol; 34 2-(2-(2(2-chloro-3-fluorophenyl)propan-2-yl)-1-(3′-fluoro-4′-(hydroxymethyl)-5′(methylsulfonyl)biphenyl -4-yl)-1H-imidazol-4-yl)propan-2-ol ; 35 2-(2-(2 (2,6-dichlorophenyl)propan-2-yl)-1-(3′-fluoro-4′-(hydroxymethyl)-5′(methylsulfonyl)biphenyl-4-yl)-1H-imidazol-4-yl)propan-2-ol ; 36 2-(2-(2(2,6-dichlorophenyl)propan-2-yl)-1-(3,3 ′-difluoro-4′-(hydroxymethyl)-5′(methylsulfonyl)biphenyl-4-yl)-1H-imidazol-4-yl)propan-2-ol;and 37 2-(2-[1(2,6-dichlorophenyl)ethyl]-1-[3,3′-difluoro-4′-(hydroxymethyl)-5′(methylsul fonyl)biphenyl-4-yl]-1H-imidazol-4-yl)propan-2-ol . Compound 12 is also known as WO2010 0138598 Ex. 9. Compound 38 is also known WO2007 002563 Ex. 19. Compound 39 is also known as WO2012 0135082. Compounds of Formula IV can be synthesized as described in PCT publication No. US2010/0069367 and WO2010/138598 incorpoarated herein by reference. The LXR agonist that can be used for the treatment and/or prevention of metastasis can be compound 24, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In further embodiments compounds that can be used for the treatment and/or prevention of metastasis can be found in the PCT publications in the list consisting of: WO2006/094034, WO2008/049047, WO2009/020683, WO2009/086138, WO2009/086123, WO2009/086130, WO2009/086129, WO2007/002559, WO2007/002563, WO2007/081335, WO2006/017055, WO2006/102067, WO2009/024550, US2006/0074115, US2006/0135601, WO2009/021868, WO2009/040289, WO2007/047991, WO2007/050425, WO2006/073363, WO2006/073364, WO2006/073365, WO2006/073366, WO2006/073367, US2009/0030082, WO2008/065754, JP2008/179562, WO2007/092065, US2010/0069367, U.S. Pat. No. 7,998,995, U.S. Pat. No. 7,247,748, WO2010/138598, U.S. Pat. No. 7,365,085, U.S. 75/776,215, U.S. 63/136,503, US2004/0072868, US2005/0107444, US2005/0113580, US2005/0131014, US2005/0282908, US2009/0286780, incorporated herein by reference. LXRα and LXRβ, initially discovered by multiple groups at roughly the same time (Apfel et al., 1994; Willy et al., 1995; Song et al., 1994; Shinar et al., 1994; Teboul et al., 1995), belong to a family of nuclear hormone receptors that are endogenously activated by cholesterol and its oxidized derivatives to mediate transcription of genes involved in maintaining glucose, cholesterol, and fatty acid metabolism (Janowski et al., 1996; Calkin and Tontonoz, 2012). Given the intricate link between lipid metabolism and cancer cell growth (Cairns et al., 2011), the ubiquitous expression of LXRβ in melanoma is unlikely to be coincidental, allowing melanoma cells to synthesize lipids and lipoprotein particles to sustain their growth. At the same time, however, such stable basal expression levels make LXRβ an ideal therapeutic target, as exemplified by the broad-ranging responsiveness of melanoma cells to LXRβ activation therapy. Compounds have been shown to have selectivity for LXRβ or LXRα. This selectivity may allow for increased activity and/or decreased off target effects. Examples of compounds with selectivity towards LXRβ or LXRα are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 EC50 values for selected compounds against LXRα and LXRβ Compound EC50 - LXRα (nM) EC50 - LXRβ (nM) GW3965 2 200 40 SB742881 25 74 25 TO901317 1 20 50 LXR-623 3 179 24 12 <100 11 38 101-1000 630 As used herein, reference to the activity of an LXR agonist at LXRα and LXRβ refer to the activity as measured using the ligand sensing assay (LiSA) described in Spencer et al. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 2001, 44, 886-897, incorporated herein by reference. In some embodiments, the LXR agonist has an EC50 of less than 1μM in the ligand sensing assay (e.g., 0.5 nm to 500 nM, 10 nM to 100 nM). For example, the methods of the invention can be performed using an LXRβ agonist having activity for LXRβ that is at least 3-fold greater than the activity of the agonist for LXRα, or having activity for LXRβ that is at least 10-fold greater than the activity of the agonist for LXRα, or having activity for LXRβ that is at least 100-fold greater than the activity of said agonist for LXRα, or having activity for LXRβ that is at least within 3-fold of the activity of the agonist for LXRα. The term “greater activity” in the LiSA assay assay refers to a lower EC50. For example, GW3965 2 has approximately 6-fold greater activity for LXRβ (EC50=30) compared to LXRα (EC50=190). As used herein, the term “increases the level of ApoE expression in vitro” refers to certain LXR agonists capable of increasing the level of ApoE expression 2.5-fold in the qPCR assay of Example 21 at a concentration of less than 5 μM (e.g., at a concentration of 100 nM to 2 μM, at a concentration of less than or equal to 1 μM). The LXR agonists exhibiting this in vitro effect can be highly efficacious for use in the methods of the invention. The term “alkyl” used is the present application relates a saturated branched or unbranched aliphatic univalent substituent. The alkyl substituent has 1 to 100 carbon atoms, (e.g., 1 to 22 carbon atoms, 1 to 10 carbon atoms 1 to 6 carbon atoms, 1 to 3 carbon atoms). Accordingly, examples of the alkyl substituent include methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, n-pentyl and n-hexyl. The term “alkoxy” represents a chemical substituent of formula —OR, where R is an optionally substituted C1-C6 alkyl group, unless otherwise specified. In some embodiments, the alkyl group can be substituted, e.g., the alkoxy group can have 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 substituent groups as defined herein. The term “alkoxyalkyl” represents a heteroalkyl group, as defined herein, that is described as an alkyl group that is substituted with an alkoxy group. Exemplary unsubstituted alkoxyalkyl groups include between 2 to 12 carbons. In some embodiments, the alkyl and the alkoxy each can be further substituted with 1, 2, 3, or 4 substituent groups as defined herein for the respective group. As used herein, the term “cycloalkyl” refers to a monocyclic, bicyclic, or tricyclic substituent, which may be saturated or partially saturated, i.e. possesses one or more double bonds. Monocyclic substituents are exemplified by a saturated cyclic hydrocarbon group containing from 3 to 8 carbon atoms. Examples of monocyclic cycloalkyl substituents include cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclopentenyl, cyclohexyl, cyclohexenyl, cycloheptyl and cyclooctyl. Bicyclic fused cycloalkyl substituents are exemplified by a cycloalkyl ring fused to another cycloalkyl ring. Examples of bicyclic cycloalkyl substituents include, but are not limited to decalin, 1,2,3,7,8,8a-hexahydro-naphthalene, and the like. Tricyclic cycloalkyl substituents are exemplified by a cycloalkyl bicyclic fused ring fused to an additional cycloalkyl substituent. The term “alkylene” used is the present application relates a saturated branched or unbranched aliphatic bivalent substituent (e.g. the alkylene substituent has 1 to 6 carbon atoms, 1 to 3 carbon atoms). Accordingly, examples of the alkylene substituent include methylene, ethylene, trimethylene, propylene, tetramethylene, isopropylidene, pentamethylene and hexamethylene. The term “alkenylene or alkenyl” as used in the present application is an unsaturated branched or unbranched aliphatic bivalent substituent having a double bond between two adjacent carbon atoms (e.g. the alkenylene substituent has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, 2 to 4 carbon atoms). Accordingly, examples of the alkenylene substituent include but are not limited to vinylene, 1-propenylene, 2-propenylene, methylvinylene, 1-butenylene, 2-butenylene, 3-butenylene, 2-methyl-l-propenylene, 2-methyl-2-propenylene, 2-pentenylene, 2-hexenylene. The term “alkynylene or alkynyl” as used is the present application is an unsaturated branched or unbranched aliphatic bivalent substituent having a tripple bond between two adjacent carbon atoms(e.g. the alkynylene substituent has 2 to 6 carbon atoms 2 to 4 carbon atoms). Examples of the alkynylene substituent include but are not limited to ethynylene, 1-propynylene, 1-butynylene, 2-butynylene, 1-pentynylene, 2-pentynylene, 3-pentynylene and 2-hexynylene. The term “alkadienylene” as used is the present application is an unsaturated branched or unbranched aliphatic bivalent substituent having two double bonds between two adjacent carbon atoms(e.g. the alkadienylene substituent has 4 to 10 carbon atoms). Accordingly, examples of the alkadienylene substituent include but are not limited to 2,4-pentadienylene, 2,4-hexadienylene, 4-methyl-2,4-pentadienyl ene, 2,4-heptadienylene, 2, 6-heptadi enyl ene, 3-methyl-2,4-hexadienylene, 2,6-octadienylene, 3-methyl-2,6-heptadienylene, 2-methyl-2,4-heptadienylene, 2,8-nonadienylene, 3-methyl-2,6-octadienylene, 2,6-decadienylene, 2,9-decadienylene and 3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienylene substituents. The term “heteroaliphatic substituent or heteroalkyl”, as used herein, refers to a monovalent or a bivalent substituent, in which one or more carbon atoms have been substituted with a heteroatom, for instance, with an oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus or silicon atom, wherein the nitrogen and sulfur atoms may optionally be oxidized, and the nitrogen heteroatom may optionally be quaternized. The heteroatom(s) O, N and S may be placed at any interior position of the heteroaliphatic substituent. Examples include —CH2—CH2-O—CH3,—CH2-CH2-NH—CH3,—CH2-CH2-N(CH3)-CH3,—CH2-S—CH2-CH3,—S(O)—CH3,—CH2-CH2-S(O)2-CH3,—CH═CH—O—CH3,—CH2-CH═N—OCH3, and —CH═CH—N(CH3)—CH3. A heteroaliphatic substituent may be linear or branched, and saturated or unsaturated. In one embodiment, the heteroaliphatic substituent has 1 to 100, (e.g 1 to 42 carbon atoms). In yet another embodiment, the heteroaliphatic substituent is a polyethylene glycol residue. As used herein, “aromatic substituent or aryl” is intended to mean any stable monocyclic, bicyclic or polycyclic carbon ring of up to 10 atoms in each ring, wherein at least one ring is aromatic, and may be unsubstituted or substituted. Examples of such aromatic substituents include phenyl, p-toluenyl (4-methylphenyl), naphthyl, tetrahydronaphthyl, indanyl, biphenyl, phenanthryl, anthryl or acenaphthyl. In cases where the aromatic substituent is bicyclic and one ring is non-aromatic, it is understood that attachment is via the aromatic ring. The term “alkylaryl substituents or arylalkyl” refers to alkyl substituents as described above wherein one or more bonds to hydrogen contained therein are replaced by a bond to an aryl substituent as described above. It is understood that an arylalkyl substituents is connected to the carbonyl group if the compound of the invention through a bond from the alkyl substituent. Examples of arylalkyl substituents include, but are not limited to, benzyl (phenylmethyl), p-trifluoromethylbenzyl (4-trifluoromethylphenylmethyl), 1-phenyl ethyl, 2-phenyl ethyl, 3-phenylpropyl, 2-phenylpropyl and the like. The term “heteroaromatic substituent or heteroaryl” as used herein, represents a stable monocyclic, bicyclic or polycyclic ring of up to 10 atoms in each ring, wherein at least one ring is aromatic and contains from 1 to 4 heteroatoms selected from the group consisting of O, N and S. Bicyclic heteroaromatic substituents include phenyl, pyridine, pyrimidine or pyridizine rings that are a) fused to a 6-membered aromatic (unsaturated) heterocyclic ring having one nitrogen atom; b) fused to a 5- or 6-membered aromatic (unsaturated) heterocyclic ring having two nitrogen atoms; c) fused to a 5-membered aromatic (unsaturated) heterocyclic ring having one nitrogen atom together with either one oxygen or one sulfur atom; or d) fused to a 5-membered aromatic (unsaturated) heterocyclic ring having one heteroatom selected from O, N or S. Heteroaryl groups within the scope of this definition include but are not limited to: benzoimidazolyl, benzofuranyl, b enzofurazanyl, benzopyrazolyl, benzotriazolyl, benzothiophenyl, benzoxazolyl, carbazolyl, carbolinyl, cinnolinyl, furanyl, indolinyl, indolyl, indolazinyl, indazolyl, isobenzofuranyl, isoindolyl, isoquinolyl, isothiazolyl, isoxazolyl, naphthpyridinyl, oxadiazolyl, oxazolyl, oxazoline, isoxazoline, oxetanyl, pyranyl, pyrazinyl, pyrazolyl, pyridazinyl, pyridopyridinyl, pyridazinyl, pyridyl, pyrimidyl, pyrrolyl, quinazolinyl, quinolyl, quinoxalinyl, tetrazolyl, tetrazolopyridyl, thiadiazolyl, thiazolyl, thienyl, triazolyl, azetidinyl, aziridinyl, 1,4-dioxanyl, hexahydroazepinyl, dihydrobenzoimidazolyl, dihydrobenzofuranyl, dihydrobenzothiophenyl, dihydrobenzoxazolyl, dihydrofuranyl, dihydroimidazolyl, dihydroindolyl, dihydroisooxazolyl, dihydroisothiazolyl, dihydrooxadiazolyl, dihydrooxazolyl, dihydropyrazinyl, dihydropyrazolyl, dihydropyridinyl, dihydropyrimidinyl, dihydropyrrolyl, dihydroquinolinyl, dihydrotetrazolyl, dihydrothiadiazolyl, dihydrothiazolyl, dihydrothienyl, dihydrotriazolyl, dihydroazetidinyl, methylenedioxybenzoyl, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothienyl, acridinyl, carbazolyl, cinnolinyl, quinoxalinyl, pyrrazolyl, indolyl, benzotriazolyl, benzothiazolyl, benzoxazolyl, isoxazolyl, isothiazolyl, furanyl, thienyl, benzothienyl, benzofuranyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, indolyl, pyrazinyl, pyridazinyl, pyridinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrrolyl, tetrahydroquinoline. In cases where the heteroaryl substituent is bicyclic and one ring is non-aromatic or contains no heteroatoms, it is understood that attachment is via the aromatic ring or via the heteroatom containing ring, respectively. If the heteroaryl contains nitrogen atoms, it is understood that the corresponding N-oxides thereof are also encompassed by this definition. The aliphatic, heteroaliphatic, aromatic and heteroaromatic substituents can be optionally substituted one or more times, the same way or differently with any one or more of the following substituents including, but not limited to: aliphatic, heteroaliphatic, aromatic and heteroaromatic substituents, aryl, heteroaryl; alkylaryl; heteroalkylaryl; alkylheteroaryl; heteroalkylheteroaryl; alkoxy; aryloxy; heteroalkoxy; heteroaryloxy; alkylthio; arylthio; heteroalkylthio; heteroarylthio; F; CI; Br; I; —OH; —NO2;—CN; —CF3;—CH2CF3;—CHCl2;—CH2OH; —CH2CH2OH; —CH2NH2; —CH2SO2CH3;—C(O)Rx; —CO2(Rx); —CON(Rx)2;—OC(O)Rx; —OCO2Rx; —OCON(Rx)2;—N(RX)2;—S(O)Rx; —S(O)2Rx; —NRx(CO)Rx wherein each occurrence of Rx independently includes, but is not limited to, aliphatic, alicyclic, heteroaliphatic, heterocyclic, aromatic, heteroaromatic, aryl, heteroaryl, alkylaryl, alkylheteroaryl, heteroalkylaryl or heteroalkylheteroaryl, wherein any of the aliphatic, alicyclic, heteroaliphatic, heterocyclic, alkylaryl, or alkylheteroaryl substituents described above and herein may be substituted or unsubstituted, branched or unbranched, saturated or unsaturated, and wherein any of the aromatic, heteroaromatic, aryl, heteroaryl, (alkyl)aryl or (alkyl)heteroaryl substituents described above and herein may be substituted or unsubstituted. Additionally, it will be appreciated, that any two adjacent substituents taken together may represent a 4, 5, 6, or 7-membered substituted or unsubstituted alicyclic or heterocyclic substituents. Additional examples of generally applicable substituents are illustrated by the specific embodiments shown below. The terms “halo” and “halogen” refer to a halogen atom selected from the group consisting of F, Cl, Br and I. The term “halogenated alkyl substituent, haloalkyl” refers to an alkyl substituents as defined above which is substituted with at least one halogen atom. In an embodiment, the halogenated alkyl substituent is perhalogenated. In another embodiment, perfluoroalkyl refers to the halogenated alkyl substituent is a univalent perfluorated substituent of formula CnF2n+1. For example, the halogenated alkyl substituent may have 1 to 6 carbon atoms, (e.g. 1 to 3 carbon atoms). Accordingly, examples of the alkyl group include trifluoromethyl, 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl, n-perfluoropropyl, n-perfluorobutyl and n-perfluoropentyl. The term “amino,” as used herein, represents —N(RN1)2, wherein each RN1 is, independently, H, OH, NO2, N(RN2)2, SO2ORN2, SO2RN2, SORN2, an N-protecting group, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, aryl, alkaryl, cycloalkyl, alkcycloalkyl, heterocyclyl (e.g., heteroaryl), alkheterocyclyl (e.g., alkheteroaryl), or two RN1 combine to form a heterocyclyl or an N-protecting group, and wherein each RN2 is, independently, H, alkyl, or aryl. In a preferred embodiment, amino is —NH2, or —NHRN1, wherein RN1 is, independently, OH, NO2, NH2, NRN22, SO2ORN2, SO2RN2, SORN2, alkyl, or aryl, and each RN2 can be H, alkyl, or aryl. The term “aminoalkyl,” as used herein, represents a heteroalkyl group, as defined herein, that is described as an alkyl group, as defined herein, substituted by an amino group, as defined herein. The alkyl and amino each can be further substituted with 1, 2, 3, or 4 substituent groups as described herein for the respective group. For example, the alkyl moiety may comprise an oxo (═O) substituent. As used herein, the term “aryloxy” refers to aromatic or heteroaromatic systems which are coupled to another residue through an oxygen atom. A typical example of an O-aryl is phenoxy. Similarly, “arylalkyl” refers to aromatic and heteroaromatic systems which are coupled to another residue through a carbon chain, saturated or unsaturated, typically of C1-C8, C1-C6, or more particularly C1-C4 or C1-C3 when saturated or C2-C8, C2-C6, C2-C4, or C2-C3 when unsaturated, including the heteroforms thereof. For greater certainty, arylalkyl thus includes an aryl or heteroaryl group as defined above connected to an alkyl, heteroalkyl, alkenyl, heteroalkenyl, alkynyl or heteroalkynyl moiety also as defined above. Typical arylalkyls would be an aryl(C6-C12)alkyl(C1-C8), aryl(C6-C12)alkenyl(C2-C8), or aryl(C6-C12)alkynyl(C2-C8), plus the heteroforms. A typical example is phenylmethyl, commonly referred to as benzyl. Typical optional substituents on aromatic or heteroaromatic groups include independently halo, CN, NO2, CF3, OCF3, COOR′, CONR′2, OR′, SR′, SOR′, SO2R′, NR′2, NR′(CO)R′,NR′C(O)OR′, NR′C(O)NR′2, NR′SO2NR′2, or NR′SO2R′, wherein each R′ is independently H or an optionally substituted group selected from alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, heteroaryl, and aryl (all as defined above); or the substituent may be an optionally substituted group selected from alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, O-aryl, O-heteroaryl and arylalkyl. Optional substituents on a non-aromatic group (e.g., alkyl, alkenyl, and alkynyl groups), are typically selected from the same list of substituents suitable for aromatic or heteroaromatic groups, except as noted otherwise herein. A non-aromatic group may also include a substituent selected from ═O and ═NOR′ where R′ is H or an optionally substituted group selected from alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteralkynyl, heteroaryl, and aryl (all as defined above). In general, a substituent group (e.g., alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, or aryl (including all heteroforms defined above) may itself optionally be substituted by additional substituents. The nature of these substituents is similar to those recited with regard to the substituents on the basic structures above. Thus, where an embodiment of a substituent is alkyl, this alkyl may optionally be substituted by the remaining substituents listed as substituents where this makes chemical sense, and where this does not undermine the size limit of alkyl per se; e.g., alkyl substituted by alkyl or by alkenyl would simply extend the upper limit of carbon atoms for these embodiments, and is not included. However, alkyl substituted by aryl, amino, halo and the like would be included. For example, where a group is substituted, the group may be substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 substituents. Optional substituents include, but are not limited to: C1-C6 alkyl or heteroaryl, C2-C6 alkenyl or heteroalkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl or heteroalkynyl, halogen; aryl, heteroaryl, azido(—N3), nitro (—NO2), cyano (—CN), acyloxy(—OC(═O)R′), acyl (—C(═O)R′), alkoxy (—OR′), amido (—NR′C(═O)R″ or —C(═O)NRR′), amino (′NRR′), carboxylic acid (—CO2H), carboxylic ester (—CO2R′), carbamoyl (—OC(═O)NR′R″ or —NRC(═O)OR′), hydroxy (—OH), isocyano (—NC), sulfonate (—S(═O)2OR), sulfonamide (—S(═O)2NRR′ or —NRS(═O)2R′), or sulfonyl (′S(═O)2R), where each R or R′ is selected, independently, from H, C1-C6 alkyl or heteroaryl, C2-C6 alkenyl or heteroalkenyl, 2C-6C alkynyl or heteroalkynyl, aryl, or heteroaryl. A substituted group may have, for example, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9 substituents. The term “heterocyclyl, heterocyclic, or Het” as used herein represents cyclic heteroalkyl or heteroalkenyl that is, e.g., a 3-, 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered ring, unless otherwise specified, containing one, two, three, or four heteroatoms independently selected from the group consisting of nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. The 5-membered ring has zero to two double bonds, and the 6- and 7-membered rings have zero to three double bonds. The term “heterocyclyl” also represents a heterocyclic compound having a bridged multicyclic structure in which one or more carbons and/or heteroatoms bridges two non-adjacent members of a monocyclic ring, e.g., a quinuclidinyl group. The term “heterocyclyl” includes bicyclic, tricyclic, and tetracyclic groups in which any of the above heterocyclic rings is fused to one, two, or three carbocyclic rings, e.g., an aryl ring, a cyclohexane ring, a cyclohexene ring, a cyclopentane ring, a cyclopentene ring, or another monocyclic heterocyclic ring, such as indolyl, quinolyl, isoquinolyl, tetrahydroquinolyl, benzofuryl, benzothienyl and the like. Some of the compounds of the present invention can comprise one or more stereogenic centers, and thus can exist in various isomeric forms, e.g. stereoisomers and/or diastereomers. Thus, the compounds of the invention and pharmaceutical compositions thereof may be in the form of an individual enantiomer, diastereomer or geometric isomer, or may be in the form of a mixture of stereoisomers. In certain embodiments, the compounds of the invention are enantiopure compounds. In certain other embodiments, mixtures of stereoisomers or diastereomers are provided. Moreover, when compounds of the invention exist in tautomeric forms, each tautomer is embraced herein. Furthermore, certain compounds, as described herein may have one or more double bonds that can exist as either the Z or E isomer, unless otherwise indicated. The invention additionally encompasses the compounds as individual isomers substantially free of other isomers and alternatively, as mixtures of various isomers, e.g., racemic mixtures of stereoisomers. In addition to the above-mentioned compounds per se, this invention also encompasses pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives of these compounds and compositions comprising one or more compounds of the invention and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients or additives. Treatment Methods As disclosed herein, miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and CTGF were identified as endogenous metastasis promoters of metastatic invasion, endothelial recruitment, and colonization in melanoma while DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, LXR, and miR7 function as metastasis suppressors or inhibitors of the same process. In addition, it was found that these miRNAs convergently target ApoE and the heat-shock factor DNAJA4. Cancer-secreted ApoE suppresses invasion and endothelial recruitment by activating melanoma cell LRP1 and endothelial LRP8 receptors, respectively. DNAJA4, in turn, induces ApoE expression. These miRNAs strongly predict human metastatic outcomes. Pre-treatment with locked nucleic acids (LNAs) targeting miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 inhibits metastasis to multiple organs, while therapeutic delivery of these LNAs significantly suppresses human melanoma cell metastasis in a mouse model. Accordingly, this invention provides methods for treating melanoma via increasing in the subject the expression level or activity level of one of the metastasis suppressors. This increasing can be achieved by, among others, forced expression of one or more of the metastasis suppressors DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, and LRP8, or decreasing the expression level or activity level of one or more miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908. In addition, the treatment can be achieved by decreasing the expression level or activity level of one or more of the metastasis promoters. The invention also provides methods for treating in a subject an angiogenic disorder or a disorder of angiogenesis. The terms “angiogenic disorder,” “disorder of angiogenesis,” and “angiogenesis disorder” are used interchangeably herein, and refer to a disorder characterized by pathological angiogenesis. A disorder characterized by pathological angiogenesis refers to a disorder where abnormal or aberrant angiogenesis, alone or in combination with others, contributes to causation, origination, or symptom of the disorder. Examples of this disorder include various cancers (e.g., vascularized tumors), eye disorders, inflammatory disorders, and others. Typical vascularized tumors that can be treated with the method include solid tumors, particularly carcinomas, which require a vascular component for the provision of oxygen and nutrients. Exemplary solid tumors include, but are not limited to, carcinomas of the lung, breast, bone, ovary, stomach, pancreas, larynx, esophagus, testes, liver, parotid, biliary tract, colon, rectum, cervix, uterus, endometrium, kidney, bladder, prostate, thyroid, squamous cell carcinomas, adenocarcinomas, small cell carcinomas, melanomas, gliomas, glioblastomas, neuroblastomas, Kaposi's sarcoma, and sarcomas. A number of disorders or conditions, other than cancer, also can be treated with the above-described method. Examples include arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, atherosclerosis, diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, Grave's disease, vascular restenosis (including restenosis following angioplasty), arteriovenous malformations (AVM), meningioma, hemangioma, neovascular glaucoma, chronic kidney disease, diabetic nephropathy, polycystic kidney disease, interstitial lung disease, pulmonary hypertension, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, autoimmune hepatitis, chronic inflammatory liver disease, hepatic cirrhosis, cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, rosacea, and basal cell carcinoma. Other treatment targets include those described in, e.g., US Applications 2009004297, 20090175791, and 20070161553, such as angiofibroma, atherosclerotic plaques, corneal graft neovascularization, hemophilic joints, hypertrophic scars, Osler-Weber syndrome, pyogenic granuloma retrolental fibroplasia, scleroderma, trachoma, vascular adhesions, synovitis, dermatitis, various other inflammatory diseases and disorders, and endometriosis. Forced Expression of Metastasis Suppressors Both polypeptides of the aforementioned metastasis suppressors (e.g., DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, and LXR) and nucleic acid encoding the polypeptides can be used to practice the invention. While many polypeptide preparations can be used, a highly purified or isolated polypeptide is preferred. The terms “peptide,” “polypeptide,” and “protein” are used herein interchangeably to describe the arrangement of amino acid residues in a polymer. A peptide, polypeptide, or protein can be composed of the standard 20 naturally occurring amino acid, in addition to rare amino acids and synthetic amino acid analogs. They can be any chain of amino acids, regardless of length or post-translational modification (e.g., glycosylation or phosphorylati on). The polypeptide “of this invention” includes recombinantly or synthetically produced fusion or chimeric versions of any of the aforementioned metastasis suppressors, having the particular domains or portions that are involved in the network. The term also encompasses polypeptides that have an added amino-terminal methionine (useful for expression in prokaryotic cells). Within the scope of this invention are fusion proteins containing one or more of the afore-mentioned sequences and a heterologous sequence. A “chimeric” or “fusion” refers to the combination of amino acid sequences of different origin in one polypeptide chain by in-frame combination of their coding nucleotide sequences. The term explicitly encompasses internal fusions, i.e., insertion of sequences of different origin within a polypeptide chain, in addition to fusion to one of its termini. A heterologous polypeptide, nucleic acid, or gene is one that originates from a foreign species, or, if from the same species, is substantially modified from its original form. Two fused domains or sequences are heterologous to each other if they are not adjacent to each other in a naturally occurring protein or nucleic acid. An “isolated” or “purified” polypeptide refers to a polypeptide that has been separated from other proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids with which it is naturally associated. The polypeptide can constitute at least 10% (i.e., any percentage between 10% and 100%, e.g., 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, and 99%) by dry weight of the purified preparation. Purity can be measured by any appropriate standard method, for example, by column chromatography, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, or HPLC analysis. An isolated polypeptide described in the invention can be purified from a natural source, produced by recombinant DNA techniques, or by chemical methods. A “recombinant” polypeptide refers to a polypeptide produced by recombinant DNA techniques; i.e., produced from cells transformed by an exogenous DNA construct encoding the desired polypeptide. A “synthetic” polypeptide refers to a polypeptide prepared by chemical synthesis. The term “recombinant” when used with reference, e.g., to a cell, nucleic acid, protein, or vector, indicates that the cell, nucleic acid, protein or vector, has been modified by the introduction of a heterologous nucleic acid or protein or the alteration of a native nucleic acid or protein, or that the cell is derived from a cell so modified. “Overexpression” refers to the expression of a RNA or polypeptide encoded by a nucleic acid introduced into a host cell, wherein the RNA or polypeptide or protein is either not normally present in the host cell, or wherein the RNA or polypeptide is present in said host cell at a higher level than that normally expressed from the endogenous gene encoding the RNA or polypeptide. The amino acid composition of each of the above-mentioned polypeptides may vary without disrupting their functions—the ability to up-regulate the above-mentioned network (e.g., increase the activation level of the ApoE/LRP signaling pathway), thereby inhibiting metastasis to multiple organs. For example, it can contain one or more conservative amino acid substitutions. A “conservative amino acid substitution” is one in which the amino acid residue is replaced with an amino acid residue having a similar side chain. Families of amino acid residues having similar side chains have been defined in the art. These families include amino acids with basic side chains (e.g., lysine, arginine, histidine), acidic side chains (e.g., aspartic acid, glutamic acid), uncharged polar side chains (e.g., glycine, asparagine, glutamine, serine, threonine, tyrosine, cysteine), nonpolar side chains (e.g., alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline, phenylalanine, methionine, tryptophan), β-branched side chains (e.g., threonine, valine, isoleucine) and aromatic side chains (e.g., tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, histidine). Thus, a predicted nonessential amino acid residue in one of the above-described polypeptides (e.g., SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18) is preferably replaced with another amino acid residue from the same side chain family. Alternatively, mutations can be introduced randomly along all or part of the sequences, such as by saturation mutagenesis, and the resultant mutants can be screened for the ability to up-regulate the above-mentioned network or ApoE/LRP signaling pathway, and trigger the respective cellular response to identify mutants that retain the activity as descried below in the examples. A functional equivalent of a polypeptide of this invention refers to a derivative of the polypeptide, e.g., a protein having one or more point mutations, insertions, deletions, truncations, a fusion protein, or a combination thereof. It retains substantially the activity to of the above-mentioned polypeptide. The isolated polypeptide of this invention can contain the sequence of one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18, or a functional equivalent or fragment thereof. In general, the functional equivalent is at least 75% (e.g., any number between 75% and 100%, inclusive, e.g., 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, and 99%) identical to one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18. A polypeptide described in this invention can be obtained as a recombinant polypeptide. To prepare a recombinant polypeptide, a nucleic acid encoding it can be linked to another nucleic acid encoding a fusion partner, e.g., glutathione-s-transferase (GST), 6×-His epitope tag, or M13 Gene 3 protein. The resultant fusion nucleic acid expresses in suitable host cells a fusion protein that can be isolated by methods known in the art. The isolated fusion protein can be further treated, e.g., by enzymatic digestion, to remove the fusion partner and obtain the recombinant polypeptide of this invention. Alternatively, the polypeptide of the invention can be chemically synthesized (see e.g., Creighton, “Proteins: Structures and Molecular Principles,” W. H. Freeman & Co., NY, 1983). For additional guidance, skilled artisans may consult Ausubel et al. (Current Protocols in Molecular Biology and Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, 3rd Ed. 1987 & 1995), Sambrook et al. (Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989), and chemical synthesis Gait, M.bJ. Ed. (Oligonucleotide Synthesis, IRL Press, Oxford, 1984). Due to their functions as cellular protein or membrane protein, DNAJA4, LRP1, LRP8, and LXR can be associated with, e.g., conjugated or fused to, one or more of an amino acid sequence comprising a cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) sequence, and the like. In this manner, a composition of the invention as discussed below can include a transport enhancer. A cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) generally consists of less than 30 amino acids and has a net positive charge. CPPs internalize in living animal cells in an endocytotic or receptor/energy-independent manner. There are several classes of CPPs with various origins, from totally protein-derived CPPs via chimeric CPPs to completely synthetic CPPs. Examples of CPPs are known in the art. See, e.g., U.S. Application Nos. 20090099066 and 20100279918. It is know that CPPs can delivery an exogenous protein into various cells. All of naturally occurring versions, genetic engineered versions, and chemically synthesized versions of the above-mentioned polypeptides can be used to practice the invention disclosed therein. Polypeptides obtained by recombinant DNA technology may have the same amino acid sequence as a naturally occurring version (e.g., one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18) or a functionally equivalent thereof. They also include chemically modified versions. Examples of chemically modified polypeptides include polypeptides subjected to conformational change, addition or deletion of a side chain, and those to which a compound such as polyethylene glycol has been bound. Once purified and tested by standard methods or according to the method described in the examples below or other methods known in the art, the polypeptides can be included in suitable composition. For expressing the above-mentioned factors, the invention provides a nucleic acid that encodes any of the polypeptides mentioned above. Preferably, the nucleotide sequences are isolated and/or purified. A nucleic acid refers to a DNA molecule (e.g., but not limited to, a cDNA or genomic DNA), an RNA molecule (e.g., but not limited to, an mRNA), or a DNA or RNA analog. A DNA or RNA analog can be synthesized from nucleotide analogs. The nucleic acid molecule can be single-stranded or double-stranded. An “isolated nucleic acid” is a nucleic acid the structure of which is not identical to that of any naturally occurring nucleic acid or to that of any fragment of a naturally occurring genomic nucleic acid. The term therefore covers, for example, (a) a DNA which has the sequence of part of a naturally occurring genomic DNA molecule but is not flanked by both of the coding sequences that flank that part of the molecule in the genome of the organism in which it naturally occurs; (b) a nucleic acid incorporated into a vector or into the genomic DNA of a prokaryote or eukaryote in a manner such that the resulting molecule is not identical to any naturally occurring vector or genomic DNA; (c) a separate molecule such as a cDNA, a genomic fragment, a fragment produced by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or a restriction fragment; and (d) a recombinant nucleotide sequence that is part of a hybrid gene, i.e., a gene encoding a fusion protein. The terms “RNA,” “RNA molecule,” and “ribonucleic acid molecule” are used interchangeably herein, and refer to a polymer of ribonucleotides. The term “DNA” or “DNA molecule” or deoxyribonucleic acid molecule” refers to a polymer of deoxyribonucleotides. DNA and RNA can be synthesized naturally (e.g., by DNA replication or transcription of DNA, respectively). RNA can be post-transcriptionally modified. DNA and RNA also can be chemically synthesized. DNA and RNA can be single-stranded (i.e., ssRNA and ssDNA, respectively) or multi-stranded (e.g., double-stranded, i.e., dsRNA and dsDNA, respectively). The present invention also provides recombinant constructs having one or more of the nucleotide sequences described herein. Example of the constructs include a vector, such as a plasmid or viral vector, into which a nucleic acid sequence of the invention has been inserted, in a forward or reverse orientation. In a preferred embodiment, the construct further includes regulatory sequences, including a promoter, operably linked to the sequence. Large numbers of suitable vectors and promoters are known to those of skill in the art, and are commercially available. Appropriate cloning and expression vectors for use with prokaryotic and eukaryotic hosts are also described in Sambrook et al. (2001, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Press). Examples of expression vectors include chromosomal, nonchromosomal and synthetic DNA sequences, e.g., derivatives of or Simian virus 40 (SV40), bacterial plasmids, phage DNA, baculovirus, yeast plasmids, vectors derived from combinations of plasmids and phage DNA, viral DNA such as vaccinia, adenovirus, fowl pox virus, and pseudorabies. However, any other vector may be used as long as it is replicable and viable in the host. The appropriate nucleic acid sequence may be inserted into the vector by a variety of procedures. In general, a nucleic acid sequence encoding one of the polypeptides described above can be inserted into an appropriate restriction endonuclease site(s) by procedures known in the art. Such procedures and related sub-cloning procedures are within the scope of those skilled in the art. The nucleic acid sequence in the aforementioned expression vector is preferably operatively linked to an appropriate transcription control sequence (promoter) to direct mRNA synthesis. Examples of such promoters include: the retroviral long terminal (LTR) or SV40 promoter, the E. coli lac or trp promoter, the phage lambda PL promoter, and other promoters known to control expression of genes in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells or viruses. The expression vector can also contain a ribosome binding site for translation initiation, and a transcription terminator. The vector may include appropriate sequences for amplifying expression. In addition, the expression vector preferably contains one or more selectable marker genes to provide a phenotypic trait for selection of transformed host cells such as dihydrofolate reductase or neomycin resistance for eukaryotic cell cultures, or such as tetracycline or ampicillin resistance in E. coli. The vector containing the appropriate nucleic acid sequences as described above, as well as an appropriate promoter or control sequence, can be employed to transform an appropriate host to permit the host to express the polypeptides described above. Such vectors can be used in gene therapy. Examples of suitable expression hosts include bacterial cells (e.g., E. coli, Streptomyces, Salmonella typhimurium), fungal cells (yeast), insect cells (e.g., Drosophila and Spodoptera frugiperda (519)), animal cells (e.g., CHO, COS, and HEK 293), adenoviruses, and plant cells. The selection of an appropriate host is within the scope of those skilled in the art. In some embodiments, the present invention provides methods for producing the above mentioned polypeptides by transfecting a host cell with an expression vector having a nucleotide sequence that encodes one of the polypeptides. The host cells are then cultured under a suitable condition, which allows for the expression of the polypeptide. Decreasing Expression or Activity Level of Metastasis Promoters As mentioned above, one can use an inhibitory agent that decreases the expression or activity level of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, or CTGF in treating melanoma. An inhibitory agent (i.e., inhibitor) can be a nucleic acid, a polypeptide, an antibody, or a small molecule compound. In one example, the inhibitor functions at a level of transcription, mRNA stability, translation, protein stability/degradation, protein modification, and protein binding. A nucleic acid inhibitor can encode a small interference RNA (e.g., an RNAi agent) that targets one or more of the above-mentioned genes, e.g., CTGF, and inhibits its expression or activity. The term “RNAi agent” refers to an RNA, or analog thereof, having sufficient sequence complementarity to a target RNA to direct RNA interference. Examples also include a DNA that can be used to make the RNA. RNA interference (RNAi) refers to a sequence-specific or selective process by which a target molecule (e.g., a target gene, protein or RNA) is down-regulated. Generally, an interfering RNA (“iRNA”) is a double stranded short-interfering RNA (siRNA), short hairpin RNA (shRNA), or single-stranded micro-RNA (miRNA) that results in catalytic degradation of specific mRNAs, and also can be used to lower or inhibit gene expression. The term “short interfering RNA” or “siRNA” (also known as “small interfering RNAs”) refers to an RNA agent, preferably a double-stranded agent, of about 10-50 nucleotides in length, preferably between about 15-25 nucleotides in length, more preferably about 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, or 25 nucleotides in length, the strands optionally having overhanging ends comprising, for example 1, 2 or 3 overhanging nucleotides (or nucleotide analogs), which is capable of directing or mediating RNA interference. Naturally-occurring siRNAs are generated from longer dsRNA molecules (e.g., >25 nucleotides in length) by a cell's RNAi machinery (e.g., Dicer or a homolog thereof). The term “miRNA” or “microRNA” refers to an RNA agent, preferably a single-stranded agent, of about 10-50 nucleotides in length, preferably between about 15-25 nucleotides in length, more preferably about 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, or 25 nucleotides in length, which is capable of directing or mediating RNA interference. Naturally-occurring miRNAs are generated from stem-loop precursor RNAs (i.e., pre-miRNAs) by Dicer. The term “Dicer” as used herein, includes Dicer as well as any Dicer orthologue or homologue capable of processing dsRNA structures into siRNAs, miRNAs, siRNA-like or miRNA-like molecules. The term microRNA (or “miRNA”) is used interchangeably with the term “small temporal RNA” (or “stRNA”) based on the fact that naturally-occurring microRNAs (or “miRNAs”) have been found to be expressed in a temporal fashion (e.g., during development). The term “shRNA”, as used herein, refers to an RNA agent having a stem-loop structure, comprising a first and second region of complementary sequence, the degree of complementarity and orientation of the regions being sufficient such that base pairing occurs between the regions, the first and second regions being joined by a loop region, the loop resulting from a lack of base pairing between nucleotides (or nucleotide analogs) within the loop region. Within the scope of this invention is utilization of RNAi featuring degradation of RNA molecules (e.g., within a cell). Degradation is catalyzed by an enzymatic, RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). A RNA agent having a sequence sufficiently complementary to a target RNA sequence (e.g., the above-mentioned CTGF gene) to direct RNAi means that the RNA agent has a homology of at least 50%, (e.g., 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99%, or 100% homology) to the target RNA sequence so that the two are sufficiently complementary to each other to hybridize and trigger the destruction of the target RNA by the RNAi machinery (e.g., the RISC complex) or process. A RNA agent having a “sequence sufficiently complementary to a target RNA sequence to direct RNAi” also means that the RNA agent has a sequence sufficient to trigger the translational inhibition of the target RNA by the RNAi machinery or process. A RNA agent also can have a sequence sufficiently complementary to a target RNA encoded by the target DNA sequence such that the target DNA sequence is chromatically silenced. In other words, the RNA agent has a sequence sufficient to induce transcriptional gene silencing, e.g., to down-modulate gene expression at or near the target DNA sequence, e.g., by inducing chromatin structural changes at or near the target DNA sequence. The above-mentioned polynucleotides can be delivered using polymeric, biodegradable microparticle or microcapsule delivery devices known in the art. Another way to achieve uptake of the polynucleotides is using liposomes, prepared by standard methods. The polynucleotide can be incorporated alone into these delivery vehicles or co-incorporated with tissue-specific antibodies. Alternatively, one can prepare a molecular conjugate composed of a plasmid or other vector attached to poly-L-lysine by electrostatic or covalent forces. Poly-L-lysine binds to a ligand that can bind to a receptor on target cells (Cristiano, et al., 1995, J. Mol. Med. 73:479). Alternatively, tissue specific targeting can be achieved by the use of tissue-specific transcriptional regulatory elements that are known in the art. Delivery of naked DNA (i.e., without a delivery vehicle) to an intramuscular, intradermal, or subcutaneous site is another means to achieve in vivo expression. siRNA, miRNA, and asRNA (antisense RNA) molecules can be designed by methods well known in the art. siRNA, miRNA, and asRNA molecules with homology sufficient to provide sequence specificity required to uniquely degrade any RNA can be designed using programs known in the art, including, but not limited to, those maintained on websites for AMBION, Inc. and DHARMACON, Inc. Systematic testing of several designed species for optimization of the siRNA, miRNA, and asRNA sequence can be routinely performed by those skilled in the art. Considerations when designing short interfering nucleic acid molecules include, but are not limited to, biophysical, thermodynamic, and structural considerations, base preferences at specific positions in the sense strand, and homology. These considerations are well known in the art and provide guidelines for designing the above-mentioned RNA molecules. An antisense polynucleotide (preferably DNA) of the present invention can be any antisense polynucleotide so long as it possesses a base sequence complementary or substantially complementary to that of the gene encoding a component of the aforementioned network. The base sequence can be at least about 70%, 80%, 90%, or 95% homology to the complement of the gene encoding the polypeptide. These antisense DNAs can be synthesized using a DNA synthesizer. The antisense DNA of the present invention may contain changed or modified sugars, bases or linkages. The antisense DNA, as well as the RNAi agent mentioned above, may also be provided in a specialized form such as liposomes, microspheres, or may be applied to gene therapy, or may be provided in combination with attached moieties. Such attached moieties include polycations such as polylysine that act as charge neutralizers of the phosphate backbone, or hydrophobic moieties such as lipids (e.g., phospholipids, cholesterols, etc.) that enhance the interaction with cell membranes or increase uptake of the nucleic acid. Preferred examples of the lipids to be attached are cholesterols or derivatives thereof (e.g., cholesteryl chloroformate, cholic acid, etc.). These moieties may be attached to the nucleic acid at the 3′ or 5′ ends thereof and may also be attached thereto through a base, sugar, or intramolecular nucleoside linkage. Other moieties may be capping groups specifically placed at the 3′ or 5′ ends of the nucleic acid to prevent degradation by nucleases such as exonuclease, RNase, etc. Such capping groups include, but are not limited to, hydroxyl protecting groups known in the art, including glycols such as polyethylene glycol, tetraethylene glycol and the like. The inhibitory action of the antisense DNA can be examined using a cell-line or animal based gene expression system of the present invention in vivo and in vitro. The above-discussed nucleic acids encoding one or more of the polypeptides mentioned above or RNAi agents can be cloned in a vector for delivering to cells in vitro or in vivo. For in vivo uses, the delivery can target a specific tissue or organ (e.g., skin). Targeted delivery involves the use of vectors (e.g., organ-homing peptides) that are targeted to specific organs or tissues after systemic administration. For example, the vector can have a covalent conjugate of avidin and a monoclonal antibody to a liver specific protein. In certain embodiments, the present invention provides methods for in vivo expression the above-mentioned metastsis suppressors. Such method would achieve its therapeutic effect by introduction of nucleic acid sequences encoding any of the factors into cells or tissues of a human or a non-human animal in need of inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cancer cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis. Delivery of the nucleic acid sequences can be achieved using a recombinant expression vector such as a chimeric virus or a colloidal dispersion system. Preferred for therapeutic delivery of the nucleic acid sequences is the use of targeted liposomes. Various viral vectors which can be utilized for gene therapy disclosed herein include, adenovirus, adeno-associated virus (AAV), herpes virus, vaccinia, or, preferably, an RNA virus such as a retrovirus and a lentivirus. Preferably, the retroviral vector is a lentivirus or a derivative of a murine or avian retrovirus. Examples of retroviral vectors in which a single foreign gene can be inserted include, but are not limited to: Moloney murine leukemia virus (MoMuLV), Harvey murine sarcoma virus (HaMuSV), murine mammary tumor virus (MuMTV), and Rous Sarcoma Virus (RSV). A number of additional retroviral vectors can incorporate multiple genes. All of these vectors can transfer or incorporate a gene for a selectable marker so that transduced cells can be identified and generated. Retroviral vectors can be made target-specific by attaching, for example, a sugar, a glycolipid, or a protein. Preferred targeting is accomplished by using a target-specific antibody or hormone that has a receptor in the target. Those of skill in the art will recognize that specific polynucleotide sequences can be inserted into the retroviral genome or attached to a viral envelope to allow target specific delivery of the retroviral vector. Another targeted system for delivery of nucleic acids is a colloidal dispersion system. Colloidal dispersion systems include macromolecule complexes, nanocapsules, microspheres, beads, and lipid-based systems including oil-in-water emulsions, micelles, mixed micelles, and liposomes. The preferred colloidal system of this invention is a liposome. Liposomes are artificial membrane vesicles which are useful as delivery vehicles in vitro and in vivo. RNA, DNA, and intact virions can be encapsulated within the aqueous interior and delivered to cells in a biologically active form. Methods for efficient gene transfer using a liposome vehicle are known in the art. The composition of the liposome is usually a combination of phospholipids, usually in combination with steroids, especially cholesterol. Other phospholipids or other lipids may also be used. The physical characteristics of liposomes depend on pH, ionic strength, and the presence of divalent cations. Examples of lipids useful in liposome production include phosphatidyl compounds, such as phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidyl-ethanolamine, sphingolipids, cerebrosides, and gangliosides. Exemplary phospholipids include egg phosphatidylcholine, dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, and distearoyl-phosphatidylcholine. The targeting of liposomes is also possible based on, for example, organ-specificity, cell-specificity, and organelle-specificity and is known in the art. When used in vivo, it is desirable to use a reversible delivery-expression system. To that end, the Cre-loxP or FLP/FRT system and other similar systems can be used for reversible delivery-expression of one or more of the above-described nucleic acids. See WO2005/112620, WO2005/039643, U.S. Applications 20050130919, 20030022375, 20020022018, 20030027335, and 20040216178. In particular, the reversible delivery-expression system described in US Application NO 20100284990 can be used to provide a selective or emergency shut-off. In another example, the above-mentioned inhibitory agent can be a polypeptide or a protein complex, such as an antibody. The term “antibody” refers to an immunoglobulin molecule or immunologically active portion thereof, i.e., an antigen-binding portion. Examples include, but are not limited to, a protein having at least one or two, heavy (H) chain variable regions (VH), and at least one or two light (L) chain variable regions (VL). The VH and VL regions can be further subdivided into regions of hypervariability, termed “complementarity determining regions” (“CDR”), interspersed with regions that are more conserved, termed “framework regions” (FR). As used herein, the term “immunoglobulin” refers to a protein consisting of one or more polypeptides substantially encoded by immunoglobulin genes. The recognized human immunoglobulin genes include the kappa, lambda, alpha (IgA1 and IgA2), gamma (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4), delta, epsilon and mu constant region genes, as well as the myriad immunoglobulin variable region genes. The term “antigen-binding portion” of an antibody (or “antibody portion”) refers to one or more fragments of an antibody that retain the ability to specifically bind to an antigen (e.g., LRP1, LRP8, and CTGF). It has been shown that the antigen-binding function of an antibody can be performed by fragments of a full-length antibody. Examples of binding fragments encompassed within the term “antigen-binding portion” of an antibody include (i) a Fab fragment, a monovalent fragment consisting of the VL, VH, CL and CH1 domains; (ii) a F(ab′)2 fragment, a bivalent fragment comprising two Fab fragments linked by a disulfide bridge at the hinge region; (iii) a Fd fragment consisting of the VH and CH1 domains; (iv) a Fv fragment consisting of the VL and VH domains of a single arm of an antibody, (v) a dAb fragment (Ward et al., (1989) Nature 341:544-546), which consists of a VH domain; and (vi) an isolated complementarity determining region (CDR). Furthermore, although the two domains of the Fv fragment, VL and VH, are coded for by separate genes, they can be joined, using recombinant methods, by a synthetic linker that enables them to be made as a single protein chain in which the VL and VH regions pair to form monovalent molecules (known as single chain Fv (scFv); see e.g., Bird et al. (1988) Science 242:423-426; and Huston et al. (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85: 5879-5883). Such single chain antibodies are also intended to be encompassed within the term “antigen-binding portion” of an antibody. These antibody fragments are obtained using conventional techniques known to those with skill in the art, and the fragments are screened for utility in the same manner as are intact antibodies. Antibodies that specifically bind to one of the above-mentioned target proteins (e.g., CTGF) can be made using methods known in the art. This antibody can be a polyclonal or a monoclonal antibody. In one embodiment, the antibody can be recombinantly produced, e.g., produced by phage display or by combinatorial methods. In another embodiment, the antibody is a fully human antibody (e.g., an antibody made in a mouse which has been genetically engineered to produce an antibody from a human immunoglobulin sequence), a humanized antibody, or a non-human antibody, for example, but not limited to, a rodent (mouse or rat), goat, primate (for example, but not limited to, monkey), rabbit, or camel antibody. Examples of methods to generate humanized version of antibodies include, but are not limited to, CDR grafting (Queen et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,585,089; Riechmann et al., Nature 332:323 (1988)), chain shuffling (U.S. Pat. No. 5,565,332); and veneering or resurfacing (EP 592,106; EP 519,596); Padlan, Molecular Immunology 28(415):489-498 (1991); Studnicka et al., Protein Engineering 7(6):805-814 (1994); Roguska. et al., PNAS 91:969-973 (1994)). Examples of methods to generate fully human antibodies include, but are not limited to, generation of antibodies from mice that can express human immunoglobulin genes and use of phage-display technology to generate and screen human immunoglobulin gene libraries. An “isolated antibody” is intended to refer to an antibody that is substantially free of other antibodies having different antigenic specificities (e.g., an isolated antibody that specifically binds CTGF is substantially free of antibodies that specifically bind antigens other than such an antigen). Moreover, an isolated antibody may be substantially free of other cellular material and/or chemicals. The terms “monoclonal antibody” or “monoclonal antibody composition” as used herein refer to a preparation of antibody molecules of single molecular composition. A monoclonal antibody composition displays a single binding specificity and affinity for a particular epitope. The term “human antibody”, as used herein, is intended to include antibodies having variable regions in which both the framework and CDR regions are derived from human germline immunoglobulin sequences. Furthermore, if the antibody contains a constant region, the constant region also is derived from human germline immunoglobulin sequences. The human antibodies of the invention may include amino acid residues not encoded by human germline immunoglobulin sequences (e.g., mutations introduced by random or site-specific mutagenesis in vitro or by somatic mutation in vivo). However, the term “human antibody”, as used herein, is not intended to include antibodies in which CDR sequences derived from the germline of another mammalian species, such as a mouse, have been grafted onto human framework sequences. The term “human monoclonal antibody” refers to antibodies displaying a single binding specificity which have variable regions in which both the framework and CDR regions are derived from human germline immunoglobulin sequences. In one embodiment, the human monoclonal antibodies are produced by a hybridoma which includes a B cell obtained from a transgenic nonhuman animal, e.g., a transgenic mouse, having a genome comprising a human heavy chain transgene and a light chain transgene fused to an immortalized cell. The term “recombinant human antibody,” as used herein, includes all human antibodies that are prepared, expressed, created or isolated by recombinant means, such as (a) antibodies isolated from an animal (e.g., a mouse) that is transgenic or transchromosomal for human immunoglobulin genes or a hybridoma prepared therefrom (described further below), (b) antibodies isolated from a host cell transformed to express the human antibody, e.g., from a transfectoma, (c) antibodies isolated from a recombinant, combinatorial human antibody library, and (d) antibodies prepared, expressed, created or isolated by any other means that involve splicing of human immunoglobulin gene sequences to other DNA sequences. Such recombinant human antibodies have variable regions in which the framework and CDR regions are derived from human germline immunoglobulin sequences. In certain embodiments, however, such recombinant human antibodies can be subjected to in vitro mutagenesis (or, when an animal transgenic for human Ig sequences is used, in vivo somatic mutagenesis) and thus the amino acid sequences of the VH and VL regions of the recombinant antibodies are sequences that, while derived from and related to human germline VH and VL sequences, may not naturally exist within the human antibody germline repertoire in vivo. As used herein, “isotype” refers to the antibody class (e.g., IgM or IgG1) that is encoded by the heavy chain constant region genes. The phrases “an antibody recognizing an antigen” and “an antibody specific for an antigen” are used interchangeably herein with the term “an antibody which binds specifically to an antigen.” As used herein, the term “high affinity” for an IgG antibody refers to an antibody having a KD of 10-7 M or less, preferably 10-8 M or less, more preferably 10-9 M or less and even more preferably 10-10 M or less for a target antigen. However, “high affinity” binding can vary for other antibody isotypes. For example, “high affinity” binding for an IgM isotype refers to an antibody having a KD of 10-7 M or less, more preferably 10-8 M or less. In one example, a composition contains a monoclonal antibody that neutralizes CTGF. In one embodiment, this antibody can be a fully human antibody, a humanized antibody, or a non-human antibody, for example, but not limited to, a rodent (mouse or rat), goat, primate (for example, but not limited to, monkey), rabbit, or camel antibody. In one embodiment, one or more amino-acids of this monoclonal monoclonal antibody may be substituted in order to alter its physical properties. These properties include, but are not limited to, binding specificity, binding affinity, immunogenicity, and antibody isotype. Pharmaceutical compositions containing fully human or humanized versions of the above described antibodies can be used for treating melanoma or for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cancer cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesi s. As used herein, a “subject” refers to a human and a non-human animal. Examples of a non-human animal include all vertebrates, e.g., mammals, such as non-human mammals, non-human primates (particularly higher primates), dog, rodent (e.g., mouse or rat), guinea pig, cat, and rabbit, and non-mammals, such as birds, amphibians, reptiles, etc. In one embodiment, the subject is a human. In another embodiment, the subject is an experimental animal or animal suitable as a disease model. A subject to be treated for a disorder can be identified by standard diagnosing techniques for the disorder. Optionally, the subject can be examined for mutation, expression level, or activity level of one or more of the miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF mentioned above by methods known in the art or described above before treatment. If the subject has a particular mutation in the gene, or if the gene expression or activity level is, for example, greater in a sample from the subject than that in a sample from a normal person, the subject is a candidate for treatment of this invention. To confirm the inhibition or treatment, one can evaluate and/or verify the inhibition of endothelial recruitment or resulting angiogenesis using technology known in the art before and/or after the administering step. Exemplary technologies include angiography or arteriography, a medical imaging technique used to visualize the inside, or lumen, of blood vessels and organs of the body, can generally be done by injecting a radio-opaque contrast agent into the blood vessel and imaging using X-ray based techniques such as fluoroscopy. “Treating” or “treatment” as used herein refers to administration of a compound or agent to a subject who has a disorder with the purpose to cure, alleviate, relieve, remedy, delay the onset of, prevent, or ameliorate the disorder, the symptom of a disorder, the disease state secondary to the disorder, or the predisposition toward the disorder. An “effective amount” or “therapeutically effective amount” refers to an amount of the compound or agent that is capable of producing a medically desirable result in a treated subject. The treatment method can be performed in vivo or ex vivo, alone or in conjunction with other drugs or therapy. A therapeutically effective amount can be administered in one or more administrations, applications or dosages and is not intended to be limited to a particular formulation or administration route. The expression “effective amount” as used herein, refers to a sufficient amount of the compound of the invention to exhibit the desired therapeutic effect. The exact amount required will vary from subject to subject, depending on the species, age, and general condition of the subject, the particular therapeutic agent and the like. The compounds of the invention are preferably formulated in dosage unit form for ease of administration and uniformity of dosage. The expression “dosage unit form” as used herein refers to a physically discrete unit of therapeutic agent appropriate for the patient to be treated. It will be understood, however, that the total daily usage of the compounds and compositions of the present invention will be decided by the attending physician within the scope of sound medical judgment. The specific therapeutically effective dose level for any particular patient or organism will depend upon a variety of factors including the disorder being treated and the severity of the disorder; the anticancer activity of the specific compound employed; the specific composition employed; the age, body weight, general health, sex and diet of the patient; the time of administration, route of administration, and rate of excretion of the specific compound employed; the duration of the treatment; drugs used in combination or coincidental with the specific compound employed; and like factors well known in the medical arts. A therapeutic agent can be administered in vivo or ex vivo, alone or co-administered in conjunction with other drugs or therapy, i.e., a cocktail therapy. As used herein, the term “co-administration” or “co-administered” refers to the administration of at least two agent(s) or therapies to a subject. For example, in the treatment of tumors, particularly vascularized, malignant tumors, the agents can be used alone or in combination with, e.g., chemotherapeutic, radiotherapeutic, apoptopic, anti-angiogenic agents and/or immunotoxins or coaguligands. In some embodiments, the co-administration of two or more agents/therapies is concurrent. In other embodiments, a first agent/therapy is administered prior to a second agent/therapy. Those of skill in the art understand that the formulations and/or routes of administration of the various agents/therapies used may vary. In an in vivo approach, a compound or agent is administered to a subject. Generally, the compound is suspended in a pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier (such as, for example, but not limited to, physiological saline) and administered orally or by intravenous infusion, or injected or implanted subcutaneously, intramuscularly, intrathecally, intraperitoneally, intrarectally, intravaginally, intranasally, intragastrically, intratracheally, or intrapulmonarily. The dosage required depends on the choice of the route of administration; the nature of the formulation; the nature of the patient's illness; the subject's size, weight, surface area, age, and sex; other drugs being administered; and the judgment of the attending physician. Suitable dosages are in the range of 0.01-100 mg/kg. Variations in the needed dosage are to be expected in view of the variety of compounds available and the different efficiencies of various routes of administration. For example, oral administration would be expected to require higher dosages than administration by i.v. injection. Variations in these dosage levels can be adjusted using standard empirical routines for optimization as is well understood in the art. Encapsulation of the compound in a suitable delivery vehicle (e.g., polymeric microparticles or implantable devices) can increase the efficiency of delivery, particularly for oral delivery. Compositions Within the scope of this invention is a composition that contains a suitable carrier and one or more of the therapeutic agents described above. The composition can be a pharmaceutical composition that contains a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, a dietary composition that contains a dietarily acceptable suitable carrier, or a cosmetic composition that contains a cosmetically acceptable carrier. The term “pharmaceutical composition” refers to the combination of an active agent with a carrier, inert or active, making the composition especially suitable for diagnostic or therapeutic use in vivo or ex vivo. A “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier,” after administered to or upon a subject, does not cause undesirable physiological effects. The carrier in the pharmaceutical composition must be “acceptable” also in the sense that it is compatible with the active ingredient and can be capable of stabilizing it. One or more solubilizing agents can be utilized as pharmaceutical carriers for delivery of an active compound. Examples of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier include, but are not limited to, biocompatible vehicles, adjuvants, additives, and diluents to achieve a composition usable as a dosage form. Examples of other carriers include colloidal silicon oxide, magnesium stearate, cellulose, sodium lauryl sulfate, and D&C Yellow #10. As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refers to those salts which are, within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use in contact with the tissues of humans and lower animals without undue toxicity, irritation, allergic response and the like, and are commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts of amines, carboxylic acids, and other types of compounds, are well known in the art. For example, S. M. Berge, et al. describe pharmaceutically acceptable salts in detail in J. Pharmaceutical Sciences, 66: 1-19 (1977), incorporated herein by reference. The salts can be prepared in situ during the final isolation and purification of the compounds of the invention, or separately by reacting a free base or free acid function with a suitable reagent, as described generally below. For example, a free base function can be reacted with a suitable acid. Furthermore, where the compounds of the invention carry an acidic moiety, suitable pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof may, include metal salts such as alkali metal salts, e.g. sodium or potassium salts; and alkaline earth metal salts, e.g. calcium or magnesium salts. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable, nontoxic acid addition salts are salts of an amino group formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid and perchloric acid or with organic acids such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid or malonic acid or by using other methods used in the art such as ion exchange. Other pharmaceutically acceptable salts, include adipate, alginate, ascorbate, aspartate, benzenesulfonate, benzoate, bisulfate, borate, butyrate, camphorate, camphorsulfonate, citrate, cyclopentanepropionate, digluconate, dodecylsulfate, ethanesulfonate, formate, fumarate, glucoheptonate, glycerophosphate, gluconate, hemisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, hydroiodide, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonate, lactobionate, lactate, laurate, lauryl sulfate, malate, maleate, malonate, methanesulfonate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, oleate, oxalate, palmitate, pamoate, pectinate, persulfate, 3-phenylpropionate, phosphate, picrate, pivalate, propionate, stearate, succinate, sulfate, tartrate, thiocyanate, p-toluenesulfonate, undecanoate, valerate salts, and the like. Representative alkali or alkaline earth metal salts include sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and the like. Further pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, when appropriate, nontoxic ammonium, quaternary ammonium, and amine cations formed using counterions such as halide, hydroxide, carboxylate, sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, loweralkyl sulfonate and aryl sulfonate. As described above, the pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention additionally comprise a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, which, as used herein, includes any and all solvents, diluents, or other liquid vehicle, dispersion or suspension aids, surface active agents, isotonic agents, thickening or emulsifying agents, preservatives, solid binders, lubricants and the like, as suited to the particular dosage form desired. Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sixteenth Edition, E. W. Martin (Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa., 1980) discloses various carriers used in formulating pharmaceutical compositions and known techniques for the preparation thereof. Except insofar as any conventional carrier medium is incompatible with the compounds of the invention, such as by producing any undesirable biological effect or otherwise interacting in a deleterious manner with any other component(s) of the pharmaceutical composition, its use is contemplated to be within the scope of this invention. Some examples of materials which can serve as pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include, but are not limited to, sugars such as lactose, glucose and sucrose; starches such as corn starch and potato starch; cellulose and its derivatives such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose and cellulose acetate; powdered tragacanth; malt; gelatine; talc; excipients such as cocoa butter and suppository waxes; oils such as peanut oil, cottonseed oil; safflower oil, sesame oil; olive oil; corn oil and soybean oil; glycols; such as propylene glycol; esters such as ethyl oleate and ethyl laurate; agar; natural and synthetic phospholipids, such as soybean and egg yolk phosphatides, lecithin, hydrogenated soy lecithin, dimyristoyl lecithin, dipalmitoyl lecithin, distearoyl lecithin, dioleoyl lecithin, hydroxylated lecithin, lysophosphatidylcholine, cardiolipin, sphingomyelin, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, diastearoyl phosphatidylethanolamine (DSPE) and its pegylated esters, such as DSPE-PEG750 and, DSPE-PEG2000, phosphatidic acid, phosphatidyl glycerol and phosphatidyl serine. Commercial grades of lecithin which are preferred include those which are available under the trade name Phosal® or Phospholipon® and include Phosal 53 MCT, Phosal 50 PG, Phosal 75 SA, Phospholipon 90H, Phospholipon 90G and Phospholipon 90 NG; soy-phosphatidylcholine (SoyPC) and DSPE-PEG2000 are particularly preferred; buffering agents such as magnesium hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide; alginic acid; pyrogen-free water; isotonic saline; Ringer's solution; ethyl alcohol, and phosphate buffer solutions, as well as other non-toxic compatible lubricants such as sodium lauryl sulfate and magnesium stearate, as well as coloring agents, releasing agents, coating agents, sweetening, flavoring and perfuming agents, preservatives and antioxidants can also be present in the composition, according to the judgment of the formulator. The above-described composition, in any of the forms described above, can be used for treating melanoma, or any other disease or condition described herein. An effective amount refers to the amount of an active compound/agent that is required to confer a therapeutic effect on a treated subject. Effective doses will vary, as recognized by those skilled in the art, depending on the types of diseases treated, route of administration, excipient usage, and the possibility of co-usage with other therapeutic treatment. A pharmaceutical composition of this invention can be administered parenterally, orally, nasally, rectally, topically, or buccally. The term “parenteral” as used herein refers to subcutaneous, intracutaneous, intravenous, intrmuscular, intraarticular, intraarterial, intrasynovial, intrasternal, intrathecal, intralesional, or intracranial injection, as well as any suitable infusion technique. A sterile injectable composition can be a solution or suspension in a non-toxic parenterally acceptable diluent or solvent. Such solutions include, but are not limited to, 1,3-butanediol, mannitol, water, Ringer's solution, and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solvent or suspending medium (e.g., synthetic mono- or diglycerides). Fatty acid, such as, but not limited to, oleic acid and its glyceride derivatives, are useful in the preparation of injectables, as are natural pharmaceutically acceptable oils, such as, but not limited to, olive oil or castor oil, polyoxyethylated versions thereof. These oil solutions or suspensions also can contain a long chain alcohol diluent or dispersant such as, but not limited to, carboxymethyl cellulose, or similar dispersing agents. Other commonly used surfactants, such as, but not limited to, Tweens or Spans or other similar emulsifying agents or bioavailability enhancers, which are commonly used in the manufacture of pharmaceutically acceptable solid, liquid, or other dosage forms also can be used for the purpose of formulation. A composition for oral administration can be any orally acceptable dosage form including capsules, tablets, emulsions and aqueous suspensions, dispersions, and solutions. In the case of tablets, commonly used carriers include, but are not limited to, lactose and corn starch. Lubricating agents, such as, but not limited to, magnesium stearate, also are typically added. For oral administration in a capsule form, useful diluents include, but are not limited to, lactose and dried corn starch. When aqueous suspensions or emulsions are administered orally, the active ingredient can be suspended or dissolved in an oily phase combined with emulsifying or suspending agents. If desired, certain sweetening, flavoring, or coloring agents can be added. Pharmaceutical compositions for topical administration according to the described invention can be formulated as solutions, ointments, creams, suspensions, lotions, powders, pastes, gels, sprays, aerosols, or oils. Alternatively, topical formulations can be in the form of patches or dressings impregnated with active ingredient(s), which can optionally comprise one or more excipients or diluents. In some preferred embodiments, the topical formulations include a material that would enhance absorption or penetration of the active agent(s) through the skin or other affected areas. A topical composition contains a safe and effective amount of a dermatologically acceptable carrier suitable for application to the skin. A “cosmetically acceptable” or “dermatologically-acceptable” composition or component refers a composition or component that is suitable for use in contact with human skin without undue toxicity, incompatibility, instability, allergic response, and the like. The carrier enables an active agent and optional component to be delivered to the skin at an appropriate concentration(s). The carrier thus can act as a diluent, dispersant, solvent, or the like to ensure that the active materials are applied to and distributed evenly over the selected target at an appropriate concentration. The carrier can be solid, semi-solid, or liquid. The carrier can be in the form of a lotion, a cream, or a gel, in particular one that has a sufficient thickness or yield point to prevent the active materials from sedimenting. The carrier can be inert or possess dermatological benefits. It also should be physically and chemically compatible with the active components described herein, and should not unduly impair stability, efficacy, or other use benefits associated with the composition. Combination Therapies In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition may further comprise an additional compound having antiproliferative activity. The additional compound having antiproliferative activity can be selected from a group of antiproliferative agents including those shown in Table 2. It will also be appreciated that the compounds and pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention can be formulated and employed in combination therapies, that is, the compounds and pharmaceutical compositions can be formulated with or administered concurrently with, prior to, or subsequent to, one or more other desired therapeutics or medical procedures. The particular combination of therapies (therapeutics or procedures) to employ in a combination regimen will take into account compatibility of the desired therapeutics and/or procedures and the desired therapeutic effect to be achieved. It will also be appreciated that the therapies employed may achieve a desired effect for the same disorder, or they may achieve different effects (e.g., control of any adverse effects). By “antiproliferative agent” is meant any antiproliferative agent, including those antiproliferative agents listed in Table 2, any of which can be used in combination with a LXR agonist to treat the medical conditions recited herein. Antiproliferative agents also include organo-platine derivatives, naphtoquinone and benzoquinone derivatives, chrysophanic acid and anthroquinone derivatives thereof. TABLE 2 Alkylating agents Busulfan Chlorambucil dacarbazine procarbazine ifosfamide altretamine hexamethylmelamine estramustine phosphate thiotepa mechlorethamine dacarbazine streptozocin lomustine temozolomide cyclophosphamide Semustine Platinum agents spiroplatin lobaplatin (Aeterna) tetraplatin satraplatin (Johnson Matthey) ormaplatin BBR-3464 (Hoffmann-La iproplatin Roche) ZD-0473 (AnorMED) SM-11355 (Sumitomo) oxaliplatin AP-5280 (Access) carboplatin cisplatin Antimetabolites azacytidine trimetrexate Floxuridine deoxycoformycin 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine pentostatin 6-mercaptopurine hydroxyurea 6-thioguanine decitabine (SuperGen) cytarabine clofarabine (Bioenvision) 2-fluorodeoxy cytidine irofulven (MGI Pharma) methotrexate DMDC (Hoffmann-La Roche) tomudex ethynylcytidine (Taiho) fludarabine gemcitabine raltitrexed capecitabine Topoisomerase amsacrine exatecan mesylate (Daiichi) inhibitors epirubicin quinamed (ChemGenex) etoposide gimatecan (Sigma-Tau) teniposide or mitoxantrone diflomotecan (Beaufour-Ipsen) 7-ethyl-10-hydroxy-camptothecin TAS-103 (Taiho) dexrazoxanet (TopoTarget) elsamitrucin (Spectrum) pixantrone (Novuspharma) J-107088 (Merck & Co) rebeccamycin analogue (Exelixis) BNP-1350 (BioNumerik) BBR-3576 (Novuspharma) CKD-602 (Chong Kun Dang) rubitecan (SuperGen) KW-2170 (Kyowa Hakko) irinotecan (CPT-11) hydroxycamptothecin (SN-38) topotecan Antitumor valrubicin azonafide antibiotics therarubicin anthrapyrazole idarubicin oxantrazole rubidazone losoxantrone plicamycin MEN-10755 (Menarini) porfiromycin GPX-100 (Gem mitoxantrone (novantrone) Pharmaceuticals) amonafide Epirubicin mitoxantrone doxorubicin Antimitotic colchicine E7010 (Abbott) agents vinblastine PG-TXL (Cell Therapeutics) vindesine IDN 5109 (Bayer) dolastatin 10 (NCI) A 105972 (Abbott) rhizoxin (Fujisawa) A 204197 (Abbott) mivobulin (Warner-Lambert) LU 223651 (BASF) cemadotin (BASF) D 24851 (ASTAMedica) RPR 109881A (Aventis) ER-86526 (Eisai) TXD 258 (Aventis) combretastatin A4 (BMS) epothilone B (Novartis) isohomohalichondrin-B T 900607 (Tularik) (PharmaMar) T 138067 (Tularik) ZD 6126 (AstraZeneca) cryptophycin 52 (Eli Lilly) AZ10992 (Asahi) vinflunine (Fabre) IDN-5109 (Indena) auristatin PE (Teikoku Hormone) AVLB (Prescient NeuroPharma) BMS 247550 (BMS) azaepothilone B (BMS) BMS 184476 (BMS) BNP-7787 (BioNumerik) BMS 188797 (BMS) CA-4 prodrug (OXiGENE) taxoprexin (Protarga) dolastatin-10 (NIH) SB 408075 (GlaxoSmithKline) CA-4 (OXiGENE) Vinorelbine docetaxel Trichostatin A vincristine paclitaxel Aromatase aminoglutethimide YM-511 (Yamanouchi) inhibitors atamestane (BioMedicines) formestane letrozole exemestane anastrazole Thymidylate pemetrexed (Eli Lilly) nolatrexed (Eximias) synthase inhibitors ZD-9331 (BTG) CoFactor ™ (BioKeys) DNA antagonists trabectedin (PharmaMar) edotreotide (Novartis) glufosfamide (Baxter mafosfamide (Baxter International) International) albumin + 32P (Isotope apaziquone (Spectrum Solutions) Pharmaceuticals) thymectacin (NewBiotics) O6 benzyl guanine (Paligent) Farnesyltransferase arglabin (NuOncology Labs) tipifarnib (Johnson & Johnson) inhibitors lonafarnib (Schering-Plough) perillyl alcohol (DOR BAY-43-9006 (Bayer) BioPharma) Pump inhibitors CBT-1 (CBA Pharma) zosuquidar trihydrochloride (Eli tariquidar (Xenova) Lilly) MS-209 (Schering AG) biricodar dicitrate (Vertex) Histone tacedinaline (Pfizer) pivaloyloxymethyl butyrate acetyltransferase SAHA (Aton Pharma) (Titan) inhibitors MS-275 (Schering AG) depsipeptide (Fujisawa) Metalloproteinase Neovastat (Aeterna Laboratories) CMT-3 (CollaGenex) inhibitors marimastat (British Biotech) BMS-275291 (Celltech) Ribonucleoside gallium maltolate (Titan) tezacitabine (Aventis) reductase inhibitors triapine (Vion) didox (Molecules for Health) TNF alpha virulizin (Lorus Therapeutics) revimid (Celgene) agonists/antagonists CDC-394 (Celgene) Endothelin A atrasentan (Abbott) YM-598 (Yamanouchi) receptor antagonist ZD-4054 (AstraZeneca) Retinoic acid fenretinide (Johnson & Johnson) alitretinoin (Ligand) receptor agonists LGD-1550 (Ligand) Immunomodulators interferon dexosome therapy (Anosys) oncophage (Antigenics) pentrix (Australian Cancer GMK (Progenics) Technology) adenocarcinoma vaccine ISF-154 (Tragen) (Biomira) cancer vaccine (Intercell) CTP-37 (AVI BioPharma) norelin (Biostar) IRX-2 (Immuno-Rx) BLP-25 (Biomira) PEP-005 (Peplin Biotech) MGV (Progenics) synchrovax vaccines (CTL β-alethine (Dovetail) Immuno) CLL therapy (Vasogen) melanoma vaccine (CTL Ipilimumab (BMS), Immuno) CM-10 (cCam Biotherapeutics) p21 RAS vaccine (GemVax) MPDL3280A (Genentech) MAGE-A3 (GSK) nivolumab (BMS) abatacept (BMS) Hormonal and estrogens dexamethasone antihormonal conjugated estrogens prednisone agents ethinyl estradiol methylprednisolone chlortrianisen prednisolone idenestrol aminoglutethimide hydroxyprogesterone caproate leuprolide medroxyprogesterone octreotide testosterone mitotane testosterone propionate; P-04 (Novogen) fluoxymesterone 2-methoxyestradiol (EntreMed) methyltestosterone arzoxifene (Eli Lilly) diethylstilbestrol tamoxifen megestrol toremofine bicalutamide goserelin flutamide Leuporelin nilutamide bicalutamide Photodynamic talaporfin (Light Sciences) Pd-bacteriopheophorbide (Yeda) agents Theralux (Theratechnologies) lutetium texaphyrin motexafin gadolinium (Pharmacyclics) (Pharmacyclics) hypericin Kinase Inhibitors imatinib (Novartis) EKB-569 (Wyeth) leflunomide (Sugen/Pharmacia) kahalide F (PharmaMar) ZD1839 (AstraZeneca) CEP-701 (Cephalon) erlotinib (Oncogene Science) CEP-751 (Cephalon) canertinib (Pfizer) MLN518 (Millenium) squalamine (Genaera) PKC412 (Novartis) SU5416 (Pharmacia) Phenoxodiol (Novogen) SU6668 (Pharmacia) C225 (ImClone) ZD4190 (AstraZeneca) rhu-Mab (Genentech) ZD6474 (AstraZeneca) MDX-H210 (Medarex) vatalanib (Novartis) 2C4 (Genentech) PKI166 (Novartis) MDX-447 (Medarex) GW2016 (GlaxoSmithKline) ABX-EGF (Abgenix) EKB-509 (Wyeth) IMC-1C11 (ImClone) trastuzumab (Genentech) Tyrphostins OSI-774 (Tarceva ™) Gefitinib (Iressa) CI-1033 (Pfizer) PTK787 (Novartis) SU11248 (Pharmacia) EMD 72000 (Merck) RH3 (York Medical) Emodin Genistein Radicinol Radicinol Vemurafenib (B-Raf enzyme Met-MAb (Roche) inhibitor, Daiichi Sankyo) SR-27897 (CCK A inhibitor, Sanofi- ceflatonin (apoptosis promotor, Synthelabo) ChemGenex) tocladesine (cyclic AMP agonist, Ribapharm) BCX-1777 (PNP inhibitor, BioCryst) alvocidib (CDK inhibitor, Aventis) ranpirnase (ribonuclease stimulant, CV-247 (COX-2 inhibitor, Ivy Medical) Alfacell) P54 (COX-2 inhibitor, Phytopharm) galarubicin (RNA synthesis inhibitor, CapCell ™ (CYP450 stimulant, Bavarian Dong-A) Nordic) tirapazamine (reducing agent, SRI GCS-100 (gal3 antagonist, GlycoGenesys) International) G17DT immunogen (gastrin inhibitor, N-acetylcysteine (reducing agent, Aphton) Zambon) efaproxiral (oxygenator, Allos Therapeutics) R-flurbiprofen (NF-kappaB inhibitor, PI-88 (heparanase inhibitor, Progen) Encore) tesmilifene (histamine antagonist, YM 3CPA (NF-kappaB inhibitor, Active BioSciences) Biotech) histamine (histamine H2 receptor agonist, seocalcitol (vitamin D receptor agonist, Maxim) Leo) tiazofurin (IMPDH inhibitor, Ribapharm) 131-I-TM-601 (DNA antagonist, cilengitide (integrin antagonist, Merck KGaA) TransMolecular) SR-31747 (IL-1 antagonist, Sanofi- eflornithine (ODC inhibitor, ILEX Synthelabo) Oncology) CCI-779 (mTOR kinase inhibitor, Wyeth) minodronic acid (osteoclast inhibitor, exisulind (PDE V inhibitor, Cell Pathways) Yamanouchi) CP-461 (PDE V inhibitor, Cell Pathways) indisulam (p53 stimulant, Eisai) AG-2037 (GART inhibitor, Pfizer) aplidine (PPT inhibitor, PharmaMar) WX-UK1 (plasminogen activator inhibitor, gemtuzumab (CD33 antibody, Wyeth Wilex) Ayerst) PBI-1402 (PMN stimulant, ProMetic PG2 (hematopoiesis enhancer, LifeSciences) Pharmagenesis) bortezomib (proteasome inhibitor, Immunol ™ (triclosan oral rinse, Endo) Millennium) triacetyluridine (uridine prodrug, SRL-172 (T cell stimulant, SR Pharma) Wellstat) TLK-286 (glutathione S transferase inhibitor, SN-4071 (sarcoma agent, Signature Telik) BioScience) PT-100 (growth factor agonist, Point TransMID-107 ™ (immunotoxin, KS Therapeutics) Biomedix) midostaurin (PKC inhibitor, Novartis) PCK-3145 (apoptosis promotor, Procyon) bryostatin-1 (PKC stimulant, GPC Biotech) doranidazole (apoptosis promotor, Pola) CDA-II (apoptosis promotor, Everlife) CHS-828 (cytotoxic agent, Leo) SDX-101 (apoptosis promotor, Salmedix) trans-retinoic acid (differentiator, NIH) rituximab (CD20 antibody, Genentech MX6 (apoptosis promotor, MAXIA) carmustine apomine (apoptosis promotor, ILEX Mitoxantrone Oncology) Bleomycin urocidin (apoptosis promotor, Bioniche) Absinthin Ro-31-7453 (apoptosis promotor, La Chrysophanic acid Roche) Cesium oxides brostallicin (apoptosis promotor, BRAF inhibitors, PDL1 inhibitors Pharmacia) MEK inhibitors β-lapachone gelonin indicates data missing or illegible when filed Diagnosis and Prognosis Methods The above-describe genes can be used in determining whether a subject has, or is at risk of having, metastatic melanoma. Alternatively, they can be used for determining a prognosis of such a disorder in a subject. Diagnosis Methods In one aspect, the invention provides qualitative and quantitative information to determine whether a subject has or is predisposed to metastatic melanoma or other disease characterized by endothelial recruitment, cancer cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis. A subject having such a disorder or prone to it can be determined based on the expression levels, patterns, or profiles of the above-described genes or their products (mRNAs, microRNAs, or polypeptides) in a test sample from the subject. In other words, the products can be used as markers to indicate the presence or absence of the disorder. Diagnostic and prognostic assays of the invention include methods for assessing the expression level of the products. The methods allow one to detect the disorder. For example, a relative increase in the expression level of one or more promoters (i.e., miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF) is indicative of presence the disorder. Conversely, a lower expression level or a lack of the expression is indicative lack of the disorder. The presence, level, or absence of, an mRNA, microRNA, or polypeptide product in a test sample can be evaluated by obtaining a test sample from a test subject and contacting the test sample with a compound or an agent capable of detecting the nucleic acid (e.g., RNA or DNA probe) or polypeptide. The “test sample” includes tissues, cells and biological fluids isolated from a subject, as well as tissues, cells and fluids present within a subject. The level of expression of a gene(s) of interest can be measured in a number of ways, including measuring the RNA encoded by the gene. Expressed RNA samples can be isolated from biological samples using any of a number of well-known procedures. For example, biological samples can be lysed in a guanidinium-based lysis buffer, optionally containing additional components to stabilize the RNA. In some embodiments, the lysis buffer can contain purified RNAs as controls to monitor recovery and stability of RNA from cell cultures. Examples of such purified RNA templates include the Kanamycin Positive Control RNA from PROMEGA (Madison, Wis.), and 7.5 kb Poly(A)-Tailed RNA from LIFE TECHNOLOGIES (Rockville, Md.). Lysates may be used immediately or stored frozen at, e.g., −80° C. Optionally, total RNA can be purified from cell lysates (or other types of samples) using silica-based isolation in an automation-compatible, 96-well format, such as the RNEASY purification platform (QIAGEN, Inc., Valencia, Calif.). Other RNA isolation methods are contemplated, such as extraction with silica-coated beads or guanidinium. Further methods for RNA isolation and preparation can be devised by one skilled in the art. The methods of the present invention can be performed using crude samples (e.g., blood, serum, plasma, or cell lysates), eliminating the need to isolate RNA. RNAse inhibitors are optionally added to the crude samples. When using crude cellular lysates, it should be noted that genomic DNA can contribute one or more copies of a target sequence, e.g., a gene, depending on the sample. In situations in which the target sequence is derived from one or more highly expressed genes, the signal arising from genomic DNA may not be significant. But for genes expressed at low levels, the background can be eliminated by treating the samples with DNAse, or by using primers that target splice junctions for subsequent priming of cDNA or amplification products. The level of RNA corresponding to a gene in a cell can be determined both in situ and in vitro. RNA isolated from a test sample can be used in hybridization or amplification assays that include, Southern or Northern analyses, PCR analyses, and probe arrays. A preferred diagnostic method for the detection of RNA levels involves contacting the isolated RNA with a nucleic acid probe that can hybridize to the RNA encoded by the gene. The probe can be a full-length nucleic acid or a portion thereof, such as an oligonucleotide of at least 10 nucleotides in length and sufficient to specifically hybridize under stringent conditions to the RNA. In one format, RNA (or cDNA prepared from it) is immobilized on a surface and contacted with the probes, for example, by running the isolated RNA on an agarose gel and transferring the RNA from the gel to a membrane, such as nitrocellulose. In another format, the probes are immobilized on a surface and the RNA (or cDNA) is contacted with the probes, for example, in a gene chip array. A skilled artisan can adapt known RNA detection methods for detecting the level of RNA. The level of RNA (or cDNA prepared from it) in a sample encoded by a gene to be examined can be evaluated with nucleic acid amplification, e.g., by standard PCR (U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,202), RT-PCR (Bustin S. J Mol Endocrinol. 25:169-93, 2000), quantitative PCR (Ong Y. et al., Hematology. 7:59-67, 2002), real time PCR (Ginzinger D. Exp Hematol. 30:503-12, 2002), and in situ PCR (Thaker V. Methods Mol Biol. 115:379-402, 1999), or any other nucleic acid amplification method, followed by the detection of the amplified molecules using techniques known in the art. In another embodiment, the methods of the invention further include contacting a control sample with a compound or agent capable of detecting the RNA of a gene and comparing the presence of the RNA in the control sample with the presence of the RNA in the test sample. The above-described methods and markers can be used to assess the risk of a subject for developing melanoma. In particular, the invention can be applied to those in high risk cohort who already have certain risks so as to gain critical insight into early detection. A change in levels of miR gene products associated with melanoma can be detected prior to, or in the early stages of, the development of transformed or neoplastic phenotypes in cells of a subject. The invention therefore also provides a method for screening a subject who is at risk of developing melanoma, comprising evaluating the level of at least one gene product, or a combination of gene products, associated with melanoma in a biological sample obtained form the subject's skin. Accordingly, an alteration in the level of the gene product, or combination of gene products, in the biological sample as compared to the level of a corresponding gene product in a control sample, is indicative of the subject being at risk for developing melanoma. The biological sample used for such screening can include skin tissue that is either normal or suspected to be cancerous. Subjects with a change in the level of one or more gene products associated with melanoma are candidates for further monitoring and testing. Such further testing can comprise histological examination of tissue samples, or other techniques within the skill in the art. As used herein, the term “diagnosis” means detecting a disease or disorder or determining the stage or degree of a disease or disorder. Usually, a diagnosis of a disease or disorder is based on the evaluation of one or more factors and/or symptoms that are indicative of the disease. That is, a diagnosis can be made based on the presence, absence or amount of a factor which is indicative of presence or absence of the disease or condition. Each factor or symptom that is considered to be indicative for the diagnosis of a particular disease does not need be exclusively related to the particular disease; i.e. there may be differential diagnoses that can be inferred from a diagnostic factor or symptom. Likewise, there may be instances where a factor or symptom that is indicative of a particular disease is present in an individual that does not have the particular disease. The diagnostic methods may be used independently, or in combination with other diagnosing and/or staging methods known in the medical art for a particular disease or disorder, e.g., melanoma. Prognosis Methods The diagnostic methods described above can identify subjects having, or at risk of developing, a melanoma. In addition, changes in expression levels and/or trends of the above-mentioned genes in a biological sample, e.g., peripheral blood samples, can provide an early indication of recovery or lack thereof. For example, a further increase (or decline) or persistently-altered gene expression levels of the promoter genes (or inhibitor genes) indicate a poor prognosis, i.e., lack of improvement or health decline. Accordingly, these genes allow one to assess post-treatment recovery of melanoma. The analysis of this select group of genes or a subset thereof indicates outcomes of the conditions. The prognostic assays described herein can be used to determine whether a subject is suitable to be administered with an agent (e.g., an agonist, antagonist, peptidomimetic, protein, peptide, nucleic acid, small molecule, or other drug candidate) to treat melanoma or other disorders associated with endothelial recruitment, cancer cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis. For example, such assays can be used to determine whether a subject can be administered with a chemotherapeutic agent. Thus, also provided by this invention is a method of monitoring a treatment for a cellular proliferative disorder in a subject. For this purpose, gene expression levels of the genes disclosed herein can be determined for test samples from a subject before, during, or after undergoing a treatment. The magnitudes of the changes in the levels as compared to a baseline level are then assessed. A decrease in the expression of the above-mentioned promoter genes (miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF) after the treatment indicates that the subject can be further treated by the same treatment. Similarly, an increase in the inhibitors (DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, and LRP8) also indicates that the subject can be further treated by the same treatment. Conversely, further increase or persistent high expression levels of one or more of the promoter genes is indicate lack of improvement or health decline. Information obtained from practice of the above assays is useful in prognostication, identifying progression of, and clinical management of diseases and other deleterious conditions affecting an individual subject's health status. In preferred embodiments, the foregoing diagnostic assays provide information useful in prognostication, identifying progression of and management of melanoma and other conditions characterized by endothelial recruitment, cancer cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis. The information more specifically assists the clinician in designing chemotherapeutic or other treatment regimes to eradicate such conditions from the body of an afflicted subject, a human. The term “prognosis” as used herein refers to a prediction of the probable course and outcome of a clinical condition or disease. A prognosis is usually made by evaluating factors or symptoms of a disease that are indicative of a favorable or unfavorable course or outcome of the disease. The phrase “determining the prognosis” as used herein refers to the process by which the skilled artisan can predict the course or outcome of a condition in a patient. The term “prognosis” does not refer to the ability to predict the course or outcome of a condition with 100% accuracy instead, the skilled artisan will understand that the term “prognosis” refers to an increased probability that a certain course or outcome will occur; that is, that a course or outcome is more likely to occur in a patient exhibiting a given condition, when compared to those individuals not exhibiting the condition. The terms “favorable prognosis” and “positive prognosis,” or “unfavorable prognosis” and “negative prognosis” as used herein are relative terms for the prediction of the probable course and/or likely outcome of a condition or a disease. A favorable or positive prognosis predicts a better outcome for a condition than an unfavorable or negative prognosis. In a general sense, a “favorable prognosis” is an outcome that is relatively better than many other possible prognoses that could be associated with a particular condition, whereas an unfavorable prognosis predicts an outcome that is relatively worse than many other possible prognoses that could be associated with a particular condition. Typical examples of a favorable or positive prognosis include a better than average cure rate, a lower propensity for metastasis, a longer than expected life expectancy, differentiation of a benign process from a cancerous process, and the like. For example, a positive prognosis is one where a patient has a 50% probability of being cured of a particular cancer after treatment, while the average patient with the same cancer has only a 25% probability of being cured. The terms “determining,” “measuring,” “assessing,” and “assaying” are used interchangeably and include both quantitative and qualitative measurement, and include determining if a characteristic, trait, or feature is present or not. Assessing may be relative or absolute. “Assessing the presence of a target includes determining the amount of the target present, as well as determining whether it is present or absent. Arrays Also provided in the invention is a biochip or array. The biochip/array may contain a solid or semi-solid substrate having an attached probe or plurality of probes described herein. The probes may be capable of hybridizing to a target sequence under stringent hybridization conditions. The probes may be attached at spatially defined address on the substrate. More than one probe per target sequence may be used, with either overlapping probes or probes to different sections of a particular target sequence. The probes may be capable of hybridizing to target sequences associated with a single disorder appreciated by those in the art. The probes may either be synthesized first, with subsequent attachment to the biochip, or may be directly synthesized on the biochip. “Attached” or “immobilized” as used herein to refer to a nucleic acid (e.g., a probe) and a solid support may mean that the binding between the probe and the solid support is sufficient to be stable under conditions of binding, washing, analysis, and removal. The binding may be covalent or non-covalent. Covalent bonds may be formed directly between the probe and the solid support or may be formed by a cross linker or by inclusion of a specific reactive group on either the solid support or the probe or both molecules. Non-covalent binding may be one or more of electrostatic, hydrophilic, and hydrophobic interactions. Included in non-covalent binding is the covalent attachment of a molecule, such as streptavidin, to the support and the non-covalent binding of a biotinylated probe to the streptavidin. Immobilization may also involve a combination of covalent and non-covalent interactions. The solid substrate can be a material that may be modified to contain discrete individual sites appropriate for the attachment or association of the probes and is amenable to at least one detection method. Examples of such substrates include glass and modified or functionalized glass, plastics (including acrylics, polystyrene and copolymers of styrene and other materials, polypropylene, polyethylene, polybutylene, polyurethanes, TeflonJ, etc.), polysaccharides, nylon or nitrocellulose, resins, silica or silica-based materials including silicon and modified silicon, carbon, metals, inorganic glasses and plastics. The substrates may allow optical detection without appreciably fluorescing. The substrate can be planar, although other configurations of substrates may be used as well. For example, probes may be placed on the inside surface of a tube, for flow-through sample analysis to minimize sample volume. Similarly, the substrate may be flexible, such as flexible foam, including closed cell foams made of particular plastics. The array/biochip and the probe may be derivatized with chemical functional groups for subsequent attachment of the two. For example, the biochip may be derivatized with a chemical functional group including, but not limited to, amino groups, carboxyl groups, oxo groups or thiol groups. Using these functional groups, the probes may be attached using functional groups on the probes either directly or indirectly using a linker. The probes may be attached to the solid support by either the 5′ terminus, 3′ terminus, or via an internal nucleotide. The probe may also be attached to the solid support non-covalently. For example, biotinylated oligonucleotides can be made, which may bind to surfaces covalently coated with streptavidin, resulting in attachment. Alternatively, probes may be synthesized on the surface using techniques such as photopolymerization and photolithography. Detailed discussion of methods for linking nucleic acids to a support substrate can be found in, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,837,832, 6,087,112, 5,215,882, 5,707,807, 5,807,522, 5,958,342, 5,994,076, 6,004,755, 6,048,695, 6,060,240, 6,090,556, and 6,040,138. In some embodiments, an expressed transcript (e.g., a transcript of a microRNA gene described herein) is represented in the nucleic acid arrays. In such embodiments, a set of binding sites can include probes with different nucleic acids that are complementary to different sequence segments of the expressed transcript. Examples of such nucleic acids can be of length of 15 to 200 bases, 20 to 100 bases, 25 to 50 bases, 40 to 60 bases. Each probe sequence can also include one or more linker sequences in addition to the sequence that is complementary to its target sequence. A linker sequence is a sequence between the sequence that is complementary to its target sequence and the surface of support. For example, the nucleic acid arrays of the invention can have one probe specific to each target microRNA gene. However, if desired, the nucleic acid arrays can contain at least 2, 5, 10, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500 or more probes specific to some expressed transcript (e.g., a transcript of a microRNA gene described herein). Kits In another aspect, the present invention provides kits embodying the methods, compositions, and systems for analysis of the polypeptides and microRNA expression as described herein. Such a kit may contain a nucleic acid described herein together with any or all of the following: assay reagents, buffers, probes and/or primers, and sterile saline or another pharmaceutically acceptable emulsion and suspension base. In addition, the kit may include instructional materials containing directions (e.g., protocols) for the practice of the methods described herein. For example, the kit may be a kit for the amplification, detection, identification or quantification of a target mRNA or microRNA sequence. To that end, the kit may contain a suitable primer (e.g., hairpin primers), a forward primer, a reverse primer, and a probe. In one example, a kit of the invention includes one or more microarray slides (or alternative microarray format) onto which a plurality of different nucleic acids (each corresponding to one of the above-mentioned genes) have been deposited. The kit can also include a plurality of labeled probes. Alternatively, the kit can include a plurality of polynucleotide sequences suitable as probes and a selection of labels suitable for customizing the included polynucleotide sequences, or other polynucleotide sequences at the discretion of the practitioner. Commonly, at least one included polynucleotide sequence corresponds to a control sequence, e.g., a normalization gene or the like. Exemplary labels include, but are not limited to, a fluorophore, a dye, a radiolabel, an enzyme tag, that is linked to a nucleic acid primer. In one embodiment, kits that are suitable for amplifying nucleic acid corresponding to the expressed RNA samples are provided. Such a kit includes reagents and primers suitable for use in any of the amplification methods described above. Alternatively, or additionally, the kits are suitable for amplifying a signal corresponding to hybridization between a probe and a target nucleic acid sample (e.g., deposited on a microarray). In addition, one or more materials and/or reagents required for preparing a biological sample for gene expression analysis are optionally included in the kit. Furthermore, optionally included in the kits are one or more enzymes suitable for amplifying nucleic acids, including various polymerases (RT, Taq, etc.), one or more deoxynucleotides, and buffers to provide the necessary reaction mixture for amplification. Typically, the kits are employed for analyzing gene expression patterns using mRNA or microRNA as the starting template. The RNA template may be presented as either total cellular RNA or isolated RNA; both types of sample yield comparable results. In other embodiments, the methods and kits described in the present invention allow quantitation of other products of gene expression, including tRNA, rRNA, or other transcription products. Optionally, the kits of the invention further include software to expedite the generation, analysis and/or storage of data, and to facilitate access to databases. The software includes logical instructions, instructions sets, or suitable computer programs that can be used in the collection, storage and/or analysis of the data. Comparative and relational analysis of the data is possible using the software provided. The kits optionally contain distinct containers for each individual reagent and/or enzyme component. Each component will generally be suitable as aliquoted in its respective container. The container of the kits optionally includes at least one vial, ampule, or test tube. Flasks, bottles and other container mechanisms into which the reagents can be placed and/or aliquoted are also possible. The individual containers of the kit are preferably maintained in close confinement for commercial sale. Suitable larger containers may include injection or blow-molded plastic containers into which the desired vials are retained. Instructions, such as written directions or videotaped demonstrations detailing the use of the kits of the present invention, are optionally provided with the kit. In a further aspect, the present invention provides for the use of any composition or kit herein, for the practice of any method or assay herein, and/or for the use of any apparatus or kit to practice any assay or method herein. A “test sample” or a “biological sample” as used herein may mean a sample of biological tissue or fluid that comprises nucleic acids. Such samples include, but are not limited to, tissue or body fluid isolated from animals. Biological samples may also include sections of tissues such as biopsy and autopsy samples, frozen sections taken for histological purposes, blood, plasma, serum, sputum, stool, tears, mucus, urine, effusions, amniotic fluid, ascitic fluid, hair, and skin. Biological samples also include explants and primary and/or transformed cell cultures derived from patient tissues. A biological sample may be provided by removing a sample of cells from an animal, but can also be accomplished by using previously isolated cells (e.g., isolated by another person, at another time, and/or for another purpose), or by performing the methods described herein in vivo. Archival tissues, such as those having treatment or outcome history, may also be used. The term “body fluid” or “bodily fluid” refers to any fluid from the body of an animal. Examples of body fluids include, but are not limited to, plasma, serum, blood, lymphatic fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, urine, saliva, mucous, phlegm and sputum. A body fluid sample may be collected by any suitable method. The body fluid sample may be used immediately or may be stored for later use. Any suitable storage method known in the art may be used to store the body fluid sample: for example, the sample may be frozen at about −20° C. to about −70° C. Suitable body fluids are acellular fluids. “Acellular” fluids include body fluid samples in which cells are absent or are present in such low amounts that the miRNA level determined reflects its level in the liquid portion of the sample, rather than in the cellular portion. Such acellular body fluids are generally produced by processing a cell-containing body fluid by, for example, centrifugation or filtration, to remove the cells. Typically, an acellular body fluid contains no intact cells however, some may contain cell fragments or cellular debris. Examples of acellular fluids include plasma or serum, or body fluids from which cells have been removed. The term “gene” used herein refers to a natural (e.g., genomic) or synthetic gene comprising transcriptional and/or translational regulatory sequences and/or a coding region and/or non-translated sequences (e.g., introns, 5′- and 3′-untranslated sequences). The coding region of a gene may be a nucleotide sequence coding for an amino acid sequence or a functional RNA, such as tRNA, rRNA, catalytic RNA, siRNA, miRNA or antisense RNA. A gene may also be an mRNA or cDNA corresponding to the coding regions (e.g., exons and miRNA) optionally comprising 5′- or 3′-untranslated sequences linked thereto. A gene may also be an amplified nucleic acid molecule produced in vitro comprising all or a part of the coding region and/or 5′- or 3′-untranslated sequences linked thereto. The term also includes pseudogenes, which are dysfunctional relatives of known genes that have lost their protein-coding ability or are otherwise no longer expressed in a cell. “Expression profile” as used herein refers to a genomic expression profile, e.g., an expression profile of microRNAs. Profiles may be generated by any convenient means for determining a level of a nucleic acid sequence e.g., quantitative hybridization of microRNA, cRNA, etc., quantitative PCR, ELISA for quantification, and the like, and allow the analysis of differential gene expression between two samples. A subject or patient sample, e.g., cells or a collection thereof, e.g., tissues, is assayed. Samples are collected by any convenient method, as known in the art. Nucleic acid sequences of interest are nucleic acid sequences that are found to be predictive, including the nucleic acid sequences of those described herein, where the expression profile may include expression data for 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, 100 or more of, including all of the listed nucleic acid sequences. The term “expression profile” may also mean measuring the abundance of the nucleic acid sequences in the measured samples. “Differential expression” refers to qualitative or quantitative differences in the temporal and/or cellular gene expression patterns within and among cells and tissue. Thus, a differentially expressed gene can qualitatively have its expression altered, including an activation or inactivation, in, e.g., normal versus disease tissue. Genes may be turned on or turned off in a particular state, relative to another state thus permitting comparison of two or more states. A qualitatively regulated gene will exhibit an expression pattern within a state or cell type that may be detectable by standard techniques. Some genes will be expressed in one state or cell type, but not in both. Alternatively, the difference in expression may be quantitative, e.g., in that expression is modulated, up-regulated, resulting in an increased amount of transcript, or down-regulated, resulting in a decreased amount of transcript. The degree to which expression differs need only be large enough to quantify via standard characterization techniques such as expression arrays, quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR, Northern analysis, and RNase protection. “Nucleic acid” or “oligonucleotide” or “polynucleotide” as used herein refers to at least two nucleotides covalently linked together. The depiction of a single strand also defines the sequence of the complementary strand. Thus, a nucleic acid also encompasses the complementary strand of a depicted single strand. Many variants of a nucleic acid may be used for the same purpose as a given nucleic acid. Thus, a nucleic acid also encompasses substantially identical nucleic acids and complements thereof. A single strand provides a probe that may hybridize to a target sequence under stringent hybridization conditions. Thus, a nucleic acid also encompasses a probe that hybridizes under stringent hybridization conditions. Nucleic acids may be single stranded or double stranded, or may contain portions of both double stranded and single stranded sequence. The nucleic acid may be DNA, both genomic and cDNA, RNA, or a hybrid, where the nucleic acid may contain combinations of deoxyribo- and ribo-nucleotides, and combinations of bases including uracil, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, inosine, xanthine hypoxanthine, isocytosine and isoguanine. Nucleic acids may be obtained by chemical synthesis methods or by recombinant methods. The term “primer” refers to any nucleic acid that is capable of hybridizing at its 3′ end to a complementary nucleic acid molecule, and that provides a free 3′ hydroxyl terminus which can be extended by a nucleic acid polymerase. As used herein, amplification primers are a pair of nucleic acid molecules that can anneal to 5′ or 3′ regions of a gene (plus and minus strands, respectively, or vice-versa) and contain a short region in between. Under appropriate conditions and with appropriate reagents, such primers permit the amplification of a nucleic acid molecule having the nucleotide sequence flanked by the primers. For in situ methods, a cell or tissue sample can be prepared and immobilized on a support, such as a glass slide, and then contacted with a probe that can hybridize to RNA. Alternative methods for amplifying nucleic acids corresponding to expressed RNA samples include those described in, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,897,750. The term “probe” as used herein refers to an oligonucleotide capable of binding to a target nucleic acid of complementary sequence through one or more types of chemical bonds, usually through complementary base pairing, usually through hydrogen bond formation. Probes may bind target sequences lacking complete complementarity with the probe sequence depending upon the stringency of the hybridization conditions. There may be any number of base pair mismatches which will interfere with hybridization between the target sequence and the single stranded nucleic acids described herein. However, if the number of mutations is so great that no hybridization can occur under even the least stringent of hybridization conditions, the sequence is not a complementary target sequence. A probe may be single stranded or partially single and partially double stranded. The strandedness of the probe is dictated by the structure, composition, and properties of the target sequence. Probes may be directly labeled or indirectly labeled such as with biotin to which a streptavidin complex may later bind. “Complement” or “complementary” as used herein to refer to a nucleic acid may mean Watson-Crick (e.g., A-T/U and C-G) or Hoogsteen base pairing between nucleotides or nucleotide analogs of nucleic acid molecules. A full complement or fully complementary may mean 100% complementary base pairing between nucleotides or nucleotide analogs of nucleic acid molecules. “Stringent hybridization conditions” as used herein refers to conditions under which a first nucleic acid sequence (e.g., probe) hybridizes to a second nucleic acid sequence (e.g., target), such as in a complex mixture of nucleic acids. Stringent conditions are sequence-dependent and be different in different circumstances, and can be suitably selected by one skilled in the art. Stringent conditions may be selected to be about 5-10° C. lower than the thermal melting point (Tm) for the specific sequence at a defined ionic strength pH. The Tm may be the temperature (under defined ionic strength, pH, and nucleic concentration) at which 50% of the probes complementary to the target hybridize to the target sequence at equilibrium (as the target sequences are present in excess, at Tm, 50% of the probes are occupied at equilibrium). Stringent conditions may be those in which the salt concentration is less than about 1.0 M sodium ion, such as about 0.01-1.0 M sodium ion concentration (or other salts) at pH 7.0 to 8.3 and the temperature is at least about 30° C. for short probes (e.g., about 10-50 nucleotides) and at least about 60° C. for long probes (e.g., greater than about 50 nucleotides). Stringent conditions may also be achieved with the addition of destabilizing agents such as formamide. For selective or specific hybridization, a positive signal may be at least 2 to 10 times background hybridization. Exemplary stringent hybridization conditions include the following: 50% formamide, 5×SSC, and 1% SDS, incubating at 42° C., or, 5×SSC, 1% SDS, incubating at 65° C., with wash in 0.2×SSC, and 0.1% SDS at 65° C. However, several factors other than temperature, such as salt concentration, can influence the stringency of hybridization and one skilled in the art can suitably select the factors to accomplish a similar stringency. As used herein the term “reference value” refers to a value that statistically correlates to a particular outcome when compared to an assay result. In preferred embodiments, the reference value is determined from statistical analysis of studies that compare microRNA expression with known clinical outcomes. The reference value may be a threshold score value or a cutoff score value. Typically a reference value will be a threshold above (or below) which one outcome is more probable and below which an alternative threshold is more probable. In one embodiment, a reference level may be one or more circulating miRNA levels expressed as an average of the level of the circulating miRNA from samples taken from a control population of healthy (disease-free) subjects. In another embodiment, the reference level may be the level in the same subject at a different time, e.g., before the present assay, such as the level determined prior to the subject developing the disease or prior to initiating therapy. In general, samples are normalized by a common factor. For example, acellular body fluid samples are normalized by volume body fluid and cell-containing samples are normalized by protein content or cell count. Nucleic acid samples may also be normalized relative to an internal control nucleic acid. As disclosed herein, the difference of the level of one or more polypeptides or RNAs (mRNAs or microRNAs) is indicative of a disease or a stage thereof. The phrase “difference of the level” refers to differences in the quantity of a particular marker, such as a nucleic acid, in a sample as compared to a control or reference level. For example, the quantity of a particular biomarker may be present at an elevated amount or at a decreased amount in samples of patients with a neoplastic disease compared to a reference level. In one embodiment, a “difference of a level” may be a difference between the quantity of a particular biomarker present in a sample as compared to a control (e.g., reference value) of at least about 1%, 2%, 3%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 75%, 80% 100%, 150%, 200%, or more. In one embodiment, a “difference of a level” may be a statistically significant difference between the quantities of a biomarker present in a sample as compared to a control. For example, a difference may be statistically significant if the measured level of the biomarker falls outside of about 1.0 standard deviation, about 1.5 standard deviations, about 2.0 standard deviations, or about 2.5 stand deviations of the mean of any control or reference group. With respect to miRNA measurement, the level may be measured from real-time PCR as the Ct value, which may be normalized to a ACt value as described in the Examples below. Drug Screening The invention provides a method for identifying a compound that are useful for treating melanoma or for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis. Candidate compounds to be screened (e.g., proteins, peptides, peptidomimetics, peptoids, antibodies, small molecules, or other drugs) can be obtained using any of the numerous approaches in combinatorial library methods known in the art. Such libraries include: peptide libraries, peptoid libraries (libraries of molecules having the functionalities of peptides, but with a novel, non-peptide backbone that is resistant to enzymatic degradation); spatially addressable parallel solid phase or solution phase libraries; synthetic libraries obtained by deconvolution or affinity chromatography selection; and the “one-bead one-compound” libraries. See, e.g., Zuckermann et al. 1994, J. Med. Chem. 37:2678-2685; and Lam, 1997, Anticancer Drug Des. 12:145. Examples of methods for the synthesis of molecular libraries can be found in, e.g., DeWitt et al., 1993, PNAS USA 90:6909; Erb et al., 1994, PNAS USA 91:11422; Zuckermann et al., 1994, J. Med. Chem. 37:2678; Cho et al., 1993, Science 261:1303; Carrell et al., 1994, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 33:2059; Care11 et al., 1994, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 33:2061; and Gallop et al., 1994 J. Med. Chem. 37:1233. Libraries of compounds may be presented in solution (e.g., Houghten, 1992, Biotechniques 13:412-421), or on beads (Lam, 1991, Nature 354:82-84), chips (Fodor, 1993, Nature 364:555-556), bacteria (U.S. Pat. No. 5,223,409), spores (U.S. Pat. No. 5,223,409), plasmids (Cull et al., 1992, PNAS USA 89:1865-1869), or phages (Scott and Smith 1990, Science 249:386-390; Devlin, 1990, Science 249:404-406; Cwirla et al., 1990, PNAS USA 87:6378-6382; Felici 1991, J. Mol. Biol. 222:301-310; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,223,409). To identify a useful compound, one can contact a test compound with a system containing test cells expressing a reporter gene encoded by a nucleic acid operatively liked to a promoter of a marker gene selected from the above-mentined metastasis promoters or suppressors. The system can be an in vitro cell line model or an in vivo animal model. The cells can naturally express the gene, or can be modified to express a recombinant nucleic acid. The recombinant nucleic acid can contain a nucleic acid coding a reporter polypeptide to a heterologous promoter. One then measures the expression level of the miRNA, polypeptide, or reporter polypeptide. For the polypeptide, the expression level can be determined at either the mRNA level or at the protein level. Methods of measuring mRNA levels in a cell, a tissue sample, or a body fluid are well known in the art. To measure mRNA levels, cells can be lysed and the levels of mRNA in the lysates or in RNA purified or semi-purified from the lysates can be determined by, e.g., hybridization assays (using detectably labeled gene-specific DNA or RNA probes) and quantitative or semi-quantitative RT-PCR (using appropriate gene-specific primers). Alternatively, quantitative or semi-quantitative in situ hybridization assays can be carried out using tissue sections or unlysed cell suspensions, and detectably (e.g., fluorescent or enzyme) labeled DNA or RNA probes. Additional mRNA-quantifying methods include RNA protection assay (RPA) and SAGE. Methods of measuring protein levels in a cell or a tissue sample are also known in the art. To determine the effectiveness of a candidate compound to treat melanoma or inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis, one can compare the level obtained in the manner described above with a control level (e.g., one obtained in the absence of the candidate compound). The compound is identified as being effective if (i) a metastasis suppressor's level is lower than a control or reference value or (ii) a metastasis promoter's level is higher than the control or reference value. One can further verify the efficacy of a compound thus-identified using the in vitro cell culture model or an in vivo animal model as disclosed in the example below. EXAMPLES Example 1 Materials And Methos This example descibes materials and methos used in EXAMPLES 2-11 below. Compounds TABLE 3 Compound Names Compound # Compound Name 1 T0901317 2 GW3965 3 LXR-623 12 WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9 or WO-201000138598 25 SB742881 38 WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19 or WO-2007-002563 Animal Studies All mouse experiments were conducted in agreement with a protocol approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) at The Rockefeller University. 6-8-week old age-matched and sex-matched mice were used for primary tumor growth and metastasis assays as previously described (Minn et al., 2005; Tavazoie et al., 2008). See Extended Experimental Procedures. Cell Culture All cancer cell lines were cultured as previously described (Tavazoie et al., 2008). 293T and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC's) were maintained in standard conditions. miRNA and gene knock-down/over-expression studies in cell lines and in vitro functional assays are detailed in Extended Experimental Procedures. Microarray Hybridization In order to identify miRNAs deregulated across highly metastatic derivatives, small RNAs were enriched from total RNA derived from MeWo and A375 cell lines and profiled by LC sciences. In order to identify potential gene targets of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908, total RNA from MeWo cell lines was labeled and hybridized onto Illumina HT-12 v3 Expression BeadChip arrays by The Rockefeller University genomics core facility. See Extended Experimental Procedures for thresholds and criteria used to arrive at miRNA and mRNA targets. Analysis of miRNA Expression in Human Melanoma Skin Lesions All human clinical samples used in this study were obtained, processed, and analyzed in accordance with IRB guidelines. Total RNA was extracted from paraffin-embedded cross-sections of primary melanoma skin lesions previously resected from patients at MSKCC, and specific miRNA expression levels were analyzed in a blinded fashion using TaqMan miRNA Assays (Applied Biosystems). Kaplan-Meier curves representing each patient's metastasis-free-survival data as a function of primary tumor miRNA expression values were generated using the GraphPad Prism software package. In Vivo LNA Therapy Following tail-vein injection of 4×104 MeWo-LM2 cells, NOD-SCID mice were treated intravenously twice a week for four weeks with in vivo-optimized LNAs (Exiqon) antisense to miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 at a combinatorial dose of 12.5 mg/kg delivered in 0.1 mL of PBS. Histology For gross macroscopic metastatic nodule visualization, 5-μm-thick lung tissue sections were H&E stained. For in vivo endothelial content analyses, lung sections were double-stained with antibodies against MECA-32 (Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank, The University of Iowa, IA), which labels mouse endothelial cells, and human vimentin (Vector Laboratories), which labels human melanoma cells. See Extended Experimental Procedures. Data Analysis All data are represented as mean±SEM. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to determine significance of differences in metastatic blood vessel density cumulative distributions. The prognostic power of the miRNAs to predict metastatic outcomes was tested for significance using the Mantel-Cox log-rank test. The one-way Mann-Whitney t-test was used to determine significance values for non-Gaussian bioluminescence measurements. For all other comparisons, the one-sided student's t-test was used. P values<0.05 were deemed to be statistically significant. In Vivo Selection, Experimental Metastasis, and Primary Tumor Growth Assays All mouse experiments were conducted in agreement with a protocol approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) at The Rockefeller University. To generate multiple metastatic derivatives from two independent human melanoma cell lines, in vivo selection was performed as previously described (Minn et al., 2005 Nature 436, 518-524; Pollack and Fidler, 1982 J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 69, 137-141). In brief, 1×106 pigmented MeWo or non-pigmented A375 melanoma parental cells were resuspended in 0.1 mL of PBS and intravenously injected into 6-8-week old immunocompromised NOD-SCID mice. Following lung metastases formation, nodules were dissociated and cells were propagated in vitro, giving rise to first generation of lung metastatic derivatives (LM1). The LM1 cells were then subjected to another round of in vivo selection by injecting 2×105 cells via the tail-vein into NOD-SCID mice, giving rise to metastatic nodules, whose subsequent dissociation yielded second generation of lung metastatic derivatives (LM2). For the A375 cell line, a third round of in vivo selection was performed, yielding the highly metastatic A375-LM3 derivatives. In order to monitor metastasis in vivo through bioluminescence imaging, A375 and MeWo parental cells and their metastatic derivatives were transduced with a retroviral construct expressing a luciferase reporter (Ponomarev et al., 2004 Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 31, 740-751). For all metastasis experiments, lung or systemic colonization was monitored over time and quantified through non-invasive bioluminescence imaging as previously described (Minn et al., 2005). To determine whether in vivo selection had been achieved, 4×104 MeWo parental or MeWo-LM2 cells and 1×105 A375 parental or A375-LM3 cells were resuspended in 0.1 mL of PBS and injected via the lateral tail vein into 6-8-week old NOD-SCID mice. For experimental metastasis assays testing the effects of putative promoter miRNAs on lung colonization, 4×104 MeWo parental cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, miR-214, or a control hairpin, 4×104 MeWo-LM2 cells with silenced expression of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, or a control sequence, and 2×105 A375-LM3 cells inhibited for miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, or a control sequence were resuspended in 0.1 mL of PBS and tail-vein injected into 6-8-week old NOD-SCID mice. For epistasis experiments, 1×105 MeWo-LM2 cells expressing an shRNA targeting ApoE, DNAJA4, or a control sequence or siRNA inhibiting LRP1 or a control sequence in the setting of miRNA inhibition were intravenously injected into 6-8-week old NOD-SCID mice. For ApoE pre-treatment experiments, MeWo-LM2 cells were incubated in the presence of ApoE or BSA at 100 μg/mL at 37° C. After 24 hours, 4×104 cells were injected via the tail-vein into 7-week old NOD-SCID mice. To determine the effect of pre-treating highly metastatic melanoma cells with LNAs targeting miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 on metastasis, MeWo-LM2 cells were transfected with each LNA individually, a cocktail of LNAs targeting all three miRNAs, or a control LNA. After 48 hours, 1×105 cells, resuspended in 0.1 mL of PBS, were administered intravenously into 7-week old NOD-SCID mice for lung metastatic colonization studies or through intracardiac injection into 7-week old athymic nude mice for systemic metastasis assays. To determine the effect of genetic deletion of ApoE on metastasis, 8-week old C57BL/6-WT or C57BL/6-ApoE−/− mice were intravenously injected with 5×104 B 16F10 mouse melanoma cells. For primary tumor growth studies, 1×106 parental MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin were mixed 1:1 with matrigel and subcutaneously injected into the lower right flank of 6-week old immunodeficient NOD-SCID mice. Animals were palpated weekly for tumor formation, after which sizeable tumors were measured twice a week. Tumor volume was calculated as (small diameter)2×(large diameter)/2. Lentiviral miRNA Inhibition and Gene Knock-Down 293T cells were seeded in a 10-cm plate and allowed to reach 60% confluency. Prior to transfection, the cell media was replaced with fresh antibiotic-free DMEM media supplemented with 10% FBS. 6 μg of vector A, 12 μg of vector K, and 12 μg of the appropriate miR-Zip (System Biosciences, Mountain View, Calif.) or shRNA plasmid construct (MSKCC HTS Core Facility, New York, N.Y.) were co-transfected using 60 μL of TransIT-293 transfection reagent (MIR 2700, Minis Bio LLC, Madison, Wis.). The cells were incubated at 37° C. for 48 hours, and the virus was harvested by spinning the cell media for 10 minutes at 2000 g followed by virus filtration through a 0.45 μm filter. 1×105 cancer cells were transduced with 2 mL of the appropriate virus in the presence of 10 μg/mL of polybrene (TR-1003-G, Millipore, Billerica, Mass.) for 6 hrs. After 48 hours, 2 μg/mL of puromycin (P8833, Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, Mo.) was added to the cell media for lentiviral selection. The cells were kept in puromycin selection for 72 hours. The following miR-Zip sequences were used: miR-Zip-199a-3p: 5′-GATCCGACAGTAGCCTGCACATTAGTCACTTCCTGTCAGTAACCAA TGTGCAGACTACTGTTTTTTGAATT-3′ miR-Zip-199a-5p: 5′-GATCCGCCCAGTGCTCAGACTACCCGTGCCTTCCTGTCAGGAACAG GTAGTCTGAACACTGGGTTTTTGAATT-3′ miR-Zip-1908 5′-GCCGTTTTTGAATT-3′ The following shRNA sequences were used: shAPOE1: 5′CCGGGAAGGAGTTGAAGGCCTACAACTCGAGTTGTAGGCCTTCAACTC CTTCTTTTT3′ shAPOE2: 5′CCGGGCAGACACTGTCTGAGCAGGTCTCGAGACCTGCTCAGACAGTGT CTGCTTTTT3′ shDNAJA41: 5′CCGGGCGAGAAGTTTAAACTCATATCTCGAGATATGAGTTTAAACTTC TCGCTTTTT3′ shDNAJA42: 5′CCGGCCTCGACAGAAAGTGAGGATTCTCGAGAATCCTCACTTTCTGTC GAGGTTTTT3′ Retroviral miRNA and Gene Over-Expression 6 μg of vector VSVG, 12 μg of vector Gag-Pol, and 12 μg of pBabe plasmid containing the coding sequences of human ApoE, DNAJA4, or an empty vector or miR-Vec containing the precursor sequence of miR-199a, miR-214, miR-1908, or a control hairpin were co-transfected into 60%-confluent 293T cells using 60 μL of TransIT-293 transfection reagent. The cells were incubated at 37° C. for 48 hours, after which the virus was harvested and transduced into cancer cells in the presence of 10 μg/mL of polybrene for 6 hours. After 48 hours, 2 μg/mL of puromycin or 10 μg/mL of blasticidin (15205, Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, Mo.) were added to the cell media for retroviral selection. The cells were kept in puromycin selection for 72 hours or in blasticidin selection for 7 days. The following cloning primers were used for over-expression of the coding sequences of ApoE and DNAJA4: ApoE_CDS_Fwd: 5′-TCATGAGGATCCATGAAGGTTCTGTGGGCT-3′ ApoE_CDS_Rev: 5′-TAGCAGAATTCTCAGTGATTGTCGCTGGG-3′ DNAJA4_CDS_Fwd: 5′-ATCCCTGGATCCATGTGGGAAAGCCTGACCC-3′ DNAJA4_CDS_Rev: 5′-TACCATGTCGACTCATGCCGTCTGGCACTGC-3′ LNA-Based miRNA Knock-Down LNAs complimentary to mature miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, or a control sequence (426917-00, 426918-00, 426878-00, and 1990050, respectively; Exiqon, Vedbaek, Denmark) were transfected at a final concentration of 50 nM into 50% confluent MeWo-LM2 cancer cells cultured in antibiotics-free media using lipofectaminem4 2000 transfection reagent (11668-09, Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). After 8 hours, the transfection media was replaced with fresh media. After 48 hours, 1×105 cells were injected intravenously into NOD-SCID mice to assess lung metastatic colonization or through intracardiac injection into athymic nude mice to assess systemic metastasis. For cell invasion and endothelial recruitment in vitro assays, the cells were used 96 hours post-transfection. siRNA-Based mRNA Knock-Down siRNAs targeting LRP1, LRP8, VLDLR, LDLR, or a control seqeuence were transfected into cancer cells or HUVEC's at a final concentration of 100 nM using lipofectamine™ 2000 transfection reagent. After 5 hours, the transfection media was replaced with fresh media. The cells were subjected to matrigel invasion and endothelial recruitment assays 96 hours post-transfection. Cells transduced with siRNAs targeting LRP1 or a control sequence in the setting of miRNA inhibition were tail-vein injected for lung colonization assays 72 hours post-transfecton. Control non-targeting siRNAs were obtained from Dharmacon. The following LRP1 and LRP8 target sequences were used: siLRP11: 5′-CGAGGACGAUGACUGCUUA-3′; siLRP12: 5′-GCUAUGAGUUUAAGAAGUU-3′; siLRP81: 5′-CGAGGACGAUGACUGCUUA-3′; siLRP82: 5′-GAACUAUUCACGCCUCAUC-3′. Cell Proliferation Assay To determine the effects of miR-199a or miR-1908 over-expression and combinatorial LNA-induced miRNA inhibition on cell proliferation, 2.5×104 cells were seeded in triplicate in 6-well plates, and viable cells were counted after 5 days. To assess the effects of recombinant ApoE addition on melanoma cell or endothelial cell proliferation, 3×104 melanoma MeWo-LM2 cells or endothelial cells were incubated in the presence of ApoE (100 μM) or BSA (100 μM). Viable cells were counted after 8, 24, 48, 72, and 120 hours. Matrigel Invasion Assay Cancer cells were serum-starved in 0.2% FBS DMEM-based media for 12 hours. Trans-well invasion chambers (354480, BD Biosciences, Bedford, Mass.) were pre-equilibrated prior to beginning the assay by adding 0.5 mL of starvation media to the top and bottom chambers. After 30 minutes, the media in the top chamber was removed, and 0.5 mL of media containing 1×105 cancer cells was added into each matrigel-coated trans-well insert and incubated at 37° C. for 24 hours. For neutralization antibody and/or recombinant protein experiments, antibody/recombinant protein was added to each well at the start of the assay at the following concentrations as indicated in the figures: 5-40 μg/mL anti-ApoE 1D7 (Heart Institute, University of Ottawa), 5-40 μg/mL anti-IgG (AB-108-C, R&D Systems, Minneapolis, Minn.), 100 μM recombinant human ApoE3 (4696, BioVision, Mountain View, Calif.), and 100 μM BSA (A2153, Sigma-Aldrich). Upon completion of the assay, matrigel-coated inserts were washed with PBS, the cells at the top side of each insert were scraped off, and the inserts were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for 15 minutes. The inserts were then cut out and mounted onto slides using VectaShield mounting medium containing DAPI (H-1000, Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, Calif.). The basal side of each insert was imaged using an inverted fluorescence microscope (Zeiss Axiovert 40 CFL) at 5× magnification, taking three representative images for each insert. The number of invaded cells was quantified using ImageJ (NIH). Endothelial Recruitment Assay 5×104 cancer cells were seeded into 24-well plates approximately 24 hours prior to the start of the assay. HUVEC's were grown to 80% confluency and serum starved in EGM-2 media supplemented with 0.2% FBS for 16 hours. HUVEC's were then pulsed with Cell Tracker Red CMTPX dye (C34552, Invitrogen) for 45 minutes. Meanwhile, cancer cells were washed with PBS, 0.5 mL of 0.2% FBS EGM-2 media was added to each well, and a 3.0 μm HTS Fluoroblock insert (351151, BD Falcon, San Jose, Calif.) was placed into each well. 1×105 HUVEC's, resuspended in 0.5 mL of starvation media, were seeded into each trans-well insert, and the recruitment assay was allowed to proceed for 16-18 hours at 37° C. For neutralization antibody and/or recombinant protein experiments, antibody/protein was then added to each well at the appropriate concentration as indicated in the figures: 40 μg/mL anti-ApoE 1D7, 40 μg/mL anti-IgG, 100 μM rhApoE3, and 100 μM BSA. Upon completion of the assay, the inserts were processed and analyzed as described for the matrigel invasion assay above (See Matrigel Invasion Assay). Endothelial Migration Assay Serum-starved HUVEC's were pulsed with Cell Tracker Red CMTPX dye for 45 minutes and seeded into HTS Fluoroblock trans-well inserts at a concentration of 1×105 HUVEC's in 0.5 mL starvation media per each insert. The assay was allowed to proceed for 16-18 hours at 37° C., and the inserts were processed and analyzed as described above (See Matrigel Invasion Assay). Chemotaxis Assay HUVEC's were serum-starved in 0.2% FBS EGM-2 media for 16 hours and labeled with Cell Tracker Red CMTPX dye for 45 minutes. Meanwhile, the indicated amounts (1-5 μg) of recombinant human ApoE3 or BSA were mixed with 250 μL of matrigel (356231, BD Biosciences) and allowed to solidify at the bottom of a 24-well plate for 30 min. 250 μL of HUVEC EGM-2 media containing 0.2% FBS was then added to each matrigel-coated well, and 3.0 μM HTS Fluoroblock inserts were fitted into each well. 1×105 HUVEC's, resuspended in 0.5 mL of starvation media, were seeded into each insert and allowed to migrate along the matrigel gradient for 16-18 hours at 37° C. Upon completion of the assay, the inserts were mounted on slides and analyzed as described above (See Matrigel Invasion Assay). Endothelial Adhesion Assay HUVEC's were seeded in 6-well plates and allowed to form monolayers. Cancer cells were serum starved in 0.2% FBS DMEM-based media for 30 minutes and pulsed with Cell Tracker Green CMFDA dye (C7025, Invitrogen) for 45 minutes. 2×105 cancer cells, resuspended in 0.5 mL starvation media, were seeded onto each endothelial monolayer. The cancer cells were allowed to adhere to the HUVEC monolayers for 30 minutes at 37° C. The endothelial monolayers were then washed gently with PBS and fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde for 15 minutes. Each well was then coated with PBS, and 8 images were taken for each endothelial monolayer using an inverted Fluorescence microscope (Zeiss Axiovert 40 CFL) at 10× magnification. The number of cancer cells adhering to HUVEC's was quantified using ImageJ. Anoikis Assay 1×106 MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin were seeded in low adherent plates containing cell media supplemented with 0.2% methylcellulose. Following 48 hours in suspension, the numbers of dead and viable cells were counted using trypan blue. Serum Starvation Assay To determine the effects of miR-199a and miR-1908 on melanoma cell serum starvation capacity, 1×105 MeWo parental cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin were seeded in quadruplicate into 6-well plates and incubated in 0.2% FBS starvation DMEM-based media for 48 hours, after which the number of viable cells was counted using trypan blue. To determine the effect of recombinant ApoE3 addition on the survival of melanoma cells or endothelial cells in serum starvation conditions, 3×104 MeWo-LM2 cells or endothelial cells were incubated in the presence of ApoE3 (100 μM) or BSA (100 μM) in low serum conditions (0.2% FBS). The number of viable cells was counter after 8, 16, and 24 hours. Colony Formation Assay Fifty MeWo parental cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin were seeded in quadruplicate into 6-cm plates. After two weeks, the cells were washed with PBS, fixed with 6% glutaraldehyde, and stained with 0.5% crystal violet. The number of positive-staining colonies was counted. miRNA Microarray Hybridization For identification of miRNAs showing deregulated expression across highly metastatic melanoma cell line derivatives, total RNA from multiple independent metastatic derivatives and their respective parental MeWo and A375 cell populations was used to enrich for small RNAs which were then labelled and hybridized onto microfluidic custom microarray platforms by LC sciences. The arrays were designed to detect 894 mature miRNAs corresponding to the miRNA transcripts listed in Sanger miRBase Release 13.0. Out of all the probes analyzed, those corresponding to 169 miRNAs yielded signal above a background threshold across the multiple cell lines analyzed. The raw signal intensities, corresponding to probe hybridization, were median-normalized for each cell line. A threshold of 2-fold or higher up-regulation of median-normalized expression values were used in order to identify miRNAs commonly induced in multiple metastatic derivatives for two independent human melanoma cell lines. Microarray-Based Gene Target Prediction for miR-199a and miR-1908 In order to identify potential genes targeted by miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908, total RNA was extracted from MeWo cell lines with loss- or gain-of-function of each miRNA and submitted to the genomics core facility at The Rockefeller University for hybridization onto Illumina HT-12 v3 Expression BeadChip microarrays. The raw signal intensities, corresponding to probe hybridization, were then median-normalized for each cell line sample. Three sets of microarray profile comparisons were generated: (1) MeWo control cells relative to MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a or miR-1908, (2) MeWo-LM2 control cells relative to MeWo-LM2 cells expressing a short hairpin (miR-Zip) targeting miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, or miR-1908, and (3) MeWo parental cells relative to MeWo-LM2 cells. Based on the median-normalized expression values from these arrays, the following criteria were used to arrive at possible target genes common to miR-199a and miR-1908: (1) Genes down-regulated by more than 1.5 fold upon individual over-expression of each miR-199a and miR-1908, (2) Genes up-regulated by more than 1.5 fold upon inhibition of either both miR-199a-3p and miR-1908 or both miR-199a-5p and miR-1908, and (3) genes down-regulated by more than 1.5 fold in LM2 cells, which express physiologically higher levels of the three miRNAs, relative to MeWo parental cells. Analysis of miRNA and mRNA Expression in Cell Lines Total RNA was extracted from various cell lines using the miRvana kit (AM1560, Applied Biosystems, Austin, Tex.). The expression levels of mature miRNAs were quantified using the Taqman miRNA expression assay (4427975-0002228, Applied Biosystems). RNU44 was used as an endogenous control for normalization. For mRNA expression analyses, 600 ng of total RNA was reverse transcribed using the cDNA First-Strand Synthesis Kit (18080-051, Invitrogen), and roughly 200 ng of the resulting cDNA was then mixed with SYBR green PCR Master Mix (4309155, Applied Biosystems) and the appropriate primers. Each reaction was performed in quadruplicate, and mRNA expression was quantified by performing real-time PCR amplification using an ABI Prism 7900HT Real-Time PCR System (Applied Biosystems). GAPDH was used as an endogenous control for normalization. The following primers were used: ApoE_Fwd: 5′-TGGGTCGCTTTTGGGATTAC-3′ ApoE_Rev: 5′-TTCAACTCCTTCATGGTCTCG-3′ DNAJA4_Fwd: 5′-CCAGCTTCTCTTCACCCATG-3′ DNAJA4_Rev: 5′-GCCAATTTCTTCGTGACTCC-3′ GAPDH_Fwd: 5′-AGCCACATCGCTCAGACAC-3′ GAPDH_Rev: 5′-GCCCAATACGACCAAATCC-3′ LRP1_Fwd: 5′-TTTAACAGCACCGAGTACCAG-3′ LRP1_Rev: 5′CAGGCAGATGTCAGAGCAG-3′ LRP8_Fwd: 5′-GCTACCCTGGCTACGAGATG-3′ LRP8_Rev: 5′-GATTAGGGATGGGCTCTTGC-3′ ELISA Conditioned cancer cell media was prepared by incubating cells in 0.2% FBS serum starvation DMEM-based media for 24 hours. ApoE levels in conditioned media were determined using the APOE ELISA kit (IRAPKT031, Innovative Research, Novi, Mich.). Luciferase Reporter Assays Heterologous luciferase reporter assays were performed as previously described (Tavazoie et al., 2008). In brief, full-length 3′UTRs and CDS's of ApoE and DNAJA4 were cloned downstream of a renilla luciferase reporter into the psiCheck2 dual luciferase reporter vector (C8021, Promega, Madison, Wis.). 5×104 parental MeWo cells, MeWo-LM2 cells, MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a, miR-1908, or a control hairpin, and MeWo-LM2 cells expressing a miR-Zip hairpin targeting miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, or a control sequence were transfected with 100 ng of the respective specific reporter constructs using TransiT-293 transfection reagent. Twenty-four hours post-transfection, the cells were lysed, and the ratio of renilla to firefly luciferase expression was determined using the dual luciferase assay (E1910, Promega). Putative miRNA binding sites in each target construct were identified by alignment to the complimentary miRNA seed sequences (miR-199a-3p: 5′-CAGUAGUC-3′; miR-199a-5p: 5′-CCAGUGUU-3′; miR-1908: 5’-GGCGGGGA-3′). The miRNA complimentary sites on each target construct were mutated using the QuickChange Multi Site-Directed Mutagenesis Kit (200514, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, Calif.). Based on miRNA seed sequence complimentarity analysis, the CDS of ApoE was mutated at position 141 (CTG to ACT), the 3′UTR of ApoE was mutated at positions 83 (GCC to ATA) and 98 (CTG to ACA), the CDS of DNAJA4 was mutated at positions 373 (CGC to TAT) and 917 (CTG to AGA), and the 3′UTR of DNAJA4 was mutated at positions 576 (CTG to ACA), 1096 (CTG to TCT), 1396 (CGC to TGT), and 1596 (CTG to TGT). The following primers were used to clone the 3′UTR's and CDS's of ApoE and DNAJA4: ApoE_CDS_Fwd: 5′-AGTACCTCGAGGGGATCCTTGAGTCCTACTC-3′ APOE_CDS_Rev: 5′-TAATTGCGGCCGCTCAGACAGTGTCTGCACCCAG-3′ DNAJA4_CDS_Fwd: 5′-TAATATCTCGAGATGTGGGAAAGCCTGACCC-3′ DNAJA4_CDS_Rev: 5′-CAATTGCGGCCGCTCATGCCGTCTGGCACTGC-3′ APOE_3′UTR_Fwd: 5′-TTAGCCTCGAGACGCCGAAGCCTGCAGCCA-3′ APOE_3′UTR_Rev: 5′-TTACTGCGGCCGCTGCGTGAAACTTGGTGAATCTT-3′ DNAJA4_3′UTR_Fwd: 5′-TAATATCTCGAGCGTGGTGCGGGGCAGCGT-3′ DNAJA4_3′UTR_Rev: 5′-CAATTGCGGCCGCTTATCTCTCATACCAGCTCAAT-3′ The following primers were used to mutagenize the miRNA binding sites on each target: APOE_CDS_mut: 5′-GCCAGCGCTGGGAACTGGCAACTGGTCGCTTTTGGGATTACCT-3′ APOE_3′UTR_mut1: 5′-CAGCGGGAGACCCTGTCCCCATACCAGCCGTCCTCCTGGGGTG-3′ APOE_3′UTR_mut2: 5′-TCCCCGCCCCAGCCGTCCTCACAGGGTGGACCCTAGTTTAATA-3′ DNAJA4_CDS_mut1: 5′-GGGATCGGTGGAGAAGTGCCTATTGTGCAAGGGGCGGGGGATG-3′ DNAJA4_CDS_mut2: 5′-GTAGGGGGCGGGGAACGTGTTATCCGTGAAGAGGTGGCTAGGG-3′ DNAJA4_3′UTR_mut1: 5′-CAGGGCCAACTTAGTTCCTAACATTCTGTGCCCTTCAGTGGAT-3′ DNAJA4_3′UTR_mut2: 5′-ACAGTTTGTATGGACTACTATCTTAAATTATAGCTTGTTTGGA-3′ DNAJA4_3′UTR_mut3: 5′-TAATTATTGCTAAAGAACTATGTTTTAGTTGGTAATGGTGTAA-3′ DNAJA4_3′UTR_mut4: 5′-CAGCTGCACGGACCAGGTTCCATAAAAACATTGCCAGCTAGTGAG-3′ Analysis of miRNA Expression in Human Melanoma Skin Lesions All human clinical samples used in this study were obtained, processed, and analyzed in accordance with institutional IRB guidelines. Paraffin-embedded cross-sections of primary melanoma skin lesions from 71 human patients were obtained from MSKCC. The samples were de-paraffinized by five consecutive xylene washes (5 minutes each). Following de-paraffinization, the malignancy-containing region was identified by H&E staining, dissected, and total RNA was extracted from it using the RecoverAll Total Nucleic Acid Isolation Kit (AM1975, Applied Biosystems). The expression levels of mature miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 in each sample were quantified in a blinded fashion using the Taqman miRNA assay. RNU44 was used as an endogenous control for normalization. The expression levels of each miRNA were compared between primary melanomas with propensity to metastasize and primary melanomas that did not metastasize. Kaplan-Meier curves were plotted using metastasis-free survival data of patients as a function of the expression levels for each miRNA in each patient's tumor. Metastatic recurrence to such sites as lung, brain, bone, and soft tissue were previously documented and allowed for a retrospective analysis of the relationship between the expression levels of identified miRNAs and metastatic recurrence. Histology Animals were perfused with PBS followed by fixation with 4% paraformaldehyde infused via intracardiac and subsequently intratracheal injection. The lungs were sectioned out, incubated in 4% paraformaldehyde at 4° C. overnight, embedded in paraffin, and sliced into 5-μm-thick increments. For gross macroscopic metastatic nodule visualization, lung sections were H&E stained. For endothelial content analysis in metastatic nodules formed by human melanoma MeWo cells in mice, representative lung sections were double-stained with primary antibodies against MECA-32 (Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank, The University of Iowa, IA), which labels mouse endothelial cells, and human vimentin (VP-V684, Vector Laboratories), which labels human melanoma cells. Various Alexa Flour dye-conjugated secondary antibodies were used to detect primary antibodies. To determine the blood vessel density within metastatic nodules, fluorescence was measured using a Zeiss laser scanning confocal microscope (LSM 510), and the MECA-32 signal within each metastatic nodule, outlined based on co-staining with human vimentin, was quantified in a blinded fashion using ImageJ (NIH). For endothelial content analysis in metastatic nodules formed by mouse B16F10 mouse melanoma cells in wild type and ApoE genetically null mice, representative lung sections were stained for MECA-32, and the MECA-32 signal within each nodule, demarcated based on cell pigmentation, was quantified in a blinded fashion. The collective vessel area, given as the percentage area covered by blood vessels relative to the total area of each metastatic nodule, was obtained by background subtraction (rolling ball radius of 1 pixel) and use of a pre-determined threshold as a cut-off. A metastatic nodule was defined as any region of greater than 2000 μm2 total area. For large nodules, minimum of four representative images were obtained, and their average blood vessel density was calculated. In Vivo Matrigel Plug Assay 10 μg/mL recombinant human ApoE3 (4696, BioVision), 10 μg/mL BSA (A2153, Sigma Aldrich), or 400 ng/ml VEGF were mixed with matrigel (356231, BD Biosciences) as indicated. 400 μL of matrigel containing the indicated recombinant proteins were injected subcutaneously just above the ventral flank of immunocompromised NOD-SCID mice. Plugs were extracted on day 3 post-injection and fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for 48 hours. Plugs were then paraffin-embedded and sectioned at 5-μm-thick increments. Plug cross-sectional sections were immunohistochemically stained using a primary antibody against the mouse endothelial antigen MECA-32 (Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank, The University of Iowa, IA), detected by peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody, and subsequently visualized by DAB oxidization. To quantify the extent of endothelial cell invasion into each matrigel plug, the number of endothelial cells was counted in 4-5 random fields for each plug, and the average number of endothelial cells per given plug area was calculated. Tissue Culture The SK-Mel-334 primary human melanoma line was established from a soft tissue metastasis of a Braf-mutant melanoma of a patient at the MSKCC. Following minimum expansion in vitro, the cells were in vivo selected (Pollack and Fidler, 1982) to generate the lung-metastatic derivatives SK-Mel-334.2. The SK-Mel-239 vemurafenib-resistant clone (C1) was a gift from Poulikos Poulikakos (Mount Sinai Medical School) and the B-RafV600E/+; Pten−/−; CDKN2A−/− primary murine melanoma cell line was generously provided by Marcus Rosenberg (Yale University). All other cell lines used were purchased from ATCC. ApoE Elisa Extracellular ApoE levels in serum-free conditioned media from melanoma cells treated with DMSO, GW3965, or T0901317 (1 μM each) were quantified using the ApoE ELISA kit (Innovative Research) at 72 hours following treatment. Western Blotting Mouse lung and brain tissue samples were homogenized on ice in RIPA buffer (Sigma-Aldrich) supplemented with protease inhibitors (Roche). Mouse adipose tissue was homogenized on ice in TNET buffer (1.5 mM Tris pH 7.5, 150 mM NaCl, 2 mM EDTA 1% triton, protease inhibitors). Total protein lysate (2 μg) was separated by SDS-PAGE, transferred to PVDF membrane, and blotted with an anti-mouse ApoE (ab20874, Abcam) and anti-tubulin α/β (2148, Cell Signaling) antibodies. ApoE Expression Analysis in Melanoma Clinical Samples All clinical sample procurement, processing, and analyses were performed in strict agreement with IRB guidelines. Primary melanoma skin lesions were previously resected from patients at the MSKCC, formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded, and sectioned into 5-μm-thick slides. ApoE protein expression was assessed by double-blinded immunohistochemical analysis using the D6E10 anti-ApoE antibody (ab1906, Abcam). Histochemistry Animals were intracardially perfused with PBS followed by 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA). Fixed lungs were embedded in paraffin and sectioned into 5-μm-thick increments. Macroscopic lung metastatic nodules were visualized by H&E staining. For analysis of tumor endothelial cell content, proliferation, and apoptosis, primary tumor paraffin-embedded sections were stained with antibodies against MECA-32 (Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank, University of Iowa), KI-67 (ab15580, Abcam), and cleaved caspase-3 (9661, Cell Signaling), respectively. Tail-Vein Metastasis Assays Melanoma cells used for in vivo metastasis assays were transduced with a stably expressed retroviral construct encoding a luciferase reporter gene (Ponomarev et al., 2004), allowing us to monitor the in vivo progression of melanoma cells by bioluminescence imaging. The following numbers of melanoma cells, resuspended in 100 μL of PBS, were injected intravenously via the tail-vein: 4×104 MeWo cells, 2.5×105 HT-144 cells, 2×105 SK-Mel-334.2 cells, 5×104B 16F10 cells, and 1×105YUMM cells. The MeWo, HT-144, and SK-Mel-334.2 cells were injected into 6-8 week-old sex-matched NOD scid mice, while the B16F10 and YUMM cells were injected into 6-8 week-old sex-matched C57BL/6 mice. In all experiments assessing at the effects of GW3965 on metastasis formation, mice were pre-treated on a control diet or a GW3965-supplemented diet (20 mg/kg) for 10 days. To assess the effect of GW3965 treatment on brain metastasis, 1×105 MeWo brain-metastatic derivatives were injected intracardially into athymic nude mice. Immediately following injection, mice were randomly assigned to a control diet or GW3965-supplemented diet (100 mg/kg). To determine whether oral delivery of GW3965 can inhibit the progression of incipient metastasis, NOD Scid mice were intravenously injected with 4×104MeWo cells and the cells were allowed to colonize the lungs for 42 days, after which mice were blindedly assigned to a control diet or a GW3965-supplemented diet (100 mg/kg) treatment. Orthotopic Metastasis Assays To determine the effect of GW3965 treatment on lung colonization by melanoma cells dissociated from an orthotopic site, 1×106 MeWo cells expressing a luciferase reporter were subcutaneously injected into both lower flanks of NOD Scid mice. Upon the formation of tumors measuring ˜300 mm3 in volume, the tumors were excised and the mice were randomly assigned to a control diet or a GW3965-supplemented diet (100 mg/kg) treatment. One month after tumor excision, the lungs were extracted and lung colonization was measured by ex vivo bioluminescence imaging. To histologically confirm the extent of melanoma lung colonization, lungs were then fixed in 4% PFA overnight, paraffin-embedded, section into 5-μM increments and stained for human vimentin (VP-V684, Vector Laboratories). Generation of Dacarbazine-Resistant Melanoma Cells Dacarbazine-resistant B16F10 mouse melanoma cells were generated by continuously culturing the cells in the presence of DTIC (D2390, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.). First, the cells were treated with 500 μg/mL DTIC for one week. Following this initial DTIC treatment, the remaining (˜10%) viable cells were allowed to recover for one week, after which 750 μg/mL of DTIC was added to the cell media for 5 days. Subsequent to this high-dose treatment, the cells were allowed to recover in the presence of low-dose DTIC (100 μg/mL) for one week. The cells were then continuously cultured in cell media containing 200 μg/mL DTIC for at least one month prior to grafting the cells into mice. DTIC was added to fresh cancer cell media every 3 days. For tumor growth experiments, 5×104 B16F10 parental and DTIC-resistant cells were subcutaneously injected into the lower flank of 7-week-old C57BL/6 mice. Following formation of small tumors measuring 5-10 mm3 in volume, the mice were randomly assigned to the following treatment groups: (1) control diet+vehicle, i.p.; (2) control diet+DTIC i.p. (50 mg/kg); (3) GW3965-supplemented diet (100 mg/kg)+vehicle i.p.. DTIC was dissolved in the presence of citric acid (1:1 by weight) in water and administered daily by intraperitoneal injection. The DTIC-resistant MeWo human melanoma cell line clone was generated following DTIC treatment of mice bearing MeWo tumors measuring 600-800 mm3 in volume. After initial tumor shrinkage in response to daily DTIC dosing (50 mg/kg, i.p.) during the first two weeks, the tumors eventually developed resistance and resumed growth, at which point tumor cells were dissociated and the DTIC-resistant MeWo cell line was established. The cells were expanded in vitro in the presence of DTIC (200 μg/mL) for one week, after which 5×105 DTIC-resistant MeWo cells were re-injected into 8-week old Nod SCID gamma mice. Following growth of tumors to 5-10 mm3 in volume, mice were blindedly assigned to the following treatment groups: (1) control diet; (2) control diet+DTIC (50 mg/kg); (3) GW3965-supplemented diet (100 mg/kg). To determine the effect of DTIC on tumor growth by parental unselected MeWo cells, 5×105 MeWo cells were subcutaneously injected into Nod SCID gamma mice, and the mice were treated with a control vehicle or DTIC (50 mg/kg) subsequent to formation of tumors measuring 5-10 mm3 in volume. DTIC was administered daily, as described above, in cycles consisting of 5 consecutive daily treatments interspersed by 2-day off-treatment intervals. Tumor growth was measured twice a week. Genetically-Initiated Model of Melanoma Progression The Tyr::CreER; B-RafV600E/+; Ptenlox/+/Tyr::CreER; B-RafV600E/+; Ptenlox/lox conditional model of melanoma progression was previously established and characterized by Dankort et al. (2009). Briefly, melanoma in these mice was induced at 6 weeks of age by intraperitoneally injecting 4-HT (H6278, 70% isomer, Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, Mo.) at 25 mg/kg administered in peanut oil on three consecutive days. The 4-HT stock solution was prepared by dissolving it in 100% EtOH at 50 mg/mL by heating at 45° C. for 5 min and mixing. Once dissolved, the stock 4-HT solution was then diluted by 10-fold in peanut oil, yielding a 5 mg/mL 4-HT working solution that was then injected into mice. After the first 4-HT injection, mice were blindedly assigned to receive either a control diet or a diet supplemented with GW3965 (100 mg/kg). Mice were examined three times a week for the presence and progression of melanoma lesions. At day 35, dorsal skin samples were harvested from control-treated and GW3965-treated mice, fixed in 4% PFA and photographed at 10×. The percentage of pigmented melanoma lesion area out of the total skin area was quantified using ImageJ. For survival analyses, mice were monitored daily for melanoma progression and euthanized according to a standard body condition score, taking into account initial signs of moribund state and discomfort associated with the progression of melanoma burden. Post-mortem, the lungs, brains, and salivary glands were harvested and examined for the presence of macroscopic melanoma lesions. Mouse Genotyping All mouse genotyping was performed using standard PCR conditions, as recommended by Jackson Labs. The following genotyping primers were used for the respective PCR reactions: Tyr::CreER; B-RafV600E/+; Ptenlox/+ and Tyr::CreER; B-RafV600E/+; Ptenlox/lox mice: B-Raf Forward: 5′-TGA GTA TTT TTG TGG CAA CTG C-3′ B-Raf Reverse: 5′-CTC TGC TGG GAA AGC GGC-3′ Pten Forward: 5′-CAA GCA CTC TGC GAA CTG AG-3′ Pten Reverse: 5′-AAG TTT TTG AAG GCA AGA TGC-3′ Cre Transgene Forward: 5′-GCG GTC TGG CAG TAA AAA CTA TC-3′ Cre Transgene Reverse: 5′-GTG AAA CAG CAT TGC TGT CAC TT-3′ Internal Positive Control Forward: 5′-CTA GGC CAC AGA ATT GAA AGA TCT-3′ Internal Positive Control Reverse: 5′-GTA GGT GGA AAT TCT AGC ATC ATC C-3′ ApoE-/-mice: Common Forward: 5′-GCC TAG CCG AGG GAG AGC CG-3′ Wild-type Reverse: 5′-TGT GAC TTG GGA GCT CTG CAG C-3′ Mutant_Reverse: 5′-GCC GCC CCG ACT GCA TCT-3′ LXRα-/-mice: Common Forward: 5′-TCA GTG GAG GGA AGG AAA TG-3′ Wild-type_Reverse: 5′-TTC CTG CCC TGG ACA CTT AC-3′ Mutant_Reverse: 5′-TTG TGC CCA GTC ATA GCC GAA T-3′ LXRβ-/-mice: Common Forward: 5′-CCT TTT CTC CCT GAC ACC G-3′ Wild-type Reverse: 5′-GCA TCC ATC TGG CAG GTT C-3′ Mutant Reverse: 5′-AGG TGA GAT GAC AGG AGA TC-3′ Cell Proliferation and Viability Assay: To determine the effects of GW3965, T0901317, and Bexarotene on in vitro cell growth, 2.5×104melanoma cells were seeded in triplicate in 6-well plates and cultured in the presence of DMSO, GW3965, T0901317, or Bexarotene at 1 μM each. After 5 days, the number of viable and dead cells was counted using the trypan blue dye (72-57-1, Sigma-Aldrich), which selectively labels dead cells. Cell Invasion Assay The cell invasion assay was performed as previously described in detail (Pencheva et al., 2012) using a trans-well matrigel invasion chamber system (354480, BD Biosciences). In brief, various melanoma cells were cultured in the presence of DMSO, GW3965, T0901317, or Bexarotene at 1 μM for 56 hours, after which melanoma cells were switched to starvation media (0.2% FBS) for 16 hours in the presence of each drug. Following starvation, cells were seeded into matrigel-coated trans-well inserts, and the invasion assay was allowed to proceed for 24 hours at 37° C. For ApoE antibody neutralization experiments, 40 μg/mL 1D7 anti-ApoE blocking antibody (Heart Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada) or 40 μg/mL anti-IgG control antibody (AB-108-C, R&D Systems, Minneapolis, Minn.) was added to each trans-well insert at the start of the assay. Endothelial Recruitment Assay The endothelial recruitment assay was carried out as previously described (Pencheva et al., 2012; Png et al., 2012). Melanoma cells were treated with DMSO, GW3965, T0901317, or Bexarotene at 1 μM for 56 hours, after which 5×104 cells were seeded in a 24-well plate in the presence of each drug and allowed to attach for 16 hours prior to starting the assay. HUVEC cells were serum-starved overnight in EGM-2 media containing 0.2% FBS. The following day, 1×105 HUVEC cells were seeded into a 3.0 μm HTS Fluoroblock trans-well migration insert (351151, BD Falcon, San Jose, Calif.) fitted into each well containing cancer cells at the bottom. The HUVEC cells were allowed to migrate towards the cancer cells for 20 hours at 37° C., after which the inserts were processed as previously described (Pencheva et al., 2012). For ApoE antibody neutralization experiments, 40 μg/mL 1D7 anti-ApoE blocking antibody (Heart Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada) or 40 μg/mL anti-IgG control antibody (AB-108-C, R&D Systems, Minneapolis, Minn.) was added to each trans-well insert at the start of the assay. Lentiviral shRNA-Based Gene Knockdown shRNAs were integrated into lentiviral particles that were prepared by transfection of 6 μg of vector A, 12 μg of vector K, and 12 μg of shRNA plasmid into HEK-293T packaging cells, as previously described (Pencheva et al., 2012; Png et al., 2012). Lentiviral shRNA transduction was performed in the presence of 10 μg/mL of polybrene (TR-1003-G, Millipore, Billerica, Mass.) for 6 hours, as described previously (Pencheva et al., 2012). The cells were expanded for 72 hours after transduction and lentiviral selection was performed by culturing the cells in the presence of 2 μg/mL of puromycin (P8833, Sigma-Aldrich) for 72 hours. The following shRNA sequences were used: Human: sh1LXRα: 5′-CCGGCCGACTGATGTTCCCACGGATCTCGAGATCCGTGGGAACAT CAGTCGGTTTTT-3′ sh2LXRα: 5′-CCGGGCAACTCAATGATGCCGAGTTCTCGAGAACTCGGCATCATT GAGTTGCTTTTT-3′ sh1LXRβ: 5′-CCGGAGAGTGTATCACCTTCTTGAACTCGAGTTCAAGAAGGTGAT ACACTCTTTTTT-3′ sh2LXRβ: 5′-CCGGGAAGGCATCCACTATCGAGATCTCGAGATCTCGATAGTGGA TGCCTTCTTTTT-3′ shApoE: 5′-CCGGGCAGACACTGTCTGAGCAGGTCTCGAGACCTGCTCAGACAG TGTCTGCTTTTT-3′ Mouse: sh_mLXRα: 5′-CCGGGCAACTCAATGATGCTGAGTTCTCGAGAACTCAGCATCATT GAGTTGCTTTTT-3′ sh_mLXRβ: 5′-CCGGTGAGATCATGTTGCTAGAAACCTCGAGGTTTCTAGCAACAT GATCTCATTTTTG-3′ sh_mApoE: 5′-CCGGGAGGACACTATGACGGAAGTACTCGAGTACTTCCGTCATAG TGTCCTCTTTTT-3′ Gene Expression Analysis by qRT-PCR: RNA was extracted from whole cell lysates using the Total RNA Purification Kit (17200, Norgen, Thorold, Canada). 600 ng of total RNA was then reverse transcribed into cDNA using the cDNA First-Strand Synthesis Kit (18080-051, Invitrogen), and quantitative real-time PCR amplification was performed as previously described (Pencheva et al., 2012) using an ABI Prism 7900HT Real-Time PCR System (Applied Biosystems, Austin, Tex.). Each PCR reaction was carried out in quadruplicates. Gene expression was normalized to GAPDH, which was used as an endogenous control. The following primers were used: Human: ApoE Forward: 5′-TGGGTCGCTTTTGGGATTAC-3′ ApoE Reverse: 5′-TTCAACTCCTTCATGGTCTCG-3′ GAPDH Forward: 5′-AGCCACATCGCTCAGACAC-3′ GAPDH Reverse: 5′-GCCCAATACGACCAAATCC-3′ LXRα_Fwd: 5′-GTTATAACCGGGAAGACTTTGC-3′ LXRα_Rev: 5′-AAACTCGGCATCATTGAGTTG-3′ LW_Fwd: 5′-TTTGAGGGTATTTGAGTAGCGG-3′ LW_Rev: 5′-CTCTCGCGGAGTGAACTAC-3′ Mouse: ApoE Forward: 5′-GACCCTGGAGGCTAAGGACT-3′ ApoE Reverse: 5′-AGAGCCTTCATCTTCGCAAT-3′ GAPDH Forward: 5′-GCACAGTCAAGGCCGAGAAT-3′ GAPDH_Reverse: 5′-GCCTTCTCCATGGTGGTGAA-3′ LXRα Forward: 5′-GCGCTCAGCTCTTGTCACT-3′ LXRα Reverse: 5′-CTCCAGCCACAAGGACATCT-3′ LXRβ Forward: 5′-GCTCTGCCTACATCGTGGTC-3′ LXRβ Reverse: 5′-CTCATGGCCCAGCATCTT-3′ ABCA1 Forward: 5′-ATGGAGCAGGGAAGACCAC-3′ ABCA1 Reverse: 5′-GTAGGCCGTGCCAGAAGTT-3′ ApoE Promoter Activity Assay The ApoE promoter, consisting of a sequence spanning 980 base pairs upstream and 93 base pairs downstream of the ApoE gene, was cloned into a pGL3-Basic vector (E1751, Promega Corporation, Madison, Wis.) upstream of the firefly luciferase gene using NheI and SacI restriction enzymes. Then, multi-enhancer elements 1 (ME.1) and 2 (ME.2) were cloned directly upstream of the ApoE promoter using MluI and SacI restriction enzymes. To assess ApoE promoter- and ME.1/ME.2-driven transcriptional activation by LXR agonists, 5×104 MeWo cells were seeded into a 24-well plate. The following day, 100 ng of pGL3-ME.1/ME.2-ApoE promoter construct and 2 ng of pRL-CMV renilla luciferase construct (E2261, Promega) were co-transfected into cells in the presence of DMSO, GW3965, or T0901317 at 1 μM, each condition in quadruplicate. To assess transcriptional activation by LXRα or LXRβ, 5×104 MeWo cells expressing a control shRNA or shRNA targeting LXRα or LXRβ were seeded into a 24-well plate. The following day, 200 ng of pGL3-ME.1/ME.2-ApoE promoter construct and 2 ng of pRL-CMV renilla luciferase were co-transfected into cells in the presence of DMSO, GW3965, or T0901317 at 1 M, each condition in quadruplicate. After 24 hours, cells were lysed, and cell lysate was analyzed for firefly and renilla luciferase activity using the Dual Luciferase Assay System (E1960, Promega) and a Bio-Tek Synergy NEO Microplate Reader. Firefly luciferase signal was normalized to renilla luciferase signal and all data are expressed relative to the luciferase activity ratio measured in the DMSO-treated control cells. The following cloning primers were used: ApoE-promoter Forward: 5′-TCA TAG CTA GCG CAG AGC CAG GAT TCA CGC CCT G-3′ ApoE-promoter Reverse: 5′-TGG TCC TCG AGG AAC CTT CAT CTT CCT GCC TGT GA-3′ ME.1 Forward: 5′-TAG TTA CGC GTA GTA GCC CCC ATC TTT GCC-3′ ME.1 Reverse: 5′-AAT CAG CTA GCC CCT CAG CTG CAA AGC TC-3′ ME.2 Forward: 5′-TAG TTA CGC GTA GTA GCC CCC TCT TTG CC-3′ ME.2_Reverse: 5′-AAT CAG CTA GCC CTT CAG CTG CAA AGC TCT G-3′ Tumor Histochemistry Tumors were excised from mice and fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde at 4° C. for 48 hours. Then, tumors were paraffin-embedded and sectioned into 5-μm-thick increments. For endothelial cell content analysis in tumors, tumor sections were stained with a primary antibody against the mouse endothelial cell marker MECA-32 (Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank, The University of Iowa, IA) and counterstained with DAPI nuclear stain. To determine tumor cell proliferation and apoptosis, tumor sections were stained with antibodies against the proliferative marker Ki-67 (Abcam, ab15580, Cambridge, Mass.) and the apoptotic marker cleaved caspase-3 (9661, Cell Signaling, Danvers, Mass.), respectively. Various Alexa Flour dye-conjugated secondary antibodies were used to detect primary antibodies. Fluorescence was measured using inverted fluorescence microscope (Zeiss Axiovert 40 CFL) at 5× magnification for MECA-32 and Ki-67 staining and 10× magnification for cleaved caspase-3 staining. Endothelial cell content density and tumor proliferation rate were quantified by calculating the average percentage of MECA-32 or Ki-67 positively-staining area out of the total tumor area. Tumor apoptosis was measured by counting the number of cleaved caspase-3 expressing cells per given tumor area. Analysis of ApoE Expression in Primary Melanoma Lesions Human primary melanoma skin samples were resected from melanoma patients at MSKCC, formalin-fixed, embedded in paraffin, and sectioned into 5-μm-thick increments. To determine ApoE protein expression, the samples were first de-paraffinized by two consecutive xylene washes (5 minutes each), and rehydrated in a series of ethanol washes (100%, 95%, 80%, and 70% EtOH). ApoE antigen was retrieved by incubating the samples in the presence of proteinase K (5 μg/mL) for 20 minutes at room temperature. To quench endogenous peroxidase activity, the slides were incubated in 3% H2O2 solution. The slides were then blocked in three consecutive Avidin, Biotin, and horse serum block solutions for 15 min each at room temperature (SP-2001, Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, Calif.). ApoE was detected by staining with D6E10 anti-ApoE antibody (ab1908, Abcam), which was used at a 1:100 dilution in PBS at 4° C. overnight. The primary antibody was then recognized by incubating the slides in a peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody (PK-4002, Vector Laboratories) and exposed by DAB (SK-4105, Vector Laboratories) oxidation reaction. The slides were imaged at 10× magnification and analysed in a double-blinded manner. ApoE expression was quantified by counting the number of DAB-positive cells and measuring the area of extracellular ApoE staining. Total ApoE staining signal was expressed as the percentage staining area per given tumor area, determined based on matched H&E-stained slides for each sample. Kaplan-Meier curves depicting patients' metastasis-free survival times were generated by plotting each patient's relapse-free survival data as a function of ApoE expression in that patient's primary melanoma lesion. Patients whose tumors had ApoE levels lower than the median ApoE expression of the population were classified as ApoE-negative, whereas patients whose melanomas expressed ApoE above the median were classified as ApoE-positive. Previously documented patients' history of metastatic recurrence to sites such as lung, brain, bone, soft and subcutaneous tissues, and skin enabled us to retrospectively determine the relationship between ApoE expression at a primary melanoma site and metastatic relapse. Example 2 Endogenous Mir-1908, Mir-199a-3p, And Mir-199a-5p Promote Human Melanoma Metastasis In order to identify miRNA regulators of melanoma metastasis, in vivo selection (Pollack and Fidler, 1982) was utilized with the pigmented MeWo and non-pigmented A375 human melanoma cell lines to generate multiple second (LM2) and third generation (LM3) lung metastatic derivatives. Comparison of the metastatic potential of the MeWo-LM2 and A375-LM3 lines showed these derivatives to metastasize significantly more efficiently than their respective parental populations in lung colonization assays (FIGS. 12A-B). Hybridization-based small RNA profiling of 894 mature miRNAs followed by quantitative stem-loop PCR (qRT-PCR) revealed four miRNAs (miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-214) to be upregulated greater than two-fold in multiple A375 and MeWo metastatic derivatives relative to their respective parental cells (FIGS. 1A-B, 12C). The significant induction of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-214, and miR-1908 across multiple metastatic derivatives suggested a metastasis-promoting role for these miRNAs. Retrovirally mediated transduction and over-expression of the precursors for miR-199a-3p and miR-199a-5p (over-expressed concomitantly as the miR-199a hairpin) and miR-1908 lead to a robust increase in lung metastatic colonization based on both bioluminescence signal quantification and gross lung histology (FIG. 1C, 12D; 9.64-fold increase, P=0.016 for miR-1908; 8.62-fold increase, P=0.028 for miR-199a), while miR-214 over-expression did not significantly affect metastasis. Importantly, over-expression of each miR-199a and miR-1908 increased the number of metastatic nodules formed (FIG. 12E), consistent with a role for these miRNAs in metastatic initiation. These findings also revealed miR-199a and miR-1908 to be sufficient for enhanced metastatic colonization. Next, assays were carried out to examine if endogenous levels of these miRNAs promote metastasis. To this end, miR-1908 and each of the two miRNAs arising from the miR-199a hairpin (miR-199a-3p and miR-199a-5p) were inhibited in the highly metastatic cells through miR-Zip technology. Individual inhibition of each of these miRNAs suppressed metastatic colonization by more than 7-fold (FIG. 1D; P=0.047 for miR-1908 inhibition; P=0.010 for miR-199a-3p inhibition; P=0.015 for miR-199a-5p inhibition) and dramatically decreased the number of metastatic nodules formed (FIG. 12F). To determine whether these miRNAs also promote metastasis in an independent cell line, their expression was silenced in the A375 metastatic derivative cell line. Indeed, inhibition of miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, or miR-199a-5p significantly reduced the lung colonization capacity of metastatic A375-LM3 cells (FIG. 1E), establishing these three miRNAs as endogenous promoters of metastasis by human melanoma cells. Given the robust functional roles of miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, and miR-199a-5p in promoting melanoma metastasis in a mouse model of human cell metastasis, further assays were carried out to examine whether expression of these miRNAs correlates with the capacity of human primary melanoma lesions to metastasize. To this end, 71 primary melanoma skin lesions obtained from Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (MSKCC) patients were analyzed in a blinded fashion for the expression levels of miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, and miR-199a-5p through qRT-PCR. Consistent with the above functional studies, all three miRNAs were significantly induced in primary melanomas that had metastasized relative to those that had not (FIG. 1F; P=0.037 for miR-1908; P=0.0025 for miR-199a-3p; P=0.0068 for miR-199a-5p), suggesting that upregulated expression of these miRNAs in primary lesions is an early event predictive of melanoma cancer progression. Example 3 Mir-1908, Mir-199a-3p, and Mir-199a-5p Promote Cell Invasion and Endothelial Recruitment In this Examiner, assays were carried out to determine the cellular mechanisms by which miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, and miR-199a-5p regulate metastasis. First, it was examined if these miRNAs promote metastasis by enhancing proliferation or tumor growth. Contrary to this, over-expression of each miRNA reduced cell proliferation (FIG. 13A). More importantly, miR-1908 over-expression did not increase primary tumor growth, while miR-199a over-expression actually lead to a significant decrease (35%; P<0.001) in tumor volume (FIG. 2A), indicating that the pro-metastatic effects of miR-1908 and miR-199a are not secondary to tumor growth promotion or enhanced cell proliferation. Next, it was examined whether these miRNAs regulate cell invasion, a key metastatic phenotype. Metastatic LM2 cells, which express higher levels of these miRNAs, displayed significantly increased matrigel invasion capacity relative to their less metastatic parental population (FIG. 13B). Accordingly, over-expression of miR-199a and miR-1908 individually enhanced the ability of parental MeWo cells to invade through matrigel (FIG. 2B; three-fold increase for miR-199; two-fold increase for miR-1908). Conversely, individual inhibition of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 significantly decreased the invasive capacity of MeWo-LM2 (FIG. 2C) as well as A375-LM3 (FIG. 2D) metastatic melanoma cell derivatives. Given the robust effects of these miRNAs on metastatic progression, further analyses were conducted to examiner whether they may regulate any additional pro-metastatic phenotypes. While over-expression of miR-199a or miR-1908 did not modulate melanoma cell adhesion to endothelial cells (FIG. 13C), resistance to anoikis (FIG. 13D), survival in the setting of serum starvation (FIG. 13E), or colony formation (FIG. 13F), each miRNA dramatically enhanced (more than three-fold increase) the ability of parental MeWo cells to recruit endothelial cells in trans-well endothelial recruitment assays (FIG. 2E). Consistent with this, metastatic Mewo-LM2 cells, which physiologically over-express miR-199a and miR-1908, were more efficient at recruiting endothelial cells relative to their parental cells (FIG. 13G). Conversely, inhibition of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, or miR-1908 in the metastatic MeWo-LM2 (FIG. 2F) as well as A375-LM3 cells (FIG. 2G) suppressed endothelial recruitment, consistent with the requirement and sufficiency of these miRNAs for enhanced endothelial recruitment capacity of metastatic melanoma cells. To determine whether endogenous miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 regulate endothelial recruitment by metastatic cells in vivo, assays were carried out to examine metastatic blood vessel density by performing co-immunostaining for human vimentin, which labels human MeWo melanoma cells, and mouse endothelial cell antigen (MECA-32), which labels mouse endothelial cells. Strikingly, inhibition of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, or miR-1908 individually led to pronounced decreases (an average of 3-fold for miR-199a-3p and miR-199a-5p and 4.7-fold for miR-1908) in blood vessel density within metastatic nodules (FIG. 2H; P<0.001 for miR-199a-3p; P<0.001 for miR-199a-5p; and P<0.001 for miR-1908), revealing a role for these miRNAs in promoting metastatic endothelial content and metastatic angiogenesis. Conversely, over-expression of each miRNA in poorly metastatic melanoma cells dramatically increased metastatic blood vessel density (FIG. 13H). These findings reveal miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 as necessary and sufficient for enhanced invasion and endothelial recruitment during melanoma progression. Example 4 Mir-1908, Mir-199a-3p, and Mir-199a-5p Convergently and Cooperatively Target Apoe and DNAJA4 In this example, a systematic and unbiased approach was employed to identify the direct molecular targets of these miRNAs. Since miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, and miR-199a-5p mediate the same sets of in vitro and in vivo phenotypes and miR-199a-5p and miR-199a-3p arise from the same precursor hairpin, it was hypothesized that the pro-metastatic phenotypes of these miRNAs may arise through silencing of common target genes. Given that mammalian miRNAs act predominantly by destabilizing target mRNA transcripts (Guo et al., 2010 Nature 466, 835-840), transcriptomic profiling of melanoma cells was performed in the context of both loss- and gain-of-function for each miRNA. This revealed a small set of genes that were repressed by both miR-199a and miR-1908 and that also displayed lower levels in the metastatic LM2 derivatives, which express higher endogenous levels of these miRNAs (FIG. 14A). Quantitative RT-PCR validated two genes, the metabolic gene Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) and the heat-shock protein DNAJA4, as significantly modulated by miR-199a and miR-1908 and dramatically silenced in the highly metastatic LM2 cells (FIGS. 3A and 14B-D). To determine whether ApoE and DNAJA4 are directly targeted by miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, and miR-199a-5p, the effects of each miRNA on the stability of its putative targets were examined through heterologous luciferase reporter assays. Interestingly, over-expression of miR-199a repressed the stability of the 3′ untranslated region (UTR) and coding sequence (CDS) of both ApoE and DNAJA4, while over-expression of miR-1908 destabilized the 3′UTR of ApoE and the 3′UTR and CDS of DNAJA4. Consistent with direct targeting, mutating the miRNA complementary sequences on each target abrogated miRNA-mediated regulation (FIG. 3B). In a direct test of endogenous targeting, individual miRNA inhibition in metastatic LM2 cells resulted in increased target stability (FIG. 3C) that was abrogated upon mutating the miRNA target sites (FIG. 14E), revealing ApoE to be directly targeted by miR-1908 and miR-199a-5p and DNAJA4 to be directly targeted by all three miRNAs (FIG. 3D). Importantly, the CDS' s and 3′UTR's of both of these genes were less stable in the highly metastatic LM2 cells, which express physiologically higher levels of the three regulatory miRNAs, indicating that endogenous targeting of ApoE and DNAJA4 by these miRNAs is relevant to melanoma metastasis (FIG. 3E). Given the molecular convergence of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 onto common target genes, it was next examined whether these targets, ApoE and DNAJA4, could mediate the metastatic phenotypes conferred by these miRNAs. Over-expression of each gene in the metastatic LM2 cells led to pronounced reductions in cell invasion and endothelial recruitment phenotypes (FIGS. 3F-G, 14F). Conversely, knock-down of ApoE or DNAJA4 in the poorly metastatic cells using independent hairpins significantly enhanced cell invasion and endothelial recruitment (FIGS. 3H-I, 4G), revealing ApoE and DNAJA4 to act as endogenous suppressors of these pro-metastatic phenotypes—consistent with their targeting by the above mentioned metastasis-promoting miRNAs. Example 5 ApoE and DNAJA4 Mediate miR-199a- and miR-1908-Dependent Metastatic Invasion, Endothelial Recruitment, and Colonization To determine whether ApoE and DNAJA4 are the direct biological effectors downstream of miR-199a and miR-1908, assays were carried out to examine whether these two target genes epistatically interact with each miRNA. As expected, miRNA silencing reduced the invasion and endothelial recruitment capacity of highly metastatic melanoma cells. Importantly, knock-down of ApoE or DNAJA4 in the setting of miRNA inhibition significantly occluded the suppression of invasion (FIGS. 4A and 4C) and endothelial recruitment (FIGS. 4B and 4D) upon silencing of each miRNA. Strikingly, knock-down of either of these genes in cells depleted for miR-1908 or miR-199a-5p fully rescued the dramatic suppression of metastatic colonization resulting from miRNA inhibition (FIG. 4E-F, 15E). Conversely, over-expression of ApoE or DNAJA4 in cells over-expressing miR-1908 (FIG. 4G-H, 15F) or miR-199a (FIG. 15G-I) was sufficient to suppress cell invasion and endothelial recruitment. Additionally, ApoE or DNAJA4 over-expression was sufficient to inhibit miRNA-mediated metastatic colonization (FIG. 15J). Importantly, ApoE and DNAJA4 were also required for miRNA-dependent enhanced cell invasion and endothelial recruitment by the highly metastatic A375-LM3 cells (FIGS. 4 I-J, 15K). To determine whether ApoE and DNAJA4 also regulate miRNA-dependent metastatic endothelial recruitment in vivo, co-immunostaining of melanoma metastases (human vimentin) and endothelial cells (MECA-32) was performed in lung metastatic nodules formed by cells knocked-down for each of these genes in the context of miRNA inhibition. Notably, knock-down of ApoE or DNAJA4 resulted in a significant (>3.5-fold) increase in metastatic blood vessel density in metastases arising from cells with miRNA silencing (FIG. 4K, P<0.01 for both ApoE and DNAJA4 knock-down cells). These findings reveal ApoE and DNAJA4 as direct downstream effectors of miRNA-dependent metastatic invasion, colonization, and endothelial recruitment phenotypes induced by these pro-metastatic miRNAs in melanoma. Example 6 Melanoma Cell-Secreted Apoe Is Both a Necessary and Sufficient Mediator of Invasion and Endothelial Recruitment, While Genetic Deletion of Apoe Promotes Metastasis ApoE is a secreted factor. As such, it was examined whether melanoma-cell secreted ApoE could suppress invasion and endothelial recruitment. Accordingly, extracellular ApoE levels, detected by ELISA, were 3.5-fold lower in metastatic LM2 cells—which express higher levels of miR-199a and miR-1908—than their less metastatic parental cells (FIG. 5A). Secreted ApoE levels were also significantly suppressed by endogenous miR-199a and miR-1908 (FIGS. 5B and 16A). Next, inhibiting ApoE through use of a neutralizing antibody (1D7) that recognizes the receptor-binding domain of ApoE enhanced both cell invasion (FIG. 5C; 1.68-fold increase) and endothelial recruitment (FIG. 5D; 1.84-fold increase) by parental MeWo cells, which express high endogenous levels of ApoE (FIG. 14C). Conversely, addition of recombinant human ApoE significantly suppressed invasion and endothelial recruitment by metastatic LM2 cells (FIG. 5E), which exhibit low endogenous ApoE levels (FIG. 14C). Importantly, recombinant ApoE addition did not affect melanoma cell or endothelial cell in vitro proliferation (FIG. 16B-C) or survival in serum starvation conditions (FIG. 16D-E), indicating that suppression of these phenotypes by recombinant ApoE is not secondary to a decrease in proliferation or impaired survival. Consistent with ApoE being epistatically downstream of miR-199a and miR-1908, neutralization of ApoE with the ApoE neutralizing antibody 1D7 significantly abrogated the suppressed invasion and endothelial recruitment phenotypes seen with inhibition of each miRNA (FIGS. 5F-G). The above findings reveal melanoma cell-secreted ApoE as a necessary and sufficient suppressor of miRNA-dependent invasion and endothelial recruitment phenotypes in melanoma. Further assays were carried out to investigate the mechanism by which DNAJA4, a poorly characterized heat-shock protein, mediates endothelial recruitment and invasion. Given the phenotypic commonalities displayed by ApoE and DNAJA4, it was hypothesized that DNAJA4 may play a regulatory role and enhance ApoE levels. Indeed, knock-down of DNAJA4 reduced both ApoE transcript levels (FIG. 16F) as well as secreted ApoE levels (FIG. 5H), while DNAJA4 over-expression substantially elevated ApoE expression (FIG. 16G). Consistent with DNAJA4 acting upstream of ApoE, addition of recombinant ApoE abrogated the enhanced cell invasion and endothelial recruitment phenotypes seen with DNAJA4 knock-down (FIG. 5I-J). Conversely, the suppression of invasion and endothelial recruitment seen with DNAJA4 over-expression phenotypes were significantly occluded by antibody neutralization of ApoE (FIGS. 16H-I). These findings reveal DNAJA4 to suppress melanoma invasion and endothelial recruitment through positive regulation of ApoE expression and resulting secretion. In view of the regulatory convergence of three metastasis-promoting miRNAs and the DNAJA4 gene on ApoE, assays were carried out to determine whether ApoE expression correlates with human melanoma progression. To this end, published array-based expression data for ApoE (Haqq et al., 2005 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102, 6092-6097) was analyzed in nevi, primary, and metastatic lesions. Consistent with a metastasis-suppressive role, ApoE levels were significantly lower in distal organ metastases relative to primary (P<0.025) and nevi lesions (P<0.0003) (FIG. 5K). Given its significant correlation with human melanoma progression, it was next examined whether increasing ApoE signaling in melanoma cells could have therapeutic efficacy in suppressing melanoma metastasis. More specifically, metastatic MeWo-LM2 cells were pre-incubated with recombinant ApoE or BSA for 24 hours prior to injection into mice. Strikingly, pre-treatment of cancer cells with ApoE robustly suppressed metastatic colonization by over 300-fold (FIG. 5L). This dramatic suppression of metastasis by ApoE pre-incubation of melanoma cells reflects that the effects of ApoE on melanoma cells are pivotal for metastatic initiation, as cells pre-treated with ApoE exhibit reduced invasive ability, which is needed to initiate metastatic events leading to lung colonization. Given the robust influence exerted by ApoE on metastasis and metastatic phenotypes, as well as its strong association with human melanoma progression, further assays were carried out to investigate the impact of genetic deletion of systemic ApoE on melanoma progression in an immunocompetent mouse model of melanoma metastasis. Consistent with a major suppressive role for extracellular ApoE in metastasis, B16F10 mouse melanoma cells injected into the circulation exhibited a greater than 7-fold increase in metastatic colonization in ApoE genetically null mice compared to their wild-type littermates (FIG. 5M). These findings establish systemic and cancer-secreted ApoE as a robust suppressor of human and mouse melanoma metastasis. Example 7 Extracellular ApoE Divergently Targets Melanoma Cell LRPJ and Endothelial Cell LRP8 Receptors In this example, assays were carried out to investigate the molecular mechanisms by which ApoE suppresses metastasis. In order to identify the ApoE receptor(s) that mediate(s) invasion, down all four known ApoE receptors, VLDLR, LRP1, LRP8, and LDLR (Hatters et al., 2006 Trends Biochem. Sci. 31, 445-454; Hauser et al., 2011 Prog. Lipid Res. 50, 62-74) were knocked in melanoma cells. Interestingly, knock-down of LRP1, but not the other ApoE receptors, abolished the cell invasion suppression effect induced by recombinant ApoE (FIG. 6A). Importantly, knock-down of LRP1 in metastatic LM2 cells, which display low levels of ApoE, only modestly increased cell invasion (FIG. 17A), suggesting the effects of LRP1 to be mediated by endogenous ApoE. To determine if LRP1 also mediates the miRNA-dependent effects on invasion and metastatic colonization, LRP1 was knocked down in the context of miRNA inhibition. LRP1 knock-down in the setting of miRNA silencing rescued the suppressed invasion phenotype arising from miRNA inhibition (FIGS. 6B, 17B). Consistent with these in vitro results, LRP1 knock-down significantly enhanced in vivo metastatic colonization by LM2 cells silenced for miR-1908 (FIG. 6C, 17C). These findings reveal LRP1 to be epistatically downstream of miRNA/ApoE-dependent melanoma invasion and metastatic colonization. While the invasion phenotype reflects the cell-autonomous effects of ApoE on melanoma cells, the endothelial recruitment phenotype suggests a non-cell-autonomous role of cancer-expressed ApoE directly on endothelial cells. Consistent with this, pre-treatment of endothelial cells with ApoE significantly reduced their ability to migrate towards highly metastatic cancer cells (FIG. 6D). In order to identify the ApoE receptor(s) on endothelial cells that mediate(s) the endothelial recruitment phenotype, all four known ApoE receptors were knocked down on endothelial cells. Interestingly, unlike for cancer cell invasion, knock-down of endothelial LRP8, but not any of the other receptors, selectively and significantly abrogated the inhibition of endothelial recruitment caused by miRNA silencing (FIGS. 6E, 17D-E). These findings are consistent with the LRP8 receptor being the downstream endothelial mediator of miRNA/ApoE-dependent effects on endothelial recruitment. Next, assays were carried out to examine whether ApoE/LRP8 signaling might also regulate general endothelial migration in a cancer cell-free system. Accordingly, antibody neutralization of ApoE, which is present in endothelial cell media, significantly enhanced endothelial migration (FIG. 6F), while recombinant ApoE was sufficient to inhibit endothelial migration in a trans-well assay (FIG. 6G) and a gradient-based chemotactic assay (FIG. 6H) in an endothelial cell LRP8 receptor-dependent manner. Importantly, addition of ApoE lead to a dramatic (greater than 40-fold) suppression of VEGF-induced endothelial recruitment in vivo into subcutaneous matrigel plugs (FIG. 61). Given the requirement and sufficiency of ApoE in mediating endothelial recruitment, further assays were carried out to examine whether systemic ApoE might regulate metastatic angiogenesis. Consistent with the robust suppression of metastatic endothelial content by melanoma cell-secreted ApoE (FIG. 4K), genetically null ApoE mice displayed higher blood vessel densities within their lung metastatic nodules formed by B 1 6F10 mouse melanoma cells compared to their wild-type littermates (FIG. 6J; 2.41-fold increase, P=0.0055). Taken together, the above findings reveal dual cell-autonomous/non-cell-autonomous roles for ApoE in metastasis suppression through divergent signaling mediated by melanoma cell LRP1 and endothelial cell LRP8 receptors. Example 8 MiR-199a-3p, miR- 199a-5p, and miR-1908 as Robust Prognostic and Therapeutic Targets in Melanoma Metastasis To examine whether the metastasis promoter miRNAs described herein could serve as clinical predictors of metastatic outcomes, the expression levels of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 were quantified in a blinded fashion by qRT-PCR in a cohort of human melanoma samples obtained from patients at MSKCC. The relationships between the levels of these miRNAs in primary melanoma lesions and metastatic relapse outcomes were then determined. Importantly, patients whose primary melanoma lesions expressed higher (greater than the median for the population) levels of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, or miR-1908 were more likely to develop distal metastases and exhibited significantly shorter metastasis-free survival times than patients whose primary melanomas expressed lower levels of each of these miRNAs (FIGS. 7A-C, P=0.0032 for miR-199a-3p, P=0.0034 for miR-199a-5p, and P=0.027 for miR-1908). Strikingly, the aggregate expression levels of the three miRNAs displayed the strongest prognostic capacity in stratifying patients at high risk from those with very low risk for metastatic relapse (FIG. 7D, P<0.0001). These clinical findings are consistent with functional cooperativity between these miRNAs in the regulation of cancer progression and suggest utility for these molecules as clinical prognostic biomarkers of melanoma metastasis. In light of the current lack of effective treatment options for the prevention of melanoma metastasis and the strong prognostic value of the three regulatory miRNAs in melanoma metastasis, these miRNAs therapeutically targeted using antisense LNA therapy (Elmer et al., 2008(a); Elmer et al., 2008(b)). Highly metastatic MeWo-LM2 cells pre-treated with LNA oligonucleotides antisense to mature miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, or miR-1908 exhibited roughly a four-fold decrease in metastatic activity. Given clinical evidence for cooperativity among these miRNAs, the impact of silencing all three miRNAs on metastatic progression was examined. Remarkably, co-transfection of LNAs against all three miRNAs suppressed metastatic colonization by over seventy-fold, revealing dramatic synergy and cooperativity between endogenous miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 (FIG. 7E, P=0.004). Importantly, inhibition of these miRNAs with triple LNA pre-treatment did not result in decreased in vitro proliferation (FIG. 18A), indicating that the dramatic metastasis suppression phenotype is not secondary to impaired proliferation. Combinatorial LNA-mediated miRNA targeting in the independent A375 metastatic derivative line also significantly inhibited lung colonization (FIG. 18B). Next, it was examined whether combinatorial LNA-induced miRNA inhibition could suppress systemic melanoma metastasis to multiple distant organs. Indeed, intracardiac injection of highly metastatic melanoma cells pre-treated with a cocktail of LNAs targeting the three regulatory miRNAs revealed endogenous miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 to promote systemic melanoma metastasis (FIG. 7F). Combinatorial LNA-mediated inhibition of the three miRNAs lead to a reduction in the number of systemic metastatic foci (FIG. 7G) in distal sites such as the brain and bone (FIGS. 7H-I). Further assays were carried out to examine the therapeutic efficacy of systemically administered in vivo-optimized LNAs in melanoma metastasis prevention. To this end, highly metastatic MeWo-LM2 cells were injected into mice. The following day, mice were intravenously treated with LNAs targeting miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 at a low total dose (12.5 mg/kg) on a bi-weekly basis for four weeks. Notably, combinatorial LNA treatment reduced lung colonization by 9-fold (FIG. 7J, P=0.031) without any apparent signs of toxicity (FIG. 18C). Taken together, the above findings reveal a novel miRNA-dependent regulatory network that converges on ApoE signaling to control cell-autonomous and non-cell-autonomous features of melanoma metastatic progression (FIG. 7K). The above basic studies have identified a set of miRNAs with powerful prognostic and therapeutic potential in the clinical management of melanoma. Example 9 miRNA-Dependent Targeting of Apoe/LRP 1 Signaling Promotes Cancer Cell Invasion and Endothelial Recruitment through CTGF Induction In this example, Connective Tissue Growth Factor (CTGF) was identified as a down-stream mediator of ApoE/LRP1 signaling in cancer cell invasion and endothelial recruitment. CTGF expression level, as determined by qRT-PCR analysis and ELISA, is mediated by ApoE/LRP1 signaling (FIGS. 8A, 8B, and 8C). Additionally, ApoE/LRP1 regulated cancer cell invasion and endothelial recruitment are mediated by CTGF (FIG. 8D, 8E). Example 10 CTGF Mediates miRNA-Dependent Metastatic Invasion, Endothelial Recruitment, and Colonization In this Examiner, assays were carried out to investigate whether CTGF mediates miRNA-dependent invasion and endothelial recruitment. Briefly, trans-well cell invasion and endothelial recruitment assays were performed on parental MeWo cells over-expressing miR-199a or miR-1908 in the presence of a blocking antibody targeting CTGF. Indeed, it was found that mir-199a and mir-1908 dependent metastatic invasion and endothelial recruitment are mediated by CTGF (FIGS. 9A and 9B). In order to investigate whether in vivo melanoma metastasis (metastatic colonization) is mediated by CTGF, bioluminescence imaging was performed on lung metastasis by 5×104 parental MeWo cells knocked down for CTGF in the setting of miR-199a or miR-1908 over-expression. Knock-down of CTGF in this setting resulted in significant reduction of in vivo melanoma metastasis (FIG. 9C). Example 11 Treatment with LXR Agonist GW3965 Elevates Melanoma Cell ApoE and DNAJA4 Levels and Suppresses Cancer Cell Invasion, Endothelial Recruitment, and Metastatic Colonization Small molecule agonists of the Liver X Receptor (LXR) have previously been shown to increase Apo E levels. To investigate whether increasing Apo-E levels via LXR activation resulted in therapeutic benefit, assays were carried out to assess the effect of the LXR agonist GW3965 [chemical name: 3-[3-[N-(2-Chloro-3-trifluoromethylbenzyl)-(2,2-diphenyl ethyl)amino]propyloxy] phenylacetic acid hydrochloride) on Apo-E levels, tumor cell invasion, endothelial recruitment, and in vivo melanoma metastasis (FIG. 10). Incubation of parental MeWo cells in the presence of therapeutic concentrations of GW3965 increased expression of ApoE and DNAJA4 (FIGS. 10A and 10B). Pre-treatment of MeWO cells with GW3965 decreased tumor cell invasion (FIG. 10C) and endothelial recruitment (FIG. 10D). To test whether GW3965 could inhibit metastasis in vivo, mice were administered a grain-based chow diet containing GW3965 (20mg/kg) or a control diet, and lung metastasis was assayed using bioluminescence after tail-vein injection of 4×104 parental MeWo cells into the mice (FIG. 10E). Oral administration of GW3965 to the mice in this fashion resulted in a significant reduction in in vivo melanoma metastasis (FIG. 10E). Example 12 Identification of Mir-7 as an Endogenous Suppressor of Melanoma Metastasis In this example, miR-7 was identified as an endogenous suppressor of melanoma metastasis (FIG. 11). To test whether miR-7 suppresses melanoma metastasis in vivo, its expression was knocked down in parental MeWo cells using miR-Zip technology (FIG. 11A). Bioluminescence imaging plot of lung metastatic colonization following intravenous injection of 4×104 parental MeWo cells expressing a short hairpin (miR-Zip) inhibitor of miR-7 (miR-7 KD) significantly increased lung metastasis in vivo (FIG. 11A). Conversely, overexpression of miR-7 in LM2 cells significantly reduced lung metastasis in vivo (FIG. 11B). The complexity of cancer requires the application of systematic analyses (Pe'er and Hacohen, 2011). Via a systematic global approach, a cooperative network of miRNAs was uncovered. The miRNAs are i) upregulated in highly metastatic human melanoma cells, ii) required and sufficient for metastatic colonization and angiogenesis in melanoma, and iii) robust pathologic predictors of human melanoma metastatic relapse. Through a transcriptomic-based and biologically guided target identification approach, miR-1908, miR-199a-3p, and miR-199a-5p were found to convergently target the heat shock factor DNAJA4 and the metabolic gene ApoE. The requirement of each individual miRNA for metastasis indicates that these three convergent miRNAs are non-redundant in promoting melanoma metastasis, while the robust synergistic metastasis suppression achieved by combinatorial miRNA inhibition reveals functional cooperativity between these miRNAs, presumably achieved through maximal silencing of ApoE and DNAJA4. The identification of ApoE as a gene negatively regulated by three metastasis promoter miRNAs, positively regulated by a metastasis suppressor gene (DNAJA4), and silenced in clinical metastasis samples highlights the significance of this gene as a suppressor of melanoma progression. Example 13 Identification of LXRβ Signaling as a Novel Therapeutic Target in Melanoma To identify nuclear hormone receptors that show broad expression in melanoma, we examined the expression levels of all nuclear hormone receptor family members across the NCI-60 collection of human melanoma cell lines. Several receptors exhibited stable expression across multiple melanoma lines, suggesting that they could represent novel potential targets in melanoma (FIGS. 19A and 20A). Notably, out of these, liver-X receptors (LXRs) were previously shown to enhance ApoE transcription in adipocytes and macrophages (Laffitte et al., 2001), while pharmacologic activation of RXRs was found to drive ApoE expression in pre-clinical Alzheimer's models (Cramer et al., 2012). Given the recently uncovered metastasis-suppressive role of ApoE in melanoma (Pencheva et al., 2012), the ubiquitous basal expression of LXRβ and RXRα in melanoma, and the availability of pharmacologic agents to therapeutically activate LXRs and RXRs, we investigated whether activation of LXRs or RXRs in melanoma cells might inhibit melanoma progression phenotypes. In light of the established roles of nuclear hormone receptors such as ER and AR in regulating breast and prostate cancer cell proliferation, we first examined whether pharmacologic agonism of LXRs or RXRs in melanoma cells affects in vitro cell growth. Treatment of melanoma cells with two structurally-distinct LXR agonists, GW3965 2 or T0901317 1, or the RXR agonist bexarotene did not affect cell proliferation or cell viability rates (FIG. 20B-C). We next assessed the effects of LXR or RXR activation on cell invasion and endothelial recruitment—phenotypes displayed by metastatic melanoma and metastatic breast cancer populations (Pencheva et al., 2012; Png et al., 2012). Treatment of the mutationally diverse MeWo (B-Raf/N-Ras wild-type), HT-144 (B-Raf mutant), and SK-Mel-2 (N-Ras mutant) human melanoma lines as well as the SK-Mel-334.2 (B-Raf mutant) primary human melanoma line with GW3965 2 or T0901317 1 consistently suppressed the ability of melanoma cells to invade through matrigel and to recruit endothelial cells in trans-well assays (FIG. 19B-C). In comparison, treatment with bexarotene suppressed invasion only in half of the melanoma lines tested and it did not significantly affect the endothelial recruitment phenotype (FIGS. 19B-C). Given the superiority of LXR over RXR agonism in broadly inhibiting both cell invasion and endothelial recruitment across multiple melanoma lines, we investigated the requirement for LXR signaling in mediating the suppressive effects of LXR agonists. Knockdown of melanoma LXRβ, but not LXRα, abrogated the ability of GW3965 2 and T0901317 1 to suppress invasion and endothelial recruitment (FIG. 19D-G and FIGS. 20D-G), revealing melanoma-cell LXRβ to be the functional target of LXR agonists in eliciting the suppression of these in vitro phenotypes. Our molecular findings are consistent with LXRβ being the predominant LXR isoform expressed by melanoma cells (FIG. 19A, P<0.0001). The ubiquitous basal expression of LXRβ in melanoma is likely reflective of the general role that LXRs play in controlling lipid transport, synthesis, and catabolism (Calkin and Tontonoz, 2013). While such stable LXRβ expression would be key to maintaining melanoma cell metabolism and growth, it also makes LXR signaling an attractive candidate for broad-spectrum therapeutic targeting in melanoma. Example 14 Therapeutic Delivery of LXR Agonists Suppresses Melanoma Tumor Growth LXR agonists were originally developed as oral drug candidates for the purpose of cholesterol lowering in patients with dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis (Collins et al., 2002; Joseph and Tontonoz, 2003). These compounds were abandoned clinically secondary to their inability to reduce lipid levels in large-animal pre-clinical models (Groot et al., 2005). Given the robust ability of GW3965 2 and T0901317 1 to suppress in vitro melanoma progression phenotypes (FIG. 19B-C), we investigated whether therapeutic LXR activation could be utilized for the treatment of melanoma. Indeed, oral administration of GW3965 2 or T0901317 1 at low doses (20 mg/kg), subsequent to formation of subcutaneous tumors measuring 5-10 mm3 in volume, suppressed tumor growth by the aggressive B16F10 mouse melanoma cells in an immunocompetent model by 67% and 61%, respectively (FIG. 21A-B). Administration of a higher LXR agonist dose (100 mg/kg) led to an 80% reduction in tumor growth (FIG. 21A), consistent with dose-dependent suppressive effects. Oral administration of GW3965 2 also robustly suppressed tumor growth by the MeWo (70% inhibition) and SK-Mel-2 (49% inhibition) human melanoma cell lines, as well as the SK-Mel-334.2 primary human melanoma line (73% inhibition) (FIG. 21C-E and FIG. 22A). Encouraged by the robust tumor-suppressive impact of LXR agonists on small tumors (5-10 mm3) (FIG. 21A-E), we next investigated whether LXR activation therapy could inhibit the growth of large (˜150 mm3) tumors. We found that treatment with GW3965 2 led to a roughly 50% reduction in the growth of established large B16F10 tumors (FIG. 21F). Importantly, therapeutic delivery of GW3965 2 subsequent to tumor establishment substantially prolonged the overall survival time of immunocompetent mice injected with mouse B16F10 cells, immunocompromised mice bearing tumor xeongrafts derived from the human MeWo established melanoma line, as well as the SK-Mel.334-2 primary human melanoma line (FIG. 21G-I). These findings are consistent with broad-spectrum responsiveness to LXR activation therapy across melanotic and amelanotic established melanoma tumors of diverse mutational subtypes: B-Raf and N-Ras wild-type (B16F10 and MeWo; FIG. 21A-C), B-Raf mutant (SK-Mel-334.2; FIG. 21D), and N-Ras mutant (SK-Mel-2; FIG. 21E). We next sought to determine the cell biological phenotypes regulated by LXR agonists in suppressing tumor growth. Consistent with the inhibitory effects of GW3965 2 on endothelial recruitment by melanoma cells in vitro, GW3965 2 administration led to a roughly 2-fold reduction in the endothelial cell content of tumors (FIG. 21J). This effect was accompanied by a modest decrease (23%) in the number of actively proliferating tumor cells in vivo (FIG. 21K) without a change in the number of apoptotic cells (FIG. 21L). These results suggest that, in addition to reducing local tumor invasion, LXR activation suppresses melanoma tumor growth primarily through inhibition of tumor angiogenesis with a resulting reduction in in vivo proliferation. Example 15 LXR Agonism Suppresses Melanoma Metastasis to the Lung and Brain and Inhibits the Progression of Incipient Metastases The strong suppressive effects of LXR agonists on melanoma tumor growth motivated us to examine whether LXR activation could also suppress metastatic colonization by melanoma cells. To this end, pre-treatment of human MeWo melanoma cells with GW3965 2 led to a more than 50-fold reduction in their metastatic colonization capacity (FIG. 23A). In light of this dramatic inhibitory effect, we next assessed the ability of orally administered LXR agonists to suppress metastasis. Immunocompromised mice that were orally administered GW3965 2 or T0901317 1 experienced 31-fold and 23-fold respective reductions in lung metastatic colonization by human MeWo cells (FIG. 23B-C). Treatment with GW3965 2 also suppressed metastatic colonization by the HT-144 melanoma line (FIG. 23D) as well as the SK-Mel-334.2 primary melanoma line (FIG. 23E). GW3965 2 is a lipophilic molecule that can efficiently cross the blood brain barrier and potently activate LXR signaling in the brain. Consistent with this, oral delivery of GW3965 2 was previously shown to improve amyloid plaque pathology and memory deficits in pre-clinical models of Alzheimer's disease (Jiang et al., 2008). We thus wondered whether LXR agonism could exhibit therapeutic activity in the suppression of melanoma brain metastasis—a dreaded melanoma outcome in dire need of effective therapies (Fonkem et al., 2012). Notably, oral administration of GW3965 2 inhibited both systemic dissemination and brain colonization following intracardiac injection of brain-metastatic melanoma cells derived from the MeWo parental line (FIG. 23F). These results reveal robust metastasis suppression by LXR activation therapy across multiple melanoma lines and in multiple distal organ metastatic sites. Encouraged by the robust effects observed in suppressing metastasis formation (FIG. 23A-F), we next sought to determine whether LXR activation therapy could halt the progression of melanoma cells that had already metastatically disseminated. We first tested the ability of GW3965 2 to reduce lung colonization by melanoma cells disseminating from an orthotopic site following removal of the primary tumor (FIG. 23G). Importantly, oral administration of GW3965 2 post-tumor excision inhibited lung colonization by disseminated melanoma cells by 17-fold (FIG. 23H). Remarkably, treatment of mice with GW3965 2 also dramatically suppressed (28-fold) colonization by incipient lung metastases that had progressed 8-fold from the baseline at seeding (FIG. 231). Consistent with LXR activation inhibiting metastatic initiation, GW3965 2 treatment decreased the number of macroscopic metastatic nodules formed (FIG. 23J). Finally, treatment of mice with GW3965 2 in this ‘adjuvant’ pre-clinical context significantly prolonged their survival times following metastatic colonization (FIG. 23K). Example 16 LXR Activation Reduces Melanoma Progression and Metastasis in a Genetically-Driven Mouse Model of Melanoma Roughly 60% of human melanoma tumors are marked by activating mutations in the Braf oncogene, with one single amino acid variant, B-RafV600E, being the predominant mutation found (Davies et al., 2002). Nearly 20% of melanomas exhibit activating mutations in B-Raf with concurrent silencing of the Pten tumor-suppressor, which drives progression to a malignant melanoma state (Tsao et al., 2004; Chin et al., 2006). Recently, Tyrosinase (Tyr)-driven conditional B-Raf activation and Pten loss were shown to genetically cooperate in driving mouse melanoma progression (Dankort et al., 2009). To determine whether LXR activation could suppress melanoma progression in this genetically-initiated model, we induced melanomas in Tyr::CreER; B-RafV600E/+; Ptenlox/+ and Tyr::CreER; B-RafV600E/+; Ptenlox/lox mice by intraperitoneal administration of 4-hydroxytamoxifen (4-HT). Notably, oral administration of GW3965 2 following melanoma initiation attenuated tumor progression and significantly extended the overall survival times of both PTEN heterozygous Tyr::CreER; B-RafV600E/+; Ptenlox/+ and PTEN homozygous Tyr::CreER; B-RafV600E/+; Ptenlox/lox mice (FIG. 24A-B and FIG. 25A-B). Next, we examined the ability of GW3965 2 to suppress melanoma metastasis in this genetic context. While we did not detect macroscopic metastases in the lungs or brains of 4-HT-treated Tyr::CreER; B-RafV600E/+1; Ptenlox/lox control mice, we consistently observed melanoma metastases to the salivary gland lymph nodes. Importantly, Tyr::CreER; B-RafV600E/−1; Ptenlox/lox mice treated with GW3965 2 exhibited a decrease in the number of lymphatic metastases detected post-mortem (FIG. 24C). These findings indicate that LXR activation inhibits orthotopic metastasis in a genetically-driven melanoma model, in addition to its suppressive effects on primary melanoma tumor progression. The cooperativity between B-Raf activation and Pten loss in driving melanoma progression can be further enhanced by inactivation of CDKN2A, a cell cycle regulator frequently mutated in familial melanomas (Hussussian et al., 1994; Kamb et al., 1994). We thus examined the effect of LXR activation on B-RafV600E/+; Pten−/−; CDKN2A−/− melanomas, allowing us to test the therapeutic efficacy of LXR agonism in a more aggressive genetically-driven melanoma progression model. Importantly, therapeutic delivery of GW3965 2 robustly inhibited tumor growth and lung metastasis by B-RafV600E/+; Pten−/−; CDKN2A−/− primary mouse melanoma cells injected into syngeneic immunocompetent mice and extended the overall survival of mice bearing B-RafV600E/+; Pten−/−; CDKN2A−/− melanoma burden (FIG. 24D-F). Taken together, the robust suppression of melanoma progression across independent xenograft and genetically-induced immunocompetent melanoma mouse models that exhibit the diverse mutational profiles of human melanomas motivates the clinical testing of LXR activation therapy. Example 17 Pharmacologic Activation of LXRβ Suppresses Melanoma Phenotypes by Transcriptionally Inducing Melanoma-Cell ApoE expression We next sought to determine the downstream molecular target of LXRβ that mediates suppression of melanoma progression. To this end, we transcriptomically profiled human MeWo melanoma cells treated with the LXR agonist GW3965 2. Out of the 365 genes that were significantly induced in response to LXR activation, we identified ApoE, a previously validated transcriptional target of LXRs in macrophages and adipocytes (Laffitte et al., 2001), as the top upregulated secreted factor in melanoma cells (FIG. 26). Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) validation revealed robust upregulation of ApoE transcript expression following treatment with independent LXR agonists across multiple human melanoma lines (FIG. 27A-C). In light of the previously reported metastasis-suppressive function of ApoE in melanoma (Pencheva et al., 2012), we investigated whether LXRβ activation suppresses melanoma progression through transcriptional induction of ApoE. Indeed, GW3965 2 and T0901317 1 were found to enhance the melanoma cell-driven activity of a luciferase reporter construct containing the ApoE promoter fused to either of two previously characterized LXR-binding multi-enhancer elements (ME.1 or ME.2) (Laffitte et al., 2001) (FIG. 28A). Importantly, this transcriptional induction resulted in elevated levels of secreted ApoE protein (FIG. 28B). Consistent with direct LXRβ targeting of ApoE in melanoma cells, neutralization of extracellular ApoE with an antibody fully blocked the LXRβ-mediated suppression of cell invasion and endothelial recruitment and further enhanced these phenotypes relative to the control IgG treatment (FIG. 28C-G and FIG. 27D-F), revealing the effects of LXR agonism to be modulated by extracellular ApoE. Additionally, molecular knockdown of ApoE in melanoma cells also blocked the GW3965 2-mediated suppression of cell invasion and endothelial recruitment phenotypes (FIG. 27G-H). In agreement with this, melanoma cell depletion of LXRβ, but not LXRα, abrogated the ability of GW3965 2 and T0901317 1 to upregulate ApoE transcription and ultimately protein expression (FIG. 28H-I and FIG. 27I-K). Collectively, these findings indicate that pharmacologic activation of LXRβ, the predominant LXR isoform expressed by melanoma cells, suppresses cell-intrinsic invasion and endothelial recruitment by melanoma cells through transcriptionally activating ApoE expression in melanoma cells. Example 18 Engagement of Melanoma-Derived and Systemic ApoE by LXRβ Activation Therapy The LXRβ-induced suppression of key melanoma phenotypes by extracellular ApoE in vitro suggested that the suppressive effects of LXR agonists in vivo might be further augmented by the activation of LXRs in peripheral tissues, which could serve as robust sources of extracellular ApoE. Importantly, such non-transformed tissues would be less vulnerable to developing resistance to LXR activation therapy, allowing for chronic ApoE induction in patients. We thus investigated whether therapeutic LXR agonism suppresses melanoma progression by inducing ApoE derived from melanoma cells or systemic tissues. Consistent with LXRβ agonism increasing ApoE expression in melanoma cells in vivo, ApoE transcript levels were upregulated in melanoma primary tumors as well as in melanoma lung and brain metastases dissociated from mice that were fed an LXR agonist-supplemented diet (FIG. 29A-E). Importantly, treatment of mice with either GW3965 2 or T0901317 1 significantly elevated ApoE protein expression in systemic adipose, lung, and brain tissues of mice (FIGS. 30A-B) and also upregulated ApoE transcript levels in circulating white blood cells (FIG. 30C). These results indicate that LXR activation therapy induces both melanoma-cell and systemic tissue ApoE expression in vivo. To determine the in vivo requirement of melanoma-derived and systemic LXR activation for the tumor-suppressive effects of orally administered LXR agonists, we first tested the ability of GW3965 2 to suppress tumor growth by B16F10 mouse melanoma cells depleted of LXRβ. Consistent with our findings in human melanoma cells, knockdown of mouse melanoma-cell LXRβ abrogated the GW3965-mediated induction of ApoE expression (FIG. 29F-H). Despite this, melanoma-cell LXRβ knockdown was unable to prevent the suppression of tumor growth by GW3965 2 (FIG. 29D), implicating a role for systemic LXR activation in tumor growth inhibition by GW3965 2. To identify the LXR isoform that mediates this non-tumor autonomous suppression of melanoma growth by LXR agonists, we examined the effects of GW3965 2 on tumors implanted onto LXRα or LXRβ genetically null mice. Interestingly, genetic ablation of systemic LXRβ blocked the ability of GW3965 to suppress melanoma tumor growth, while LXRα inactivation had no effect on tumor growth inhibition by GW3965 (FIG. 6D). Importantly, the upregulation of systemic ApoE expression by GW3965 2, an agonist with 6-fold greater activity towards LXRβ than LXRα, was abrogated in LXRβ −/−, but not in LXRα−/− mice (FIG. 30E and FIG. 291). These results indicate that ApoE induction by GW3965 2 in peripheral tissues is predominantly driven by systemic LXRβ activation. In agreement with this, we find systemic LXRβ to be the primary molecular target and effector of GW3965 2 in mediating melanoma tumor growth suppression. We next examined whether ApoE is required for the in vivo melanoma-suppressive effects of LXR agonists. Consistent with the lack of an impact for melanoma-cell LXRβ knockdown on the tumor-suppressive activity of GW3965 2, depletion of melanoma-cell ApoE did not prevent tumor growth inhibition by GW3965 2 neither (FIG. 29F-H and FIG. 30F). These findings suggest that the tumor suppressive effects of GW3965 2 might be primarily mediated through ApoE induction in systemic tissues. Indeed, GW3965 2 was completely ineffective in suppressing tumor growth in mice genetically inactivated for ApoE (FIG. 30F), revealing systemic ApoE as the downstream effector of systemic LXRβ in driving melanoma tumor growth suppression. Interestingly, in contrast to primary tumor growth regulation, knockdown of melanoma-cell ApoE partially prevented the metastasis-suppressive effect of GW3965 2 (FIG. 30G). Similarly, genetic inactivation of ApoE only partially prevented the metastasis suppression elicited by GW3965 2 as well (FIG. 30G). The GW3965-driven inhibition of metastasis was completely blocked only in the context of both melanoma-cell ApoE knockdown and genetic inactivation of systemic ApoE (FIG. 30G), indicative of a requirement for both melanoma-derived and systemic ApoE engagement by LXRβ in suppressing metastasis. We thus conclude that the effects of LXRβ activation on primary tumor growth are elicited primarily through systemic ApoE induction, while the effects of LXRβ agonism on metastasis are mediated through ApoE transcriptional induction in both melanoma cells and systemic tissues. The identification of ApoE as the sole downstream mediator of the LXRβ-induced suppression of melanoma phenotypes further highlights the importance of this gene as a suppressor of melanoma progression. To determine whether ApoE expression is clinically prognostic of melanoma metastatic outcomes, we assessed ApoE protein levels by performing blinded immunohistochemical analysis on 71 surgically resected human primary melanoma lesions. We found that patients whose melanomas had metastasized exhibited roughly 3-fold lower ApoE expression in their primary tumors relative to patients whose melanomas did not metastasize (FIG. 30H, P=0.002). Remarkably, ApoE expression levels in patients' primary melanoma lesions robustly stratified patients at high risk from those at low risk for metastatic relapse (FIG. 30I, P=0.002). These observations are consistent with previous findings that revealed significantly lower levels of ApoE in distant melanoma metastases relative to primary lesions (Pencheva et al., 2012). Collectively, this work indicates that ApoE, as a single gene, could likely act as a prognostic and predictive biomarker in primary melanomas to identify patients that i.) are at risk for melanoma metastatic relapse and as such ii.) could obtain clinical benefit from LXRβ agonist-mediated ApoE induction. Ecample 19 LXRβ Activation Therapy Suppresses the Growth of Melanomas Resistant to Dacarbazine and Vemurafenib Encouraged by the robust ability of LXRβ activation therapy to suppress melanoma tumor growth and metastasis across a wide range of melanoma lines of diverse mutational backgrounds, we next sought to determine whether melanomas that are resistant to two of the mainstay clinical agents used in the management of metastatic melanoma—dacarbazine and vemurafenib—could respond to LXRβ-activation therapy. To this end, we generated B16F10 clones resistant to dacarbazine (DTIC) by continuously culturing melanoma cells in the presence of DTIC for two months. This yielded a population of cells that exhibited a 7-fold increase in viability in response to high-dose DTIC treatment compared to the parental B16F10 cell line (FIG. 31A). To confirm that this in vitro-derived DTIC clone was also resistant to DTIC in vivo, we assessed the effects of dacarbazine treatment on tumor growth. While dacarbazine significantly suppressed the growth of the DTIC-sensitive parental line (FIG. 31B), it did not affect tumor growth by B16F10 DTIC-resistant cells (FIG. 31C). GW3965 2 robustly suppressed tumor growth by the DTIC-resistant B16F10 melanoma clone by more than 70% (FIGS. 31C-D). Importantly, oral delivery of GW3965 2 also strongly inhibited the growth of in vivo-derived DTIC-resistant human melanoma tumors formed by the independent MeWo cell line (FIG. 31E-F and FIG. 32A). These results reveal that LXRβ agonism is effective in suppressing multiple melanoma cell populations that are resistant to dacarbazine—the only FDA-approved cytotoxic chemotherapeutic in metastatic melanoma. Our findings have important clinical implications for melanoma treatment since all stage IV patients who are treated with dacarbazine ultimately progress by developing tumors that are resistant to this agent. We tested the impact of LXRβ activation therapy on melanoma cells resistant to the recently approved B-Raf kinase inhibitor, vemurafenib—a regimen that shows activity against B-Raf-mutant melanomas (Bollag et al., 2010; Sosman et al., 2012). Numerous investigators have derived melanoma lines resistant to vemurafenib (Poulikakos et al., 2011; Shi et al., 2012, Das Thakur et al., 2013). GW3965 2 treatment suppressed the growth of the previously derived SK-Me1-239 vemurafenib-resistant line by 72% (FIG. 31G) and significantly prolonged the survival of mice bearing vemurafenib-resistant melanoma burden (FIG. 31H). Our findings from combined pharmacologic, molecular and genetic studies in diverse pre-clinical models of melanoma establish LXRβ targeting as a novel therapeutic approach that robustly suppresses melanoma tumor growth and metastasis through the transcriptional induction of ApoE—a key suppressor of melanoma invasion and metastatic angiogenesis (Pencheva et al., 2012; FIG. 31I). Example 20 Treatment with ApoE Inhibits Tumor Cell Invasion and Endothelial Recruitment Across Multiple Cancer Types, Including Breast Cancer, Renal Cell Cancer and Pancreatic Cancer In order to determine if ApoE treatment could be effective for treating cancer types in addition to melanoma, in vitro assays were performed to assess the effect of ApoE treatment on several different cancer cell lines, including breast cancer, renal cell cancer, and pancreatic cancer cell lines (FIG. 33). The ability of cancer cells to invade through matrigel in vitro was tested by using a trans-cell matrigel invasion chamber system (354480, BD Biosciences). Various cancer cell lines were serum-starved overnight in media containing 0.2% FBS. The following day, invasion chambers were pre-equilibrated prior to the assay by adding 0.5 mL of starvation media to the top and bottom wells. Meanwhile, cancer cells were trypsinized and viable cells were counted using the trypan blue dead cell exclusion dye. Cancer cells were then resuspended at a concentration of 1×105 cells/1 mL starvation media, and 0.5 mL of cell suspension, containing 5×104 cells, was seeded into each trans-well. To determine the effect of recombinant ApoE on cancer cell invasion, human recombinant ApoE3 (4696, Biovision) or BSA were added to each trans-well at 100 μg/mL at the start of the assay. The invasion assay was allowed to proceed for 24 hours at 37° C. Upon completion of the assay, the inserts were washed in PBS, the cells that did not invade were gently scraped off from the top side of each insert using q-tips, and the cells that invaded into the basal insert side were fixed in 4% PFA for 15 minutes at room temperature. Following fixation, the inserts were washed in PBS and then cut out and mounted onto slides using VectaShield mounting medium containing DAPI nuclear stain (H-1000, Vector Laboratories). The basal side of each insert was imaged using an inverted fluorescence microscope (Zeiss Axiovert 40 CFL) at 5× magnification, and the number of DAPI-positive cells was quantified using ImageJ. Indeed, treatment with ApoE inhibited both tumor cell invasion and endothelial recruitment across all three of these cancer types (FIG. 33A-I). Example 21 LXR agonists LXR-623, WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19, WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9, and SB742881, Induce ApoE Expression in Human Melanoma Cells Given that ApoE activation by treatment with LXR agonists GW3965 2 and T0901317 1 resulted in therapeutic benefit for inhibiting tumor growth and metastasis, we next examined the ability of other LXR agonists to induce ApoE expression in human melanoma cell lines (FIG. 34). To determine the effect of the various LXR agonists (LXR-623, WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19, WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9, and SB742881 on ApoE expression in melanoma cells, 1×105 human MeWo melanoma cells were seeded in a 6-well plate. The following day, DMSO or the respective LXR agonist was added to the cell media at a concentration of 500 nM, 1 μM, or 2 μM, as indicated, and the cells were incubated in the presence of DMSO or the drug for 48 hours at 37° C. The total amount of DMSO added to the cell media was kept below 0.2%. RNA was extracted from whole cell lysates using the Total RNA Purification Kit (17200, Norgen). For every sample, 600 ng of RNA was reverse transcribed into cDNA using the cDNA First-Strand Synthesis kit (Invitrogen). Approximately 200 ng of cDNA was mixed with SYBR® green PCR Master Mix and the corresponding forward and reverse primers specific for detection of human ApoE. Each reaction was carried out in quadruplicates, and ApoE mRNA expression levels were measured by quantitative real-time PCR amplification using an ABI Prism 7900HT Real-Time PCR System (Applied Biosystems). The relative ApoE expression was determined using the ΔΔCt method. GAPDH was used as an endogenous control for normalization purposes. Indeed, treatment with the LXR agonists LXR-623, WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19, WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9, and SB742881 all led to varied degrees of ApoE expression induction. (FIG. 34A-C). Example 22 Treatment with the LXR Agonist GW3965 Inhibits In Vitro Tumor Cell Invasion of Renal Cancer, Pancreatic Cancer, and Lung Cancer We have demonstrated that treatment with LXR agonists resulted in inhibition of melanoma tumor cell invasion. Given that this effect is mediated by activation of ApoE expression, we hypothesized that treatment with LXR agonists would result in inhibition of in vitro tumor cell invasion in breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, and renal cancer, since these cancer types were responsive to ApoE treatment. In order to test this hypothesis, we performed in vitro tumor cell invasion assays by treating breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, and renal cell cancer cell lines with the LXR agonist GW3965 2 (FIG. 35). Various cell lines (5×104 RCC human renal cancer cells, 5×104 PANC1 human pancreatic cancer cells, and 5×104 H460 human lung cancer cells) were treated with DMSO or GW3965 at 1 μM for 56 hours. The cells were serum starved for 16 hours in 0.2% FBS media in the presence of DMSO or GW3965. Following serum starvation, the cells were subjected to the trans-well invasion assay using a matrigel invasion chamber system (354480, BD Biosciences). Invasion chambers were pre-equilibrated prior to the assay by adding 0.5 mL of starvation media to the top and bottom wells. Meanwhile, cancer cells were trypsinized and viable cells were counted using trypan blue. Cancer cells were then resuspended at a concentration of 1×105 cells/1 mL starvation media, and 0.5 mL of cell suspension, containing 5×104 cells, was seeded into each trans-well. The invasion assay was allowed to proceed for 24 hours at 37° C. Upon completion of the assay, the inserts were washed in PBS, the cells that did not invade were gently scraped off from the top side of each insert using q-tips, and the cells that invaded into the basal insert side were fixed in 4% PFA for 15 minutes at room temperature. Following fixation, the inserts were washed in PBS and then cut out and mounted onto slides using VectaShield mounting medium containing DAPI nuclear stain (H-1000, Vector Laboratories). The basal side of each insert was imaged using an inverted fluorescence microscope (Zeiss Axiovert 40 CFL) at 5× magnification, and the number of DAPI-positive cells was quantified using ImageJ. Indeed, treatment with GW3965 2 resulted in inhibition of tumor cell invasion in all three cancer types tested (FIG. 35A-C). This further demonstrated the broad therapeutic potential of LXR agonists for treating various cancer types. Example 23 Treatment with the LXR Agonist GW3965 Inhibits Breast Cancer Tumor Growth In Vivo We have demonstrated that LXR agonists inhibit in vitro cancer progression phenotypes in breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, and renal cancer. To investigate if LXR agonist treatment inhibits breast cancer primary tumor growth in vivo, mice injected with MDA-468 human breast cancer cells were treated with either a control diet or a diet supplemented with LXR agonist GW3965 2 (FIG. 36). To determine the effect of orally delivered GW3965 2 on breast cancer tumor growth, 2×106 MDA-468 human breast cancer cells were resuspended in 50 μL PBS and 50 μL matrigel and the cell suspension was injected into both lower memory fat pads of 7-week-old Nod Scid gamma female mice. The mice were assigned to a control diet treatment or a GW3965-supplemented diet treatment (75 mg/kg/day) two days prior to injection of the cancer cells. The GW3965 2 drug compound was formulated in the mouse chow by Research Diets, Inc. Tumor dimensions were measured using digital calipers, and tumor volume was calculated as (small diameter)2×(large diameter)/2. Treatment with GW3965 resulted in significant reduction in breast cancer tumor size in vivo (FIG. 36). Example 24 Effects of Treatment with LXR Agonists LXR-623, WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19, WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9, and SB742881 on In Vitro Melanoma Progression Phenotypes We have demonstrated the ability of various LXR agonists to induce ApoE expression with varying potency in melanoma cells (FIG. 34). Since the therapeutic effect of LXR agonists on cancer is via activation of ApoE expression, we hypothesized that the therapeutic potency of any given LXR agonist is directly correlated with its ability to induce ApoE expression. To confirm this, we quantified the effect of treatment with various LXR agonists on in vitro endothelial recruitment and tumor cell invasion of melanoma cells. As shown in FIG. 37, the degree to which LXR agonists inhibit in vitro cancer progression phenotypes is related to the LXR agonist's ApoE induction potency. Cell Invasion: MeWo human melanoma cells were treated with DMSO, LXR-623, WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19, WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9, or SB742881 at 1 μM each for 56 hours. The cells were then serum starved for 16 hours in 0.2% FBS media in the presence of each corresponding drug or DMSO. Following serum starvation, the cells were subjected to the trans-well invasion assay using a matrigel invasion chamber system (354480, BD Biosciences). Invasion chambers were pre-equilibrated prior to the assay by adding 0.5 mL of starvation media to the top and bottom wells. Meanwhile, cancer cells were trypsinized and viable cells were counted using trypan blue. Cancer cells were then resuspended at a concentration of 2×105 cells/1 mL starvation media, and 0.5 mL of cell suspension, containing 1×105 cells, was seeded into each trans-well. The invasion assay was allowed to proceed for 24 hours at 37° C. Upon completion of the assay, the inserts were washed in PBS, the cells that did not invade were gently scraped off from the top side of each insert using q-tips, and the cells that invaded into the basal insert side were fixed in 4% PFA for 15 minutes at room temperature. Following fixation, the inserts were washed in PBS, cut out, and mounted onto slides using VectaShield mounting medium containing DAPI nuclear stain (H-1000, Vector Laboratories). The basal side of each insert was imaged using an inverted fluorescence microscope (Zeiss Axiovert 40 CFL) at 5× magnification, and the number of DAPI-positive cells was quantified using ImageJ. Endothelial Recruitment: MeWo human melanoma cells were treated with DMSO, LXR-623, WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19, WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9, or SB742881 at 1 μM each for 56 hours. Subsequently, 5×104 cancer cells were seeded into 24-well plates in the presence of each drug or DMSO and allowed to attach for 16 hours prior to starting the assay. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC cells) were serum-starved in 0.2% FBS-containing media overnight. The following day, 1×105 HUVEC cells were seeded into a 3.0 μm HTS Fluoroblock insert (351151, BD Falcon) fitted into each well containing the cancer cells at the bottom. The HUVEC cells were allowed to migrate towards the cancer cells for 20 hours, after which the inserts were washed in PBS, fixed in 4% PFA, labeled with DAPI, and mounted on slides. The basal side of each insert was imaged using an inverted fluorescence microscope (Zeiss Axiovert 40 CFL) at 5× magnification, and the number of DAPI-positive cells was quantified using ImageJ. LXR agonists that potently induce ApoE expression (e.g. WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9 and SB742881) are more effective at inhibiting cancer progression phenotypes (FIG. 37) than lower potency LXR agonists. This further demonstrates that the therapeutic benefit of LXR agonist treatment for cancer is a result of ApoE induction. Example 25 Treatment with LXR Agonists Inhibit Melanoma Tumor Growth In Vivo We have demonstrated that LXR agonists that induce ApoE expression inhibit in vitro tumor activity. To confirm if these agonists inhibit melanoma tumor growth in vivo, mice that were injected with B16F10 melanoma cells were treated with either LXR-623, WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19, WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9, or SB742881. To assess the effect of orally administered LXR-623, WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19, WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9, or SB742881 on melanoma tumor growth, 5×104 B16F10 mouse melanoma cells were resuspended in 50 μL PBS and 50 μL matrigel and the cell suspension was subcutaneously injected into both lower dorsal flanks of 7-week-old C57BL/6 mice. The mice were palpated daily for tumor formation and after detection of tumors measuring 5-10 m3 in volume, the mice were assigned to a control chow or a chow containing each respective LXR agonist: LXR-623 (20 mg/kg/day), WO-2007-002563 Ex. 19 (100 mg/kg/day), WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9 (10 mg/kg/day or 100 mg/kg/day), or SB742881 (100 mg/kg/day). The LXR drug compounds were formulated in the mouse chow by Research Diets, Inc. Tumor dimensions were measured using digital calipers, and tumor volume was calculated as (small diameter)2×(large diameter)/2. Consistent with our in vitro data, LXR agonists that potently induce ApoE expression in vitro (WO-2010-0138598 Ex. 9, and SB742881) significantly inhibited melanoma primary tumor growth in vivo (FIG. 38). This is also consistent with our results demonstrating that other LXR agonists which potently induce ApoE expression (GW3965 2, T0901317 1) also inhibit primary tumor growth in vivo (FIG. 21). Accordingly, the above examples focused on characterizing the molecular and cellular mechanisms by which it exerts its effects. To this end, it was found that ApoE targets two distinct, yet homologous, receptors on two diverse cell types. ApoE acting on melanoma cell LRP1 receptors inhibits melanoma invasion, while its action on endothelial cell LRP8 receptors suppresses endothelial migration. The results from loss-of-function, gain-of-function, epistasis, clinical correlation, and in vivo selection derivative expression analyses give rise to a model wherein three miRNAs convergently target a metastasis suppressor network to limit ApoE secretion, thus suppressing ApoE/LRP1 signaling on melanoma cells and ApoE/LRP8 signaling on endothelial cells (FIG. 7K). Although the above systematic analysis has identified ApoE and DNAJA4 as key targets and direct mediators of the metastatic phenotypes regulated by these miRNAs, it cannot be excluded that the three miRNAs may individually retain additional target genes whose silencing may contribute to metastatic progression. The ability of ApoE or DNAJA4 knock-down to fully rescue the metastasis suppression phenotypes seen with individual miRNA silencing, however, strongly suggests that these genes are the key mediators of the miRNA-dependent effects on metastasis. The above results reveal combined molecular, genetic, and in vivo evidence for a required and sufficient role for ApoE in the suppression of melanoma metastatic progression. ApoE can distribute in the circulatory system both in a lipoprotein-bound and a lipid-free state (Hatters et al., 2006). While it has been shown that lipid-free recombinant ApoE is sufficient to suppress melanoma invasion and endothelial migration, it is possible that ApoE contained in lipoprotein particles could also suppress melanoma invasion and endothelial recruitment. The ability of recombinant ApoE to inhibit these pro-metastatic phenotypes, as well as the increased melanoma invasion and endothelial recruitment phenotypes seen with antibody-mediated ApoE neutralization suggests that the ApoE molecule itself is the key mediator of these phenotypes. Consistent with the findings disclosed herein, a synthetic peptide fragment of ApoE was previously found to inhibit endothelial migration through unknown mechanisms (Bhattacharjee et al., 2011). The findings disclosed herein are consistent with a role for melanoma cell-secreted and systemic endogenous ApoE in inhibiting endothelial recruitment, which is not secondary to impaired endothelial cell growth. The above-described molecular, genetic, and in vivo studies reveal a role for endogenous cancer-derived ApoE in the modulation of endothelial migration and cancer angiogenesis through endothelial LRP8 receptor signaling. This robust non-cell-autonomous endothelial recruitment phenotype mediated by ApoE/LRP8 signaling suggests that ApoE may also modulate metastatic angiogenesis in other cancer types, and such a general role for ApoE in cancer angiogenesis biology remains to be explored. ApoE is a polymorphic molecule with well-established roles in lipid, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative disorders. Its three major variants, ApoE2, ApoE3, and ApoE4, display varying representations in the human population, with ApoE3 being the most common variant (Hatters et al., 2006). The three isoforms differ at residues 112 and 158 in the N-terminal domain, which contains the ApoE receptor-binding domain. These structural variations are thought to give rise to distinct functional attributes among the variants. Consistent with this, the three ApoE isoforms differ in their binding affinity for members of the LDL receptor family, lipoprotein-binding preferences, and N-terminus stability. Namely, ApoE2 has 50- to 100-fold attenuated LDL receptor binding ability compared to ApoE3 and ApoE4 (Weisgraber et al., 1982), while ApoE4, unlike the other two variants, preferentially binds to large lower-density lipoproteins (Weisgraber et al., 1990) and exhibits the lowest N-terminus stability (Morrow et al., 2000). These functional differences confer pathophysiological properties to select ApoE isoforms. While ApoE3, found in 78% of the population, is considered a neutral allele, ApoE2 is associated with type III hyperlipoprotenemia (Hatters et al., 2006) and ApoE4 represents the major known genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (Corder et al., 1993) and also correlates with a modest increase in the risk of developing cardiovascular disease (Luc et al., 1994). Given that the multiple human melanoma cell lines analyzed in the above study are homozygous for the ApoE3 allele, as well as the ability of recombinant ApoE3 to inhibit melanoma invasion and endothelial recruitment, the above findings are consistent with ApoE3 being sufficient and required for the suppression of melanoma metastatic progression. However, it will be of interest in the future to determine whether ApoE2 and ApoE4 can modulate these pro-metastatic phenotypes to a similar extent as ApoE3 and whether specific ApoE genotypes confer enhanced risk of melanoma metastatic progression. Besides surgical resection of primary melanoma lesions, there are currently no effective therapies for the prevention of melanoma metastasis with interferon therapy increasing overall survival rates at 5 years by a meager 3% based on meta-analyses, while phase III trial data demonstration of significant survival benefits is still outstanding (Garbe et al., 2011). The dramatic enhancement of melanoma metastatic progression in the context of genetic ablation of systemic ApoE suggests that modulating ApoE levels may have significant therapeutic implications for melanoma—a disease that claims approximately 48,000 lives a year globally (Lucas et al., 2006). Given the robust ability of ApoE to suppress melanoma invasion, endothelial migration, metastatic angiogenesis, and metastatic colonization, therapeutic approaches aimed at pharmacological induction of endogenous ApoE levels may significantly reduce melanoma mortality rates by decreasing metastatic incidence. The above-described unbiased in vivo selection based approach led to discovery of deregulated miRNAs that synergistically and dramatically promote metastasis by cancer cells from independent patients' melanoma cell lines representing both melanotic and amelanotic melanomas. While miR-1908 has not been previously characterized, miR-199a has been implicated in hepatocellular carcinoma (Hou et al., 2011; Shen et al., 2010) and osteosarcoma (Duan et al., 2011) that, contrary to melanoma, display down-regulation of miR-199a expression levels. These differences are consistent with the established tissue-specific expression profiles of miRNAs in various cancer types. The identification of miR-199a as a promoter of melanoma metastasis is supported by a previous clinical association study revealing that increased miR-199a levels correlate with uveal melanoma progression (Worley et al., 2008), suggesting that induced miR-199a expression may be a defining feature of metastatic melanoma regardless of site of origin. Previous studies have implicated additional miRNAs in promoting melanoma metastatic progression such as miR-182 (Segura et al., 2009), miR-214 (which was upregulated in metastatic melanoma cells, but it did not functionally perform in the above studies; Penna et al., 2011), and miR-30b/miR-30d (Gaziel-Sovran et al., 2011). Each of these miRNAs have been reported to only modestly modulate melanoma metastasis, leading to 1.5- to 2-fold increased or decreased metastasis modulation upon miRNA over-expression or knock-down, respectively. In contrast, over-expression of either miR-199a or miR-1908 enhanced metastasis by 9-fold (FIG. 1C), while combinatorial miRNA knock-down synergistically suppressed melanoma metastasis by over 70-fold (FIG. 7E). Therefore, the study disclosed herein represents the first systematic discovery of multiple miRNAs that convergently and robustly promote human melanoma metastasis, as well as the first to assign dual cell-autonomous/non-cell-autonomous roles to endogenous metastasis-regulatory miRNAs in cancer. Previous systematic analysis of miRNAs in breast cancer revealed primarily a decrease in the expression levels of multiple microRNAs in in vivo selected metastatic breast cancer cells (Tavazoie et al., 2008). Those findings were consistent with the subsequent discovery of many additional metastasis suppressor miRNAs in breast cancer (Shi et al., 2010; Wang and Wang, 2011), the identification of a number of miRNAs as direct transcriptional targets of the p53 tumour suppressor (He et al., 2007), the downregulation of miRNAs in breast cancer relative to normal tissues (Calin and Groce, 2006; Iorio et al., 2005), the downregulation of drosha and dicer in breast cancer (Yan et al., 2011) and metastatic breast cancer (Grelier et al., 2011), as well as the pro-tumorigenic and pro-metastatic effects of global miRNA silencing through dicer knock-down (Kumar et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2009; Martello et al., 2010; Noh et al., 2011). In contrast to breast cancer, the above findings in melanoma reveal a set of miRNAs upregulated in metastatic human melanoma, raising the intriguing possibility that miRNA processing may actually act in a pro-tumorigenic or pro-metastatic manner in melanoma. Consistent with this, dicer is required for melanocytic development (Levy et al., 2010), and dicer expression was recently found to positively correlate with human melanoma progression in a clinico-pathological study (Ma et al., 2011). These findings, when integrated with the findings disclosed here, motivate future studies to investigate the functional requirement for dicer (Bernstein et al., 2001) in melanoma metastasis. The establishment of in vivo selection models of melanotic and amelanotic melanoma metastasis has allowed one to identify the cellular phenotypes displayed by highly metastatic melanoma cells. The work reveals that, in addition to enhanced invasiveness, the capacity of melanoma cells to recruit endothelial cells is significantly enhanced in highly metastatic melanoma cells relative to poorly metastatic melanoma cells. Additionally, it was found that three major post-transcriptional regulators of metastasis strongly mediate endothelial recruitment. It was further found that the downstream signaling pathway modulated by these miRNAs also regulates endothelial recruitment. These findings reveal endothelial recruitment to be a defining feature of metastatic melanoma cells. Enhanced endothelial recruitment capacity was also recently found to be a defining feature of metastatic breast cancer, wherein suppression of metastasis by miR-126 was mediated through miRNA targeting of two distinct signaling pathways that promote endothelial recruitment (Png et al., 2012). In breast cancer, endothelial recruitment increased the likelihood of metastatic initiation rather than tumor growth. Similarly, the melanoma metastasis promoter miRNAs studied here dramatically enhanced metastatic colonization, without enhancing primary tumor growth, and increased the number of metastatic nodules—consistent with a role for these miRNAs and their regulatory network in metastatic initiation rather than tumor growth promotion. Taken together, these findings are consistent with endothelial recruitment into the metastatic niche acting as a promoter of metastatic initiation and colonization in these distinct epithelial cancer types. Such a non-canonical role for endothelial cells in cancer progression would contrast with the established role of endothelial cells in angiogenic enhancement of blood flow spurring enhanced tumor growth. Endothelial cells are known to play such non-canonical roles in development by supplying cues to neighboring cells during organogenesis (Lammert et al., 2001). Such cues have also been recently shown to promote organ regeneration (Ding et al., 2011; Ding et al., 2010; Kobayashi et al., 2010). Future work is needed to determine the metastasis stimulatory factors provided by endothelial cells that catalyze metastatic initiation. The ability of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 to individually predict metastasis-free survival in a cohort of melanoma patients indicates the significance of each miRNA as a clinical predictor of melanoma cancer progression. Importantly, the dramatic and highly significant capacity of the three miRNA aggregate signature (FIG. 7D) to stratify patients at high risk from those at essentially no risk for metastatic relapse reveals both the cooperativity of these miRNAs, as well as their clinical potential as melanoma biomarkers (Sawyers, 2008) for identifying the subset of patients that might benefit from miRNA inhibition therapy. Therapeutic miRNA targeting has gained momentum through the use of in vivo LNAs that have been shown to antagonize miRNAs in mice (Elmer et al., 2008(b); Krutzfeldt et al., 2005; Obad et al., 2011) and primates (Elmer et al., 2008(a)) and are currently being tested in human clinical trials. The powerful prognostic capacity of the three miRNAs, proof-of-principle demonstration of robust synergistic metastasis prevention achieved by treating highly metastatic melanoma cells with a cocktail of LNAs targeting miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908 (FIG. 7E), as well as the metastasis suppression effect of therapeutically delivered in vivo-optimized LNAs targeting these miRNAs (FIG. 7J) motivate future clinical studies aimed at determining the therapeutic potential of combinatorially targeting these pro-metastatic and pro-angiogenic miRNAs in patients at high risk for melanoma metastasis—an outcome currently lacking effective chemotherapeutic options. The foregoing examples and description of the preferred embodiments should be taken as illustrating, rather than as limiting the present invention as defined by the claims. As will be readily appreciated, numerous variations and combinations of the features set forth above can be utilized without departing from the present invention as set forth in the claims. Such variations are not regarded as a departure from the scope of the invention, and all such variations are intended to be included within the scope of the following claims. All references cited herein are incorporated in their entireties.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Melanoma, a malignant tumor, develops from abnormal melanocytes in the lower epidermis and can metastasize to distant sites in the body via the blood and lymph systems. Although it accounts for less than 5% of skin cancer cases, melanoma is much more dangerous and responsible for a large majority of the deaths associated with skin cancer. Across the world the incidence of melanoma has been increasing at an alarming rate, with a lifetime risk of developing melanoma as high as 1/58 for males in the U.S. (Jemal et al., 2008, C A: Cancer J. Clin. 58:71-96). The mortality rate of malignant melanoma also continues to rise dramatically throughout the world. According to a 2006 WHO report, about 48,000 melanoma related deaths occur worldwide per year (Lucas et al. (2006) Environmental Burden of Disease Series. 13. World Health Organization. ISBN 92-4-159440-3). In the United States, it was estimated that almost 70,000 people were diagnosed with melanoma during 2010 and approximately 9,000 people would be expected to die from the disease (American Cancer Society; www.cancer.org). Although some conventional cancer therapies have been used in treating metastatic melanoma, they are not effective. Metastatic melanoma therefore remains one of the most difficult cancers to treat and one of the most feared neoplasms. Accordingly, there is a need for new agents and methods for diagnosis and treatment of melanoma.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF INVENTION <EOH>This invention addresses the above-mentioned need by providing agents and methods for diagnosis and treatment of melanoma. The invention is based, at least in part, on an unexpected discovery of a cooperative miRNA-protein network deregulated in metastatic melanoma. This network includes a number of metastasis suppressor factors and metastasis promoter factors. In one aspect, the invention features a method for treating cancer, including administering to a subject in need thereof, a LXR agonist, wherein the LXR agonist is administered in an amount sufficient to increase the expression level or activity level of ApoE to a level sufficient to slow the spread of metastasis of the cancer. In another aspect, the invention features a method for treating cancer, including administering to a subject in need thereof, an ApoE polypeptide in an amount sufficient to treat the cancer. In another aspect, the invention features a method of slowing the spread of a migrating cancer, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof, a LXR agonist or an ApoE polypeptide. In some embodiments of any of the aforementioned methods, the LXR agonist is a LXRβ agonist. In certain embodiments, the LXR agonist increases the expression level of ApoE at least 2.5-fold in vitro. In certain embodiments, the LXRβ agonist is selective for LXRβ over LXRα. In other embodiments, the LXRβ agonist has activity for LXRβ that is at least 2.5-fold greater than the activity of said agonist for LXRα. In some embodiments, the LXRβ agonist has activity for LXRβ that is at least 10-fold greater than the activity of said agonist for LXRα. In further embodiments, the LXRβ agonist has activity for LXRβ that is at least 100-fold greater than the activity of said agonist for LXRα. In certain embodiments, the LXR agonist has activity for LXRβ that is at least within 2.5-fold of the activity of said agonist for LXRα. In some embodiments the migrating cancer is metastatic cancer. The metastatic cancer can include cells exhibiting migration and/or invasion of migrating cells and/or include cells exhibiting endothelial recruitment and/or angiogenesis. In other embodiments, the migrating cancer is a cell migration cancer. In still other embodiments, the cell migration cancer is a non-metastatic cell migration cancer. The migrating cancer can be a cancer spread via seeding the surface of the peritoneal, pleural, pericardial, or subarachnoid spaces. Alternatively, the migrating cancer can be a cancer spread via the lymphatic system, or a cancer spread hematogenously. In particular embodiments, the migrating cancer is a cell migration cancer that is a non-metastatic cell migration cancer, such as ovarian cancer, mesothelioma, or primary lung cancer. In a related aspect, the invention provides a method for inhibiting or reducing metastasis of cancer comprising administering a LXR agonist or an ApoE polypeptide. In another aspect, the invention provides a method for inhibiting proliferation or growth of cancer stem cells or cancer initiating cells, including contacting the cell with a LXR agonist or an ApoE polypeptide in an amount sufficient to inhibit proliferation or growth of said cell. In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of reducing the rate of tumor seeding of a cancer including administering to a subject in need thereof a LXR agonist or an ApoE polypeptide in an amount sufficient to reduce tumor seeding. In still a further aspect, the invention provides a method of reducing or treating metastatic nodule-forming of cancer including administering to a subject in need thereof a LXR agonist or an ApoE polypeptide in an amount sufficient to treat said metastatic nodule-forming of cancer. In other embodiments, the cancer is breast cancer, colon cancer, renal cell cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, gastric cancer, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, esophageal cancer, prostate cancer, sarcoma, or melanoma. In some embodiments, the cancer is melanoma. In other embodiments, the cancer is breast cancer. In certain embodiments, the cancer is renal cell cancer. In further embodiments, the cancer is pancreatic cancer. In other embodiments, the cancer is non-small cell lung cancer. In some embodiments the cancer is colon cancer. In further embodiments, the cancer is ovarian cancer. In other embodiments, the cancer is a drug resistant cancer. In further embodiments, the cancer is resistant to vemurafenib, dacarbazine, a CTLA4 inhibitor, a PD1 inhibitor, or a PDL1 inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering an LXR agonist selected from the list consisting of a compound of any one of Formula I-IV or any of compound numbers 1-39, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. In some embodiments, the LXR agonist is compound 1 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In other embodiments, the LXR agonist is compound 2 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In certain embodiments, the LXR agonist is compound 3 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In further embodiments, the LXR agonist is compound 12 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In some embodiments, the LXR agonist is compound 25 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In other embodiments, the LXR agonist is compound 38 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In further embodiments, the LXR agonist is compound 39 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. The method can further include administering an antiproliferative, wherein said LXR agonist and said antiproliferative are administered in an amount that together, is sufficient to slow the progression of migrating cancer. For example, the antiproliferative and LXR agonist can be administered within 28 days of each (e.g., within 21, 14, 10, 7, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 days) or within 24 hours (e.g., 12, 6, 3, 2, or 1 hours; or concomitantly) other in amounts that together are effective to treat the subject. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering an ApoE polypeptide. The ApoE polypeptide fragment can increase the activity level or expression level of LRP1 or LRP8, and/or the ApoE polypeptide can bind to LRP1 or LRP8, the ApoE polypeptide can be the receptor binding region (RBR) of ApoE. The method can further include administering an antiproliferative, wherein said ApoE polypeptide and said antiproliferative are administered in an amount that together, is sufficient to slow the progression of migrating cancer. For example, the antiproliferative and ApoE polypeptide can be administered within 28 days of each (e.g., within 21, 14, 10, 7, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 days) or within 24 hours (e.g., 12, 6, 3, 2, or 1 hours; or concomitantly) other in amounts that together are effective to treat the subject. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition may further comprise an additional compound having antiproliferative activity. The additional compound having antiproliferative activity can be selected from the group of compounds such as chemotherapeutic and cytotoxic agents, differentiation-inducing agents (e.g. retinoic acid, vitamin D, cytokines), hormonal agents, immunological agents and anti-angiogenic agents. Chemotherapeutic and cytotoxic agents include, but are not limited to, alkylating agents, cytotoxic antibiotics, antimetabolites, vinca alkaloids, etoposides, and others (e.g., paclitaxel, taxol, docetaxel, taxotere, cis-platinum). A list of additional compounds having antiproliferative activity can be found in L. Brunton, B. Chabner and B. Knollman (eds). Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, Twelfth Edition, 2011, McGraw Hill Companies, New York, N.Y. The method may further include administering a antiproliferative compound selected from the group consisting of alkylating agents, platinum agents, antimetabolites, topoisomerase inhibitors, antitumor antibiotics, antimitotic agents, aromatase inhibitors, thymidylate synthase inhibitors, DNA antagonists, farnesyltransferase inhibitors, pump inhibitors, histone acetyltransferase inhibitors, metalloproteinase inhibitors, ribonucleoside reductase inhibitors, TNF alpha agonists/antagonists, endothelin A receptor antagonist, retinoic acid receptor agonists, immuno-modulators, hormonal and antihormonal agents, photodynamic agents, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, antisense compounds, corticosteroids, HSP90 inhibitors, proteosome inhibitors (for example, NPI-0052), CD40 inhibitors, anti-CSI antibodies, FGFR3 inhibitors, VEGF inhibitors, MEK inhibitors, cyclin D1 inhibitors, NF-kB inhibitors, anthracyclines, histone deacetylases, kinesin inhibitors, phosphatase inhibitors, COX2 inhibitors, mTOR inhibitors, calcineurin antagonists, IMiDs, or other agents used to treat proliferative diseases. Examples of such compounds are provided in Tables 1. In another aspect, the invention features a method for treating melanoma (e.g., metastatic melanoma) in a subject in need thereof. The method includes (a) increasing in the subject the expression level or activity level of a metastasis suppressor factor selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, Apolipoprotein E (ApoE), LRP1, LRP8, Liver X Receptor (LXR, e.g., both LXR-alpha and LXR-beta), and miR-7 or (b) decreasing in the subject the expression level or activity level of a metastasis promoter factor selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF. In the method, the increasing step can be carried out by administering to the subject one or more of the followings: (i) a polypeptide having a sequence of DNAJA4, ApoE or an ApoE fragment, LRP1, LRP8, or LXR; (ii) a nucleic acid having a sequence encoding DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, or LXR; (iii) a ligand for LRP1, LRP8, or LXR; and (iv) an RNAi agent encoding miR-7. Examples of the LRP1 or LRP8 ligand include the receptor binding portion of ApoE, anti-LRP1 or anti-LRP8 antibodies, and small molecule ligands. In one example, increasing the ApoE expression level can be carried out by increasing the activity level or expression level of LXR. Increasing the DNAJA4 expression level can also be carried out by increasing the activity level or expression level of LXR. The LXR activity level can be increased by administering to the subject a ligand of LXR, such as compounds of Formula I-IV as disclosed below. The increasing step can also be carried out by decreasing the expression level or activity level of a microRNA selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, and miR-1908. To this end, one can use a number of techniques known in the art, including, but not limited to, the miR-Zip technology, Locked Nucleic Acid (LNA), and antagomir technology as described in the examples below. In another aspect, the invention provides a method for determining whether a subject has, or is at risk of having, metastatic melanoma. The method includes obtaining from the subject a sample; measuring in the sample (i) a first expression level of a metastasis promoter factor selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF, or (ii) a second expression level of a metastasis suppressor factor selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, LXR, and miR-7; and comparing the first expression level with a first predetermined reference value, or the second expression level with a second predetermined reference value. The subject is determined to have, or to be at risk of having, metastatic melanoma if (a) the first expression level is above a first predetermined reference value or (b) the second expression level is below a second predetermined reference value. The first and second predetermined reference values can be obtained from a control subject that does not have metastatic melanoma. In one embodiment, the measuring step includes measuring both the first expression level and the second expression level. The sample can be a body fluid sample, a tumor sample, a nevus sample, or a human skin sample. In a another aspect, the invention provides an array having a support having a plurality of unique locations, and any combination of (i) at least one nucleic acid having a sequence that is complementary to a nucleic acid encoding a metastasis promoter factor selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF or a complement thereof, or (ii) at least one nucleic acid having a sequence that is complementary to a nucleic acid encoding a metastasis suppressor factor selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, LXR, and miR-7 or a complement thereof. Preferably, each nucleic acid is immobilized to a unique location of the support. This array can be used for metastatic melanoma diagnosis and prognosis. Accordingly, the invention also provides a kit for diagnosing a metastatic potential of melanoma in a subject. The kit includes a first reagent that specifically binds to an expression product of a metastasis suppressor gene selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, LXR, and miR-7; or a second reagent that specifically binds to an expression product of a metastasis promoter gene selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF. The second agent can be a probe having a sequence complementary to the suppressor or promoter gene or a complement thereof. The kit can further contain reagents for performing an immunoassay, a hybridization assay, or a PCR assay. In one embodiment, the kit contained the above-mentioned array. In a another aspect, the invention provides a method of identifying a compound useful for treating melanoma or for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis. The method includes (i) obtaining a test cell expressing a reporter gene encoded by a nucleic acid operatively liked to a promoter of a marker gene selected from the group consisting of miR-199a-3p, miR-199a-5p, miR-1908, and CTGF; (ii) exposing the test cell to a test compound; (iii) measuring the expression level of the reporter gene in the test cell; (iv) comparing the expression level with a control level; and (v) selecting the test compound as a candidate useful for treating melanoma or for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cancer cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis, if the comparison indicates that the expression level is lower than the control level. The invention provides another method of identifying a compound useful for treating melanoma or for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis. The method includes (i) obtaining a test cell expressing a reporter gene encoded by a nucleic acid operatively liked to a promoter of a marker gene selected from the group consisting of DNAJA4, ApoE, LRP1, LRP8, LXR, and miR-7; (ii) exposing the test cell to a test compound; (iii) measuring the expression level of the reporter gene in the test cell; (iv) comparing the expression level with a control level; and (v) selecting the test compound as a candidate useful for treating melanoma or for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, cancer cell invasion, or metastatic angiogenesis, if the comparison indicates that the expression level is higher than the control level. In the above-mentioned identification methods, the reporter gene can be a standard reporter gene (such as LaxZ, GFP, or luciferase gene, or the like), known in the art, or one of the aforementioned metastasis suppressor genes or metastasis promoter genes. In the methods, the control level can be obtained from a control cell that is the same as the test cell except that the control cell has not be exposed to the test compound. In a another aspect, the invention provides a method for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, inhibiting tumor cell invasion, or treating metastatic cancer in a subject in need thereof, by administering to the subject an agent that inhibits expression or activity of CTGF. The subject can be one having a disorder characterized by pathological angiogenesis, including but not limited to cancer (e.g., metastatic melanoma), an eye disorder, and an inflammatory disorder. An example of the tumor cell is a metastatic melanoma cell. Examples of the agent include an antibody, a nucleic acid, a polypeptide, and a small molecule compound. In a preferred embodiment, the antibody is a monoclonal antibody. In a another aspect, the invention provides a method for inhibiting endothelial recruitment, inhibiting tumor cell invasion, or treating metastatic cancer in a subject in need thereof, by administering to the subject an agent that increases expression or activity of miR-7. An example of the tumor cell is a metastatic melanoma cell. Examples of the agent include an antibody, a nucleic acid, a polypeptide, and a small molecule compound. In one example, the agent has miR-7 activity. The nucleic acid can be an oligonucleotide. And, the oligonucleotide can include a sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID Nos. 36-38. As used herein, “migrating cancer” refers to a cancer in which the cancer cells forming the tumor migrate and subsequently grow as malignant implants at a site other than the site of the original tumor. The cancer cells migrate via seeding the surface of the peritoneal, pleural, pericardial, or subarachnoid spaces to spread into the body cavities; via invasion of the lymphatic system through invasion of lymphatic cells and transport to regional and distant lymph nodes and then to other parts of the body; via haematogenous spread through invasion of blood cells; or via invasion of the surrounding tissue. Migrating cancers include metastatic tumors and cell migration cancers, such as ovarian cancer, mesothelioma, and primary lung cancer, each of which is characterized by cellular migration. As used herein, “slowing the spread of migrating cancer” refers to reducing or stopping the formation of new loci; or reducing, stopping, or reversing the tumor load. As used herein, “metastatic tumor” refers to a tumor or cancer in which the cancer cells forming the tumor have a high potential to or have begun to, metastasize, or spread from one location to another location or locations within a subject, via the lymphatic system or via haematogenous spread, for example, creating secondary tumors within the subject. Such metastatic behavior may be indicative of malignant tumors. In some cases, metastatic behavior may be associated with an increase in cell migration and/or invasion behavior of the tumor cells. As used herein, “slowing the spread of metastasis” refers to reducing or stopping the formation of new loci; or reducing, stopping, or reversing the tumor load. The term “cancer” refers to any cancer caused by the proliferation of malignant neoplastic cells, such as tumors, neoplasms, carcinomas, sarcomas, leukimias, lymphomas, and the like. As used herein, “drug resistant cancer” refers to any cancer that is resistant to an antiproliferative in Table 2. Examples of cancers that can be defined as metastatic include but are not limited to non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, colorectal cancer, biliary tract cancer, bladder cancer, brain cancer including glioblastomas and medullablastomas, cervical cancer, choriocarcinoma, endometrial cancer, esophageal cancer, gastric cancer, hematological neoplasms, multiple myeloma, leukemia, intraepithelial neoplasms, livercancer, lymphomas, neuroblastomas, oral cancer, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, sarcoma, skin cancer including melanoma, basocellular cancer, squamous cell cancer, testicular cancer, stromal tumors, germ cell tumors, thyroid cancer, and renal cancer. “Proliferation” as used in this application involves reproduction or multiplication of similar forms (cells) due to constituting (cellular) elements. “Cell migration” as used in this application involves the invasion by the cancer cells into the surrounding tissue and the crossing of the vessel wall to exit the vasculature in distal organs of the cancer cell. By “cell migration cancers” is meant cancers that migrate by invasion by the cancer cells into the surrounding tissue and the crossing of the vessel wall to exit the vasculature in distal organs of the cancer cell. “Non-metastatic cell migration cancer” as used herein refers to cancers that do not migrate via the lymphatic system or via haematogenous spread. As used herein, “cell to cell adhesion” refers to adhesion between at least two cells through an interaction between a selectin molecule and a selectin specific ligand. Cell to cell adhesion includes cell migration. A “cell adhesion related disorder” is defined herein as any disease or disorder which results from or is related to cell to cell adhesion or migration. A cell adhesion disorder also includes any disease or disorder resulting from inappropriate, aberrant, or abnormal activation of the immune system or the inflammatory system. Such diseases include but are not limited to, myocardial infarction, bacterial or viral infection, metastatic conditions, e.g. cancer. The invention further features methods for treating a cell adhesion disorder by administering a LXR agonist or ApoE polypeptide. As used herein, “cancer stem cells” or “cancer initiating cells” refers to cancer cells that possess characteristics associated with normal stem cells, specifically the ability to give rise to all cell types found in a particular cancer sample. Cancer stem cells are therefore tumorgenic or tumor forming, perhaps in contrast to other non-tumorgenic cancer cells. Cancer stem cells may persist in tumors as a distinct population and cause cancer recurrence and metastasis by giving rise to new tumors. As used herein, “tumor seeding” refers to the spillage of tumor cell clusters and their subsequent growth as malignant implants at a site other than the site of the original tumor. As used herein, “metastatic nodule” refers to an aggregation of tumor cells in the body at a site other than the site of the original tumor. The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and from the claims.

A61K31195

20180126

20180607

62164.0

A61K31195

SHIAO, REI TSANG

TREATMENT AND DIAGNOSIS OF MELANOMA

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

A61K

PENDING

FILTER HOUSING WITH FILTER KEY ATTACHMENT

A filter assembly for fluid filtration having a push-activated lock and release mechanism. A push filter design activates a filter key lock upon insertion and extraction, where the filter key may be used simultaneously as a lock and as an identifier for particular filter attributes. The filter housing assembly may be attached to, and removed from, a filter base by a push-actuated release. Upon insertion, the filter key shifts the filter lock longitudinally to receive interlocking segments. Upon extraction, the same axial push shifts the filter lock further to align the interlocking fingers within gaps that allow for easy extraction. The specific key lock design allows a user to identify and match certain filter configurations received by the mechanical support, and reject other filter configurations.

1. A filter housing assembly comprising: a filter media; a filter housing having a top, a bottom, sidewalls, and a center axis for enclosing said filter media; said filter housing top having two cylindrical ports extending therefrom, each cylindrical port having a sidewall with an aperture and a fluid-sealed top surface, said cylindrical ports in fluid communication with said filter media for fluid ingress and egress, said filter housing top including a first attachment structure for receiving a filter key, wherein said first attachment structure forms an elongated protrusion or rail extending axially upwards from said filter housing top, and radially outwards centered about said center axis of said filter housing top, said elongated protrusion or rail having a predominately rectangular shape for slideably engaging a connector piece or filter key that is designed to interface with a complementary mating filter base. 2. The filter housing assembly of claim 1 wherein said elongated protrusion or rail slidably engages with said connector piece or filter key in a radial direction perpendicular to said center axis. 3. The filter housing of claim 2 wherein said elongated protrusion or rail including a T-shape with a rectangular base segment having a length and width, and a flat top surface parallel to the filter housing top, the flat top surface having straight side faces perpendicular to the filter housing top, which extend beyond the rectangular base segment width. 4. The filter housing of claim 2 wherein said elongated protrusion or rail includes extended flanges that form an approximate T-shaped cross-section or approximate dovetail shape for slidably mating with said connector piece or filter key. 5. A filter housing assembly comprising: a filter media; a filter housing having a top, a bottom, sidewalls, and a center axis for enclosing said filter media, said filter housing top having two cylindrical ports extending therefrom, each cylindrical port having a sidewall with an aperture and a fluid-sealed top surface, said cylindrical ports in fluid communication with said filter media for fluid ingress and egress, said filter housing top including a first attachment structure for receiving a filter key, wherein said first attachment structure forms an elongated protrusion or rail extending axially upwards from said filter housing top, and radially outwards centered about said center axis of said filter housing top, said elongated protrusion or rail having a predominately rectangular shape for slideably engaging a filter key that is designed to interface with a complementary mating filter base; and said filter key having a top surface, longitudinal sides, and lateral sides shorter than the longitudinal sides, the filter key having on a top surface an attachment finger for mating with a filter base, said attachment finger extending in a direction parallel to the filter key lateral sides, wherein the attachment finger includes laterally facing opposing side faces, wherein one opposing side face forms a first angle with the filter housing axis and the other opposing side face forms a second angle with the filter housing axis, such that the first angle and the second angle are not equal, and the filter key having on a bottom surface an indent or groove for slideably receiving said first attachment structure. 6. The filter housing assembly of claim 5 wherein said attachment finger has a cross-sectional diamond shape. 7. A filter cartridge comprising: a filter media; a filter housing for enclosing said filter media, the filter housing having a body and a top portion for forming a fluid-tight seal with the body, a filter housing center axis extending in an axial direction about the filter housing, the filter housing top portion including: an ingress port; an egress port; and a filter key located on or connected to the filter housing and having a top surface, at least two longitudinal sides, and at least two lateral sides, each shorter than at least two longitudinal sides, the filter key having a protrusion extending in a direction parallel to the filter key lateral sides, wherein the protrusion includes on one side a slanted or angled face angled with respect to the filter housing axis, and on an opposing side a face having at least a portion being a substantially straight edge parallel to the filter housing axis. 8. The filter cartridge of claim 7, wherein the protrusion includes a diamond-shaped cross-section in a plane parallel to the at least two longitudinal sides of the filter key. 9. The filter cartridge of claim 7 wherein said filter housing top portion includes a first attachment structure for receiving said filter key, wherein said first attachment structure forms an elongated protrusion or rail extending axially upwards from said filter housing top portion, and radially outwards, centered about said center axis of said filter housing top portion, said elongated protrusion or rail having a predominately rectangular shape for slideably engaging said filter key. 10. The filter cartridge of claim 9 wherein said elongated protrusion or rail slidably engages with said filter key in a radial direction perpendicular to said center axis. 11. A filter cartridge comprising: a filter media; a filter housing for enclosing said filter media, the filter housing having a body and a top portion for forming a fluid-tight seal with the body, an axis extending in an axial direction about the filter housing, the filter housing including: an ingress port; an egress port; and a filter key located on or connected to the filter housing for mating attachment to a filter base or manifold, the filter key having a top surface, at least two longitudinal sides, and at least two lateral sides shorter than at least two longitudinal sides, the filter key having an attachment finger extending in a direction parallel to the filter key lateral sides, wherein the attachment finger includes laterally facing opposing side faces, wherein one opposing side face forms a first angle with the filter housing axis and the other opposing side face forms a second angle with the filter housing axis, such that the first angle and the second angle are not equal. 12. The filter cartridge of claim 11 wherein said filter housing top portion includes an attachment structure for receiving said filter key, wherein said attachment structure forms an elongated protrusion or rail extending axially upwards from said filter housing top portion, and radially outwards, centered about a center axis of said filter housing top portion, said elongated protrusion or rail having a predominately rectangular shape for slideably engaging said filter key. 13. The filter cartridge of claim 12, wherein said elongated protrusion or rail slidably engages with said filter key in a radial direction perpendicular to said center axis. 14. A filter key connectable to a filter housing, for mating attachment to a filter base or manifold, wherein structures of said filter key are defined relative to a center axis of the filter housing, the filter key having a top surface, bottom surface, longitudinal sides, and lateral sides shorter than the longitudinal sides, and an attachment finger extending in a direction parallel to the filter key lateral sides, wherein the attachment finger includes laterally facing opposing side faces, wherein one opposing side face forms a first angle with respect to the filter housing center axis and the other opposing side face forms a second angle with respect to the filter housing center axis, such that the first angle and the second angle are not equal. 15. The filter key of claim 14 including an indent or groove on said bottom surface for slidable attachment to an elongated protrusion on a top portion of said filter housing. 16. The filter key of claim 14, wherein the attachment finger includes a diamond-shaped cross-section in a plane parallel to the longitudinal sides. 17. The filter key of claim 14, wherein the filter key is integral with the filter housing top portion, or attached to the filter housing top portion by snap fit, friction fit, welding, or bonding. 18. The filter key of claim 17, wherein the attachment finger is integrally formed with the filter key.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to a filtering apparatus, specifically a filter housing apparatus to facilitate easy removal and replacement of a filter housing from a mechanical support, and more specifically, to a push filter design that activates a floating key lock, where the key may be used simultaneously as a lock and as an identifier for particular filter attributes. The mechanical support may be situated inline, and in fluid communication, with influent and effluent piping, such as within a refrigerator. More specifically, the invention relates to a filter housing and mount, whereby the filter housing may be attached to, and removed from, the mount by a push-actuated release. A controlled attachment or detachment of the filter sump, containing the filter media, is activated by the axial push of the sump towards the mechanical support. The specific key lock design allows a user to identify and match certain filter configurations received by the mechanical support, and reject other filter configurations. An internal shutoff, activated by the push-actuated release, blocks spillage during filter housing removal and replacement. 2. Description of Related Art The invention relates to a water filtration system having a locking and unlocking mechanism for changing the filter when the filter media has served its useful life. The use of liquid filtration devices is well known in the art as shown in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,135,645, 5,914,037 and 6,632,355. Although these patents show filters for water filtration, the filters are difficult to replace owing to their design and placement. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,135, 645 discloses a filter cartridge as a plug-in cartridge with a series of switches to prevent the flow of water when the filter cartridge is removed for replacement. The filter must be manually inserted and removed and have a switch activated to activate valve mechanisms so as to prevent the flow of water when the filter is removed. The cover of the filter is placed in the sidewall of a refrigerator and is employed to activate the switches that activate the valves. The filter access is coplanar with the refrigerator wall and forces an awkward access to the filter cartridge. In U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/511,599 filed on Aug. 28, 2006, for Huda, entitled “FILTER HOUSING APPARATUS WITH ROTATING FILTER REPLACEMENT MECHANISM,” a filter assembly having a rotator actuating mechanism including a first internal rotator and a second internal rotator is taught as an efficient way to insert, lock, and remove the filter housing from its base. A simple push mechanism actuates the self-driving release and change over means that hold and release the filter housing sump, and provide influent shutoff to prevent leaking and spillage. Rotational shutoff and locking mechanisms are activated and released by axial force on the filter housing at the commencement of the filter changing procedure. The instant invention is particularly useful as the water filtering system for a refrigerator having water dispensing means and, optionally, an ice dispensing means. The water used in the refrigerator or water and ice may contain contaminants from municipal water sources or from underground well or aquifers. Accordingly, it is advantageous to provide a water filtration system to remove rust, sand, silt, dirt, sediment, heavy metals, microbiological contaminants, such as Giardia cysts, chlorine, pesticides, mercury, benzene, toluene, MTBE, Cadmium bacteria, viruses, and other know contaminants. Particularly useful water filter media for microbiological contaminants include those found in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,872,311, 6,835,311, 6,797,167, 6,630,016, 5,331,037, and 5,147,722, and are incorporated herein by reference thereto. One of the uses of the instant filter apparatus is as a water filtration apparatus for a refrigerator. Refrigerators are appliances with an outer cabinet, a refrigeration compartment disposed within the outer cabinet and having a rear wall, a pair of opposing side walls, at least one door disposed opposite the rear wall, a top and a bottom and a freezer compartment disposed in the outer cabinet and adjacent to the refrigeration compartment. It is common for refrigerators to have a water dispenser disposed in the door and in fluid communication with a source of water and a filter for filtering the water. Further, it is common for refrigerators to have an ice dispenser in the door and be in fluid communication with a source of water and a filter for filtering the water. It has been found that the filter assembly of the instant invention is useful as a filter for a refrigerator having a water dispenser and/or an ice dispenser. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to, in a first aspect, a filter housing assembly comprising: a filter housing for enclosing a filter media, the filter housing having a body and a top portion for forming a fluid-tight seal with the body, the filter housing including: an ingress port; an egress port; and a filter key located on the filter housing and having a top surface, longitudinal sides, and lateral sides, the filter key including a plurality of spaced protrusions or fingers on each longitudinal side of the filter key extending laterally from the lateral sides approximate the top surface, wherein the fingers include winged extensions for mating attachment to a filter base or manifold. The filter housing includes an elongated protrusion extending longitudinally from a side surface of the filter housing body portion, a side surface of the top portion, or both. The filter key includes a groove complementary to the elongated protrusion for insertably securing the filter key to the filter housing by slideably mating the elongated protrusion of the filter housing within the filter key groove. The fingers may include slanted or angled faces and/or a diamond shaped cross-section. The filter key may be attached to the filter housing by snap fit, friction fit, welding, or bonding. A filter manifold or base is releasably attachable to the filter housing, the filter manifold or base comprising an attachment structure for fixably receiving the spaced protrusions or fingers of the filter key. The ingress or egress ports extend radially from a side surface of the filter housing body portion, a side surface of the top portion, or both, and may be off axial center of the filter housing. The spaced protrusions or fingers are integrally formed with the filter key. The filter housing assembly may include at least one strengthening rib on the filter housing body. The at least one strengthening rib protrudes radially from the filter housing body and extends longitudinally intermediate between top and bottom portions of the filter housing. The filter key may further include an indented angled ramp segment on at least one bottom edge, and the filter housing includes at least one protruding or extended angled ramp segment for complementary mating with the indented angled ramp segment on the filter key. In a second aspect, the present invention is directed to a filter housing assembly comprising: a filter housing for enclosing a filter media; a filter housing having two ports for ingress and egress in fluid communication with the filter media, the filter housing having a filter head forming a fluid-tight seal with the filter housing and a first attachment structure for receiving a filter key; and the filter key having a top surface, a bottom, longitudinal sides, and lateral sides, the filter key including: a plurality of spaced protrusions or fingers on each longitudinal side of the filter key extending laterally from the top surface and having winged extensions; and a second attachment structure located on the filter key bottom for attaching the filter key to the first attachment structure on the filter housing. The filter key is fixably or removably attached to the filter housing. The filter key fingers include slanted or angled faces on the winged extensions. The winged extensions have a diamond shaped cross-section. The first attachment structure includes an elongated protrusion extending from the filter housing, and the second attachment structure includes a groove complementary to the elongated protrusion for insertably securing the filter key to the filter housing by slideably mating the elongated protrusion of the filter housing within the groove. The filter housing assembly is further adapted to be releasably connected to a filter base, wherein the filter base comprises: a base platform having fluid ingress and egress ports; and a floating lock in sliding communication with the base platform, having a bottom surface, a top surface, and longitudinal and lateral sides, the floating lock including: spaced protrusions, drive keys, or fingers on the longitudinal sides extending laterally inwards, including at least one shaped protrusion, finger, or drive key for slideably contacting the complementary mating filter housing assembly, the at least one shaped protrusion, finger, or drive key including an angled face exposed towards the bottom surface. The floating lock includes a position stop centered about the lateral sides, and located above the at least one drive key to provide a physical stop during insertion of the complementary mating filter key. The key includes a track structure longitudinally across the floating lock. In a third aspect, the present invention is directed to a filter base in combination with a filter housing assembly, the combination comprising: a filter base having an ingress port and an egress port on a base platform; a slideable floating lock in slideable contact of the filter base, the floating lock having a plurality of drive keys or lateral extensions separated by gaps; a resilient member in contact with the floating lock, providing a retraction force for the floating lock; a filter housing assembly including a longitudinal side portion and a top portion having a filter head, a first attachment structure and an elongated protrusion extending from the longitudinal side portion or a side of the top portion or both, and at least one protruding angled ramp segment for complementary mating with the angled ramp segment on the filter key; and a filter key located on the filter housing assembly, the filter key having longitudinal sides and lateral sides, the filter key including: a plurality of spaced protrusions or fingers on each longitudinal side of the filter key extending laterally from the top surface, wherein the fingers include winged extensions having slanted or angled faces for mating attachment to a filter base or manifold; a second attachment structure having a groove complementary to the elongated protrusion for insertably securing the filter key to the filter head top surface by slideably mating the elongated protrusion of the filter head within the groove; and an indented angled ramp segment on at least one bottom edge. The floating lock includes: a bottom surface, a top surface, and longitudinal and lateral sides, and wherein the lateral extensions include drive keys on the longitudinal sides extending laterally inwards at the bottom surface for slideably receiving the filter key, each of the drive keys including an angled portion exposed towards the bottom surface, and an edge or wedge on each of the drive key bottom for releasably contacting with a portion of the filter key; and a position key centered about the floating lock, and located above the drive keys to provide a physical stop during insertion of the filter housing assembly. It is an object of this invention to provide a filter housing apparatus mounted to a base and having an automatic locking mechanism for simple replacement and removal. It is an object of this invention to provide a filter housing apparatus and base attached by a push activated, slideably moveable, floating lock. It is another object of this invention to provide a filter housing apparatus mounted on a surface having non-rotating locking means with pressure activation for replacement and removal. It is another object of the present invention to provide a filter housing apparatus that allows for a keyed identification of the filter. It is a further object of this invention to provide a filter housing apparatus for use with water dispensing and\or ice dispensing apparatus whereby filtered water is provided to the water dispensing and/or ice dispensing apparatus. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The features of the invention believed to be novel and the elements characteristic of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. The figures are for illustration purposes only and are not drawn to scale. The invention itself, however, both as to organization and method of operation, may best be understood by reference to the description of the preferred embodiment(s), which follows, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1A is a top exploded view of one embodiment of the filter assembly of the present invention; FIG. 1B is a side plan view the embodiment of the filter housing assembly of FIG. 1A; FIG. 1C depicts a perspective view of the filter housing assembly with strengthening ribs extending at least partially down the outer surface of the filter housing; FIG. 2A is a perspective view of one embodiment of the filter key of the present invention; FIG. 2B is a lateral side view of the filter key of FIG. 2A; FIG. 2C depicts a bottom plan view of the filter key of FIG. 2A showing a groove and a locking nub or tab for attachments; FIG. 2D depicts a perspective view from the opposite side of the filter key of FIG. 2C; FIG. 2E depicts a bottom view of the filter key of FIG. 2A; FIG. 2F is a longitudinal side view of the filter key of FIG. 2A; FIG. 2G depicts a slotted groove which includes a wider upper portion for securely affixing the filter key to the filter head or filter manifold; FIG. 2H is a side view of the filter key depicting an angled, ramp segment, which at least partially extends the length of the bottom surface of the filter key; FIG. 2I depicts the complementary angled ramp segment for the filter key of FIG. 2H; FIG. 2J depicts a side view of a partial section of the filter head showing a mating protrusion for interlocking with the slotted groove on the filter key, and complementary angled ramp segments for interlocking with the ramp segments on the filter key bottom edges; FIG. 3A depicts a perspective view of one embodiment of the floating lock or sliding lock of the present invention; FIG. 3B is a perspective view from the opposite side of the floating lock of FIG. 3A; FIG. 3C is a lateral side view of the floating lock of FIG. 3A; FIG. 3D depicts a top view of the floating lock of FIG. 3A; FIG. 3E depicts cross-sectional longitudinal side view of the floating lock of FIG. 3A; FIG. 4A is a perspective view of one embodiment of the filter manifold; FIG. 4B is a top plan view of a second embodiment of the filter manifold with an extension support member; FIG. 4C is a perspective view of a second embodiment of the filter manifold; FIG. 5A is a side view of one embodiment of the filter head of the present invention; FIG. 5B is a bottom perspective view of the filter head of FIG. 5A; FIG. 5C is a top perspective view of the filter head of FIG. 5A; FIG. 5D is another embodiment of the filter head with a snap fit lock for the filter key; FIG. 5E is a bottom perspective view of the filter head of FIG. 5D; FIG. 5F is a top perspective view of the filter head depicting the aperture for receiving the filter key; FIG. 5G depicts a one-piece or integrated filter head/filter manifold construction having ingress and egress ports for fluid flow; FIG. 5H is a side view of the integrated, one-piece filter head of FIG. 5G; FIG. 5I is a bottom view of the integrated, one-piece filter head of FIG. 5G, depicting an off axial center cylinder for receiving an end cap port of the filter cartridge; FIGS. 6A and 6B are exploded views of a second embodiment of the filter assembly of the present invention, showing a filter key having an extended boss; FIG. 7A is a top perspective view of an embodiment of the filter key of the present invention having an extended boss; FIG. 7B is a bottom perspective view of the filter key of FIG. 7A; FIG. 7C depicts a top plan view of the filter key of FIG. 7A; FIG. 7D depicts a side plan view of the filter key of FIG. 7A; FIG. 7E depicts an end or lateral side view of the embodiment of the filter key of FIG. 7A, showing the boss rising above the plane created by the fingers, and two wings extending laterally outwards from the boss; FIG. 7F is a perspective view of another embodiment of the filter key of the present invention showing a locking nub located on the bottom portion on a lateral side; FIG. 8A depicts a perspective view of an embodiment of the floating lock of the present invention; FIG. 8B is a top view of the floating lock of FIG. 8A; FIG. 8C is a cross-sectional view of the floating lock of FIG. 8A depicting a drive key located at one end of the floating lock on the longitudinal or side panel; FIG. 8D depicts an exploded view of the drive key of FIG. 8C showing the edge angle and face; FIG. 8E depicts a perspective view of a floating lock having an extension member; FIG. 8F is a side view of the floating lock of FIG. 8E having an extension member; FIG. 8G is a lateral or cross-sectional view of the floating lock of FIG. 8E with an extension member; FIG. 9A is a perspective view of a non-floating port of the present invention; FIG. 9B is a top plan view of the non-floating port of FIG. 9A; FIG. 10A is a top plan view of one embodiment of the rear plate of the present invention; FIG. 10B is a bottom perspective view of the rear plate of FIG. 10A; FIG. 10C is a top plan view of a second embodiment of the rear plate of the present invention; FIG. 11 is an exploded view of a filter assembly of the present invention, showing a filter key having a boss, connected to a filter manifold having extension supports; FIG. 12A is a side view of a filter housing assembly having a radially removable, detachable filter cartridge or sump of the filter assembly of the present invention; FIG. 12B depicts a top view of the filter housing assembly of FIG. 12A with radially projecting ingress and egress ports; and FIG. 12C depicts a perspective view of filter housing assembly of FIGS. 12A and 12B radially attached to a filter base, which includes non-floating port and rear plate. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT(S) In describing the preferred embodiment of the present invention, reference will be made herein to FIGS. 1 to 12 of the drawings in which like numerals refer to like features of the invention. Features of the invention are not necessarily shown to scale. The present invention is directed to a filter housing assembly for filtration of liquids, including the interception of chemical, particulate, and/or microbiological contaminants. The use of the mechanical locking assembly of the filter housing without the need for excess force and tight tolerances essential in prior art filter housings makes for easy and frequent filter changes and optimal filter performance. The filter housing assembly of the present invention provides simplified filter changes to minimize process downtime and without recourse to tools. A simple push mechanism actuates the self-driving release and change over means that hold and release the filter housing sump or filter cartridge, and provides influent shutoff means to prevent leaking and spillage. A floating lock or sliding lock responsive to an axial insertion force from the filter cartridge (for embodiments having ingress and egress ports extending axially upwards from the filter cartridge) or responsive to a radial insertion force from the filter cartridge (for embodiments having ingress and egress ports extending radially from the filter cartridge) moves in the first instance, perpendicular or radially to the axial motion of the sump, or axially or parallel to the filter cartridge axis when the filter cartridge motion is radially inwards, and allows a specific filter key to insert within the floating lock. Once inserted, the floating lock retracts towards its original position under a resilient force, such as two springs in tandem, or other complementary resilient mechanism keeping the floating lock under retraction tension when moved from its initial position. The filter key and floating lock combination allows for the identification of specific filter models and may be configured to reject all but specific filter types. Removal of the filter cartridge is performed in the same manner. For ingress and egress ports located in the axial direction, an axial insertion force causes the floating lock to move radially, which allows the filter key to be removed from the floating lock. For ingress and egress ports located in a radial direction, a radial insertion force causes the floating lock to move axially, which allows the filter key to be removed from the floating lock. An extraction force provided by spring tension, or the like, helps push the filter cartridge out of its base. Fluid shutoff and locking mechanisms are initiated by the force on the filter cartridge at the commencement of the filter changing procedure. The present invention is described below in reference to its application in connection with, and operation of, a water treatment system. However, it should be apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art that the invention may be applicable to any device having a need for filtering liquid. FIG. 1A is a top exploded view of one embodiment of the filter assembly of the present invention. In this embodiment, the ingress and egress ports are presented in the axial direction. The filter assembly is fixably secured in a position within an operating environment requiring fluid filtration, such as attached to an internal sidewall of a refrigerator, although certainly other operating environments may be envisioned, and the filter assembly may be used in any number of environments where the filter assembly has access to, and can be placed in fluid communication with, influent and effluent fluid access ports. For illustrative purposes only, application to the filtering of water being piped into a refrigerator is discussed. In a first embodiment, a filter housing assembly 200 comprises the removable, detachable filter cartridge or sump of the filter assembly from a filter base 100. Filter housing assembly 200 includes a filter housing 1, which encloses filter media 8, a filter head 2 that attaches at one end to filter housing 1, and attaches at the other end to a filter manifold 3 and non-floating port 11. A filter key 5 is attached to filter manifold 3. Filter base 100 includes non-floating port 11, floating lock 12, and rear plate 13. Filter head 2 secures in a water-tight fit to filter housing 1. The attachment scheme may be made by a water-tight screw fit, bond, weld, or other water-tight fastening mechanism commonly used in the art for sealing adjoining components, typically adjoining plastic components. As discussed in further detail below, filter key 5 is connected to filter manifold 3. Filter key 5 may be formed as one piece with filter manifold 3, or may be securely attached by other methods, such as bonding, welding, press fit, friction fit, or the like. Filter key 5 may also be removably attached for replacement by an end user. Filter manifold 3 is attached to filter head 2. Filter media 8 is located in filter housing 1. Each end of filter media 8 is secured by a cap that facilitates the direction of the fluid being treated by the filter. At one end, filter media 8 is secured by a closed end cap 7, and at the other end by open end cap 6. Filter media 8 may be any filter media known in the art, and preferably, is a carbon block filter. It is typically shaped in a similar fashion as filter housing 1, which in the preferred embodiment is cylindrical. Open end cap 6 is designed to interface and be in fluid communication with filter head 2. In a second embodiment, as depicted in FIG. 12A, a filter housing assembly 200′ comprises a radially removable, detachable filter cartridge or sump of the filter assembly from a filter base (not shown). Filter housing assembly 200′ includes a filter housing 1′, which encloses filter media, a filter head 2′ that attaches at one end to filter housing 1′, and attaches at the other end to a filter base having a non-floating port (not shown). A filter key 5′ is attached to either filter head 2′, filter housing 1′, or both. Alternatively, it may also be attached to a filter manifold. FIG. 12B depicts a top view of filter housing assembly 200′ with radially projecting ingress and egress ports 41a′,b′ respectively. FIG. 12C depicts a perspective view of filter housing assembly 200′ radially attached to filter base 100′, which includes non-floating port 11′, floating lock 12′ (not shown), and rear plate 13′. Filter head 2′ secures in a water-tight fit to filter housing. As depicted in FIG. 12B, filter key 5′ may be formed securely attached to the filter housing assembly 200′ by such methods as bonding, welding, press fit, friction fit, or the like. Filter key 5′ may also be removably attached for replacement by an end user. In another embodiment, filter housing 1 may include strengthening ribs 16 longitudinally located on the filter housing outer surface. FIG. 1C depicts a perspective view of filter housing assembly 200 with a row of strengthening ribs extending at least partially down the outer surface of filter housing 1. Strengthening ribs 16 also function as a guide for inserting filter housing assembly 200 into a shroud (not shown) that may be part of the installation assembly for ensuring proper alignment with filter base 100. Strengthening ribs 16 is preferably integral with filter housing 1, but may also be attachable as a separate component part. Ribs 16 may extend the full length of filter housing 1, or as shown, may extend to an intermediate point between filter housing assembly 200 end caps 6, 7. Filter housing assembly 200 (as well as filter housing assembly 200′) is a finished assembly including filter housing 1, which encompasses filter media 8 by closed end cap 7 at one end, and open end cap 6 at the other. Generally, O-ring seals, such as O-ring seal 9, are used to prevent water leakage where different components are expected to mate. Filter manifold 3 and filter key 5 are joined with filter head 2, and secured to filter housing 1 to form the assembled filter housing apparatus 200. These components may be integral, permanently secured, or removably attached to one another, and to filter head 2. FIG. 1B is a side plan view of the axial ingress and egress port embodiment of the filter assembly of the present invention. A complementary arrangement may be made for the radial ingress and egress port embodiment of FIG. 12. FIG. 2A is a perspective view of filter key 5, and is also applicable to filter key 5′ of the radial embodiment. FIG. 2B is a lateral side view of filter key 5. As previously noted, in the axial port embodiment, the bottom of filter key 5 is attached to filter manifold 3 by any number of fastening schemes, or may be integrally formed with filter manifold 3. FIG. 2C depicts a groove 51 that is preferably shaped to receive a complementary protrusion on filter manifold 3 in the axial port embodiment, and is preferably shaped to receive a dovetail protrusion; however, other connecting, complementary shapes are not excluded. A similar attachment scheme is available for the radial port embodiment, as depicted in FIG. 12B, with groove 51′ attached to or formed with filter head 2′, or filter assembly 200′. The groove shapes may vary as discussed below, provided they secure filter key 5, 5′ to the respective filter housing structure. FIG. 2G depicts a slotted groove 51b that is not a dovetail joint. Slotted groove 51b may include a wider upper portion 51c to more securely affix filter key 5 to filter manifold 3. The connection of filter key 5 with filter manifold 3 may be bonded, sonic welded, press fitted, friction fitted, or the like. As depicted in the axial port embodiment, groove 51 is shaped to accept a snap feature for a press or snap fit located on filter manifold 3. In this manner filter key 5 may be removably attached to filter manifold 3. Similarly, filter manifold 3 may be designed to be removably attached to filter head 2. Thus, the design has more flexibility to introduce and accommodate different key configurations, which can be used to designate specific filter types, and purposely reject other filter types. Filter key 5′ may be removed from filter housing assembly 200′ in a similar manner. Additionally, the filter keys 5, 5′ may include an angled, ramp segment 59a on at least its bottom edges where the filter key slideably mates with the top surface of the adjoining structure, which in the axial port embodiment is with filter manifold 3 or filter head 400. FIG. 2H is a side view of a filter key depicting angled ramp segment 59a, which at least partially extends the length of the bottom surface of the filter key. Angled ramp 59a is located at one end of the bottom edges of the filter key and extends into the filter key main body 5a. FIG. 2I depicts a perspective view of filter head 400 with complementary angled ramp segments 59b for mating with angled ramp segments 59a of the filter key. Angled ramp segment 59a mateably adjoins complementary angled ramp segment 59b to interlock and assist in securing filter key 5 to filter head 400. For the two piece design utilizing filter manifold 3, complementary angled ramp segments 59b are formed on the top surface of filter manifold 3. FIG. 2J depicts a side view of a partial section of filter head 400 showing mating protrusion 321 for interlocking with slotted groove 51b, and complementary angled ramp segments 59b. For the axial port embodiment, FIG. 4A depicts a perspective view of filter manifold 300. Port 310 is shown off center of filter manifold 300. FIG. 4A depicts the filter manifold without extension support members. Preferably, port 310 is an outlet port; however, the present invention is not limited to a specific ingress and egress location, and may have these ports interchanged. When port 310 is used as an egress or outlet port, filter manifold 300 takes fluid from filter media 8 through the center port of open cap 6, and directs fluid flow radially outwards from the axial center to port 310. In this embodiment, the ingress port is located on filter head 2. By locating the ingress and egress ports off axis, filter housing assembly 200 has a more robust design, with enhanced structural integrity for mounting to the filter base, and for remaining fixably in place during attachment. Referring to FIGS. 4A-4C, in a preferred attachment scheme for filter key 5, a protrusion 32 or 320 is formed on or near the center line of filter manifold 3 or 300. Protrusion 32 or 320 is preferably a rectangular shaped segment extending above circular center portion 33 or 330. Protrusion 32 allows for precise alignment of filter key 5, while providing a robust connection. A dovetail shape, press fit, or friction fit interconnection between protrusion 32 and groove 51 of filter key 5 permits the user to remove and replace filter key 5. This allows for the designation of specific filter keys, and correspondingly, specific filter cartridges. Protrusion 32 or 320 may be integrally formed with filter manifold 3 or 300, respectively, or may be separately fabricated and attached by bond, weld, press fit, friction fit, or other suitable means known in the art. Preferably, protrusion 32 or 320 has a dovetail shaped surface for mating with complementary groove 51 of filter key 5. In the embodiment depicted by FIGS. 4B and 4C, protrusion 32 may be on an extension support 34. FIG. 4B depicts a top level view of filter manifold 3, showing extension support 34 extending longitudinally or radially outward from center portion 33, along a radius. Extension support 34 supports optional shroud 4 that covers and protects filter head 2. Filter manifold 3 or 300 seats within, and attaches to, filter head 2. FIG. 5A depicts a side view of the axial port embodiment of filter head 2. Filter head 2 is shown with off-center port 21. In this manner, port 21 of filter head 2 and port 31 of filter manifold 3 are both off-center and parallel to one another about a plane that approximately intersects the center point of filter head 2. As shown in FIGS. 1, 4, and 5, a recessed portion 22 formed about the center point of filter head 2 receives center portion 33 of filter manifold 3. If extension support 34 is used with filter manifold 3, when filter manifold 3 is inserted within filter head 2, extension support 34 is situated approximately perpendicular to the plane formed by ports 21 and 31. Extension support 34 provides at each end a snap fit design for shroud 4. FIG. 5B is a bottom perspective view of the filter head. FIG. 5C is a top perspective view of filter head 2 depicting recess portion 22. Filter head 210 depicts another axial port embodiment as shown in FIGS. 5D-5F. In this embodiment, as depicted in the top perspective view of FIG. 5F, on the top surface of filter head 210 is a curved receiving boss or support member 230 located on one side of the center point, and two parallel, lateral support members 240a,b located opposite curved boss 230 on the other side of the center point of filter head 210. These structural support members are used to align filter key 5 to filter head 210, and help secure filter key 5. This filter head may be used in conjunction with the filter manifold 300 without extension supports, as depicted in FIG. 4A. Structural support member 230 provides a physical stop for filter key 5, which typically slides on protrusion 32 provided by filter manifold 300. Lateral support members 240a,b are used to align filter key 5, and prevent it from inadvertent shifting. FIG. 5E is a bottom perspective view of filter head 210. FIG. 5D is a side view of filter head 210. In another embodiment, filter head 2, 210 may be integral with filter manifold 3, 310, such as for example, a one piece construction in the form of a single injected molded piece, or a two piece construction with filter manifold 3, 310 welded, fused, or otherwise permanently attached to filter head 2, 210 as a subassembly. FIG. 5G depicts a one-piece or integrated filter head/filter manifold construction 400 having ingress and egress ports 410a,b. Protrusion 420 is preferably a shaped segment extending above, and off axis from, the circular center of filter head 400. Protrusion 420 allows for precise alignment of filter key 5, while providing a robust connection. A dovetail shape, press fit, or friction fit interconnection between protrusion 420 and groove 51 of filter key 5 permits the user to remove and replace filter key 5. FIG. 5H is a side view of integrated, one-piece filter head 400. Cylindrical wall 424 is sized to receive the open end cap 6 of filter housing 1. Cylindrical wall 426 is off the axial center of filter head 400 and is configured to receive the center axial port of end cap 6, redirecting fluid flow off the axial center such that port 410b is within cylinder 426, and port 410a is outside of cylinder 426. This redirection of fluid flow performs a similar function as filter manifold 3, 310 without the need of aligning the center axial port of end cap 6 with a filter manifold aperture. FIG. 5I is a bottom view of the integrated, one-piece filter head of FIG. 5G, depicting off axial center cylinder 426 for receiving a port of open end cap 6 of the filter cartridge. A comparison to FIGS. 5B and 5E which depict perspective views of the underside of filter head 2, 210 respectively, with FIG. 5I, demonstrates the absence of an axially centered cylinder for receiving the port from open end cap 6 in the integrated filter head 400 design. Filter manifold 300 includes an off-center port 310, as well as a center portion 330 that fits securely within recess 220 of filter head 210. Protrusion 320 receives the groove from filter key 5. In this embodiment, when filter key 5 is slidably inserted within protrusion 320, structural support member 230 and lateral structural support members 240a,b secure filter key 5. The curved portion of structural support member 230 forces filter key 5 to be inserted in one direction only. An added boss 232, located on the top of filter head 210 and centered between lateral support members 240a,b may be employed to serve as a lock or snap fit for filter key 5. Additionally, in another embodiment, structural support member 230 may be formed with a small aperture 235 located directly away from the center point of filter head 210 at its base where support member 230 meets the top portion of filter head 210. This small aperture 235 is designed to receive a protruding material or locking nub or tab 53 placed at, or formed with, the corresponding end portion of filter key 5 on the lower end of a lateral side. Locking nub or tab 53 on filter key 5 is inserted within small aperture 235 on the curved portion of structural support member 230 and prevents axial removal of filter key 5 away from filter head 210. FIGS. 2A-2F show locking nub 53 located on the bottom portion of a lateral side of filter key 5. FIG. 5D is a side view of filter head 210 depicting aperture 235 for receiving filter key 5. Filter keys 5, 5′ are interchangeable, and include at least one laterally extending finger 52, and preferably a plurality of extending fingers, as depicted in FIGS. 2A-2F. FIG. 2C is a bottom perspective view of filter key 5, 5′. In a first illustrative embodiment, filter key 5 is shown with ten laterally extending fingers 52. Fingers 52 are preferably constructed of the same material as, and integrally formed with, base 55 of filter key 5. However, the fingers may also be removably attached, and the filter key design is not limited to an integrally formed construction. The laterally extending fingers 52 may form a number of different configurations. In the illustrative embodiment, there is a uniform gap 54 between each finger 52. In other configurations, a finger may be missing on one or both sides of filter key 5, and gap 54 may be wider in some places than in others. Using a digital 1, 0 designations to indicate a finger (1) or a gap (0), it is possible to have many different configurations for a filter key. The configuration as shown in FIG. 2E would be designated on each side as 101010101. As a separate example, for a designation of 100010101, this would represent a lateral finger (1) followed by a wide gap (000), and then a finger (1) followed by a gap (0) and a finger (1) followed by another gap (0), and one last finger (1). The present invention is not limited to any particular finger/gap order. Additionally, it is not necessary for the finger/gap configuration on one side of filter key 5 to be symmetric with the finger/gap configuration on the opposite side. By having different finger/gap configurations, it is possible to make a mechanical key identifier for the specific filter housing assembly being employed. Filter keys 5, 5′ may also be color-coded to facilitate identification for different filter cartridges or housing assemblies. It may also be textured, mirrored, transparent, translucent, materially modified, or having a conductively signature, or any combination thereof, for identification purposes. More importantly, aside from identification of the filter housing assembly, a particular filter key finger/gap configuration will only allow for the use of a specific filter housing assembly in a given system. Fingers 52 of the filter key are strength bearing members, used to mate with, or interlock with, corresponding drive keys 123a,b located on longitudinal sides of floating lock 12 as depicted in FIG. 3. There must be at least one drive key on floating lock 12, 12′ that corresponds to, and lines up with, at least one finger on the filter key, so that when the filter key is inserted to mate with floating lock 12, 12′, the drive keys slidably contact the fingers and the floating lock is shifted longitudinally an incremental amount to allow fingers 52 on the filter key to traverse between the gaps 122 on the floating lock. Once fingers 52 have passed between the corresponding gaps on the floating lock, which is slidably restrained under tensional forces, the floating lock is partially returned towards its original position by the tensional retraction forces so that at least one finger on the filter key aligns or interlocks with at least one drive key on the floating lock, and the alignment resists any direct outward, axial extraction forces. Each finger 52 of filter key 5 includes a slanted face 58 as depicted in FIGS. 2A and 2F. These angled features are made to slidably contact complementary slanted edge or angled features 121a,b of drive keys 123a,b of floating lock 12 shown in FIGS. 3A and 3E. During insertion of filter key 5, the sliding contact of the angled feature of the filter key's fingers transversely shifts floating lock 12 off of its initial position, and allows the fingers of filter key 5 to be inserted within gaps 122 between the drive keys 123a,b. A perspective view of the floating lock 12 is depicted in FIGS. 3A and 3B. This view is also applicable to the floating lock used for the radial port embodiment. Floating lock 12 has angled-faced fingers, protrusions, or drive keys 123a,b and gaps 122 that may reciprocally correspond to fingers 52 and gaps 54 located on the filter key 5, 5′. It is not necessary for the drive key/gap configuration of floating lock 12 to be exactly complementary to the finger/gap configuration of filter key 5. It is only necessary that floating lock 12 is able to fully receive the inserting filter key 5 when filter housing assembly 200 is axially inserted into filter base 100. Each drive key 123a,b of floating lock 12 is shaped with a receiving wedge 129a,b, respectively, opposite slanted edge 121a,b to capture fingers 52 of filter key 5. Fingers 52 may have a cross-sectional diamond shape to facilitate the capture by the drive key receiving wedge 129a,b. Drive keys 123a,b are placed on at least one longitudinal side of floating lock 12, as depicted in FIGS. 3D and 3E. Underneath and centered between drive keys 123a,b is a row of position stops 125. Position stops 125 preclude fingers 52 from extending any further during insertion. There need not be a position stop 125 for each drive key 123a,b, provided there is at least one position stop 125 to prohibit over insertion of filter key 5. Position stops 125 also include a slanted or angled face 126 for slidable contact with slanted face 58 of fingers 52 on filter key 5. Position stops 125 are shown as a row of jagged edges, but do not have to correspond one-for-one with drive keys 123a,b. Upon insertion, when fingers 52 of filter key 5 contact drive keys 123a,b, floating lock 12 shifts away from its initial position, against retraction forces, and moves according to the contacting angled edges 58 and 121. Once wings 56a,b of fingers 52 clear lip 127a,b of drive keys 123a,b, floating lock 12 is not prohibited from reacting to the retraction forces, and moves slightly back, towards its original position where diamond shaped wings 56a,b are then trapped by receiving wedges 129a,b. This position locks filter key 5 to floating lock 12 resisting any a direct axial extraction force. There is a gap or space 124 between the bottom most portion of drive key 123a,b and top most portion of position stop 125. Upon extraction, when wings 56a,b of fingers 52 are pushed within this gap or space, there is no structure preventing floating lock 12 from responding to the tensional retraction forces acting on it. Thus, floating lock 12 is free to respond to the retraction forces, and will tend to move towards its initial position. This will align fingers 52 of filter key 5 within gaps 122 of floating lock 12 and allow for easy extraction of filter housing 200. In order to extract filter housing assembly 200, a user again pushes axially inwards on the filter housing assembly, which releases wings 56a,b on filter key 5 from drive keys 123a,b. This frees floating lock 12 to return to towards its original position, and locates fingers 52 on filter key 5 at gaps 122 of floating lock 12. Filter housing assembly 200 can now be freely extracted from filter base 100. Resilient members 1110 within shut-off stanchions 1101a,b of non-floating port 11 assist in pushing or extracting filter housing assembly 200 away from filter base 100. FIG. 9A is a perspective view of non-floating port 11, which works in tandem with rear plate 13 or rear plate 1300 to hold floating or sliding lock 12 in place while allowing it to freely move longitudinally off its center position and back to its center position during the insertion and extraction of filter housing assembly 200. Similarly, FIG. 12C depicts a perspective view of the non-floating port working in tandem with rear plate 13′ for the radial port embodiment. As discussed further herein, non-floating port 11 will also hold floating lock 1200 and floating lock 1212 of FIG. 8. For simplicity, reference is made chiefly to the interaction of non-floating port 11 with floating lock 12, although the applicability of non-floating port 11 includes usage with floating lock 1200 and 1212 as well. Non-floating port 11 includes a protruding encasement 1102, larger than floating lock 12, and made to enclose floating lock 12 therein. Encasement 1102 prevents over-travel of floating lock 12, and protects it when installed from extraneous, unintended movement. FIG. 9B is a top plan view of non-floating port 11. Stanchions 1101a,b are located on opposite sides of encasement 1102. Similarly, stanchions 1101a′, b′ are located on opposite sides of encasement 1102′ of the radial port embodiment of FIG. 12C. Ports 1103 represent the ingress and egress ports for the fluid. Shut-off stanchions 1101a,b include shutoff plugs 14, which act as valve seals to stop fluid flow when the filter cartridge is being removed. Shut-off stanchions 1101a,b are preferably cylindrical in shape, containing spring activated, O-ring sealed plugs for sealing the ingress and egress lines during filter cartridge removal. In a preferred embodiment, rear plate 13 is snap fitted into non-floating port 11. In order to accommodate this, snap fittings 1105 are shown on non-floating port 11 that receive a corresponding fitting 135 on rear plate 13. Referring to FIG. 1, floating lock 12 is supported by non-floating port 11 and rear plate 13. FIG. 10A is a top plan view of one embodiment of rear plate 13 of the present invention. FIG. 10B depicts a bottom perspective view of rear plate 13. Rear plate 13 secures floating lock 12 within a support structure in non-floating port 11. Rear plate 13 is preferably attached by snap fit to non-floating port 11, although other attachment schemes known in the art may be easily employed, such as bonding, welding, and assorted mechanical fasteners. In FIG. 12C, rear plate 13′ is depicted as a snap fit attachment. Rear plate 13 is formed with extensions 132 on each end, and shaped gaps 133 therebetween. In the radial port embodiment, rear plate 13′ includes one extension 132′, and a snap fit aperture at the opposite end. Gaps 133 are shaped to go around shut-off stanchions 1101a,b of non-floating port 11, or in the case of the radial port embodiment, the width of the center aperture 131′ is such that it fits between stanchions 1101a′,b′. In both embodiments, rear plate 13, 13′ includes a center aperture 131, 131′ respectively that allows for longitudinal movement of floating lock 12. Floating lock 12 may include an extension member opposite the face configured with fingers and gaps, in order to permit resilient components, such as helical or torsion springs to act upon it. FIGS. 3C and 3E are side views of the floating lock showing extension member 128. FIG. 3B is a perspective view of the floating lock 12 with extension member 128. FIG. 8E depicts floating lock 1212 with extension member 1280. In these embodiments, the extension member is acted upon by resilient devices held by the rear plate. FIG. 10C is a top plan view of another embodiment of the rear plate 1300 of the present invention. In this embodiment, the topside of rear plate 1300 includes a domed, slotted cover 1302 over the center aperture. Cover 1302 is formed to encase springs or other resilient members about the extension member 128 extending from floating lock 12. Dome 1302 includes a slot 1304 that is made to receive the extension member 128 from floating lock 12. Slot 1304 helps retain linear movement of floating lock 12 inside dome 1302. In this embodiment, two complementary resilient members, such as springs, would reside on each side of the extension member 128 of floating lock 12. A dome is also introduced in the radial port embodiment as shown in FIG. 12C. One resilient member preferably applies force on the floating lock extension member in one direction, while the other resilient member applies force to the floating lock extension member in the opposite direction. In this manner, no matter which way floating lock 12 is moved or shifted, a retraction force presents itself to return floating lock 12 to its original, centered position. At all times during insertion, the filter housing assembly is under extraction forces that tend to push the housing out of the filter base. These extraction forces result from resilient members in each shut-off stanchion 1101a,b, 1101a′,b′ of non-floating port 11 (shown for example in FIG. 9B) that force shutoff plugs 14 into position in order to block the ingress and egress ports. Preferably, the extraction forces on shutoff plugs 14 are provided by a spring 1110 in each port, although other resilient members may be used to provide a similar result. Inserting the filter housing assembly into the filter base works against these extraction forces, and pushes shutoff plugs 14 further up each shut-off stanchion 1101a,b of non-floating port 11. This allows for fluid ingress, while keeping the filter housing assembly under the constant extraction force. Protective port shroud 4 may be placed over filter head 2, to protect the floating lock 12 and filter key 5 mechanism from damage and debris. Shroud 4 is preferably supported by the extension supports on the filter manifold. FIGS. 6A and 6B are exploded views of another embodiment of the filter assembly of the present invention, showing the combination of filter manifold 300, filter key 500, and filter head 210. Filter key 500 is depicted without a locking nub or tab; however it may include a locking nub to facilitate attachment to the filter head. FIG. 7F depicts filter key 590 with locking nub or tab 501. Locking nub 501 is located at the base of filter key 590. In this embodiment, filter key 500 or 590 and filter manifold 300 are modified such that floating lock 1200 or 1212 of FIG. 8 is slidably shifted by the interaction wings 560a,b of an extended boss 550 on filter key 500 or 590 with drive keys 1210a,b of floating lock 1200. Filter key 500 or 590 is inserted within floating lock 1200 through the axial insertion of the filter housing assembly into the filter base. Hammerhead shaped wings 560a,b on fingers 520 of filter key 500 and drive keys 1210a,b on floating lock 1200 or 1212 slidably contact one another, causing a transverse motion of floating lock 1200 or 1212 perpendicular to the axial motion of insertion. In this manner, floating lock 1200 or 1212 is shifted longitudinally, in a direction radially relative to the filter housing assembly axis. Fingers 520 of filter key 500 are positioned within the gaps 1220 on floating lock 1200 or 1212. Once filter key 500 or 590 is inserted, floating lock 1200 or 1212 is returned partially towards its original position by retracting tensional forces, preferably by complementary spring forces, so that the fingers on floating lock 1200 or 1212 align directly with fingers 520 on filter key 500 or 590, thus preventing a direct extraction force from removing the filter housing assembly from the filter base. FIG. 7F depicts a top perspective view of filter key 590. At one end of filter key 590 is an upwardly extended angled boss 550. Boss 550 rises above horizontal plane 570 created by the top portion of fingers 520, and is angled toward fingers 520, with its highest point at one end of filter key 500. Boss 550 angles downward from its highest point towards fingers 520. Preferably, boss 550 is an upwardly facing triangular or wedge shaped design having wings 560a,b for interaction with drive keys 1210a,b, respectively, on floating lock 1200. FIG. 7E depicts an end view of filter key 500 showing a hammerhead shaped boss 550 rising above plane 570 created by fingers 520, and wings 560a,b extending laterally from boss 550 resembling what may be considered a hammerhead shape. The purpose of wings 560a,b is to contact corresponding angled drive keys 1210a,b on floating key 1200. A perspective view of the complementary floating lock 1200 is depicted in FIG. 8A. The only difference between floating lock 1200 of FIG. 8A and floating lock 1212 of FIG. 8E is the addition of an extension member 1280 on floating lock 1212. Floating lock 1200 has fingers 1230a,b and gaps 1220 that may reciprocally correspond to fingers 520 and gaps 540 located on filter key 500 or 590. It is not necessary for the finger/gap configuration of floating lock 1200 to be exactly complementary to the finger/gap configuration of filter key 500 or 590. It is only necessary that floating lock 1200 is able to fully receive the inserting filter key 500 when the filter housing assembly is axially inserted into the filter base. Furthermore, once floating lock 1200 is subjected to retraction forces acting to return it partially towards its original position, it is necessary that at least one finger on filter key 500 or 590 vertically align with at least one finger on floating lock 1200 or 1212 preventing any extraction without further shifting of floating lock 1200 or 1212. Using floating lock 1200 and filter key 500 as illustrative examples, upon slidable contact of wings 560a,b on filter key 500 and drive keys 1210a,b on floating lock 1200, floating lock 1200 moves in a transverse motion, perpendicular to the motion of insertion. In this manner, floating lock 1200 is shifted either longitudinally, in a direction radially relative to the filter housing assembly axis, or radially, in a direction longitudinally relative to the filter housing assembly radius. Fingers 520 of filter key 500 are positioned within the gaps 1220 on floating lock 1200. Once filter key 500 is inserted, floating lock 1200 is returned partially towards its original position by retracting tensional forces, preferably by complementary spring forces, so that the fingers on floating lock 1200 align directly with fingers 520 on filter key 500, thus preventing a direct extraction force from removing the filter housing assembly from the filter base. Fingers 1230a,b are preferably constructed of the same material as floating lock 1200 and integrally formed therewith. However, fingers 1230 may also be removably attached, and the floating lock design is not limited to an integrally formed construction. Additionally, the present invention is not limited to any particular finger/gap order. It is not necessary for the finger/gap configuration on one side of floating lock 1200 to be symmetric with the finger/gap configuration on the opposite side. Floating lock 1200 is responsive to tensional forces, such as complementary springs acting on it from two separate directions to provide resistance longitudinally. Floating lock 1200 effectively moves longitudinally when acted upon by filter key 500, and is forced to return partially towards its original position after fingers 520 of filter key 500 have traversed through gaps 1220. Upon partial retraction, fingers. 520 are aligned behind or underneath fingers 1230 of floating lock 1200. FIG. 8B is a top view of floating lock 1200 showing laterally extending fingers 1230a,b and adjacent gaps 1220 between the fingers. FIG. 8C is a cross-sectional view of floating lock 1200, depicting drive key 1210a, which is located at one end of floating lock 1200 on longitudinal or side panel 1240. Drive key 1210a is opposite a similar drive key 1210b (not shown), which is located on the opposite longitudinal panel of floating lock 1200. Both drive keys are designed to have an angled face for slidably interacting with wings 560a,b of boss 550 on filter key 500. Each drive key is preferably integrally fabricated with floating lock 1200; however, the drive keys may be fabricated separately and attached to the longitudinal panels of floating lock 1200 by attachment means known in the art. As shown in FIG. 8C, below drive key 1210a is a position key or physical stop 1250, preferably formed with the supporting lateral wall 1260 of floating lock 1200. As shown in FIG. 8B, position key 1250 is situated between drive keys 1210a,b. Position key 1250 may be integrally formed with lateral wall 1260, or may be separately attached thereto by any acceptable means in the prior art, such as bonding, welding, gluing, press fitting, and the like. Position key 1250 acts as a physical stop to ensure against over travel of floating lock 1200. Position key 1250 is situated below drive keys 1210a,b by a distance designed to accommodate the insertion of boss 550 of filter key 500. Upon insertion of filter key 500 into floating lock 1200, boss 550 traverses through gap 1270 in floating lock 1200 formed by the space between drive keys 1210a,b. Wings 560a,b of boss 550 extend outward relative to the width of boss 550, traversing between lateral wall 1260 and drive keys 1210a,b. In this manner, wings 560a,b retain floating lock 1200 from retracting back to its original position while boss 550 is being inserted. At all times, floating lock 1200 is under the retraction force of resilient members, such as tandem springs, or the like, tending to keep floating lock 1200 its original position, which is preferably a centered position. During insertion of filter key 500, wings 560a,b interact with drive keys 1210a,b to shift floating lock 1200 longitudinally off-center while under the resilient retraction forces. Upon full insertion, when boss 550 reaches and contacts position key 1250, wings 560a,b are no longer held by drive keys 1210a,b because the length of drive keys 1210a,b is shorter than the length of boss 550. At this point in the insertion process, the tensional retraction forces shift floating lock 1200 towards its original position. Once wings 560a,b reach position key 1250, and the user releases the insertion force initially applied on the filter housing assembly, the extraction forces from shutoff plug springs 1110 dominate. These forces push the filter housing assembly axially outwards, away from floating lock 1200. Since wings 560a,b are no longer bound between drive keys 1210a,b and lateral wall 1260, floating lock 1200 will tend to shift longitudinally, partially towards its original position as filter key 500 moves slightly axially outwards. At this point, wings 560a,b interact with edge angles 1280a,b to push away from the center position, shifting filter key 500, and combining or contacting with face 1300a,b to keep the filter housing from retracting. FIG. 8D depicts an exploded view of drive key 1210a with edge angle 1290a and face 1300a. Fingers 520 of filter key 500 are now aligned with fingers 1230 of floating lock 1200 and remain in contact in a vertical plane in the axial direction, prohibiting extraction of the filter housing assembly from the filter base. It is envisioned that the preferred embodiment of the present invention would be disposed in a refrigerator, most likely within the door. Using the axial port embodiment as an example, the output of the filter assembly may be selectively coupled to a water dispenser or an ice dispenser. The water source to the refrigerator would be in fluid communication with filter base 100, and prohibited from flowing when filter housing assembly 200 is removed from filter base 100. Shutoff plugs 14 in stanchions 1101a,b seal fluid flow until filter housing assembly 200 is inserted in filter base 100. Upon insertion, fluid would flow to the filter housing assembly and filter water would be returned from the filter housing assembly. All parts of the filter housing assembly 200 and filter base 100 may be made using molded plastic parts according to processes known in the art. The filter media may be made from known filter materials such as carbon, activated carbons, malodorous carbon, porous ceramics and the like. The filter media, which may be employed in the filter housing of the instant invention, includes a wide variety of filter media capable of removing one or more harmful contaminants from water entering the filter housing apparatus. Representative of the filter media employable in the filter housing include those found in U.S. Pat. Nos.: 6,872,311; 6,835,311; 6,797,167; 6,630,016; 5,331,037; and 5,147,722. In addition, the filter composition disclosed in the following published applications may be employed as the filter media: U.S. 2005/0051487 and U.S. 2005/0011827. The filter assembly is preferably mounted on a surface in proximity to a source of water. The mounting means are also preferably in close proximity to the use of the filtered water produced by the filter housing apparatus. While the present invention has been particularly described, in conjunction with a specific preferred embodiment, it is evident that many alternatives, modifications and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art in light of the foregoing description. It is therefore contemplated that the appended claims will embrace any such alternatives, modifications and variations as falling within the true scope and spirit of the present invention.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to, in a first aspect, a filter housing assembly comprising: a filter housing for enclosing a filter media, the filter housing having a body and a top portion for forming a fluid-tight seal with the body, the filter housing including: an ingress port; an egress port; and a filter key located on the filter housing and having a top surface, longitudinal sides, and lateral sides, the filter key including a plurality of spaced protrusions or fingers on each longitudinal side of the filter key extending laterally from the lateral sides approximate the top surface, wherein the fingers include winged extensions for mating attachment to a filter base or manifold. The filter housing includes an elongated protrusion extending longitudinally from a side surface of the filter housing body portion, a side surface of the top portion, or both. The filter key includes a groove complementary to the elongated protrusion for insertably securing the filter key to the filter housing by slideably mating the elongated protrusion of the filter housing within the filter key groove. The fingers may include slanted or angled faces and/or a diamond shaped cross-section. The filter key may be attached to the filter housing by snap fit, friction fit, welding, or bonding. A filter manifold or base is releasably attachable to the filter housing, the filter manifold or base comprising an attachment structure for fixably receiving the spaced protrusions or fingers of the filter key. The ingress or egress ports extend radially from a side surface of the filter housing body portion, a side surface of the top portion, or both, and may be off axial center of the filter housing. The spaced protrusions or fingers are integrally formed with the filter key. The filter housing assembly may include at least one strengthening rib on the filter housing body. The at least one strengthening rib protrudes radially from the filter housing body and extends longitudinally intermediate between top and bottom portions of the filter housing. The filter key may further include an indented angled ramp segment on at least one bottom edge, and the filter housing includes at least one protruding or extended angled ramp segment for complementary mating with the indented angled ramp segment on the filter key. In a second aspect, the present invention is directed to a filter housing assembly comprising: a filter housing for enclosing a filter media; a filter housing having two ports for ingress and egress in fluid communication with the filter media, the filter housing having a filter head forming a fluid-tight seal with the filter housing and a first attachment structure for receiving a filter key; and the filter key having a top surface, a bottom, longitudinal sides, and lateral sides, the filter key including: a plurality of spaced protrusions or fingers on each longitudinal side of the filter key extending laterally from the top surface and having winged extensions; and a second attachment structure located on the filter key bottom for attaching the filter key to the first attachment structure on the filter housing. The filter key is fixably or removably attached to the filter housing. The filter key fingers include slanted or angled faces on the winged extensions. The winged extensions have a diamond shaped cross-section. The first attachment structure includes an elongated protrusion extending from the filter housing, and the second attachment structure includes a groove complementary to the elongated protrusion for insertably securing the filter key to the filter housing by slideably mating the elongated protrusion of the filter housing within the groove. The filter housing assembly is further adapted to be releasably connected to a filter base, wherein the filter base comprises: a base platform having fluid ingress and egress ports; and a floating lock in sliding communication with the base platform, having a bottom surface, a top surface, and longitudinal and lateral sides, the floating lock including: spaced protrusions, drive keys, or fingers on the longitudinal sides extending laterally inwards, including at least one shaped protrusion, finger, or drive key for slideably contacting the complementary mating filter housing assembly, the at least one shaped protrusion, finger, or drive key including an angled face exposed towards the bottom surface. The floating lock includes a position stop centered about the lateral sides, and located above the at least one drive key to provide a physical stop during insertion of the complementary mating filter key. The key includes a track structure longitudinally across the floating lock. In a third aspect, the present invention is directed to a filter base in combination with a filter housing assembly, the combination comprising: a filter base having an ingress port and an egress port on a base platform; a slideable floating lock in slideable contact of the filter base, the floating lock having a plurality of drive keys or lateral extensions separated by gaps; a resilient member in contact with the floating lock, providing a retraction force for the floating lock; a filter housing assembly including a longitudinal side portion and a top portion having a filter head, a first attachment structure and an elongated protrusion extending from the longitudinal side portion or a side of the top portion or both, and at least one protruding angled ramp segment for complementary mating with the angled ramp segment on the filter key; and a filter key located on the filter housing assembly, the filter key having longitudinal sides and lateral sides, the filter key including: a plurality of spaced protrusions or fingers on each longitudinal side of the filter key extending laterally from the top surface, wherein the fingers include winged extensions having slanted or angled faces for mating attachment to a filter base or manifold; a second attachment structure having a groove complementary to the elongated protrusion for insertably securing the filter key to the filter head top surface by slideably mating the elongated protrusion of the filter head within the groove; and an indented angled ramp segment on at least one bottom edge. The floating lock includes: a bottom surface, a top surface, and longitudinal and lateral sides, and wherein the lateral extensions include drive keys on the longitudinal sides extending laterally inwards at the bottom surface for slideably receiving the filter key, each of the drive keys including an angled portion exposed towards the bottom surface, and an edge or wedge on each of the drive key bottom for releasably contacting with a portion of the filter key; and a position key centered about the floating lock, and located above the drive keys to provide a physical stop during insertion of the filter housing assembly. It is an object of this invention to provide a filter housing apparatus mounted to a base and having an automatic locking mechanism for simple replacement and removal. It is an object of this invention to provide a filter housing apparatus and base attached by a push activated, slideably moveable, floating lock. It is another object of this invention to provide a filter housing apparatus mounted on a surface having non-rotating locking means with pressure activation for replacement and removal. It is another object of the present invention to provide a filter housing apparatus that allows for a keyed identification of the filter. It is a further object of this invention to provide a filter housing apparatus for use with water dispensing and\or ice dispensing apparatus whereby filtered water is provided to the water dispensing and/or ice dispensing apparatus.

B01D2996

20180126

20180531

82438.0

B01D2996

KURTZ, BENJAMIN M

FILTER HOUSING WITH FILTER KEY ATTACHMENT

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

B01D

PENDING

SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR CLEANING NOISY GENETIC DATA AND DETERMINING CHROMOSOME COPY NUMBER

Disclosed herein is a system and method for increasing the fidelity of measured genetic data, for making allele calls, and for determining the state of aneuploidy, in one or a small set of cells, or from fragmentary DNA, where a limited quantity of genetic data is available. Poorly or incorrectly measured base pairs, missing alleles and missing regions are reconstructed using expected similarities between the target genome and the genome of genetically related individuals. In accordance with one embodiment, incomplete genetic data from an embryonic cell are reconstructed at a plurality of loci using the more complete genetic data from a larger sample of diploid cells from one or both parents, with or without haploid genetic data from one or both parents. In another embodiment, the chromosome copy number can be determined from the measured genetic data, with or without genetic information from one or both parents.

1. A method for measuring the amounts of target fetal chromosome segments in a maternal blood sample, comprising: obtaining the maternal blood sample comprising fetal and maternal chromosome segments; performing whole genome amplification on the chromosome segments to generate amplified chromosome segments; performing targeted amplification on the amplified chromosome segments to form a plurality of reaction products comprising target fetal and maternal chromosome segments; performing clonal amplification on the plurality of reaction products to generate clonally amplified target chromosome segments; and measuring the amounts of clonally amplified target fetal chromosome segments by performing next generation sequencing. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the fetal chromosome segments map to chromosomes 13, 18, and/or 21. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the method is used to detect trisomy at chromosomes 13, 18, and/or 21. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein at least one adapter is ligated to the chromosome segments before performing targeted amplification. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the at least one adapter comprises a universal amplification sequence and the whole genome amplification is a universal amplification using universal primers that bind to the universal amplification sequence. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the universal amplification is universal PCR. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the targeted amplification is targeted PCR. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the next generation sequencing is performed using sequencing by synthesis. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the clonally amplified maternal chromosome segments are measured along with the clonally amplified fetal chromosome segments by performing next generation sequencing. 10. The method of claim 1, further comprising comparing the measured amounts of clonally amplified maternal chromosome segments with the measured amounts of clonally amplified fetal chromosome segments. 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the measuring is performed irrespective of allele value. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the measuring comprises measurement of alleles having 100% penetrance. 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the measuring comprises quantitative allele measurements. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises comparing the measured amounts of target fetal chromosome segments for a chromosome segment of interest from the maternal blood sample with measured amounts of fetal chromosome segments for the chromosome segment of interest from reference maternal blood samples that are disomic for the target chromosome.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/413,200, filed Jan. 23, 2017. U.S. application Ser. No. 15/413,200 is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/949,212, filed Jul. 23, 2013. U.S. application Ser. No. 13/949,212 is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/076,348, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,515,679, filed Mar. 17, 2008. U.S. application Ser. No. 12/076,348, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,515,679, is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/496,982, abandoned, filed Jul. 31, 2006; a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/603,406, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,532,930, filed Nov. 22, 2006; and a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/634,550, filed Dec. 6, 2006, now abandoned; and claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/918,292, filed Mar. 16, 2007; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/926,198, filed Apr. 25, 2007; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/932,456, filed May 31, 2007; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/934,440, filed Jun. 13, 2007; U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/003,101, filed Nov. 13, 2007; and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/008,637, filed Dec. 21, 2007. U.S. application Ser. No. 11/634,550, abandoned, claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/742,305, filed Dec. 6, 2005; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/754,396, filed Dec. 29, 2005; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/774,976, filed Feb. 21, 2006; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/789,506, filed Apr. 4, 2006; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/817,741, filed Jun. 30, 2006; and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/846,610, filed Sep. 22, 2006. U.S. application Ser. No. 11/603,406, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,532,930, is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/496,982, abandoned, filed Jul. 31, 2006; and also claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/846,610, filed Sep. 22, 2006. U.S. application Ser. No. 11/496,982, abandoned, claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/703,415, filed Jul. 29, 2005; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/742,305, filed Dec. 6, 2005; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/754,396, filed Dec. 29, 2005; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/774,976, filed Feb. 21, 2006; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/789,506, filed Apr. 4, 2006; and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/817,741, filed Jun. 30, 2006. Each of these applications cited above is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. GOVERNMENT LICENSING RIGHTS This invention was made with government support under Grant No. R44HD054958-02A2 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention The invention relates generally to the field of acquiring, manipulating and using genetic data for medically predictive purposes, and specifically to a system in which imperfectly measured genetic data of a target individual are made more accurate by using known genetic data of genetically related individuals, thereby allowing more effective identification of genetic variations, specifically aneuploidy and disease linked genes, that could result in various phenotypic outcomes. Description of the Related Art In 2006, across the globe, roughly 800,000 in vitro fertilization (IVF) cycles were run. Of the roughly 150,000 cycles run in the US, about 10,000 involved pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD). Current PGD techniques are unregulated, expensive and highly unreliable: error rates for screening disease-linked loci or aneuploidy are on the order of 10%, each screening test costs roughly $5,000, and a couple is forced to choose between testing aneuploidy, which afflicts roughly 50% of IVF embryos, or screening for disease-linked loci on the single cell. There is a great need for an affordable technology that can reliably determine genetic data from a single cell in order to screen in parallel for aneuploidy, monogenic diseases such as Cystic Fibrosis, and susceptibility to complex disease phenotypes for which the multiple genetic markers are known through whole-genome association studies. Most PGD today focuses on high-level chromosomal abnormalities such as aneuploidy and balanced translocations with the primary outcomes being successful implantation and a take-home baby. The other main focus of PGD is for genetic disease screening, with the primary outcome being a healthy baby not afflicted with a genetically heritable disease for which one or both parents are carriers. In both cases, the likelihood of the desired outcome is enhanced by excluding genetically suboptimal embryos from transfer and implantation in the mother. The process of PGD during IVF currently involves extracting a single cell from the roughly eight cells of an early-stage embryo for analysis. Isolation of single cells from human embryos, while highly technical, is now routine in IVF clinics. Both polar bodies and blastomeres have been isolated with success. The most common technique is to remove single blastomeres from day 3 embryos (6 or 8 cell stage). Embryos are transferred to a special cell culture medium (standard culture medium lacking calcium and magnesium), and a hole is introduced into the zona pellucida using an acidic solution, laser, or mechanical techniques. The technician then uses a biopsy pipette to remove a single blastomere with a visible nucleus. Features of the DNA of the single (or occasionally multiple) blastomere are measured using a variety of techniques. Since only a single copy of the DNA is available from one cell, direct measurements of the DNA are highly error-prone, or noisy. There is a great need for a technique that can correct, or make more accurate, these noisy genetic measurements. Normal humans have two sets of 23 chromosomes in every diploid cell, with one copy coming from each parent. Aneuploidy, the state of a cell with extra or missing chromosome(s), and uniparental disomy, the state of a cell with two of a given chromosome both of which originate from one parent, are believed to be responsible for a large percentage of failed implantations and miscarriages, and some genetic diseases. When only certain cells in an individual are aneuploid, the individual is said to exhibit mosaicism. Detection of chromosomal abnormalities can identify individuals or embryos with conditions such as Down syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, and Turner syndrome, among others, in addition to increasing the chances of a successful pregnancy. Testing for chromosomal abnormalities is especially important as the age of a potential mother increases: between the ages of 35 and 40 it is estimated that between 40% and 50% of the embryos are abnormal, and above the age of 40, more than half of the embryos are like to be abnormal. The main cause of aneuploidy is nondisjunction during meiosis. Maternal nondisjunction constitutes 88% of all nondisjunction of which 65% occurs in meiosis 1 and 23% in meiosis II. Common types of human aneuploidy include trisomy from meiosis I nondisjunction, monosomy, and uniparental disomy. In a particular type of trisomy that arises in meiosis II nondisjunction, or M2 trisomy, an extra chromosome is identical to one of the two normal chromosomes. M2 trisomy is particularly difficult to detect. There is a great need for a better method that can detect for many or all types of aneuploidy at most or all of the chromosomes efficiently and with high accuracy. Karyotyping, the traditional method used for the prediction of aneuploidy and mosaicism is giving way to other more high-throughput, more cost effective methods such as Flow Cytometry (FC) and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). Currently, the vast majority of prenatal diagnoses use FISH, which can determine large chromosomal aberrations and PCR/electrophoresis, and which can determine a handful of SNPs or other allele calls. One advantage of FISH is that it is less expensive than karyotyping, but the technique is complex and expensive enough that generally a small selection of chromosomes are tested (usually chromosomes 13, 18, 21, X, Y; also sometimes 8, 9, 15, 16, 17, 22); in addition, FISH has a low level of specificity. Roughly seventy-five percent of PGD today measures high-level chromosomal abnormalities such as aneuploidy using FISH with error rates on the order of 10-15%. There is a great demand for an aneuploidy screening method that has a higher throughput, lower cost, and greater accuracy. The number of known disease associated genetic alleles is currently at 389 according to OMIM and steadily climbing. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly relevant to analyze multiple positions on the embryonic DNA, or loci, that are associated with particular phenotypes. A clear advantage of pre-implantation genetic diagnosis over prenatal diagnosis is that it avoids some of the ethical issues regarding possible choices of action once undesirable phenotypes have been detected. A need exists for a method for more extensive genotyping of embryos at the pre-implantation stage. There are a number of advanced technologies that enable the diagnosis of genetic aberrations at one or a few loci at the single-cell level. These include interphase chromosome conversion, comparative genomic hybridization, fluorescent PCR, mini-sequencing and whole genome amplification. The reliability of the data generated by all of these techniques relies on the quality of the DNA preparation. Better methods for the preparation of single-cell DNA for amplification and PGD are therefore needed and are under study. All genotyping techniques, when used on single cells, small numbers of cells, or fragments of DNA, suffer from integrity issues, most notably allele drop out (ADO). This is exacerbated in the context of in-vitro fertilization since the efficiency of the hybridization reaction is low, and the technique must operate quickly in order to genotype the embryo within the time period of maximal embryo viability. There exists a great need for a method that alleviates the problem of a high ADO rate when measuring genetic data from one or a small number of cells, especially when time constraints exist. Listed here is a set of prior art which is related to the field of the current invention. None of this prior art contains or in any way refers to the novel elements of the current invention. In U.S. Pat. No. 6,489,135 Parrott et al. provide methods for determining various biological characteristics of in vitro fertilized embryos, including overall embryo health, implantability, and increased likelihood of developing successfully to term by analyzing media specimens of in vitro fertilization cultures for levels of bioactive lipids in order to determine these characteristics. In US Patent Application 20040033596 Threadgill et al. describe a method for preparing homozygous cellular libraries useful for in vitro phenotyping and gene mapping involving site-specific mitotic recombination in a plurality of isolated parent cells. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,635,366 Cooke et al. provide a method for predicting the outcome of IVF by determining the level of 110-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β-HSD) in a biological sample from a female patient. In U.S. Pat. No. 7,058,517 Denton et al. describe a method wherein an individual's haplotypes are compared to a known database of haplotypes in the general population to predict clinical response to a treatment. In U.S. Pat. No. 7,035,739 Schadt at al. describe a method is described wherein a genetic marker map is constructed and the individual genes and traits are analyzed to give a gene-trait locus data, which are then clustered as a way to identify genetically interacting pathways, which are validated using multivariate analysis. In US Patent Application US 2004/0137470 A1, Dhallan et al. describe using primers especially selected so as to improve the amplification rate, and detection of, a large number of pertinent disease related loci, and a method of more efficiently quantitating the absence, presence and/or amount of each of those genes. In World Patent Application WO 03/031646, Findlay et al. describe a method to use an improved selection of genetic markers such that amplification of the limited amount of genetic material will give more uniformly amplified material, and it can be genotyped with higher fidelity. Current methods of prenatal diagnosis can alert physicians and parents to abnormalities in growing fetuses. Without prenatal diagnosis, one in 50 babies is born with serious physical or mental handicap, and as many as one in 30 will have some form of congenital malformation. Unfortunately, standard methods require invasive testing and carry a roughly 1 percent risk of miscarriage. These methods include amniocentesis, chorion villus biopsy and fetal blood sampling. Of these, amniocentesis is the most common procedure; in 2003, it was performed in approximately 3% of all pregnancies, though its frequency of use has been decreasing over the past decade and a half. A major drawback of prenatal diagnosis is that given the limited courses of action once an abnormality has been detected, it is only valuable and ethical to test for very serious defects. As result, prenatal diagnosis is typically only attempted in cases of high-risk pregnancies, where the elevated chance of a defect combined with the seriousness of the potential abnormality outweighs the risks. A need exists for a method of prenatal diagnosis that mitigates these risks. It has recently been discovered that cell-free fetal DNA and intact fetal cells can enter maternal blood circulation. Consequently, analysis of these cells can allow early Non-Invasive Prenatal Genetic Diagnosis (NIPGD). A key challenge in using NIPGD is the task of identifying and extracting fetal cells or nucleic acids from the mother's blood. The fetal cell concentration in maternal blood depends on the stage of pregnancy and the condition of the fetus, but estimates range from one to forty fetal cells in every milliliter of maternal blood, or less than one fetal cell per 100,000 maternal nucleated cells. Current techniques are able to isolate small quantities of fetal cells from the mother's blood, although it is very difficult to enrich the fetal cells to purity in any quantity. The most effective technique in this context involves the use of monoclonal antibodies, but other techniques used to isolate fetal cells include density centrifugation, selective lysis of adult erythrocytes, and FACS. Fetal DNA isolation has been demonstrated using PCR amplification using primers with fetal-specific DNA sequences. Since only tens of molecules of each embryonic SNP are available through these techniques, the genotyping of the fetal tissue with high fidelity is not currently possible. Much research has been done towards the use of pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) as an alternative to classical prenatal diagnosis of inherited disease. Most PGD today focuses on high-level chromosomal abnormalities such as aneuploidy and balanced translocations with the primary outcomes being successful implantation and a take-home baby. A need exists for a method for more extensive genotyping of embryos at the pre-implantation stage. The number of known disease associated genetic alleles is currently at 389 according to OMIM and steadily climbing. Consequently, it is becoming increasingly relevant to analyze multiple embryonic SNPs that are associated with disease phenotypes. A clear advantage of pre-implantation genetic diagnosis over prenatal diagnosis is that it avoids some of the ethical issues regarding possible choices of action once undesirable phenotypes have been detected. Many techniques exist for isolating single cells. The FACS machine has a variety of applications; one important application is to discriminate between cells based on size, shape and overall DNA content. The FACS machine can be set to sort single cells into any desired container. Many different groups have used single cell DNA analysis for a number of applications, including prenatal genetic diagnosis, recombination studies, and analysis of chromosomal imbalances. Single-sperm genotyping has been used previously for forensic analysis of sperm samples (to decrease problems arising from mixed samples) and for single-cell recombination studies. Isolation of single cells from human embryos, while highly technical, is now routine in in vitro fertilization clinics. To date, the vast majority of prenatal diagnoses have used fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), which can determine large chromosomal aberrations (such as Down syndrome, or trisomy 21) and PCR/electrophoresis, which can determine a handful of SNPs or other allele calls. Both polar bodies and blastomeres have been isolated with success. It is critical to isolate single blastomeres without compromising embryonic integrity. The most common technique is to remove single blastomeres from day 3 embryos (6 or 8 cell stage). Embryos are transferred to a special cell culture medium (standard culture medium lacking calcium and magnesium), and a hole is introduced into the zona pellucida using an acidic solution, laser, or mechanical drilling. The technician then uses a biopsy pipette to remove a single visible nucleus. Clinical studies have demonstrated that this process does not decrease implantation success, since at this stage embryonic cells are undifferentiated. There are three major methods available for whole genome amplification (WGA): ligation-mediated PCR (LM-PCR), degenerate oligonucleotide primer PCR (DOP-PCR), and multiple displacement amplification (MDA). In LM-PCR, short DNA sequences called adapters are ligated to blunt ends of DNA. These adapters contain universal amplification sequences, which are used to amplify the DNA by PCR. In DOP-PCR, random primers that also contain universal amplification sequences are used in a first round of annealing and PCR. Then, a second round of PCR is used to amplify the sequences further with the universal primer sequences. Finally, MDA uses the phi-29 polymerase, which is a highly processive and non-specific enzyme that replicates DNA and has been used for single-cell analysis. Of the three methods, DOP-PCR reliably produces large quantities of DNA from small quantities of DNA, including single copies of chromosomes. On the other hand, MDA is the fastest method, producing hundred-fold amplification of DNA in a few hours. The major limitations to amplification material from a single cells are (1) necessity of using extremely dilute DNA concentrations or extremely small volume of reaction mixture, and (2) difficulty of reliably dissociating DNA from proteins across the whole genome. Regardless, single-cell whole genome amplification has been used successfully for a variety of applications for a number of years. There are numerous difficulties in using DNA amplification in these contexts. Amplification of single-cell DNA (or DNA from a small number of cells, or from smaller amounts of DNA) by PCR can fail completely, as reported in 5-10% of the cases. This is often due to contamination of the DNA, the loss of the cell, its DNA, or accessibility of the DNA during the PCR reaction. Other sources of error that may arise in measuring the embryonic DNA by amplification and microarray analysis include transcription errors introduced by the DNA polymerase where a particular nucleotide is incorrectly copied during PCR, and microarray reading errors due to imperfect hybridization on the array. The biggest problem, however, remains allele drop-out (ADO) defined as the failure to amplify one of the two alleles in a heterozygous cell. ADO can affect up to more than 40% of amplifications and has already caused PGD misdiagnoses. ADO becomes a health issue especially in the case of a dominant disease, where the failure to amplify can lead to implantation of an affected embryo. The need for more than one set of primers per each marker (in heterozygotes) complicate the PCR process. Therefore, more reliable PCR assays are being developed based on understanding the ADO origin. Reaction conditions for single-cell amplifications are under study. The amplicon size, the amount of DNA degradation, freezing and thawing, and the PCR program and conditions can each influence the rate of ADO. All those techniques, however, depend on the minute DNA amount available for amplification in the single cell. This process is often accompanied by contamination. Proper sterile conditions and microsatellite sizing can exclude the chance of contaminant DNA as microsatellite analysis detected only in parental alleles exclude contamination. Studies to reliably transfer molecular diagnostic protocols to the single-cell level have been recently pursued using first-round multiplex PCR of microsatellite markers, followed by real-time PCR and microsatellite sizing to exclude chance contamination. Multiplex PCR allows for the amplification of multiple fragments in a single reaction, a crucial requirement in the single-cell DNA analysis. Although conventional PCR was the first method used in PGD, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is now common. It is a delicate visual assay that allows the detection of nucleic acid within undisturbed cellular and tissue architecture. It relies firstly on the fixation of the cells to be analyzed. Consequently, optimization of the fixation and storage condition of the sample is needed, especially for single-cell suspensions. Advanced technologies that enable the diagnosis of a number of diseases at the single-cell level include interphase chromosome conversion, comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), fluorescent PCR, and whole genome amplification. The reliability of the data generated by all of these techniques rely on the quality of the DNA preparation. PGD is also costly, consequently there is a need for less expensive approaches, such as mini-sequencing. Unlike most mutation-detection techniques, mini-sequencing permits analysis of very small DNA fragments with low ADO rate. Better methods for the preparation of single-cell DNA for amplification and PGD are therefore needed and are under study. The more novel microarrays and comparative genomic hybridization techniques, still ultimately rely on the quality of the DNA under analysis. Several techniques are in development to measure multiple SNPs on the DNA of a small number of cells, a single cell (for example, a blastomere), a small number of chromosomes, or from fragments of DNA. There are techniques that use Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), followed by microarray genotyping analysis. Some PCR-based techniques include whole genome amplification (WGA) techniques such as multiple displacement amplification (MDA), and Molecular Inversion Probes (MIPS) that perform genotyping using multiple tagged oligonucleotides that may then be amplified using PCR with a singe pair of primers. An example of a non-PCR based technique is fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). It is apparent that the techniques will be severely error-prone due to the limited amount of genetic material which will exacerbate the impact of effects such as allele drop-outs, imperfect hybridization, and contamination. Many techniques exist which provide genotyping data. Taqman is a unique genotyping technology produced and distributed by Applied Biosystems. Taqman uses polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify sequences of interest. During PCR cycling, an allele specific minor groove binder (MGB) probe hybridizes to amplified sequences. Strand synthesis by the polymerase enzymes releases reporter dyes linked to the MGB probes, and then the Taqman optical readers detect the dyes. In this manner, Taqman achieves quantitative allelic discrimination. Compared with array based genotyping technologies, Taqman is quite expensive per reaction (˜$0.40/reaction), and throughput is relatively low (384 genotypes per run). While only 1 ng of DNA per reaction is necessary, thousands of genotypes by Taqman requires microgram quantities of DNA, so Taqman does not necessarily use less DNA than microarrays. However, with respect to the IVF genotyping workflow, Taqman is the most readily applicable technology. This is due to the high reliability of the assays and, most importantly, the speed and ease of the assay (˜3 hours per run and minimal molecular biological steps). Also unlike many array technologies (such as 500 k Affymetrix arrays), Taqman is highly customizable, which is important for the IVF market. Further, Taqman is highly quantitative, so anueploidies could be detected with this technology alone. Illumina has recently emerged as a leader in high-throughput genotyping. Unlike Affymetrix, Illumina genotyping arrays do not rely exclusively on hybridization. Instead, Illumina technology uses an allele-specific DNA extension step, which is much more sensitive and specific than hybridization alone, for the original sequence detection. Then, all of these alleles are amplified in multiplex by PCR, and then these products hybridized to bead arrays. The beads on these arrays contain unique “address” tags, not native sequence, so this hybridization is highly specific and sensitive. Alleles are then called by quantitative scanning of the bead arrays. The Illumina Golden Gate assay system genotypes up to 1536 loci concurrently, so the throughput is better than Taqman but not as high as Affymetrix 500 k arrays. The cost of Illumina genotypes is lower than Taqman, but higher than Affymetrix arrays. Also, the Illumina platform takes as long to complete as the 500 k Affymetrix arrays (up to 72 hours), which is problematic for IVF genotyping. However, Illumina has a much better call rate, and the assay is quantitative, so anueploidies are detectable with this technology. Illumina technology is much more flexible in choice of SNPs than 500 k Affymetrix arrays. One of the highest throughput techniques, which allows for the measurement of up to 250,000 SNPs at a time, is the Affymetrix GeneChip 500K genotyping array. This technique also uses PCR, followed by analysis by hybridization and detection of the amplified DNA sequences to DNA probes, chemically synthesized at different locations on a quartz surface. A disadvantage of these arrays are the low flexibility and the lower sensitivity. There are modified approaches that can increase selectivity, such as the “perfect match” and “mismatch probe” approaches, but these do so at the cost of the number of SNPs calls per array. Pyrosequencing, or sequencing by synthesis, can also be used for genotyping and SNP analysis. The main advantages to pyrosequencing include an extremely fast turnaround and unambiguous SNP calls, however, the assay is not currently conducive to high-throughput parallel analysis. PCR followed by gel electrophoresis is an exceedingly simple technique that has met the most success in preimplantation diagnosis. In this technique, researchers use nested PCR to amplify short sequences of interest. Then, they run these DNA samples on a special gel to visualize the PCR products. Different bases have different molecular weights, so one can determine base content based on how fast the product runs in the gel. This technique is low-throughput and requires subjective analyses by scientists using current technologies, but has the advantage of speed (1-2 hours of PCR, 1 hour of gel electrophoresis). For this reason, it has been used previously for prenatal genotyping for a myriad of diseases, including: thalassaemia, neurofibromatosis type 2, leukocyte adhesion deficiency type I, Hallopeau-Siemens disease, sickle-cell anemia, retinoblastoma, Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and Currarino syndrome. Another promising technique that has been developed for genotyping small quantities of genetic material with very high fidelity is Molecular Inversion Probes (MIPs), such as Affymetrix's Genflex Arrays. This technique has the capability to measure multiple SNPs in parallel: more than 10,000 SNPS measured in parallel have been verified. For small quantities of genetic material, call rates for this technique have been established at roughly 95%, and accuracy of the calls made has been established to be above 99%. So far, the technique has been implemented for quantities of genomic data as small as 150 molecules for a given SNP. However, the technique has not been verified for genomic data from a single cell, or a single strand of DNA, as would be required for pre-implantation genetic diagnosis. The MIP technique makes use of padlock probes which are linear oligonucleotides whose two ends can be joined by ligation when they hybridize to immediately adjacent target sequences of DNA. After the probes have hybridized to the genomic DNA, a gap-fill enzyme is added to the assay which can add one of the four nucleotides to the gap. If the added nucleotide (A,C,T,G) is complementary to the SNP under measurement, then it will hybridize to the DNA, and join the ends of the padlock probe by ligation. The circular products, or closed padlock probes, are then differentiated from linear probes by exonucleolysis. The exonuclease, by breaking down the linear probes and leaving the circular probes, will change the relative concentrations of the closed vs. the unclosed probes by a factor of 1000 or more. The probes that remain are then opened at a cleavage site by another enzyme, removed from the DNA, and amplified by PCR. Each probe is tagged with a different tag sequence consisting of 20 base tags (16,000 have been generated), and can be detected, for example, by the Affymetrix GenFlex Tag Array. The presence of the tagged probe from a reaction in which a particular gap-fill enzyme was added indicates the presence of the complimentary amino acid on the relevant SNP. The molecular biological advantages of MIPS include: (1) multiplexed genotyping in a single reaction, (2) the genotype “call” occurs by gap fill and ligation, not hybridization, and (3) hybridization to an array of universal tags decreases false positives inherent to most array hybridizations. In traditional 500K, TaqMan and other genotyping arrays, the entire genomic sample is hybridized to the array, which contains a variety of perfect match and mismatch probes, and an algorithm calls likely genotypes based on the intensities of the mismatch and perfect match probes. Hybridization, however, is inherently noisy, because of the complexities of the DNA sample and the huge number of probes on the arrays. MIPs, on the other hand, uses multiplex probes (i.e., not on an array) that are longer and therefore more specific, and then uses a robust ligation step to circularize the probe. Background is exceedingly low in this assay (due to specificity), though allele dropout may be high (due to poor performing probes). When this technique is used on genomic data from a single cell (or small numbers of cells) it will—like PCR based approaches suffer from integrity issues. For example, the inability of the padlock probe to hybridize to the genomic DNA will cause allele dropouts. This will be exacerbated in the context of in-vitro fertilization since the efficiency of the hybridization reaction is low, and it needs to proceed relatively quickly in order to genotype the embryo in a limited time period. Note that the hybridization reaction can be reduced well below vendor-recommended levels, and micro-fluidic techniques may also be used to accelerate the hybridization reaction. These approaches to reducing the time for the hybridization reaction will result in reduced data quality. Once the genetic data has been measured, the next step is to use the data for predictive purposes. Much research has been done in predictive genomics, which tries to understand the precise functions of proteins, RNA and DNA so that phenotypic predictions can be made based on genotype. Canonical techniques focus on the function of Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP); but more advanced methods are being brought to bear on multi-factorial phenotypic features. These methods include techniques, such as linear regression and nonlinear neural networks, which attempt to determine a mathematical relationship between a set of genetic and phenotypic predictors and a set of measured outcomes. There is also a set of regression analysis techniques, such as Ridge regression, log regression and stepwise selection, that are designed to accommodate sparse data sets where there are many potential predictors relative to the number of outcomes, as is typical of genetic data, and which apply additional constraints on the regression parameters so that a meaningful set of parameters can be resolved even when the data is underdetermined. Other techniques apply principal component analysis to extract information from undetermined data sets. Other techniques, such as decision trees and contingency tables, use strategies for subdividing subjects based on their independent variables in order to place subjects in categories or bins for which the phenotypic outcomes are similar. A recent technique, termed logical regression, describes a method to search for different logical interrelationships between categorical independent variables in order to model a variable that depends on interactions between multiple independent variables related to genetic data. Regardless of the method used, the quality of the prediction is naturally highly dependant on the quality of the genetic data used to make the prediction. Normal humans have two sets of 23 chromosomes in every diploid cell, with one copy coming from each parent. Aneuploidy, a cell with an extra or missing chromosomes, and uniparental disomy, a cell with two of a given chromosome that originate from one parent, are believed to be responsible for a large percentage of failed implantations, miscarriages, and genetic diseases. When only certain cells in an individual are aneuploid, the individual is said to exhibit mosaicism. Detection of chromosomal abnormalities can identify individuals or embryos with conditions such as Down syndrome, Klinefelters syndrome, and Turner syndrome, among others, in addition to increasing the chances of a successful pregnancy. Testing for chromosomal abnormalities is especially important as mothers age: between the ages of 35 and 40 it is estimated that between 40% and 50% of the embryos are abnormal, and above the age of 40, more than half of the embryos are abnormal. Karyotyping, the traditional method used for the prediction of aneuploides and mosaicism is giving way to other more high throughput, more cost effective methods. One method that has attracted much attention recently is Flow cytometry (FC) and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) which can be used to detect aneuploidy in any phase of the cell cycle. One advantage of this method is that it is less expensive than karyotyping, but the cost is significant enough that generally a small selection of chromosomes are tested (usually chromosomes 13, 18, 21, X, Y; also sometimes 8, 9, 15, 16, 17, 22); in addition, FISH has a low level of specificity. Using FISH to analyze 15 cells, one can detect mosaicism of 19% with 95% confidence. The reliability of the test becomes much lower as the level of mosaicism gets lower, and as the number of cells to analyze decreases. The test is estimated to have a false negative rate as high as 15% when a single cell is analysed. There is a great demand for a method that has a higher throughput, lower cost, and greater accuracy. Listed here is a set of prior art which is related to the field of the current invention. None of this prior art contains or in any way refers to the novel elements of the current invention. In U.S. Pat. No. 6,720,140, Hartley et al describe a recombinational cloning method for moving or exchanging segments of DNA molecules using engineered recombination sites and recombination proteins. In U.S. Pat. No. 6,489,135 Parrott et al. provide methods for determining various biological characteristics of in vitro fertilized embryos, including overall embryo health, implantability, and increased likelihood of developing successfully to term by analyzing media specimens of in vitro fertilization cultures for levels of bioactive lipids in order to determine these characteristics. In US Patent Application 20040033596 Threadgill et al. describe a method for preparing homozygous cellular libraries useful for in vitro phenotyping and gene mapping involving site-specific mitotic recombination in a plurality of isolated parent cells. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,994,148 Stewart et al. describe a method of determining the probability of an in vitro fertilization (IVF) being successful by measuring Relaxin directly in the serum or indirectly by culturing granulosa lutein cells extracted from the patient as part of an IVF/ET procedure. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,635,366 Cooke et al. provide a method for predicting the outcome of IVF by determining the level of 110-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β-HSD) in a biological sample from a female patient. In U.S. Pat. No. 7,058,616 Larder et al. describe a method for using a neural network to predict the resistance of a disease to a therapeutic agent. In U.S. Pat. No. 6,958,211 Vingerhoets et al. describe a method wherein the integrase genotype of a given HIV strain is simply compared to a known database of HIV integrase genotype with associated phenotypes to find a matching genotype. In U.S. Pat. No. 7,058,517 Denton et al. describe a method wherein an individual's haplotypes are compared to a known database of haplotypes in the general population to predict clinical response to a treatment. In U.S. Pat. No. 7,035,739 Schadt at al. describe a method is described wherein a genetic marker map is constructed and the individual genes and traits are analyzed to give a gene-trait locus data, which are then clustered as a way to identify genetically interacting pathways, which are validated using multivariate analysis. In U.S. Pat. No. 6,025,128 Veltri et al. describe a method involving the use of a neural network utilizing a collection of biomarkers as parameters to evaluate risk of prostate cancer recurrence. The cost of DNA sequencing is dropping rapidly, and in the near future individual genomic sequencing for personal benefit will become more common. Knowledge of personal genetic data will allow for extensive phenotypic predictions to be made for the individual. In order to make accurate phenotypic predictions high quality genetic data is critical, whatever the context. In the case of prenatal or pre-implantation genetic diagnoses a complicating factor is the relative paucity of genetic material available. Given the inherently noisy nature of the measured genetic data in cases where limited genetic material is used for genotyping, there is a great need for a method which can increase the fidelity of, or clean, the primary data. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The system disclosed enables the cleaning of incomplete or noisy genetic data using secondary genetic data as a source of information, and also the determination of chromosome copy number using said genetic data. While the disclosure focuses on genetic data from human subjects, and more specifically on as-yet not implanted embryos or developing fetuses, as well as related individuals, it should be noted that the methods disclosed apply to the genetic data of a range of organisms, in a range of contexts. The techniques described for cleaning genetic data are most relevant in the context of pre-implantation diagnosis during in-vitro fertilization, prenatal diagnosis in conjunction with amniocentesis, chorion villus biopsy, fetal tissue sampling, and non-invasive prenatal diagnosis, where a small quantity of fetal genetic material is isolated from maternal blood. The use of this method may facilitate diagnoses focusing on inheritable diseases, chromosome copy number predictions, increased likelihoods of defects or abnormalities, as well as making predictions of susceptibility to various disease- and non-disease phenotypes for individuals to enhance clinical and lifestyle decisions. The invention addresses the shortcomings of prior art that are discussed above. In one aspect of the invention, methods make use of knowledge of the genetic data of the mother and the father such as diploid tissue samples, sperm from the father, haploid samples from the mother or other embryos derived from the mother's and father's gametes, together with the knowledge of the mechanism of meiosis and the imperfect measurement of the embryonic DNA, in order to reconstruct, in silico, the embryonic DNA at the location of key loci with a high degree of confidence. In one aspect of the invention, genetic data derived from other related individuals, such as other embryos, brothers and sisters, grandparents or other relatives can also be used to increase the fidelity of the reconstructed embryonic DNA. It is important to note that the parental and other secondary genetic data allows the reconstruction not only of SNPs that were measured poorly, but also of insertions, deletions, and of SNPs or whole regions of DNA that were not measured at all. In one aspect of the invention, the fetal or embryonic genomic data which has been reconstructed, with or without the use of genetic data from related individuals, can be used to detect if the cell is aneuploid, that is, where fewer or more than two of a particular chromosome is present in a cell. The reconstructed data can also be used to detect for uniparental disomy, a condition in which two of a given chromosome are present, both of which originate from one parent. This is done by creating a set of hypotheses about the potential states of the DNA, and testing to see which hypothesis has the highest probability of being true given the measured data. Note that the use of high throughput genotyping data for screening for aneuploidy enables a single blastomere from each embryo to be used both to measure multiple disease-linked loci as well as to screen for aneuploidy. In another aspect of the invention, the direct measurements of the amount of genetic material, amplified or unamplified, present at a plurality of loci, can be used to detect for monosomy, uniparental disomy, trisomy and other aneuploidy states. The idea behind this method is that measuring the amount of genetic material at multiple loci will give a statistically significant result. In another aspect of the invention, the measurements, direct or indirect, of a particular subset of SNPs, namely those loci where the parents are both homozygous but with different allele values, can be used to detect for chromosomal abnormalities by looking at the ratios of maternally versus paternally miscalled homozygous loci on the embryo. The idea behind this method is that those loci where each parent is homozygous, but have different alleles, by definition result in a heterozygous loci on the embryo. Allele drop outs at those loci are random, and a shift in the ratio of loci miscalled as homozygous can only be due to incorrect chromosome number. It will be recognized by a person of ordinary skill in the art, given the benefit of this disclosure, that various aspects and embodiments of this disclosure may implemented in combination or separately. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1: determining probability of false negatives and false positives for different hypotheses. FIG. 2: the results from a mixed female sample, all loci hetero. FIG. 3: the results from a mixed male sample, all loci hetero. FIG. 4: Ct measurements for male sample differenced from Ct measurements for female sample. FIG. 5: the results from a mixed female sample; Taqman single dye. FIG. 6: the results from a mixed male; Taqman single dye. FIG. 7: the distribution of repeated measurements for mixed male sample. FIG. 8: the results from a mixed female sample; qPCR measures. FIG. 9: the results from a mixed male sample; qPCR measures. FIG. 10: Ct measurements for male sample differenced from Ct measurements for female sample. FIG. 11: detecting aneuploidy with a third dissimilar chromosome. FIGS. 12A and 12B: an illustration of two amplification distributions with constant allele dropout rate. FIG. 13: a graph of the Gaussian probability density function of alpha. FIG. 14: matched filter and performance for 19 loci measured with Taqman on 60 pg of DNA. FIG. 15: matched filter and performance for 13 loci measured with Taqman on 6 pg of DNA. FIG. 16: matched filter and performance for 20 loci measured with qPCR on 60 pg of DNA. FIG. 17: matched filter and performance for 20 loci measured with qPCR on 6 pg of DNA. FIG. 18A: matched filter and performance for 20 loci using MDA and Taqman on 16 single cells. FIG. 18B: Matched filter and performance for 11 loci on Chromosome 7 and 13 loci on Chromosome X using MDA and Taqman on 15 single cells. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Conceptual Overview of the System The goal of the disclosed system is to provide highly accurate genomic data for the purpose of genetic diagnoses. In cases where the genetic data of an individual contains a significant amount of noise, or errors, the disclosed system makes use of the expected similarities between the genetic data of the target individual and the genetic data of related individuals, to clean the noise in the target genome. This is done by determining which segments of chromosomes of related individuals were involved in gamete formation and, when necessary where crossovers may have occurred during meiosis, and therefore which segments of the genomes of related individuals are expected to be nearly identical to sections of the target genome. In certain situations this method can be used to clean noisy base pair measurements on the target individual, but it also can be used to infer the identity of individual base pairs or whole regions of DNA that were not measured. It can also be used to determine the number of copies of a given chromosome segment in the target individual. In addition, a confidence may be computed for each call made. A highly simplified explanation is presented first, making unrealistic assumptions in order to illustrate the concept of the invention. A detailed statistical approach that can be applied to the technology of today is presented afterward. In one aspect of the invention, the target individual is an embryo, and the purpose of applying the disclosed method to the genetic data of the embryo is to allow a doctor or other agent to make an informed choice of which embryo(s) should be implanted during IVF. In another aspect of the invention, the target individual is a fetus, and the purpose of applying the disclosed method to genetic data of the fetus is to allow a doctor or other agent to make an informed choice about possible clinical decisions or other actions to be taken with respect to the fetus. Definitions SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism): a single nucleotide that may differ between the genomes of two members of the same species. In our usage of the term, we do not set any limit on the frequency with which each variant occurs. To call a SNP: to make a decision about the true state of a particular base pair, taking into account the direct and indirect evidence. Locus: a particular region of interest on the DNA of an individual, which may refer to a SNP, the site of a possible insertion or deletion, or the site of some other relevant genetic variation. Disease-linked SNPs may also refer to disease-linked loci. To call an allele: to determine the state of a particular locus of DNA. This may involve calling a SNP, or determining whether or not an insertion or deletion is present at that locus, or determining the number of insertions that may be present at that locus, or determining whether some other genetic variant is present at that locus. Correct allele call: An allele call that correctly reflects the true state of the actual genetic material of an individual. To clean genetic data: to take imperfect genetic data and correct some or all of the errors or fill in missing data at one or more loci. In the context of this disclosure, this involves using genetic data of related individuals and the method described herein. To increase the fidelity of allele calls: to clean genetic data. Imperfect genetic data: genetic data with any of the following: allele dropouts, uncertain base pair measurements, incorrect base pair measurements, missing base pair measurements, uncertain measurements of insertions or deletions, uncertain measurements of chromosome segment copy numbers, spurious signals, missing measurements, other errors, or combinations thereof. Noisy genetic data: imperfect genetic data, also called incomplete genetic data. Uncleaned genetic data: genetic data as measured, that is, where no method has been used to correct for the presence of noise or errors in the raw genetic data; also called crude genetic data. Confidence: the statistical likelihood that the called SNP, allele, set of alleles, or determined number of chromosome segment copies correctly represents the real genetic state of the individual. Parental Support (PS): a name sometimes used for the any of the methods disclosed herein, where the genetic information of related individuals is used to determine the genetic state of target individuals. In some cases, it refers specifically to the allele calling method, sometimes to the method used for cleaning genetic data, sometimes to the method to determine the number of copies of a segment of a chromosome, and sometimes to some or all of these methods used in combination. Copy Number Calling (CNC): the name given to the method described in this disclosure used to determine the number of chromosome segments in a cell. Qualitative CNC (also qCNC): the name given to the method in this disclosure used to determine chromosome copy number in a cell that makes use of qualitative measured genetic data of the target individual and of related individuals. Multigenic: affected by multiple genes, or alleles. Direct relation: mother, father, son, or daughter. Chromosomal Region: a segment of a chromosome, or a full chromosome. Segment of a Chromosome: a section of a chromosome that can range in size from one base pair to the entire chromosome. Section: a section of a chromosome. Section and segment can be used interchangeably. Chromosome: may refer to either a full chromosome, or also a segment or section of a chromosome. Copies: the number of copies of a chromosome segment may refer to identical copies, or it may refer to non-identical copies of a chromosome segment wherein the different copies of the chromosome segment contain a substantially similar set of loci, and where one or more of the alleles are different. Note that in some cases of aneuploidy, such as the M2 copy error, it is possible to have some copies of the given chromosome segment that are identical as well as some copies of the same chromosome segment that are not identical. Haplotypic Data: also called ‘phased data’ or ‘ordered genetic data;’ data from a single chromosome in a diploid or polyploid genome, i.e., either the segregated maternal or paternal copy of a chromosome in a diploid genome. Unordered Genetic Data: pooled data derived from measurements on two or more chromosomes in a diploid or polyploid genome, i.e., both the maternal and paternal copies of a chromosome in a diploid genome. Genetic data ‘in’, ‘of’, ‘at’ or ‘on’ an individual: These phrases all refer to the data describing aspects of the genome of an individual. It may refer to one or a set of loci, partial or entire sequences, partial or entire chromosomes, or the entire genome. Hypothesis: a set of possible copy numbers of a given set of chromosomes, or a set of possible genotypes at a given set of loci. The set of possibilities may contain one or more elements. Target Individual: the individual whose genetic data is being determined. Typically, only a limited amount of DNA is available from the target individual. In one context, the target individual is an embryo or a fetus. Related Individual: any individual who is genetically related, and thus shares haplotype blocks, with the target individual. Platform response: a mathematical characterization of the input/output characteristics of a genetic measurement platform, such as TAQMAN or INFINIUM. The input to the channel is the true underlying genotypes of the genetic loci being measured. The channel output could be allele calls (qualitative) or raw numerical measurements (quantitative), depending on the context. For example, in the case in which the platform's raw numeric output is reduced to qualitative genotype calls, the platform response consists of an error transition matrix that describes the conditional probability of seeing a particular output genotype call given a particular true genotype input. In the case in which the platform's output is left as raw numeric measurements, the platform response is a conditional probability density function that describes the probability of the numeric outputs given a particular true genotype input. Copy number hypothesis: a hypothesis about how many copies of a particular chromosome segment are in the embryo. In a preferred embodiment, this hypothesis consists of a set of sub-hypotheses about how many copies of this chromosome segment were contributed by each related individual to the target individual. Technical Description of the System A Allele Calling: Preferred Method Assume here the goal is to estimate the genetic data of an embryo as accurately as possible, and where the estimate is derived from measurements taken from the embryo, father, and mother across the same set of n SNPs. Note that where this description refers to SNPs, it may also refer to a locus where any genetic variation, such as a point mutation, insertion or deletion may be present. This allele calling method is part of the Parental Support (PS) system. One way to increase the fidelity of allele calls in the genetic data of a target individual for the purposes of making clinically actionable predictions is described here. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art how to modify the method for use in contexts where the target individual is not an embryo, where genetic data from only one parent is available, where neither, one or both of the parental haplotypes are known, or where genetic data from other related individuals is known and can be incorporated. For the purposes of this discussion, only consider SNPs that admit two allele values; without loss of generality it is possible to assume that the allele values on all SNPs belong to the alphabet A={A,C}. It is also assumed that the errors on the measurements of each of the SNPs are independent. This assumption is reasonable when the SNPs being measured are from sufficiently distant genic regions. Note that one could incorporate information about haplotype blocks or other techniques to model correlation between measurement errors on SNPs without changing the fundamental concepts of this invention. Let e=(e1,e2) be the true, unknown, ordered SNP information on the embryo, e1,e2ϵAn. Define e1 to be the genetic haploid information inherited from the father and e2 to be the genetic haploid information inherited from the mother. Also use ei=(e1i,e2i) to denote the ordered pair of alleles at the i-th position of e. In similar fashion, let f=(f1,f2) and m=(m1,m2) be the true, unknown, ordered SNP information on the father and mother respectively. In addition, let g1 be the true, unknown, haploid information on a single sperm from the father. (One can think of the letter g as standing for gamete. There is no g2. The subscript is used to remind the reader that the information is haploid, in the same way that f1 and f2 are haploid.) It is also convenient to define r=(f,m), so that there is a symbol to represent the complete set of diploid parent information from which e inherits, and also write ri=(fi,mi)=((f1i,f2i),(m1i,m2i)) to denote the complete set of ordered information on father and mother at the i-th SNP. Finally, let ê=(ê1, ê2) be the estimate of e that is sought, ê1, ê2ϵAn. By a crossover map, it is meant an n-tuple θϵ{1,2}n that specifies how a haploid pair such as (f1,f2) recombines to form a gamete such as e1. Treating θ as a function whose output is a haploid sequence, define θ(f)i=θ(f1,f2)i=fθi,i. To make this idea more concrete, let f1=ACAAACCC, let f2=CAACCACA, and let θ=11111222. Then θ(f1,f2)=ACAAAACA. In this example, the crossover map θ implicitly indicates that a crossover occurred between SNPs i=5 and i=6. Formally, let θ be the true, unknown crossover map that determines e1 from f, let ϕ be the true, unknown crossover map that determines e2 from m, and let ψ be the true, unknown crossover map that determines g1 from f. That is, e1=θ(f), e2=d)(m), g1=ψ(f). It is also convenient to define X=(θ, ϕ, ψ) so that there is a symbol to represent the complete set of crossover information associated with the problem. For simplicity sake, write e=X(r) as shorthand for e=(θ(f), ϕ(m)); also write ei=X(ri) as shorthand for ei=X(r)i In reality, when chromosomes combine, at most a few crossovers occur, making most of the 2n theoretically possible crossover maps distinctly improbable. In practice, these very low probability crossover maps will be treated as though they had probability zero, considering only crossover maps belonging to a comparatively small set Ω. For example, if Ω is defined to be the set of crossover maps that derive from at most one crossover, then |Ω|=2n. It is convenient to have an alphabet that can be used to describe unordered diploid measurements. To that end, let B={A,B,C,X}. Here A and C represent their respective homozygous locus states and B represents a heterozygous but unordered locus state. Note: this section is the only section of the document that uses the symbol B to stand for a heterozygous but unordered locus state. Most other sections of the document use the symbols A and B to stand for the two different allele values that can occur at a locus. X represents an unmeasured locus, i.e., a locus drop-out. To make this idea more concrete, let f1=ACAAACCC, and let f2=CAACCACA. Then a noiseless unordered diploid measurement of f would yield {tilde over (f)}=BBABBBCB. In the problem at hand, it is only possible to take unordered diploid measurements of e, f, and m, although there may be ordered haploid measurements on g1. This results in noisy measured sequences that are denoted {tilde over (e)}ϵBn, {tilde over (f)}ϵBn, {tilde over (m)}ϵBn, and {tilde over (g)}1ϵAn respectively. It will be convenient to define {tilde over (r)}=({tilde over (f)}, {tilde over (m)}) so that there is a symbol that represents the noisy measurements on the parent data. It will also be convenient to define {tilde over (D)}=({tilde over (r)}, {tilde over (e)}, {tilde over (g)}1) so that there is a symbol to represent the complete set of noisy measurements associated with the problem, and to write {tilde over (D)}i=({tilde over (r)}i, {tilde over (e)}i, {tilde over (g)}1i)=({tilde over (f)}i, {tilde over (m)}i, {tilde over (e)}i, {tilde over (g)}1i) to denote the complete set of measurements on the i-th SNP. (Please note that, while fi is an ordered pair such as (A,C), {tilde over (f)}i is a single letter such as B.) Because the diploid measurements are unordered, nothing in the data can distinguish the state (f1, f2) from (f2, f1) or the state (m1, m2) from (m2, m1). These indistinguishable symmetric states give rise to multiple optimal solutions of the estimation problem. To eliminate the symmetries, and without loss of generality, assign θ1=ϕ1=1. In summary, then, the problem is defined by a true but unknown underlying set of information {r, e, g1, X}, with e=X(r). Only noisy measurements {tilde over (D)}=({tilde over (r)}, {tilde over (e)}, {tilde over (g)}1) are available. The goal is to come up with an estimate ê of e, based on {tilde over (D)}. Note that this method implicitly assumes euploidy on the embryo. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art how this method could be used in conjunction with the aneuploidy calling methods described elsewhere in this patent. For example, the aneuploidy calling method could be first employed to ensure that the embryo is indeed euploid and only then would the allele calling method be employed, or the aneuploidy calling method could be used to determine how many chromosome copies were derived from each parent and only then would the allele calling method be employed. It should also be obvious to one skilled in the art how this method could be modified in the case of a sex chromosome where there is only one copy of a chromosome present. Solution Via Maximum a Posteriori Estimation In one embodiment of the invention, it is possible, for each of the n SNP positions, to use a maximum a posteriori (MAP) estimation to determine the most probable ordered allele pair at that position. The derivation that follows uses a common shorthand notation for probability expressions. For example, P(e′i, {tilde over (D)}|X′) is written to denote the probability that random variable ei takes on value e′i and the random variable {tilde over (D)} takes on its observed value, conditional on the event that the random variable X takes on the value X′. Using MAP estimation, then, the i-th component of ê, denoted êi=(ê1i, ê2i) is given by  e ^ i =  argmax e i ′  P ( e i ′ | D ~ ) =  argmax e i ′  P ( e i ′ , D ~ ) =  argmax e i ′  ∑ X ′ ∈ Ω 3  P  ( X ′ )  P ( e i ′ , D ~ | X ′ )  ( a ) = argmax e i ′  ∑ X ′ ∈ Ω 3 : θ 1 ′ = φ 1 ′ = 1  P  ( X ′ )  P ( e i ′ , D ~ | X ′ )  ∏ j ≠ i  P ( D ~ j | X ′ ) ( b ) = argmax e i ′  ∑ X ′ ∈ Ω 3  P : θ 1 ′ = φ 1 ′ = 1  P  ( X ′ )  ∑ r i ′ ∈ A 4  P  ( r i ′ )  P ( e i ′ , D ~ i | X ′ , r i ′ )  ∏ j ≠ i  ∑ r j ′ ∈ A 4  P  ( r j ′ )  P ( D ~ j | X ′ , r j ′ ) ( c ) = argmax e i ′  ∑ X ′ ∈ Ω 3 : θ 1 ′ = φ 1 ′ = 1  P  ( X ′ )  ∑ r i ′ ∈ A 4  P  ( r i ′ )  P ( e i ′ | X ′ , r i ′ )  P ( D ~ i | X ′ , r i ′ )  ∏ j ≠ i  ∑ r j ′ ∈ A 4  P  ( r j ′ )  P ( D ~ j | X ′ , r j ′ )  ( ⋆ )  =  argmax e i ′  ∑ X ′ ∈ Ω 3 : θ 1 ′ = φ 1 ′ = 1  P  ( X ′ )  ∏ j  ∑ r j ′ ∈ A 4  1  ( i ≠ j   or     X ′  ( r j ′ ) = e i ′ )  P  ( r j ′ )  P ( D ~ j | X ′ , r j ′ ) In the preceding set of equations, (a) holds because the assumption of SNP independence means that all of the random variables associated with SNP i are conditionally independent of all of the random variables associated with SNP j, given X; (b) holds because r is independent of X; (c) holds because ei and {tilde over (D)}i are conditionally independent given r, and X (in particular, ei=X(ri)); and (*) holds, again, because ei=X(ri), which means that P(e′i|X′,r′i) evaluates to either one or zero and hence effectively filters r′i to just those values that are consistent with e′i and X′. The final expression (*) above contains three probability expressions: P(X′), P(r′j), and P({tilde over (D)}j|X′,r′j). The computation of each of these quantities is discussed in the following three sections. Crossover Map Probabilities Recent research has enabled the modeling of the probability of recombination between any two SNP loci. Observations from sperm studies and patterns of genetic variation show that recombination rates vary extensively on kilobase scales and that much recombination occurs in recombination hotspots. The NCBI data about recombination rates on the Human Genome is publicly available through the UCSC Genome Annotation Database. One may use the data set from the Hapmap Project or the Perlegen Human Haplotype Project. The latter is higher density; the former is higher quality. These rates can be estimated using various techniques known to those skilled in the art, such as the reversible-jump Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) method that is available in the package LDHat. In one embodiment of the invention, it is possible to calculate the probability of any crossover map given the probability of crossover between any two SNPs. For example, P(θ=11111222) is one half the probability that a crossover occurred between SNPs five and six. The reason it is only half the probability is that a particular crossover pattern has two crossover maps associated with it: one for each gamete. In this case, the other crossover map is θ=22222111. Recall that X=(θ,ϕ,ψ), where e1=θ(f), e2=ϕ(m), g1=ψ(f). Obviously θ, ϕ, and ψ result from independent physical events, so P(X)=P(θ)P(ϕ)P(ψ). Further assume that Pθ(●)=Pϕ(●)=Pψ(●), where the actual distribution Pθ(●) is determined in the obvious way from the Hapmap data. Allele Probabilities It is possible to determine P(ri)=P(fi)P(mi)=P(fi1)P(fi2)P(mi1)P(mi2) using population frequency information from databases such as dbSNP. Also, as mentioned previously, choose SNPs for which the assumption of intra-haploid independence is a reasonable one. That is, assume that P  ( r ) = ∏ i  P  ( r i ) Measurement Errors Conditional on whether a locus is heterozygous or homozygous, measurement errors may be modeled as independent and identically distributed across all similarly typed loci. Thus: P ( D ~ | X , r ) =  ∏ i  P ( D ~ i | X , r i ) =  ∏ i  P ( f ~ i , m ~ i , e ~ i , g ~ 1  i | X , f i , m i ) =  ∏ i  P ( f ~ i | f i )  P  ( m ~ i | m i )  P  ( e ~ i | θ  ( f i ) , φ  ( m i ) )  P  ( g ~ 1  i | ψ  ( f i ) ) where each of the four conditional probability distributions in the final expression is determined empirically, and where the additional assumption is made that the first two distributions are identical. For example, for unordered diploid measurements on a blastomere, empirical values pd=0.5 and pa=0.02 are obtained, which lead to the conditional probability distribution for P({tilde over (e)}i|ei) shown in Table 1. Note that the conditional probability distributions mentioned above, P({tilde over (f)}i|fi), P({tilde over (m)}i|mi), P({tilde over (e)}i|ei), can vary widely from experiment to experiment, depending on various factors in the lab such as variations in the quality of genetic samples, or variations in the efficiency of whole genome amplification, or small variations in protocols used. Therefore, in a preferred embodiment, these conditional probability distributions are estimated on a per-experiment basis. We focus in later sections of this disclosure on estimating P({tilde over (e)}i|ei), but it will be clear to one skilled in the art after reading this disclosure how similar techniques can be applied to estimating P({tilde over (f)}i|fi), P({tilde over (m)}i|mi). The distributions can each be modeled as belonging to a parametric family of distributions whose particular parameter values vary from experiment to experiment. As one example among many, it is possible to implicitly model the conditional probability distribution P({tilde over (e)}i|ei) as being parameterized by an allele dropout parameter pd and an allele dropin parameter pa. The values of these parameters might vary widely from experiment to experiment, and it is possible to use standard techniques such as maximum likelihood estimation, MAP estimation, or Bayesian inference, whose application is illustrated at various places in this document, to estimate the values that these parameters take on in any individual experiment. Regardless of the precise method one uses, the key is to find the set of parameter values that maximizes the joint probability of the parameters and the data, by considering all possible tuples of parameter values within a region of interest in the parameter space. As described elsewhere in the document, this approach can be implemented when one knows the chromosome copy number of the target genome, or when one doesn't know the copy number call but is exploring different hypotheses. In the latter case, one searches for the combination of parameters and hypotheses that best match the data are found, as is described elsewhere in this disclosure. Note that one can also determine the conditional probability distributions as a function of particular parameters derived from the measurements, such as the magnitude of quantitative genotyping measurements, in order to increase accuracy of the method. This would not change the fundamental concept of the invention. It is also possible to use non-parametric methods to estimate the above conditional probability distributions on a per-experiment basis. Nearest neighbor methods, smoothing kernels, and similar non-parametric methods familiar to those skilled in the art are some possibilities. Although this disclosure focuses parametric estimation methods, use of non-parametric methods to estimate these conditional probability distributions would not change the fundamental concept of the invention. The usual caveats apply: parametric methods may suffer from model bias, but have lower variance. Non-parametric methods tend to be unbiased, but will have higher variance. Note that it should be obvious to one skilled in the art, after reading this disclosure, how one could use quantitative information instead of explicit allele calls, in order to apply the PS method to making reliable allele calls, and this would not change the essential concepts of the disclosure. B Factoring the Allele Calling Equation In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the algorithm for allele calling can be structured so that it can be executed in a more computationally efficient fashion. In this section the equations are re-derived for allele-calling via the MAP method, this time reformulating the equations so that they reflect such a computationally efficient method of calculating the result. Notation X*,Y*,Z*ϵ{A,C}n×2 are the true ordered values on the mother, father, and embryo respectively. H*ϵ{A,C}n×h are true values on h sperm samples. B*ϵ{A,C}n×b×2 are true ordered values on b blastomeres. D={x,y,z,B,H} is the set of unordered measurement data on father, mother, embryo, b blastomeres and h sperm samples. Di={xi,yi,zi,Hi,Bi,} is the data set restricted to the i-th SNP. rϵ{A,C}4 represents a candidate 4-tuple of ordered values on both the mother and father at a particular locus. {circumflex over (Z)}iϵ{A,C}2 is the estimated ordered embryo value at SNP i. Q=(2+2b+h) is the effective number of haploid chromosomes being measured, excluding the parents. Any hypothesis about the parental origin of all measured data (excluding the parents themselves) requires that Q crossover maps be specified. χϵ{1,2}n×Q is a crossover map matrix, representing a hypothesis about the parental origin of all measured data, excluding the parents. Note that there are 2nQ different crossover matrices. χiχi, is the matrix restricted to the i-th row. Note that there are 2Q vector values that the i-th row can take on, from the set χϵ{1,2}Q. f(x; y, z) is a function of (x, y, z) that is being treated as a function of just x. The values behind the semi-colon are constants in the context in which the function is being evaluated. PS Equation Factorization Z ^ i =  arg   max z i   P  ( Z i , D ) =  arg   max z i  ∑ χ   P  ( χ )  P  ( Z i , D  χ ) =  arg   max z i  ∑ χ   P  ( χ 1 )  P  ( χ 2  χ 1 )   …   P  ( χ n , χ n - 1 )  ( ∑ r ∈ ( A , C ) 4   P  ( r )  P  ( Z i , D i  X i , r ) )  ∏ j ≠ 1   ( ∑ r ∈ ( A , C ) 4   P  ( r )  P  ( D j  X j , r ) ) =  arg   max z i  ∑ χ   P  ( χ 1 )  P  ( χ 2  χ 1 )   …   P  ( χ n , χ n - 1 )  f 1  ( χ i ; Z i , D i ) ∏ j = 1   f 2  ( χ j ; D j ) = arg   max z i  ∑ χ 1 ∈ { 1 , 2 } Q   …   ∑ χ 2 ∈ { 1 , 2 } Q  P  ( χ 1 )  P  ( χ 2  χ 1 )   …   P  ( χ n , χ n - 1 )  f 1  ( χ i ; Z i , D i )  ∏ j = 1   f 2  ( χ j ; D j ) = arg   max z i  ∑ χ 1 ∈ { 1 , 2 } Q  P  ( χ 1 )  f 2  ( χ 1 ; D 1 ) × ∑ χ 2 ∈ { 1 , 2 } Q  P  ( χ 2  χ 1 ) f 2  ( χ 2 ; D 2 ) ×  …   ∑ χ 1 ∈ { 1 , 2 } Q  P  ( χ i  X i - 1 )  f 1  ( χ i ; Z i , D i ) × ∑ χ n ∈ { 1 , 2 } Q  P  ( χ n  X n - 1 )  f 2  ( χ n ; D n ) The number of different crossover matrices χ is 2nQ. Thus, a brute-force application of the first line above is U(n2nQ). By exploiting structure via the factorization of P(χ) and P(zi,D|χ), and invoking the previous result, final line gives an expression that can be computed in O(n22Q). C Quantitative Detection of Aneuploidy In one embodiment of the invention, aneuploidy can be detected using the quantitative data output from the PS method discussed in this patent. Disclosed herein are multiple methods that make use of the same concept; these methods are termed Copy Number Calling (CNC). The statement of the problem is to determine the copy number of each of 23 chromosome-types in a single cell. The cell is first pre-amplified using a technique such as whole genome amplification using the MDA method. Then the resulting genetic material is selectively amplified with a technique such as PCR at a set of n chosen SNPs at each of m=23 chromosome types. This yields a data set [tij], i=1 . . . n, j=1 . . . m of regularized ct (ct, or CT, is the point during the cycle time of the amplification at which dye measurement exceeds a given threshold) values obtained at SNP i, chromosome j. A regularized ct value implies that, for a given (i,j), the pair of raw ct values on channels FAM and VIC (these are arbitrary channel names denoting different dyes) obtained at that locus are combined to yield a ct value that accurately reflects the ct value that would have been obtained had the locus been homozygous. Thus, rather than having two ct values per locus, there is just one regularized ct value per locus. The goal is to determine the set {nj} of copy numbers on each chromosome. If the cell is euploid, then nj=2 for all j; one exception is the case of the male X chromosome. If nj≠2 for at least one j, then the cell is aneuploid; excepting the case of male X. Biochemical Model The relationship between ct values and chromosomal copy number is modeled as follows: αijnjQ2βijtij−QT In this expression, II, is the copy number of chromosome j. Q is an abstract quantity representing a baseline amount of pre-amplified genetic material from which the actual amount of pre-amplified genetic material at SNP i, chromosome j can be calculated as αijnjQ. αij is a preferential amplification factor that specifies how much more SNP i on chromosome j will be pre-amplified via MDA than SNP 1 on chromosome 1. By definition, the preferential amplification factors are relative to α11≙1. βij is the doubling rate for SNP i chromosome j under PCR. tij is the ct value. QT is the amount of genetic material at which the ct value is determined. T is a symbol, not an index, and merely stands for threshold. It is important to realize that αij, βij, and QT are constants of the model that do not change from experiment to experiment. By contrast, nj and Q are variables that change from experiment to experiment. Q is the amount of material there would be at SNP 1 of chromosome 1, if chromosome 1 were monosomic. The original equation above does not contain a noise term. This can be included by rewriting it as follows: ( ⋆ )  β ij  t ij = log  Q T α ij - log   n j , log   Q + Z ij The above equation indicates that the ct value is corrupted by additive Gaussian noise Zij. Let the variance of this noise term be σij2. Maximum Likelihood (ML) Estimation of Copy Number In one embodiment of the method, the maximum likelihood estimation is used, with respect to the model described above, to determine n1. The parameter Q makes this difficult unless another constraint is added: 1 m  ∑ j   log   n j = 1 This indicates that the average copy number is 2, or, equivalently, that the average log copy number is 1. With this additional constraint one can now solve the following ML problem: Q ^ , n ^ j =  arg   max Q , n j  ∏ ij   f z  ( log   n j + log   Q - ( log  Q T α ij - β ij  t ij ) )  s . t . 1 m  ∑ j   log   n j = 1 =  arg   min Q , n j  ∑ ij   1 σ ij 2  ( log   n j + log   Q - ( log  Q T α ij - β ij  t ij ) ) 2  s . t . 1 m  ∑ j   log   n j = 1 The last line above is linear in the variables log nj and log Q, and is a simple weighted least squares problem with an equality constraint. The solution can be obtained in closed form by forming the Lagrangian L  ( log   n j , log   Q ) = ∑ ij   1 σ ij 2  ( log   n j + log   Q - ( log  Q T α ij - β ij  t ij ) ) 2 + λ  ∑ j   log   n j and taking partial derivatives. Solution when Noise Variance is Constant To avoid unnecessarily complicating the exposition, set σij2=1. This assumption will remain unless explicitly stated otherwise. (In the general case in which each σij2 is different, the solutions will be weighted averages instead of simple averages, or weighted least squares solutions instead of simple least squares solutions.) In that case, the above linear system has the solution: log   Q j  = △  1 n  ∑ i   ( log  Q T α ij - β ij  t ij ) log   Q = 1 m  ∑ j   log   Q j - 1 log   n j = log   Q j - log   Q = log  Q j Q The first equation can be interpreted as a log estimate of the quantity of chromosome j. The second equation can be interpreted as saying that the average of the Qj is the average of a diploid quantity; subtracting one from its log gives the desired monosome quantity. The third equation can be interpreted as saying that the copy number is just the ratio Q j Q . Note that nj, is a ‘double difference’, since it is a difference of Q-values, each of which is itself a difference of values. Simple Solution The above equations also reveal the solution under simpler modeling assumptions: for example, when making the assumption αij=1 for all i and j and/or when making the assumption that βij=β for all i and j. In the simplest case, when both αij=1 and βij=β, the solution reduces to ( ⋆ ⋆ )  log   n j = 1 + β ( 1 mn  ∑ ij   t ij - 1 n  ∑ i   t ij ) The Double Differencing Method In one embodiment of the invention, it is possible to detect monosomy using double differencing. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art how to modify this method for detecting other aneuploidy states. Let {tij} be the regularized ct values obtained from MDA pre-amplification followed by PCR on the genetic sample. As always, tij is the ct value on the i-th SNP of the j-th chromosome. Denote by tj the vector of ct values associated with the j-th chromosome. Make the following definitions: t ~  = △  1 mn  ∑ ij   t ij t ~ j  = △  t j - t ~   1 Classify chromosome j as monosomic if and only if fT{tilde over (t)}i is higher than a certain threshold value, where f is a vector that represents a monosomy signature. f is the matched filter, whose construction is described next. The matched filter f is constructed as a double difference of values obtained from two controlled experiments. Begin with known quantities of euploid male genetic data and euploid female genetic material. Assume there are large quantities of this material, and pre-amplification can be omitted. On both the male and female material, use PCR to sequence n SNPs on both the X chromosome (chromosome 23), and chromosome 7. Let {tijX}, i=1 . . . n, jϵ{7, 23} denote the measurements on the female, and let {tijY} similarly denote the measurements on the male. Given this, it is possible to construct the matched filter f from the resulting data as follows: t ~ 7 X  = △  1 n  ∑ i   t i , 7 X t ~ i ~ Y  = △  1 n  ∑ i   t i , 7 Y Δ X  = △  t 23 X - t ^ 7 X  1 Δ Y  = △  t 23 Y - t ^ 7 Y  1 f  = △  Δ Y - Δ X In the above, equations, t7X and t7Y are scalars, while ΔX and ΔY are vectors. Note that the superscripts X and Y are just symbolic labels, not indices, denoting female and male respectively. Do not to confuse the superscript X with measurements on the X chromosome. The X chromosome measurements are the ones with subscript 23. The next step is to take noise into account and to see what remnants of noise survive in the construction of the matched filter f as well as in the construction of {tilde over (t)}j. In this section, consider the simplest possible modeling assumption: that βij=β for all i and j, and that αij=1 for all i and j. Under these assumptions, from (*) above: βtij=log QT-log nj-log Q+Zij Which can be rewritten as: t ij = 1 β  log   Q T - 1 β  log   n j - 1 β  log   Q + Z ij In that case, the i-th component of the matched filter f is given by: f i  = △  Δ i Y - Δ i X = { t i , 23 Y - t 7 - Y } - { ( t i , 23 X - t 7 - X } = { ( 1 β  log   Q T - 1 β  log   n 23 Y - 1 β  log   Q Y + Z i , 23 Y ) - 1 n  ∑ i   ( 1 β  log   Q T - 1 β  log   n 7 Y - 1 β  log   Q Y + Z i , 7 Y ) } - { ( 1 β  log   Q T - 1 β  log   n 23 X - 1 β  log   Q X + Z i , 23 X ) - 1 n  ∑ i   ( 1 β  log   Q T - 1 β  log   n 7 X - 1 β  log   Q X + Z i , 7 X ) } - { ( 1 β + Z i , 23 Y ) - 1 n  ∑ i   Z i , 7 Y } - { Z i , 23 X - 1 n  ∑ i   Z i , 7 X } Note that the above equations take advantage of the fact that all the copy number variables are known, for example, n23Y=1 and that n23X=2. Given that all the noise terms are zero mean, the ideal matched filter is 1/β1. Further, since scaling the filter vector doesn't really change things, the vector 1 can be used as the matched filter. This is equivalent to simply taking the average of the components of {tilde over (t)}j. In other words, the matched filter paradigm is not necessary if the underlying biochemistry follows the simple model. In addition, one may omit the noise terms above, which can only serve to lower the accuracy of the method. Accordingly, this gives: t ~ ij  = △  t j - t ~ = { 1 β  log   Q T - 1 β  log   n i - 1 β  log   Q + Z ij } - 1 mn  ∑ i , j   { 1 β  log   Q T - 1 β  log   n i - 1 β  log   Q + Z ij } = 1 β  ( 1 - log   n j ) + Z ij - 1 mn  ∑ i , j   Z ij In the above, it is assumed that 1 mn  ∑ i , j  log   n j = 1. that is, that the average copy number is 2. Each element of the vector is an independent measurement of the log copy number (scaled by 1/β), and then corrupted by noise. The noise term Zij cannot be gotten rid of: it is inherent in the measurement. The second noise term probably cannot be gotten rid of either, since subtracting out t is necessary to remove the nuisance term 1 β  log   Q . Again, note that, given the observation that each element of {tilde over (t)}j is an independent measurement of 1 β  ( 1 - log   n j ) , it is clear that a UMVU (uniform minimum variance unbiased) estimate of 1 β  ( 1 - log   n j ) is just the average of the elements of {tilde over (t)}j. (In the case in which each σij2 is different, it will be a weighted average.) Thus, performing a little bit of algebra, the UMVU estimator for log nj is given by: 1 n  ∑ i  t ~ ij ≈ 1 β  ( 1 - log   n j ) ⇒ log   n j ≈ 1 - β · 1 n  ∑ i , j  t ~ ij = 1 - β  ( 1 n  ∑ i  t ij - 1 mn  ∑ i , j  t ij ) Analysis Under the Complicated Model Now repeat the preceding analysis with respect to a biochemical model in which each βij and αij is different. Again, take noise into account and to see what remnants of noise survive in the construction of the matched filter f as well as in the construction of {tilde over (t)}j. Under the complicated model, from (*) above: β ij  t ij = log  Q T α ij - log   n j - log   Q + Z ij Which can be rewritten as (*  **)   t ij = 1 β ij  log  Q T α ij - 1 β ij  log   n j - 1 β ij  log   Q + Z ij The i-th component of the matched filter f is given by: f i  = Δ  Δ i Y - Δ i X - { ι i , 23 Y - τ 7 X } - { ( ι i , 23 Y - τ 7 X } = { ( 1 β i , 23  log  Q T α i , 23 - 1 β i , 23  log   n 23 Y - 1 β i , 23  log   Q Y + Z i , 23 Y ) - 1 n  ∑ i  ( 1 β i , 7  log  Q T α i , 7 - 1 β i , 7  log   n 7 Y - 1 β i , 7  log   Q Y + Z i , 7 Y ) } - { ( 1 β i , 23  log  Q T α i , 23 - 1 β i , 23  log   n 23 X - 1 β i , 23  log   Q X + Z i , 23 X ) - 1 n  ∑ i  ( 1 β i , 7  log  Q T α i , 7 - 1 β i , 7  log   n 7 X - 1 β i , 7  log   Q X + Z i , 7 X ) } = 1 β i , 23 + ( 1 β i , 23 - ( 1 n  ∑ i  1 β i , 7 ) )  log  Q Y Q X + { Z i , 23 Y - Z i , 23 X + 1 n  ∑ i  Z i , 7 X - 1 n  ∑ i  Z i , 7 Y } Under the complicated model, this gives: t ~ ij  = Δ  t j - t ~ = { 1 B ij  log  Q T α ij - 1 B ij  log   n j - 1 β ij  log   Q + Z ij } - 1 mn  ∑ i , j  { 1 B ij  log  Q T α ij - 1 B ij  log   n j - 1 β ij  log   Q + Z ij } An Alternate Way to Regularize CT Values In another embodiment of the method, one can average the CT values rather than transforming to exponential scale and then taking logs, as this distorts the noise so that it is no longer zero mean. First, start with known Q and solve for betas. Then do multiple experiments with known n_j to solve for alphas. Since aneuploidy is a whole set of hypotheses, it is convenient to use ML to determine the most likely n_j and Q values, and then use this as a basis for calculating the most likely aneuploid state, e.g., by taking the n_j value that is most off from 1 and pushing it to its nearest aneuploid neighbor. Estimation of the Error Rates in the Embryonic Measurements. In one embodiment of the invention, it is possible to determine the conditional probabilities of particular embryonic measurements given specific underlying true states in embryonic DNA. In certain contexts, the given data consists of (i) the data about the parental SNP states, measured with a high degree of accuracy, and (ii) measurements on all of the SNPs in a specific blastomere, measured poorly. Use the following notation: U—is any specific homozygote, Ū is the other homozygote at that SNP, H is the heterozygote. The goal is to determine the probabilities (pij) shown in Table 2. For instance p11 is the probability of the embryonic DNA being U and the readout being U as well. There are three conditions that these probabilities have to satisfy: p11+p12+p13+p14=1 (1) p21+p22+p23+p24=1 (2) p21=p23 (3) The first two are obvious, and the third is the statement of symmetry of heterozygote dropouts (H should give the same dropout rate on average to either U or Ū). There are 4 possible types of matings: U×U, U×Ū, U×H, H×H. Split all of the SNPs into these 4 categories depending on the specific mating type. Table 3 shows the matings, expected embryonic states, and then probabilities of specific readings (pij). Note that the first two rows of this table are the same as the two rows of the Table 2 and the notation (pij) remains the same as in Table 2. Probabilities p3i and p4i can be written out in terms of p1i and p2i. p31=½[p11+p21] (4) p32=½[p12+p22] (5) p33=½[p13+p23] (6) p34=½[p14+p24] (7) p41=¼[p11+2p21+p13] (8) p42=½[p12+p22] (9) p43=¼[p11+2p23+p13] (10) p44=½[p14+p24] (11) These can be thought of as a set of 8 linear constraints to add to the constraints (1), (2), and (3) listed above. If a vector P=[p11, p12, p13, p14, p21 . . . , p44]T (16×1 dimension) is defined, then the matrix A (11×16) and a vector C can be defined such that the constraints can be represented as: AP=C (12) C=[1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]T. Specifically, A is shown in Table 4, where empty cells have zeroes. The problem can now be framed as that of finding P that would maximize the likelihood of the observations and that is subject to a set of linear constraints (AP=C). The observations come in the same 16 types as pij. These are shown in Table 5. The likelihood of making a set of these 16 nij observations is defined by a multinomial distribution with the probabilities pij and is proportional to: L  ( P , n ij ) ∝ ∑ ij  p ij n ij ( 13 ) Note that the full likelihood function contains multinomial coefficients that are not written out given that these coefficients do not depend on P and thus do not change the values within P at which L is maximized. The problem is then to find: max P  [ L  ( P , n ij ) ] = max P  [ ln  ( L  ( P , n ij ) ) ] = max P  ( ∑ ij  n ij  ln  ( p ij ) ) ( 14 ) subject to the constraints AP=C. Note that in (14) taking the ln of L makes the problem more tractable (to deal with a sum instead of products). This is standard given that value of x such that f(x) is maximized is the same for which ln(f(x)) is maximized. P(nj,Q,D)=P(nj)P(Q)P(Dj|Q,nj)P(Dk≠j|Q). D MAP Detection of Aneuploidy without Parents In one embodiment of the invention, the PS method can be applied to determine the number of copies of a given chromosome segment in a target without using parental genetic information. In this section, a maximum a-posteriori (MAP) method is described that enables the classification of genetic allele information as aneuploid or euploid. The method does not require parental data, though when parental data are available the classification power is enhanced. The method does not require regularization of channel values. One way to determine the number of copies of a chromosome segment in the genome of a target individual by incorporating the genetic data of the target individual and related individual(s) into a hypothesis, and calculating the most likely hypothesis is described here. In this description, the method will be applied to ct values from TAQMAN measurements; it should be obvious to one skilled in the art how to apply this method to any kind of measurement from any platform. The description will focus on the case in which there are measurements on just chromosomes X and 7; again, it should be obvious to one skilled in the art how to apply the method to any number of chromosomes and sections of chromosomes. Setup of the Problem The given measurements are from triploid blastomeres, on chromosomes X and 7, and the goal is to successfully make aneuploidy calls on these. The only “truth” known about these blastomeres is that there must be three copies of chromosome 7. The number of copies of chromosome X is not known. The strategy here is to use MAP estimation to classify the copy number N7 of chromosome 7 from among the choices {1,2,3} given the measurements D. Formally that looks like this: n ^ 7 = arg   max n 7 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n 7 , D ) Unfortunately, it is not possible to calculate this probability, because the probability depends on the unknown quantity Q. If the distribution f on Q were known, then it would be possible to solve the following: n ^ 7 = arg   max n 7 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  P  ( n 7 , D  Q )  dQ In practice, a continuous distribution on Q is not known. However, identifying Q to within a power of two is sufficient, and in practice a probability mass function (pmf) on Q that is uniform on say {21,22 . . . , 240} can be used. In the development that follows, the integral sign will be used as though a probability distribution function (pdf) on Q were known, even though in practice a uniform pmf on a handful of exponential values of Q will be substituted. This discussion will use the following notation and definitions: N7 is the copy number of chromosome seven. It is a random variable. n7 denotes a potential value for N7. NX is the copy number of chromosome X. nX denotes a potential value for NX. Nj is the copy number of chromosome-j, where for the purposes here jϵ{7,X}. nj denotes a potential value for Nj. D is the set of all measurements. In one case, these are TAQMAN measurements on chromosomes X and 7, so this gives D={D7,DX}, where Dj={tijA,tijC} is the set of TAQMAN measurements on this chromosome. tijA is the ct value on channel-A of locus i of chromosome-j. Similarly, tijC is the ct value on channel-C of locus i of chromosome-j. (A is just a logical name and denotes the major allele value at the locus, while C denotes the minor allele value at the locus.) Q represents a unit-amount of genetic material such that, if the copy number of chromosome-j is nj, then the total amount of genetic material at any locus of chromosome-j is njQ. For example, under trisomy, if a locus were AAC, then the amount of A-material at this locus would be 2Q, the amount of C-material at this locus is Q, and the total combined amount of genetic material at this locus is 3Q. (nA,nC) denotes an unordered allele patterns at a locus when the copy number for the associate chromosome is n. nA is the number of times allele A appears on the locus and nC is the number of times allele C appears on the locus. Each can take on values in 0, . . . , n, and it must be the case that nA+nC=n. For example, under trisomy, the set of allele patterns is {(0,3), (1,2), (2,1), (3,0)}. The allele pattern (2,1) for example corresponds to a locus value of A2C, i.e., that two chromosomes have allele value A and the third has an allele value of C at the locus. Under disomy, the set of allele patterns is {(0,2), (1,1), (2,0)}. Under monosomy, the set of allele patterns is {(0,1), (1,0)}. QT is the (known) threshold value from the fundamental TAQMAN equation Q02βt=QT. β is the (known) doubling-rate from the fundamental TAQMAN equation Q02βt=QT. ⊥ (pronounced “bottom”) is the ct value that is interpreted as meaning “no signal”. fZ(χ) is the standard normal Gaussian pdf evaluated at χ. σ is the (known) standard deviation of the noise on TAQMAN ct values. MAP Solution In the solution below, the following assumptions have been made: N7 and Nχ are independent. Allele values on neighboring loci are independent. The goal is to classify the copy number of a designated chromosome. In this case, the description will focus on chromosome 7. The MAP solution is given by: n ^ 7 =  arg   max n 7 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  P  ( n 7 , D  Q )  dQ =  arg   max n 7 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  ∑ n X ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n 7 , D  Q )  dQ =  arg   max n 7 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  ∑ n X ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n 7 )  P  ( n X )  P  ( D 7  Q , n 7 )  P  ( D X  Q , n X )  dQ =  arg   max n 7 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  ( P  ( n 7 )  P  ( D 7  Q , n 7 ) )  ( ∑ n X ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n X )  P  ( D X  Q , n X ) )  dQ =  arg   max n 7 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  ( P  ( n 7 )  ∏ i   P  ( t i , 7 A , t i , 7 C  Q , n 7 ) )  ( ∑ n Z ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n X )  ∏ i   P  ( t i , X A , t i , X C  Q , n X ) )  dQ  (* ) =  arg   max n 7 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  ( P  ( n 7 )  ∏ i  ∑ n A + n C = n 7  P  ( n A , n C  n 7 , i )  P  ( t i , 7 A  Q , n A )  P  ( t i , 7 C  Q , n C ) ) ×  ( ∑ n X ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n X )  ∏ i  ∑ n A + n C = n X  P  ( n A , n C  n X , i )  P  ( t i , X A  Q , n A )  P  ( t i , 7 C  Q , n C ) )  dQ Allele Distribution Model Equation (*) depends on being able to calculate values for P(nA,nC|n7,i) and P(nA,nC|nX,i). These values may be calculated by assuming that the allele pattern (nA,nC) is drawn i.i.d (independent and identically distributed) according to the allele frequencies for its letters at locus i. An example should suffice to illustrate this. Calculate P((2,1)|n7=3) under the assumption that the allele frequency for A is 60%, and the minor allele frequency for C is 40%. (As an aside, note that P((2,1)|n7−2)−0, since in this case the pair must sum to 2.) This probability is given by P  ( ( 2 , 1 )  n 7 = 3 ) = ( 3 2 )  ( .60 ) Z  ( .40 ) The general equation is P  ( n A , n C  n j , i ) = ( n n A )  ( 1 - p ij ) n A  ( p ij ) n C Where pij is the minor allele frequency at locus i of chromosome j. Error Model Equation (*) depends on being able to calculate values for P(tA|Q,nA) and P(tC|Q,nC). For this an error model is needed. One may use the following error model: P  ( t A  Q , n A ) = { p d t A = ⊥ and   n A > 0 ( 1 - p a )  f Z  ( 1 σ  ( t A - 1 β  log  Q T n A  Q ) ) t A ≠ ⊥ and   n A > 0 1 - p a t A = ⊥ and   n A = 0 2  p a  f Z  ( 1 σ  ( t A - ⊥ ) ) t A ≠ ⊥ and   n A = 0 } Each of the four cases mentioned above is described here. In the first case, no signal is received, even though there was A-material on the locus. That is a dropout, and its probability is therefore pd. In the second case, a signal is received, as expected since there was A-material on the locus. The probability of this is the probability that a dropout does not occur, multiplied by the pdf for the distribution on the ct value when there is no dropout. (Note that, to be rigorous, one should divide through by that portion of the probability mass on the Gaussian curve that lies below 1, but this is practically one, and will be ignored here.) In the third case, no signal was received and there was no signal to receive. This is the probability that no drop-in occurred, 1-pa. In the final case, a signal is received even through there was no A-material on the locus. This is the probability of a drop-in multiplied by the pdf for the distribution on the ct value when there is a drop-in. Note that the ‘2’ at the beginning of the equation occurs because the Gaussian distribution in the case of a drop-in is modeled as being centered at ⊥. Thus, only half of the probability mass lies below ⊥ in the case of a drop-in, and when the equation is normalized by dividing through by one-half, it is equivalent to multiplying by 2. The error model for P(tC|Q,nC) by symmetry is the same as for P(tA|Q,n1) above. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art how different error models can be applied to a range of different genotyping platforms, for example the ILLUMINA INFINIUM genotyping platform. Computational Considerations In one embodiment of the invention, the MAP estimation mathematics can be carried out by brute-force as specified in the final MAP equation, except for the integration over Q. Since doubling Q only results in a difference in ct value of 1/β, the equations are sensitive to Q only on the log scale. Therefore to do the integration it should be sufficient to try a handful of Q-values at different powers of two and to assume a uniform distribution on these values. For example, one could start at Q=QT2−20β, which is the quantity of material that would result in a ct value of 20, and then halve it in succession twenty times, yielding a final Q value that would result in a ct value of 40. What follows is a re-derivation of a derivation described elsewhere in this disclosure, with slightly difference emphasis, for elucidating the programming of the math. Note that the variable D below is not really a variable. It is always a constant set to the value of the data set actually in question, so it does not introduce another array dimension when representing in MATLAB. However, the variables Dj do introduce an array dimension, due to the presence of the index j.  n ^ 7 = argmax n 7 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n 7 , D )  P  ( n 7 , D ) = ∑ Q  P  ( n 7 , Q , D )  P  ( n 7 , Q , D ) = P  ( n 7 )  P  ( Q )  P  ( D 7 | Q , n 7 )  P  ( D X | Q )  P  ( D j | Q ) - ∑ n j ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( D j , n j | Q )  P  ( D j , n j | Q ) = P  ( n j )  P  ( D j | Q , n j )  P  ( D j | Q , n j ) = ∏ i  P  ( D ij | Q , n j )  P  ( D ij | Q , n j ) = ∑ n A + n C = n j  P  ( D ij , n A , n C | Q , n j )  P  ( D ij , n A , n C | Q , n j  ) = P  ( n A , n C | n j , i )  P  ( t ij A | Q , n A )  P  ( t ij C | Q , n C )  P  ( n A , n C | n j , i ) = ( n n A )  ( 1 - p ij ) n A  ( p ij ) n C P  ( t ij A | Q , n A ) = { p d t A = ⊥  and   n A > 0 ( 1 - p d )  f Z  ( 1 σ  ( t A - 1 β  log   Q T n A  Q ) ) t A ≠ ⊥  and   n A > 0 1 - p a t A = ⊥  and   n A = 0 2  p z  f Z  ( 1 σ  ( t A - ⊥ ) ) t A ≠ ⊥  and   n A = 0 } EMAP Detection of Aneuploidy with Parental Info In one embodiment of the invention, the disclosed method enables one to make aneuploidy calls on each chromosome of each blastomere, given multiple blastomeres with measurements at some loci on all chromosomes, where it is not known how many copies of each chromosome there are. In this embodiment, the a MAP estimation is used to classify the copy number Nj of chromosome where jϵ{1,2 . . . 22,X,Y}, from among the choices {0, 1, 2, 3} given the measurements D, which includes both genotyping information of the blastomeres and the parents. To be general, let jϵ{1,2 . . . m} where m is the number of chromosomes of interest; m=24 implies that all chromosomes are of interest. Formally, this looks like: n ^ j = argmax n j ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n j , D ) Unfortunately, it is not possible to calculate this probability, because the probability depends on an unknown random variable Q that describes the amplification factor of MDA. If the distribution f on Q were known, then it would be possible to solve the following: n ^ j = argmax n j ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  P  ( n j , D | Q )  dQ In practice, a continuous distribution on Q is not known. However, identifying Q to within a power of two is sufficient, and in practice a probability mass function (pmf) on Q that is uniform on say {21, 22 . . . , 240} can be used. In the development that follows, the integral sign will be used as though a probability distribution function (pdf) on Q were known, even though in practice a uniform pmf on a handful of exponential values of Q will be substituted. This discussion will use the following notation and definitions: Nα is the copy number of autosomal chromosome α, where αϵ{1, 2 . . . 22}. It is a random variable. nα denotes a potential value for Nα. NX is the copy number of chromosome X. nX denotes a potential value for NX. Nj is the copy number of chromosome-j, where for the purposes here jϵ{1,2 . . . m}. nj denotes a potential value for Nj. m is the number of chromosomes of interest, m=24 when all chromosomes are of interest. H is the set of aneuploidy states. hϵH. For the purposes of this derivation, let H={paternal monosomy, maternal monosomy, disomy, t1 paternal trisomy, t2 paternal trisomy, t1 maternal trisomy, t2 maternal trisomy}. Paternal monosomy means the only existing chromosome came from the father; paternal trisomy means there is one additional chromosome coming from father. Type 1 (t1) paternal trisomy is such that the two paternal chromosomes are sister chromosomes (exact copy of each other) except in case of crossover, when a section of the two chromosomes are the exact copies. Type 2 (t2) paternal trisomy is such that the two paternal chromosomes are complementary chromosomes (independent chromosomes coming from two grandparents). The same definitions apply to the maternal monosomy and maternal trisomies. D is the set of all measurements including measurements on embryo DE and on parents DF,DM. In the case where these are TAQMAN measurements on all chromosomes, one can say: D={D1, D2 . . . D′m}, DE={DE,1, DE,2 . . . DE,m}, where Dk=(DE,k, DF,k, DM,k), DEj={tE,ijA,tE,ijC} is the set of TAQMAN measurements on chromosome j. tE, ijA is the ct value on channel-A of locus i of chromosome-j. Similarly, tE,ijC is the ct value on channel-C of locus i of chromosome-j. (A is just a logical name and denotes the major allele value at the locus, while C denotes the minor allele value at the locus.) Q represents a unit-amount of genetic material after MDA of single cell's genomic DNA such that, if the copy number of chromosome-j is nj, then the total amount of genetic material at any locus of chromosome-j is njQ. For example, under trisomy, if a locus were AAC, then the amount of A-material at this locus is 2Q, the amount of C-material at this locus is Q, and the total combined amount of genetic material at this locus is 3Q. q is the number of numerical steps that will be considered for the value of Q. N is the number of SNPs per chromosome that will be measured. (nA,nC) denotes an unordered allele patterns at a locus when the copy number for the associated chromosome is n. nA is the number of times allele A appears on the locus and nC is the number of times allele C appears on the locus. Each can take on values in 0, . . . , n, and it must be the case that nA+nC=n. For example, under trisomy, the set of allele patterns is {(0,3),(1,2),(2,1),(3,0)}. The allele pattern (2,1) for example corresponds to a locus value of A2C, i.e., that two chromosomes have allele value A and the third has an allele value of C at the locus. Under disomy, the set of allele patterns is {(0,2),(1,1),(2,0)}. Under monosomy, the set of allele patterns is {(0,1),(1,0)}. QT is the (known) threshold value from the fundamental TAQMAN equation Q02βt=QT. β is the (known) doubling-rate from the fundamental TAQMAN equation Q02βt=QT. ⊥ (pronounced “bottom”) is the ct value that is interpreted as meaning “no signal”. fZ(x) is the standard normal Gaussian pdf evaluated at x. σ is the (known) standard deviation of the noise on TAQMAN ct values. MAP Solution In the solution below, the following assumptions are made: Njs are independent of one another. Allele values on neighboring loci are independent. The goal is to classify the copy number of a designated chromosome. For instance, the MAP solution for chromosome a is given by n ^ j = argmax n j ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  P  ( n j , D | Q )  dQ = argmax n j ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  ∑ n 1 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }   …   ∑ n j - 1 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∑ n j + 1 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }   …   ∑ n m ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n 1 , …   n m , D | Q )  dQ = argmax n j ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  ∑ n 1 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }   …   ∑ n j - 1 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∑ n j + 1 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }   …   ∑ n m ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∏ k = 1 m  P  ( n k )  P  ( D k | Q , n k )  dQ = argmax n j ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  ( P  ( n j )  P  ( D j | Q , n j ) )  ( ∏ k ≠ j  ∑ n k ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n k )  P  ( D k | Q , n k ) )  dQ = argmax n j ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  ( P  ( n j )  ∑ h ∈ H  P  ( D j | Q , n j , h )  P  ( h | n j ) )  ( ∏ k + j  ∑ n k ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n k )  ∑ h ∈ H  P  ( h | n k )  ∏ i  P  ( D k | Q , n k , h )  P  ( h | n k ) )  dQ = argmax n j ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  ( P  ( n j )  ∑ h ∈ H  P  ( h | n j )  ∏ i  P  ( t E , ij A , t E , ij C , D F , ij  D M , ij | Q , n j , h ) ) × ( ∏ k ≠ j  ∑ n k ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n k )  ∑ h ∈ H  P  ( h | n k )  ∏ i  P  ( t E , ik A , t E , ik C , D F , ik  D M , ik | Q , n k , h ) )  dQ = argmax n j ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  ( P  ( n j )  ∑ h ∈ H  P  ( h | n j )  ∏ i  ∑ n F A + n F C = 2 n M A + n M C = 2  P  ( n F A , n F C , n M A , n M C )  P  ( t E , ij A , t E , ij C , D F , ij  D M , ij | Q , n j , h , n F A , n F C , n M A , n M C ) ) × ( ∏ k ≠ j  ∑ n k ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n k )  ∑ h ∈ H  P  ( h | n k )  ∏ i  ∑ n F A + n F C = 2  P  ( n F A , n F C , n M A , n M C )  n M A + n M C = 2  P  ( t E , ik A , t E , ik C , D F , ik  D M , ik | Q , n k , h , n F A , n F C , n M A , n M C ) )  dQ = argmax n 1 ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f ( Q }  ( P  ( n j )  ∑ h ∈ H  P  ( h | n j )  ∏ i  ∑ n F A + n F C = 2 n K A + n K C = 2  P  ( n F A , n F C , n M A , n M C )  P  ( t F , ij A | n F A  Q ′ )  P  ( t F , ij C | n F C  Q ′ )  P  ( t M , ij A | n M A  Q ′ )  P  ( t M , ij C | n N C  Q ′ ) × ∑ n A + n C = n j  P  ( n A , n C | n j , h , n F A , n F C , n M A , n M C )  P  ( t E , ij A | Q , n A )  P  ( t E , ij C | Q , n C ) ) × ( ∏ k ≠ j  ∑ n k ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n k )  ∑ h ∈ H  P  ( h | n k )  ∏ t  ∑ n F A + n F C = 2 n M A + n M C = 2  P  ( n F A , n F C , n M A , n M C )  P  ( τ F , ik A | n F A  Q ′ )  P  ( τ F , ik C | n F C  Q ′ )  P  ( τ M , ik A | n M A  Q ′ )  P  ( τ m , ik C | n M C  Q ′ ) × ∑ n A + n C = n 1  P  ( n A , n C | n k , h , n F A , n F C , n M A , n M C )  P  ( τ E , ik A | n A  Q )  P  ( t E , ik C | n C  Q ) )  dQ  (* ) Here it is assumed that Q′, the Q are known exactly for the parental data. Copy Number Prior Probability Equation (*) depends on being able to calculate values for P(nα) and P(nX), the distribution of prior probabilities of chromosome copy number, which is different depending on whether it is an autosomal chromosome or chromosome X. If these numbers are readily available for each chromosome, they may be used as is. If they are not available for all chromosomes, or are not reliable, some distributions may be assumed. Let the prior probability P(na=1)=P(na=2)=P(na=3)=⅓ for autosomal chromosomes, let the probability of sex chromosomes being XY or XX be ½. P(nx=0)=⅓×¼= 1/12. P(nx=1)=⅓×¾+⅓×½+⅓×½×¼= 11/24=0.458, where ¾ is the probability of the monosomic chromosome being X (as oppose to Y), ½ is the probability of being XX for two chromosomes and ¼ is the probability of the third chromosome being Y. P(nx=3)=⅓×½×¾×⅛=0.125, where ½ is the probability of being XX for two chromosomes and ¾ is the probability of the third chromosome being X. P(nx=2)=1−P(nx=0)−P(nx=1)−P(nx=3)= 4/12=0.333. Aneuploidy State Prior Probability Equation (*) depends on being able to calculate values for P(h|nj), and these are shown in Table 6. The symbols used in the Table 6 are explained below Symbol Meaning Ppm paternal monosomy probability Pmm maternal monosomy probability Ppt paternal trisomy probability given trisomy Pmt maternal trisomy probability given trisomy pt1 probability of type 1 trisomy for paternal trisomy, or P(type 1|paternal trisomy) pt2 probability of type 2 trisomy for paternal trisomy, or P(type 2|paternal trisomy) mt1 probability of type 1 trisomy for maternal trisomy, or P(type 1|maternal trisomy) mt2 probability of type 2 trisomy for maternal trisomy, or P(type 2|maternal trisomy) Note that there are many other ways that one skilled in the art, after reading this disclosure, could assign or estimate appropriate prior probabilities without changing the essential concept of the patent. Allele Distribution Model without Parents Equation (*) depends on being able to calculate values for p(nA,nC|nα,i) and P(nA,nC|nX,i). These values may be calculated by assuming that the allele pattern (nA,nC) is drawn i.i.d according to the allele frequencies for its letters at locus i. An illustrative example is given here. Calculate P((2,1)|n7=3) under the assumption that the allele frequency for A is 60%, and the minor allele frequency for C is 40%. (As an aside, note that P((2,1)|n7=2)=0, since in this case the pair must sum to 2.) This probability is given by P  ( ( 2 , 1 ) | n 7 = 3 ) = ( 3 2 )  ( .60 ) 2  ( .40 ) The general equation is P  ( n A , n C | n j , i ) = ( n n A )  ( 1 - p ij ) n A  ( p ij ) n C Where pij is the minor allele frequency at locus i of chromosome j. Allele Distribution Model Incorporating Parental Genotypes Equation (*) depends on being able to calculate values for p(nA,nC|nj,h,TP,ijTM,ij) which are listed in Table 7. In a real situation, LDO will be known in either one of the parents, and the table would need to be augmented. If LDO are known in both parents, one can use the model described in the Allele Distribution Model without Parents section. Population Frequency for Parental Truth Equation (*) depends on being able to calculate p(TFAJTMAJ). The probabilities of the combinations of parental genotypes can be calculated based on the population frequencies. For example, P(AA,AA)=P(A)4, and P(AC,AC)=Pheteroz2 where Pheteroz=2P(A)P(C) is the probability of a diploid sample to be heterozygous at one locus i. Error Model Equation (*) depends on being able to calculate values for P(tA|Q,n4) and P(tC|Q,nC). For this an error model is needed. One may use the following error model: P  ( t A | Q , n A ) = { p d t A = ⊥  and   n A > 0 ( 1 - p d )  f Z  ( 1 σ  ( t A - 1 β  log   Q T n A  Q ) ) t A ≠ ⊥  and   n A > 0 1 - p σ t A = ⊥  and   n A = 0 2  p σ  f Z  ( 1 σ  ( t A - ⊥ ) ) t A ≠ ⊥  and   n A = 0 } This error model is used elsewhere in this disclosure, and the four cases mentioned above are described there. The computational considerations of carrying out the MAP estimation mathematics can be carried out by brute-force are also described in the same section. Computational Complexity Estimation Rewrite the equation (*) as follows, n ^ j = argmax n j ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  ∫ f  ( Q )  ( P  ( n j )  ∏ i  ∑ n A + n C = n j  P  ( n A , n C | n j , i ) P  ( t i , j A | Q , n A )  P  ( t i , j C | Q , n C ) ) × ( ∏ k ≠ j  ∑ n k ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n k )  ∏ i  ∑ n A + n C = n k P  ( n A , n C | n k , i )  P  ( t i , k A | Q , n A )  P  ( t i , k C | Q , n C ) )  dQ  (* ) Let the computation time for P(nA,nC|nj,i) be tx, that for P(tijA|Q,nA) or P(ti,jC|Q,nC) be ty. Note that P(nA,nC|nj,i) may be pre-computed, since their values don't vary from experiment to experiment. For the discussion here, call a complete 23-chromosome aneuploidy screen an “experiment”. Computation of Πi ΣnA+nC=njP(nA,nC|nj,i)P(ti,jA|Q,nA)P(ti,jC|Q,nC) for 23 chromosomes takes if nj=1,(2+tx+2*ty)*2N*m if nj=2,(2+tx+2*ty)*3N*m if nj=3,(2+tx+2*ty)*4N*m The unit of time here is the time for a multiplication or an addition. In total, it takes (2+tx+2*ty)*9N*m Once these building blocks are computed, the overall integral may be calculated, which takes time on the order of (2+tx+2*ty)*9N*m*q. In the end, it takes 2*m comparisons to determine the best estimate for n1. Therefore, overall the computational complexity is O(N*m*q). What follows is a re-derivation of the original derivation, with a slight difference in emphasis in order to elucidate the programming of the math. Note that the variable D below is not really a variable. It is always a constant set to the value of the data set actually in question, so it does not introduce another array dimension when representing in MATLAB. However, the variables Dj do introduce an array dimension, due to the presence of the index j.  n ^ j = argmax n j ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( n j , D )  P  ( n j , D ) = ∑ Q  P  ( n j , Q , D )  P  ( n j , Q , D ) = P  ( n j )  P  ( Q )  P  ( D j | Q , n j )  P  ( D k ≠ j | Q )  P  ( D j | Q ) - ∑ n j ∈ { 1 , 2 , 3 }  P  ( D j , n j | Q )  P  ( D j , n j | Q ) = P  ( n j )  P  ( D j | Q , n j )  P  ( D j | Q , n j ) = ∏ i  P  ( D ij | Q , n j )  P  ( D ij | Q , n j ) = ∑ n A + n C = n j  P  ( D ij , n A , n C | Q , n j )  P  ( D ij , n A , n C | Q , n j  ) = P  ( n A , n C | n j , i )  P  ( t ij A | Q , n A )  P  ( t ij C | Q , n C )  P  ( n A , n C | n j , i ) = ( n n A )  ( 1 - p ij ) n A  ( p ij ) n C P  ( t ij A | Q , n A ) = { p d t A = ⊥  and   n A > 0 ( 1 - p d )  f z  ( 1 σ  ( t A - 1 β  log   Q T n A  Q ) ) t A ≠ ⊥  and   n A > 0 1 - p σ t A = ⊥  and   n A = 0 2  p z  f z  ( 1 σ  ( t A - ⊥ ) ) t A ≠ ⊥  and   n A = 0 } F Qualitative Chromosome Copy Number Calling One way to determine the number of copies of a chromosome segment in the genome of a target individual by incorporating the genetic data of the target individual and related individual(s) into a hypothesis, and calculating the most likely hypothesis is described here. In one embodiment of the invention, the aneuploidy calling method may be modified to use purely qualitative data. There are many approaches to solving this problem, and several of them are presented here. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art how to use other methods to accomplish the same end, and these will not change the essence of the disclosure. Notation for Qualitative CNC 1. N is the total number of SNPs on the chromosome. 2. n is the chromosome copy number. 3. nM is the number of copies supplied to the embryo by the mother: 0, 1, or 2. 4. nF is the number of copies supplied to the embryo by the father: 0, 1, or 2. 5. pd is the dropout rate, and f(pd) is a prior on this rate. 6. pa is dropin rate, and f(pa) is a prior on this rate. 7. c is the cutoff threshold for no-calls. 8. D=(xk,yk) is the platform response on channels X and Y for SNP k. 9. D(c)={G(xk,yk);c}={ĝk(c)} is the set of genotype calls on the chromosome. Note that the genotype calls depend on the no-call cutoff threshold c. 10. ĝk(c) is the genotype call on the k-th SNP (as opposed to the true value): one of AA, AB, BB, or NC (no-call). 11. Given a genotype call g at SNP k, the variables (ĝx, ĝy) are indicator variables (1 or 0), indicating whether the genotype ĝ implies that channel X or Y has “lit up”. Formally, ĝx=1 just in case g contains the allele A, and ĝY=1 just in case contains the allele B. 12. M={gkM} is the known true sequence of genotype calls on the mother. gM refers to the genotype value at some particular locus. 13. F={gkF} is the known true sequence of genotype calls on the father. gF refers to the genotype value at some particular locus. 14. nA,nB are the true number of copies of A and B on the embryo (implicitly at locus k), respectively. Values must be in {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. 15. cMA,cMB are the number of A alleles and B alleles respectively supplied by the mother to the embryo (implicitly at locus k). The values must be in {0, 1, 2}, and must not sum to more than 2. Similarly, cFA,cFB are the number of A alleles and B alleles respectively supplied by the father to the embryo (implicitly at locus k). Altogether, these four values exactly determine the true genotype of the embryo. For example, if the values were (1,0) and (1,1), then the embryo would have type AAB. Solution 1: Integrate Over Dropout and Dropin Rates. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the solution applies to just a single chromosome. In reality, there is loose coupling among all chromosomes to help decide on dropout rate pd, but the math is presented here for just a single chromosome. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art how one could perform this integral over fewer, more, or different parameters that vary from one experiment to another. It should also be obvious to one skilled in the art how to apply this method to handle multiple chromosomes at a time, while integrating over ADO and ADI. Further details are given in Solution 3B below.  P  ( n | D  ( c ) , M , F ) = ∑ ( n M , n F ) ∈ n  P  ( n M , n F | D  ( c ) , M , f )  P  ( n M , n F | D  ( c ) , M , F ) = P  ( n M )  P  ( n F )  P  ( D  ( c ) | n M , n F , M , F ) ∑ ( n M , n F )  P  ( n M )  P  ( n F )  P  ( D  ( c ) | n M , n F , M , F )  P  ( D  ( c ) | n M , n F , M , F ) = ∫ ∫ f  ( p d )  f  ( p a )  P  ( D  ( c ) | n M , n F , M , F , p d , p a )  dp d  dp a P  ( D  ( c ) | n M , n F , M , F , p d , p a ) = ∏ k  P  ( G  ( x k , y k ; c ) | n M , n F , g k M , g k F , p d , p a ) = ∏ g M ∈ { AA , AB , BB } g F ∈ { AA , AB , BB } g ^ ∈ { AA , AB , BB , NC }  ∏ { k : g k M = g M , g k F , g ^ k ( c ) = g ^ }  P  ( g ^ | n M , n F , g M , g F , p d , p a ) = ∏ g M ∈ { AA , AB , BB } g F ∈ { AA , AB , BB } g ^ ∈ { AA , AB , BB , NC }  P  ( g ^ | n M , n F , g M , g F , p d , p a )  { k : g k M = g M , g k F = g F , g ^ k ( c ) = g ^ }   exp  ( ∏ g M ∈ { AA , AB , BB } g F ∈ { AA , AB , BB } g ^ ∈ { AA , AB , BB , NC }   { k  :  g k M = g M , g k F = g F , g ^ k ( c ) = g ^ }  × log   P  ( g ^ | n M , n F , g M , g F , p d , p a ) )  P  ( g ^ | n M , n F , g M , g F , p d , p a ) = ∑ n A , n B  P  ( n A , n B | n M , n F , g M , g F , )  geneticmodeling  ( P  ( g ^ X | n A , p d , p a ) P  ( g ^ Y | n B , p d , p a ) )  platformmodeling  P  ( g ^ X | n A , p d , p a ) = ( g ^ X  ( ( 1 - p d n A ) + ( n A = 0 )  p a ) + ( 1 - g ^ X )  ( ( n A > 0 )  p d n A + ( n A = 0 )  ( 1 - p a ) ) ) The derivation other is the same, except applied to channel Y. P  ( n A , n B | n M , n F , g M , g F , ) = ∑ c M A + c F A = n A c M B + c F B = n B  P  ( c M A , c M B | n M , g M )  P  ( c F A , c F B | n F , g F  ) P  ( c M A , c M B | n M , g M ) = ( c M A , c M B = n M )  { ( c M B = 0 ) , g M = AA ( c M A = 0 ) , g M = BB 1 n M + 1 , g M = AB The other derivation is the same, except applied to the father. Solution 2: Use ML to Estimate Optimal Cutoff Threshold c Solution 2, Variation A c ^ = argmax c ∈ ( 0 , a ]  P  ( D  ( c ) | M , F ) P  ( n ) = ∑ ( n M , n F ) , ∈ n  P  ( n M , n F | D  ( c ^ ) , M , F ) In this embodiment, one first uses the ML estimation to get the best estimate of the cutoff threshold based on the data, and then use this c to do the standard Bayesian inference as in solution 1. Note that, as written, the estimate of c would still involve integrating over all dropout and dropin rates. However, since it is known that the dropout and dropin parameters tend to peak sharply in probability when they are “tuned” to their proper values with respect to c, one may save computation time by doing the following instead: Solution 2, Variation B c ^ , p ^ d , p ^ a = argmax c , p d , p a  f  ( p d )  f  ( p a )  P  ( D  ( c ) | M , F , p d , p a ) P  ( n ) = ∑ ( n M , n F ) ∈ n  P  ( n M , n F | D  ( c ^ ) , M , F , p ^ d , p ^ a ) In this embodiment, it is not necessary to integrate a second time over the dropout and dropin parameters. The equation goes over all possible triples in the first line. In the second line, it just uses the optimal triple to perform the inference calculation. Solution 3: Combining Data Across Chromosomes The data across different chromosomes is conditionally independent given the cutoff and dropout/dropin parameters, so one reason to process them together is to get better resolution on the cutoff and dropout/dropin parameters, assuming that these are actually constant across all chromosomes (and there is good scientific reason to believe that they are roughly constant). In one embodiment of the invention, given this observation, it is possible to use a simple modification of the methods in solution 3 above. Rather than independently estimating the cutoff and dropout/dropin parameters on each chromosome, it is possible to estimate them once using all the chromosomes. Notation Since data from all chromosomes is being combined, use the subscript j to denote the j-th chromosome. For example, Dj(c) is the genotype data on chromosome j using c as the no-call threshold. Similarly, Mj,Fj are the genotype data on the parents on chromosome j. Solution 3, Variation A: Use all Data to Estimate Cutoff Dropout/Dropin c ^ , p ^ d , p ^ a = argmax c , p d , p a  f  ( p d )  f  ( p a )  ∏ j  P  ( D j  ( c ) | M j , F j , p d , p a ) P  ( n j ) = ∑ ( n M , n F ) ∈ n j  P  ( n M , n F | D j  ( c ^ ) , M j , F j , p ^ d , p ^ a ) Solution 3, Variation B: Theoretically, this is the optimal estimate for the copy number on chromosome j. n ^ j = argmax n  ∑ ( n M , n F ) ∈ n  ∫ ∫ f  ( p d )  f  ( p a )  P  ( D j  ( c ^ ) ) | n M , n F , M j , F j , p d , p a )  ∏ i ≠ j  P  ( D j  ( c ^ ) ) | n M , n F , M i , F i , p d , p a )  dp d  dp a Estimating Dropout/Dropin Rates from Known Samples For the sake of thoroughness, a brief discussion of dropout and dropin rates is given here. Since dropout and dropin rates are so important for the algorithm, it may be beneficial to analyze data with a known truth model to find out what the true dropout/dropin rates are. Note that there is no single tree dropout rate: it is a function of the cutoff threshold. That said, if highly reliable genomic data exists that can be used as a truth model, then it is possible to plot the dropout/dropin rates of MDA experiments as a function of the cutoff-threshold. Here a maximum likelihood estimation is used. c ^ , p ^ d , p ^ a = arg   max c , p d , p a  ∏ jk   P  ( g ^ jk ( c )  g jk , p d , p a ) In the above equation, ĝjk(c), is the genotype call on SNP k of chromosome j, using c as the cutoff threshold, while gjk, is the true genotype as determined from a genomic sample. The above equation returns the most likely triple of cutoff, dropout, and dropin. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art how one can implement this technique without parent information using prior probabilities associated with the genotypes of each of the SNPs of the target cell that will not undermine the validity of the work, and this will not change the essence of the invention. G Bayesian Plus Sperm Method Another way to determine the number of copies of a chromosome segment in the genome of a target individual is described here. In one embodiment of the invention, the genetic data of a sperm from the father and crossover maps can be used to enhance the methods described herein. Throughout this description, it is assumed that there is a chromosome of interest, and all notation is with respect to that chromosome. It is also assumed that there is a fixed cutoff threshold for genotyping. Previous comments about the impact of cutoff threshold choice apply, but will not be made explicit here. In order to best phase the embryonic information, one should combine data from all blastomeres on multiple embryos simultaneously. Here, for ease of explication, it is assumed that there is just one embryo with no additional blastomeres. However, the techniques mentioned in various other sections regarding the use of multiple blastomeres for allele-calling translate in a straightforward manner here. Notation 1. n is the chromosome copy number. 2. nM is the number of copies supplied to the embryo by the mother: 0, 1, or 2. 3. nF is the number of copies supplied to the embryo by the father: 0, 1, or 2. 4. pd is the dropout rate, and f(pd) is a prior on this rate. 5. pa is the dropin rate, and f(pa) is a prior on this rate. 6. D={ĝk} is the set of genotype measurements on the chromosome of the embryo. ĝk is the genotype call on the k-th SNP (as opposed to the true value): one of AA, AB, BB, or NC (no-call). Note that the embryo may be aneuploid, in which case the true genotype at a SNP may be, for example, AAB, or even AAAB, but the genotype measurements will always be one of the four listed. (Note: elsewhere in this disclosure ‘B’ has been used to indicate a heterozygous locus. That is not the sense in which it is being used here. Here ‘A’ and ‘B’ are used to denote the two possible allele values that could occur at a given SNP.) 7. M={gkM} is the known true sequence of genotypes on the mother. gkM is the genotype value at the k-th SNP. 8. F={gkF} is the known true sequence of genotypes on the father. gkF is the genotype value at the k-th SNP. 9. S={ĝkS} is the set of genotype measurements on a sperm from the father. ĝkS is the genotype call at the k-th SNP. 10. (m1,m2) is the true but unknown ordered pair of phased haplotype information on the mother. m1k is the allele value at SNP k of the first haploid sequence. m2k is the allele value at SNP k of the second haploid sequence. (m1,m2)ϵM is used to indicate the set of phased pairs (m1,m2) that are consistent with the known genotype M. Similarly, (m1,m2) ϵgkM is used to indicate the set of phased pairs that are consistent with the known genotype of the mother at SNP k. 11. (f1,f2) is the true but unknown ordered pair of phased haplotype information on the father. f1k is the allele value at SNP k of the first haploid sequence. f2k is the allele value at SNP k of the second haploid sequence. (f1,f2)ϵF is used to indicate the set of phased pairs (f1,f2) that are consistent with the known genotype F. Similarly, (f1,f2)ϵgkF is used to indicate the set of phased pairs that are consistent with the known genotype of the father at SNP k. 12. s1 is the true but unknown phased haplotype information on the measured sperm from the father. s1k is the allele value at SNP k of this haploid sequence. It can be guaranteed that this sperm is euploid by measuring several sperm and selecting one that is euploid. 13. χ={ϕ1, . . . ϕnM} is the multiset of crossover maps that resulted in maternal contribution to the embryo on this chromosome. Similarly, χF={θ1, . . . , θnF} is the multiset of crossover maps that results in paternal contribution to the embryo on this chromosome. Here the possibility that the chromosome may be aneuploid is explicitly modeled. Each parent can contribute zero, one, or two copies of the chromosome to the embryo. If the chromosome is an autosome, then euploidy is the case in which each parent contributes exactly one copy, i.e., χM={ϕ1} and χF={θ1}. But euploidy is only one of the 3×3=9 possible cases. The remaining eight are all different kinds of aneuploidy. For example, in the case of maternal trisomy resulting from an M2 copy error, one would have χM={ϕ1ϕ1} and χF={θ1}. In the case of maternal trisomy resulting from an M1 copy error, one would have χM−{ϕ1ϕ2} and χF={θ1}. (χM, χF)ϵn will be used to indicate the set of sub-hypothesis pairs (χN, χF) that are consistent with the copy number n. χkM will be used to denote {(ϕ1,k, . . . , ϕnMk}, the multiset of crossover map values restricted to the k-th SNP, and similarly for χF. χkM(m1,m2) is used to mean the multiset of allele values {ϕ1,k(m1,m2), . . . , ϕnMk(m1,m2)}={mϕi,k, . . . , mϕnM,k}. Keep in mind that ϕl,kϵ{1,2}. 14. ψ is the crossover map that resulted in the measured sperm from the father. Thus s1=ψ(f1,f2). Note that it is not necessary to consider a crossover multiset because it is assumed that the measured sperm is euploid. ψk will be used to denote the value of this crossover map at the k-th SNP. 15. Keeping in mind the previous two definitions, let {e1M, . . . , enMM} be the multiset of true but unknown haploid sequences contributed to the embryo by the mother at this chromosome. Specifically, e1M=ϕ1(m1,m2), where ϕ1 is the l-th element of the multiset χM, and elk is the allele value at the k-th snp. Similarly, let {e1F, . . . , enFF} be the multiset of true but unknown haploid sequences contributed to the embryo by the father at this chromosome. Then e1F−θ1(f1,f2), where θi is the l-th element of the multiset χF and f1kM is the allele value at the k-th SNP. Also, {e1M, . . . , enMM}=(m1m2), and {e1F, . . . , enFF}χF(f1,f2) may be written. 16. P(ĝk↑χkM(m1,m2), XkF(f1,f2),pd,pc) denotes the probability of the genotype measurement on the embryo at SNP k given a hypothesized true underlying genotype on the embryo and given hypothesized underlying dropout and dropin rates. Note that χkM(m1,m2) and χkF(f1,f2) are both multisets, so are capable of expressing aneuploid genotypes. For example, χkM(m1,m2)={A,A} and χkF(f1,f2)={B} expresses the maternal trisomic genotype AAB. Note that in this method, the measurements on the mother and father are treated as known truth, while in other places in this disclosure they are treated simply as measurements. Since the measurements on the parents are very precise, treating them as though they are known truth is a reasonable approximation to reality. They are treated as known truth here in order to demonstrate how such an assumption is handled, although it should be clear to one skilled in the art how the more precise method, used elsewhere in the patent, could equally well be used. Solution  n ^ = arg   max n  P  ( n , D , M , F , S ) P  ( n , D , M , F , S ) =  ∑ ( x U , x F ) ∈ n   ∑ ψ   P  ( χ M , χ F , ψ , D , M , F , S ) =  ∑ ( χ M , χ F ) ∈ n   P  ( χ M )  P  ( χ F )  ∑ ψ   P  ( ψ )  ∫ f  ( p d ) ∫  f  ( p a )  ∏ k   P  ( g ^ k , g k M , g k F , g ^ k S  χ k M , χ k F , ψ k , p d , p a ) dp d  dp c = ∑ ( χ M , χ F ) ∈ n   P  ( χ M )  P  ( χ F )  ∑ φ   P  ( ψ )  ∫ f  ( p d )  ∫ f  ( p c ) × ∏ k   ∑ ( f 1 , f 2 ) = 0 k F   P  ( f 1 )  P  ( f 2 )  P  ( g ^ k s  ψ k  ( f 1 , f 2 ) , p d , p a )  ∑ ( m 1 , m 2 ) = 0 k M   P  ( m 1 )  P  ( m 2 )  P ( g ^ k  χ k M  ( m 1 , m 2 ) , χ k F  ( f 1 , f 2 ) . How to calculate each of the probabilities appearing in the last equation above has been described elsewhere in this disclosure. A method to calculate each of the probabilities appearing in the last equation above has also been described elsewhere in this disclosure. Although multiple sperm can be added in order to increase reliability of the copy number call, in practice one sperm is typically sufficient. This solution is computationally tractable for a small number of sperm. H Simplified Method Using Only Polar Homozygotes In another embodiment of the invention, a similar method to determine the number of copies of a chromosome can be implemented using a limited subset of SNPs in a simplified approach. The method is purely qualitative, uses parental data, and focuses exclusively on a subset of SNPs, the so-called polar homozygotes (described below). Polar homozygotic denotes the situation in which the mother and father are both homozygous at a SNP, but the homozygotes are opposite, or different allele values. Thus, the mother could be AA and the father BB, or vice versa. Since the actual allele values are not important—only their relationship to each other, i.e. opposites—the mother's alleles will be referred to as MM, and the father's as FF. In such a situation, if the embryo is euploid, it must be heterozygous at that allele. However, due to allele dropouts, a heterozygous SNP in the embryo may not be called as heterozygous. In fact, given the high rate of dropout associated with single cell amplification, it is far more likely to be called as either MM or FF, each with equal probability. In this method, the focus is solely on those loci on a particular chromosome that are polar homozygotes and for which the embryo, which is therefore known to be heterozygous, but is nonetheless called homozygous. It is possible to form the statistic |MM|/(|MM|+|FF|), where |MM| is the number of these SNPs that are called MM in the embryo and |FF| is the number of these SNPs that are called FF in the embryo. Under the hypothesis of euploidy, |MM|)/(|MM|+|FF|) is Gaussian in nature, with mean ½ and variance ¼N, where N=(|MM|+|FF|). Therefore the statistic is completely independent of the dropout rate, or, indeed, of any other factors. Due to the symmetry of the construction, the distribution of this statistic under the hypothesis of euploidy is known. Under the hypothesis of trisomy, the statistic will not have a mean of ½. If, for example, the embryo has MMF trisomy, then the homozygous calls in the embryo will lean toward MM and away from FF, and vice versa. Note that because only loci where the parents are homozygous are under consideration, there is no need to distinguish M1 and M2 copy errors. In all cases, if the mother contributes 2 chromosomes instead of 1, they will be MM regardless of the underlying cause, and similarly for the father. The exact mean under trisomy will depend upon the dropout rate, p, but in no case will the mean be greater than ⅓, which is the limit of the mean as p goes to 1. Under monosomy, the mean would be precisely 0, except for noise induced by allele dropins. In this embodiment, it is not necessary to model the distribution under aneuploidy, but only to reject the null hypothesis of euploidy, whose distribution is completely known. Any embryo for which the null hypothesis cannot be rejected at a predetermined significance level would be deemed normal. In another embodiment of the invention, of the homozygotic loci, those that result in no-call (NC) on the embryo contain information, and can be included in the calculations, yielding more loci for consideration. In another embodiment, those loci that are not homozygotic, but rather follow the pattern AA|AB, can also be included in the calculations, yielding more loci for consideration. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art how to modify the method to include these additional loci into the calculation. I Reduction to Practice of the PS Method as Applied to Allele Calling In order to demonstrate a reduction to practice of the PS method as applied to cleaning the genetic data of a target individual, and its associated allele-call confidences, extensive Monte-Carlo simulations were run. The PS method's confidence numbers match the observed rate of correct calls in simulation. The details of these simulations are given in separate documents whose benefits are claimed by this disclosure. In addition, this aspect of the PS method has been reduced to practice on real triad data (a mother, a father and a born child). Results are shown below in Table 8. The TAQMAN assay was used to measure single cell genotype data consisting of diploid measurements of a large buccal sample from the father (columns p1,p2), diploid measurements of a buccal sample from the mother (m1,m2), haploid measurements on three isolated sperm from the father (h1,h2,h3), and diploid measurements of four single cells from a buccal sample from the born child of the triad. Note that all diploid data are unordered. All SNPs are from chromosome 7 and within 2 megabases of the CFTR gene, in which a defect causes cystic fibrosis. The goal was to estimate (in E1,E2) the alleles of the child, by running PS on the measured data from a single child buccal cell (e1,e2), which served as a proxy for a cell from the embryo of interest. Since no maternal haplotype sequence was available, the three additional single cells of the child sample—(b11,b12), (b21,b22), (b22,b23), were used in the same way that additional blastomeres from other embryos are used to infer maternal haplotype once the paternal haplotype is determined from sperm. The true allele values (T1,T2) on the child are determined by taking three buccal samples of several thousand cells, genotyping them independently, and only choosing SNPs on which the results were concordant across all three samples. This process yielded 94 concordant SNPs. Those loci that had a valid genotype call, according to the ABI 7900 reader, on the child cell that represented the embryo, were then selected. For each of these 69 SNPs, the disclosed method determined de-noised allele calls on the embryo (E1,E2), as well as the confidence associated with each genotype call. Twenty-nine (29%) percent of the 69 raw allele calls in uncleaned genetic data from the child cell were incorrect (marked with a dash “-” in column e1 and e2, Table 8). Columns (E1,E2) show that PS corrected 18 of these (as indicated by a box in column E1 and [[E1]]E2, but not in column ‘conf’, Table 8), while two remained miscalled (2.9% error rate; marked with a dash “-” in column ‘conf’, Table 8). Note that the two SNPs that were miscalled had low confidences of 53.8% and 74.4%. These low confidences indicate that the calls might be incorrect, due either to a lack of data or to inconsistent measurements on multiple sperm or “blastomeres.” The confidence in the genotype calls produced is an integral part of the PS report. Note that this demonstration, which sought to call the genotype of 69 SNPs on a chromosome, was more difficult than that encountered in practice, where the genotype at only one or two loci will typically be of interest, based on initial screening of parents' data. In some embodiments, the disclosed method may achieve a higher level of accuracy at loci of interest by: i) continuing to measure single sperm until multiple haploid allele calls have been made at the locus of interest; ii) including additional blastomere measurements; iii) incorporating maternal haploid data from extruded polar bodies, which are commonly biopsied in pre-implantation genetic diagnosis today. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art that there exist other modifications to the method that can also increase the level of accuracy, as well as how to implement these, without changing the essential concept of the disclosure. J Reduction to Practice of the PS Method as Applied to Calling Aneuploidy To demonstrate the reduction to practice of certain aspects of the invention disclosed herein, the method was used to call aneuploidy on several sets of single cells. In this case, only selected data from the genotyping platform was used: the genotype information from parents and embryo. A simple genotyping algorithm, called “pie slice”, was used, and it showed itself to be about 99.9% accurate on genomic data. It is less accurate on MDA data, due to the noise inherent in MDA. It is more accurate when there is a fairly high “dropout” rate in MDA. It also depends, crucially, on being able to model the probabilities of various genotyping errors in terms of parameters known as dropout rate and dropin rate. The unknown chromosome copy numbers are inferred because different copy numbers interact differently with the dropout rate, dropin rate, and the genotyping algorithm. By creating a statistical model that specifies how the dropout rate, dropin rate, chromosome copy numbers, and genotype cutoff-threshold all interact, it is possible to use standard statistical inference methods to tease out the unknown chromosome copy numbers. The method of aneuploidy detection described here is termed qualitative CNC, or qCNC for short, and employs the basic statistical inferencing methods of maximum-likelihood estimation, maximum-a-posteriori estimation, and Bayesian inference. The methods are very similar, with slight differences. The methods described here are similar to those described previously, and are summarized here for the sake of convenience. Maximum Likelihood (ML) Let X1, . . . , Xn˜f(x;θ). Here the Xi are independent, identically distributed random variables, drawn according to a probability distribution that belongs to a family of distributions parameterized by the vector θ. For example, the family of distributions might be the family of all Gaussian distributions, in which case θ=(μ, σ) would be the mean and variance that determine the specific distribution in question. The problem is as follows: θ is unknown, and the goal is to get a good estimate of it based solely on the observations of the data X1, . . . , Xn. The maximum likelihood solution is given by θ ^ = arg   max θ  ∏ i   f  ( X i ; θ ) Maximum A′ Posteriori (MAP) Estimation Posit a prior distribution f(θ) that determines the prior probability of actually seeing θ as the parameter, allowing us to write X1, . . . , Xn˜f(x|θ). The MAP solution is given by θ ^ - arg   max θ   f  ( θ )  ∏ i   ( f  ( X i  θ ) Note that the ML solution is equivalent to the MAP solution with a uniform (possibly improper) prior. Bayesian Inference Bayesian inference comes into play when θ=(θ1, . . . , θd) is multidimensional but it is only necessary to estimate a subset (typically one) of the parameters θj. In this case, if there is a prior on the parameters, it is possible to integrate out the other parameters that are not of interest. Without loss of generality, suppose that θ1 is the parameter for which an estimate is desired. Then the Bayesian solution is given by: θ ^ 1 = arg   max θ 1   f  ( θ 1 )  ∫ f  ( θ 2 )   …   f  ( θ d )  ∏ i   ( f  ( X i  θ )  d   θ 2   …   d   θ d Copy Number Classification Any one or some combination of the above methods may be used to determine the copy number count, as well as when making allele calls such as in the cleaning of embryonic genetic data. In one embodiment, the data may come from INFINIUM platform measurements {(xjk,yjk)}, where xjk is the platform response on channel X to SNP k of chromosome j, and yfk is the platform response on channel Y to SNP k of chromosome j. The key to the usefulness of this method lies in choosing the family of distributions from which it is postulated that these data are drawn. In one embodiment, that distribution is parameterized by many parameters. These parameters are responsible for describing things such as probe efficiency, platform noise. MDA characteristics such as dropout, dropin, and overall amplification mean, and, finally, the genetic parameters: the genotypes of the parents, the true but unknown genotype of the embryo, and, of course, the parameters of interest: the chromosome copy numbers supplied by the mother and father to the embryo. In one embodiment, a good deal of information is discarded before data processing. The advantage of doing this is that it is possible to model the data that remains in a more robust manner. Instead of using the raw platform data {(xjk,yjk)}, it is possible to pre-process the data by running the genotyping algorithm on the data. This results in a set of genotype calls (yjk), where yjkϵ{NC,AA,AB,BB}. NC stands for “no-call”. Putting these together into the Bayesian inference paradigm above yields: n ^ j M , n ^ j F = max n M , n F  ∫ ∫ f  ( p d )  f  ( p a )  ∏ k   P  ( g jk  n M , n F , M j , F j , p d , p a )  dp d  dp a Explanation of the Notation: {circumflex over (n)}jN,{circumflex over (n)}jF are the estimated number of chromosome copies supplied to the embryo by the mother and father respectively. These should sum to 2 for the autosomes, in the case of euploidy, i.e., each parent should supply exactly 1 chromosome. pa and pa are the dropout and dropin rates for genotyping, respectively. These reflect some of the modeling assumptions. It is known that in single-cell amplification, some SNPs “drop out”, which is to say that they are not amplified and, as a consequence, do not show up when the SNP genotyping is attempted on the INFINIUM platform. This phenomenon is modeled by saying that each allele at each SNP “drops out” independently with probability pd during the MDA phase. Similarly, the platform is not a perfect measurement instrument. Due to measurement noise, the platform sometimes picks up a ghost signal, which can be modeled as a probability of dropin that acts independently at each SNP with probability pa. Mj,Fj are the true genotypes on the mother and father respectively. The true genotypes are not known perfectly, but because large samples from the parents are genotyped, one may make the assumption that the truth on the parents is essentially known. Probe Modeling In one embodiment of the invention, platform response models, or error models, that vary from one probe to another can be used without changing the essential nature of the invention. The amplification efficiency and error rates caused by allele dropouts, allele dropins, or other factors, may vary between different probes. In one embodiment, an error transition matrix can be made that is particular to a given probe. Platform response models, or error models, can be relevant to a particular probe or can be parameterized according to the quantitative measurements that are performed, so that the response model or error model is therefore specific to that particular probe and measurement. Genotyping Genotyping also requires an algorithm with some built-in assumptions. Going from a platform response (x,y) to a genotype g requires significant calculation. It is essentially requires that the positive quadrant of the x/y plane be divided into those regions where AA, AB, BB, and NC will be called. Furthermore, in the most general case, it may be useful to have regions where AAA, AAB, etc., could be called for trisomies. In one embodiment, use is made of a particular genotyping algorithm called the pie-slice algorithm, because it divides the positive quadrant of the x/y plane into three triangles, or “pie slices”. Those (x,y) points that fall in the pie slice that hugs the X axis are called AA, those that fall in the slice that hugs the Y axis are called BB, and those in the middle slice are called AB. In addition, a small square is superimposed whose lower-left corner touches the origin. (x,y) points falling in this square are designated NC, because both x and y components have small values and hence are unreliable. The width of that small square is called the no-call threshold and it is a parameter of the genotyping algorithm. In order for the dropin/dropout model to correctly model the error transition matrix associated with the genotyping algorithm, the cutoff threshold must be tuned properly. The error transition matrix indicates for each true-genotype/called-genotype pair, the probability of seeing the called genotype given the true genotype. This matrix depends on the dropout rate of the MDA and upon the no-call threshold set for the genotyping algorithm. Note that a wide variety of different allele calling, or genotyping, algorithms may be used without changing the fundamental concept of the invention. For example, the no-call region could be defined by a many different shapes besides a square, such as for example a quarter circle, and the no call thresholds may vary greatly for different genotyping algorithms. Results of Aneuploidy Calling Experiments Presented here are experiments that demonstrate the reduction to practice of the method disclosed herein to correctly call ploidy of single cells. The goal of this demonstration was twofold: first, to show that the disclosed method correctly calls the cell's ploidy state with high confidence using samples with known chromosome copy numbers, both euploid and aneuploid, as controls, and second to show that the method disclosed herein calls the cell's ploidy state with high confidence using blastomeres with unknown chromosome copy numbers. In order to increase confidences, the ILLUMINA INFINIUM II platform, which allows measurement of hundreds of thousands of SNPs was used. In order to run this experiment in the context of PGD, the standard INFINIUM II protocol was reduced from three days to 20 hours. Single cell measurements were compared between the full and accelerated INFINIUM II protocols, and showed ˜85% concordance. The accelerated protocol showed an increase in locus drop-out (LDO) rate from <1% to 5-10%; however, because hundreds of thousands of SNPs are measured and because PS accommodates allele dropouts, this increase in LDO rate does not have a significant negative impact on the results. The entire aneuploidy calling method was performed on eight known-euploid buccal cells isolated from two healthy children from different families, ten known-trisomic cells isolated from a human immortalized trisomic cell line, and six blastomeres with an unknown number of chromosomes isolated from three embryos donated to research. Half of each set of cells was analyzed by the accelerated 20-hour protocol, and the other half by the standard protocol. Note that for the immortalized trisomic cells, no parent data was available. Consequently, for these cells, a pair of pseudo-parental genomes was generated by drawing their genotypes from the conditional distribution induced by observation of a large tissue sample of the trisomic genotype at each locus. Where truth was known, the method correctly called the ploidy state of each chromosome in each cell with high confidence. The data are summarized below in three tables. Each table shows the chromosome number in the first column, and each pair of color-matched columns represents the analysis of one cell with the copy number call on the left and the confidence with which the call is made on the right. Each row corresponds to one particular chromosome. Note that these tables contain the ploidy information of the chromosomes in a format that could be used for the report that is provided to the doctor to help in the determination of which embryos are to be selected for transfer to the prospective mother. (Note ‘1’ may result from both monosomy and uniparental disomy.) Table 9 shows the results for eight known-euploid buccal cells; all were correctly found to be euploid with high confidences (>0.99). Table 10 shows the results for ten known-trisomic cells (trisomic at chromosome 21); all were correctly found to be trisomic at chromosome 21 and disomic at all other chromosomes with high confidences (>0.92). Table 11 shows the results for six blastomeres isolated from three different embryos. While no truth models exist for donated blastomeres, it is possible to look for concordance between blastomeres originating from a single embryo, however, the frequency and characteristics of mosaicism in human embryos are not currently known, and thus the presence or lack of concordance between blastomeres from a common embryo is not necessarily indicative of correct ploidy determination. The first three blastomeres are from one embryo (e1) and of those, the first two (e1b1 and e1b3) have the same ploidy state at all chromosomes except one. The third cell (e1b6) is complex aneuploid. Both blastomeres from the second embryo were found to be monosomic at all chromosomes. The blastomere from the third embryo was found to be complex aneuploid. Note that some confidences are below 90%, however, if the confidences of all aneuploid hypotheses are combined, all chromosomes are called either euploid or aneuploid with confidence exceeding 92.8%. K Laboratory Techniques There are many techniques available allowing the isolation of cells and DNA fragments for genotyping, as well as for the subsequent genotyping of the DNA. The system and method described here can be applied to any of these techniques, specifically those involving the isolation of fetal cells or DNA fragments from maternal blood, or blastomeres from embryos in the context of IVF. It can be equally applied to genomic data in silico, i.e. not directly measured from genetic material. In one embodiment of the system, this data can be acquired as described below. This description of techniques is not meant to be exhaustive, and it should be clear to one skilled in the arts that there are other laboratory techniques that can achieve the same ends. Isolation of Cells Adult diploid cells can be obtained from bulk tissue or blood samples. Adult diploid single cells can be obtained from whole blood samples using FACS, or fluorescence activated cell sorting. Adult haploid single sperm cells can also be isolated from a sperm sample using FACS. Adult haploid single egg cells can be isolated in the context of egg harvesting during IVF procedures. Isolation of the target single cell blastomeres from human embryos can be done using techniques common in in vitro fertilization clinics, such as embryo biopsy. Isolation of target fetal cells in maternal blood can be accomplished using monoclonal antibodies, or other techniques such as FACS or density gradient centrifugation. DNA extraction also might entail non-standard methods for this application. Literature reports comparing various methods for DNA extraction have found that in some cases novel protocols, such as the using the addition of N-lauroylsarcosine, were found to be more efficient and produce the fewest false positives. Amplification of Genomic DNA Amplification of the genome can be accomplished by multiple methods including: ligation-mediated PCR (LM-PCR), degenerate oligonucleotide primer PCR (DOP-PCR), and multiple displacement amplification (MDA). Of the three methods, DOP-PCR reliably produces large quantities of DNA from small quantities of DNA, including single copies of chromosomes; this method may be most appropriate for genotyping the parental diploid data, where data fidelity is critical. MDA is the fastest method, producing hundred-fold amplification of DNA in a few hours; this method may be most appropriate for genotyping embryonic cells, or in other situations where time is of the essence. Background amplification is a problem for each of these methods, since each method would potentially amplify contaminating DNA. Very tiny quantities of contamination can irreversibly poison the assay and give false data. Therefore, it is critical to use clean laboratory conditions, wherein pre- and post-amplification workflows are completely, physically separated. Clean, contamination free workflows for DNA amplification are now routine in industrial molecular biology, and simply require careful attention to detail. Genotyping Assay and Hybridization The genotyping of the amplified DNA can be done by many methods including MOLECULAR INVERSION PROBES (MIPs) such as AFFYMETRIX's GENFLEX TAG array, microarrays such as AFFYMETRIX's 500K array or the ILLUMINA BEAD ARRAYS, or SNP genotyping assays such as APPLIEDBIOSCIENCE's TAQMAN assay. The AFFYMETRIX 500K array, MIPs/GENFLEX, TAQMAN and ILLUMINA assay all require microgram quantities of DNA, so genotyping a single cell with either workflow would require some kind of amplification. Each of these techniques has various tradeoffs in terms of cost, quality of data, quantitative vs. qualitative data, customizability, time to complete the assay and the number of measurable SNPs, among others. An advantage of the 500K and ILLUMINA arrays are the large number of SNPs on which it can gather data, roughly 250,000, as opposed to MIPs which can detect on the order of 10,000 SNPs, and the TAQMAN assay which can detect even fewer. An advantage of the MIPs, TAQMAN and ILLUMINA assay over the 500K arrays is that they are inherently customizable, allowing the user to choose SNPs, whereas the 500K arrays do not permit such customization. In the context of pre-implantation diagnosis during IVF, the inherent time limitations are significant; in this case it may be advantageous to sacrifice data quality for turn-around time. Although it has other clear advantages, the standard MIPs assay protocol is a relatively time-intensive process that typically takes 2.5 to three days to complete. In MIPs, annealing of probes to target DNA and post-amplification hybridization are particularly time-intensive, and any deviation from these times results in degradation in data quality. Probes anneal overnight (12-16 hours) to DNA sample. Post-amplification hybridization anneals to the arrays overnight (12-16 hours). A number of other steps before and after both annealing and amplification bring the total standard timeline of the protocol to 2.5 days. Optimization of the MIPs assay for speed could potentially reduce the process to fewer than 36 hours. Both the 500K arrays and the ILLUMINA assays have a faster turnaround: approximately 1.5 to two days to generate highly reliable data in the standard protocol. Both of these methods are optimizable, and it is estimated that the turn-around time for the genotyping assay for the 500 k array and/or the ILLUMINA assay could be reduced to less than 24 hours. Even faster is the TAQMAN assay which can be run in three hours. For all of these methods, the reduction in assay time will result in a reduction in data quality, however that is exactly what the disclosed invention is designed to address. Naturally, in situations where the timing is critical, such as genotyping a blastomere during IVF, the faster assays have a clear advantage over the slower assays, whereas in cases that do not have such time pressure, such as when genotyping the parental DNA before IVF has been initiated, other factors will predominate in choosing the appropriate method. For example, another tradeoff that exists from one technique to another is one of price versus data quality. It may make sense to use more expensive techniques that give high quality data for measurements that are more important, and less expensive techniques that give lower quality data for measurements where the fidelity is not as critical. Any techniques which are developed to the point of allowing sufficiently rapid high-throughput genotyping could be used to genotype genetic material for use with this method. Methods for Simultaneous Targeted Locus Amplification and Whole Genome Amplification. During whole genome amplification of small quantities of genetic material, whether through ligation-mediated PCR (LM-PCR), multiple displacement amplification (MDA), or other methods, dropouts of loci occur randomly and unavoidably. It is often desirable to amplify the whole genome nonspecifically, but to ensure that a particular locus is amplified with greater certainty. It is possible to perform simultaneous locus targeting and whole genome amplification. In a preferred embodiment, the basis for this method is to combine standard targeted polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify particular loci of interest with any generalized whole genome amplification method. This may include, but is not limited to: preamplification of particular loci before generalized amplification by MDA or LM-PCR, the addition of targeted PCR primers to universal primers in the generalized PCR step of LM-PCR, and the addition of targeted PCR primers to degenerate primers in MDA. L Techniques for Screening for Aneuploidy Using High and Medium Throughput Genotyping In one embodiment of the system the measured genetic data can be used to detect for the presence of aneuploides and/or mosaicism in an individual. Disclosed herein are several methods of using medium or high-throughput genotyping to detect the number of chromosomes or DNA segment copy number from amplified or unamplified DNA from tissue samples. The goal is to estimate the reliability that can be achieved in detecting certain types of aneuploidy and levels of mosaicism using different quantitative and/or qualitative genotyping platforms such as ABI Taqman, MIPS, or Microarrays from Illumina, Agilent and Affymetrix. In many of these cases, the genetic material is amplified by PCR before hybridization to probes on the genotyping array to detect the presence of particular alleles. How these assays are used for genotyping is described elsewhere in this disclosure. Described below are several methods for screening for abnormal numbers of DNA segments, whether arising from deletions, aneuploides and/or mosaicism. The methods are grouped as follows: (i) quantitative techniques without making allele calls; (ii) qualitative techniques that leverage allele calls; (iii) quantitative techniques that leverage allele calls; (iv) techniques that use a probability distribution function for the amplification of genetic data at each locus. All methods involve the measurement of multiple loci on a given segment of a given chromosome to determine the number of instances of the given segment in the genome of the target individual. In addition, the methods involve creating a set of one or more hypotheses about the number of instances of the given segment; measuring the amount of genetic data at multiple loci on the given segment; determining the relative probability of each of the hypotheses given the measurements of the target individual's genetic data; and using the relative probabilities associated with each hypothesis to determine the number of instances of the given segment. Furthermore, the methods all involve creating a combined measurement M that is a computed function of the measurements of the amounts of genetic data at multiple loci. In all the methods, thresholds are determined for the selection of each hypothesis HI based on the measurement M, and the number of loci to be measured is estimated, in order to have a particular level of false detections of each of the hypotheses. The probability of each hypothesis given the measurement M is P(Hi|M)=P(M|Hi)P(Hi)/P(M). Since P(M) is independent of HI, we can determine the relative probability of the hypothesis given M by considering only P(M|Hi)P(Hi). In what follows, in order to simplify the analysis and the comparison of different techniques, we assume that P(Hi|M) is the same for all {Hi}, so that we can compute the relative probability of all the PANT) by considering only P(M|Hi). Consequently, our determination of thresholds and the number of loci to be measured is based on having particular probabilities of selecting false hypotheses under the assumption that P(Hi) is the same for all {Hi}. It will be clear to one skilled in the art after reading this disclosure how the approach would be modified to accommodate the fact that P(Hi) varies for different hypotheses in the set {Hi}. In some embodiments, the thresholds are set so that hypothesis Ho is selected which maximizes P(Hi|M) over all i. However, thresholds need not necessarily be set to maximize PANT), but rather to achieve a particular ratio of the probability of false detections between the different hypotheses in the set {Hi}. It is important to note that the techniques referred to herein for detecting aneuploides can be equally well used to detect for uniparental disomy, unbalanced translocations, and for the sexing of the chromosome (male or female; XY or XX). All of the concepts concern detecting the identity and number of chromosomes (or segments of chromosomes) present in a given sample, and thus are all addressed by the methods described in this document. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art how to extend any of the methods described herein to detect for any of these abnormalities. The Concept of Matched Filtering The methods applied here are similar to those applied in optimal detection of digital signals. It can be shown using the Schwartz inequality that the optimal approach to maximizing Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) in the presence of normally distributed noise is to build an idealized matching signal, or matched filter, corresponding to each of the possible noise-free signals, and to correlate this matched signal with the received noisy signal. This approach requires that the set of possible signals are known as well as the statistical distribution mean and Standard Deviation (SD) of the noise. Herein is described the general approach to detecting whether chromosomes, or segments of DNA, are present or absent in a sample. No differentiation will be made between looking for whole chromosomes or looking for chromosome segments that have been inserted or deleted. Both will be referred to as DNA segments. It should be clear after reading this description how the techniques may be extended to many scenarios of aneuploidy and sex determination, or detecting insertions and deletions in the chromosomes of embryos, fetuses or born children. This approach can be applied to a wide range of quantitative and qualitative genotyping platforms including Taqman, qPCR, Illumina Arrays, Affymetrix Arrays, Agilent Arrays, the MIPS kit etc. Formulation of the General Problem Assume that there are probes at SNPs where two allelic variations occur, x and y. At each locus i, i=1 . . . N, data is collected corresponding to the amount of genetic material from the two alleles. In the Taqman assay, these measures would be, for example, the cycle time, Ct, at which the level of each allele-specific dye crosses a threshold. It will be clear how this approach can be extended to different measurements of the amount of genetic material at each locus or corresponding to each allele at a locus. Quantitative measurements of the amount of genetic material may be nonlinear, in which case the change in the measurement of a particular locus caused by the presence of the segment of interest will depend on how many other copies of that locus exist in the sample from other DNA segments. In some cases, a technique may require linear measurements, such that the change in the measurement of a particular locus caused by the presence of the segment of interest will not depend on how many other copies of that locus exist in the sample from other DNA segments. An approach is described for how the measurements from the Taqman or qPCR assays may be linearized, but there are many other techniques for linearizing nonlinear measurements that may be applied for different assays. The measurements of the amount of genetic material of allele x at loci 1 . . . N is given by data dx=[dx1 . . . dxN]. Similarly for allele y, dy=[dy1 . . . dyN]. Assume that each segment j has alleles aj=[aj1 . . . ajN] where each element aji is either x or y. Describe the measurement data of the amount of genetic material of allele x as dx=sx+υx where s, is the signal and υx is a disturbance. The signal sx=[fx(a11, . . . ,aJ1) . . . fx(aJN, . . . , AJN)] where G is the mapping from the set of alleles to the measurement, and J is the number of DNA segment copies. The disturbance vector υx is caused by measurement error and, in the case of nonlinear measurements, the presence of other genetic material besides the DNA segment of interest. Assume that measurement errors are normally distributed and that they are large relative to disturbances caused by nonlinearity (see section on linearizing measurements) so that υxi≈nxi where nxi has variance σxi2 and vector nx is normally distributed ˜N(0,R), R=E(nxnxT). Now, assume some filter h is applied to this data to perform the measurement mx=hTdx=hTsx+hTυx. In order to maximize the ratio of signal to noise (hTsx/hTnx) it can be shown that h is given by the matched filter h=μR−1sx where μ is a scaling constant. The discussion for allele x can be repeated for allele y. Method 1a: Measuring Aneuploidy or Sex by Quantitative Techniques that do not Make Allele Calls when the Mean and Standard Deviation for Each Locus is Known Assume for this section that the data relates to the amount of genetic material at a locus irrespective of allele value (e.g. using qPCR), or the data is only for alleles that have 100% penetrance in the population, or that data is combined on multiple alleles at each locus (see section on linearizing measurements)) to measure the amount of genetic material at that locus. Consequently, in this section one may refer to data dx and ignore dy. Assume also that there are two hypotheses: h0 that there are two copies of the DNA segment (these are typically not identical copies), and h1 that there is only 1 copy. For each hypothesis, the data may be described as dxi(h0)=sxi(h0)+nxi and dxi(h1)=sxi(h1)+nxi respectively, where sxi(h0) is the expected measurement of the genetic material at locus i (the expected signal) when two DNA segments are present and sxi(h1) is the expected data for one segment. Construct the measurement for each locus by differencing out the expected signal for hypothesis h0: mxi=dxi−sxi(h0). If h1 is true, then the expected value of the measurement is E(mxi)=sxi(h1)−sxi(h0). Using the matched filter concept discussed above, set h=(1/N)R−1(sxi(h1)−sxi(h0)). The measurement is described as m=hTdx=(1/N)Σi=1 . . . N((sxi(h1)−sxi(h0))/σxi2)mxi. If h1 is true, the expected value of E(m|h1)=m1=(1/N)Σi=1 . . . N(sxi(h1)−sxi(h0))2/σxi2 and the standard deviation of m is σm|h12=(1/N2)Σi=1 . . . N((sxi(h1)−sxi(h0))2/σxi)σxi2=(1/N2)Σi=1 . . . N(sxi(h1)−sxi(h0))2/σxi2. If h0 is true, the expected value of m is E(m|h0)=m0=0 and the standard deviation of m is again σm|h02 (1/N2)Σi=1 . . . N((sxi(h1)−sxi(h0))2/σx2. FIG. 1 illustrates how to determine the probability of false negatives and false positive detections. Assume that a threshold t is set half-way between m1 and m0 in order to make the probability of false negatives and false positives equal (this need not be the case as is described below). The probability of a false negative is determined by the ratio of (m1−t)/σm|h1=(m1−m0)/(2σm|h1). “5-Sigma” statistics may be used so that the probability of false negatives is 1-normcdf(5,0,1)=2.87e-7. In this case, the goal is for (m1−m0)/(2σm|h0)>5 or 10 sqrt((1/N2)Σi=1 . . . N(sxi(h1)−sxi(h0))2/σxi2)<(1/N2)Σi=1 . . . N(sxi(h1)−sxi(h0))2/σxi2 or sqrt(Σi=1 . . . N(sxi(h1)−sxi(h0))2/σxi2)>10. In order to compute the size of N, Mean Signal to Noise Ratio can be computed from aggregated data: MSNR=(1/N)((1/N2)Σi=1 . . . N(sxi(h1)−sxi(h0))2/σxi2). N can then be found from the inequality above: sqrt(N)·sqrt(MSNR)>10 or N>100/MSNR. This approach was applied to data measured with the Taqman Assay from Applied BioSystems using 48 SNPs on the X chromosome. The measurement for each locus is the time, Ct, that it takes the die released in the well corresponding to this locus to exceed a threshold. Sample 0 consists of roughly 0.3 ng (50 cells) of total DNA per well of mixed female origin where subjects had two X chromosomes; sample 1 consisted of roughly 0.3 ng of DNA per well of mixed male origin where subject had one X chromosome. FIGS. 2 and 3 show the histograms of measurements for samples 1 and 0. The distributions for these samples are characterized by m0=29.97; SD0=1.32, m1=31.44, SD1=1.592. Since this data is derived from mixed male and female samples, some of the observed SD is due to the different allele frequencies at each SNP in the mixed samples. In addition, some of the observed SD will be due to the varying efficiency of the different assays at each SNP, and the differing amount of dye pipetted into each well. FIG. 4 provides a histogram of the difference in the measurements at each locus for the male and female sample. The mean difference between the male and female samples is 1.47 and the SD of the difference is 0.99. While this SD will still be subject to the different allele frequencies in the mixed male and female samples, it will no longer be affected the different efficiencies of each assay at each locus. Since the goal is to differentiate two measurements each with a roughly similar SD, the adjusted SD may be approximated for each measurement for all loci as 0.99/sqrt(2)=0.70. Two runs were conducted for every locus in order to estimate a for the assay at that locus so that a matched filter could be applied. A lower limit of σxi was set at 0.2 in order to avoid statistical anomalies resulting from only two runs to compute σxi. Only those loci (numbering 37) for which there were no allele dropouts over both alleles, over both experiment runs and over both male and female samples were used in the plots and calculations. Applying the approach above to this data, it was found that MSNR=2.26, hence N=2252/2.26∧2=17 loci. Although applied here only to the X chromosome, and to differentiating 1 copy from 2 copies, this experiment indicates the number of loci necessary to detect M2 copy errors for all chromosomes, where two exact copies of a chromosome occur in a trisomy, using Method 3 described below. The measurement used for each locus is the cycle number, Ct, that it takes the die released in the well corresponding to a particular allele at the given locus to exceed a threshold that is automatically set by the ABI 7900HT reader based on the noise of the no-template control. Sample 0 consisted of roughly 60 pg (equivalent to genome of 10 cells) of total DNA per well from a female blood sample (XX); sample 1 consisted of roughly 60 pg of DNA per well from a male blood sample (X). As expected, the Ct measurement of female samples is on average lower than that of male samples. There are several approaches to comparing the Taqman Assay measurements quantitatively between female and male samples. Here illustrated is one approach. To combine information from the FAM and VIC channel for each locus, Ct values of the two channels were converted to the copy numbers of their respective alleles, summed, and then converted back to a composite Ct value for that locus. The conversion between Ct value and the copy number was based on the equation Nc=10(−a*ct+b) which is typically used to model the exponential growth of the die measurement during real-time PCR. The coefficients a and b were determined empirically from the Ct values using multiple measurements on quantities of 6 pg and 60 pg of DNA. We determined that a≈0.298, b≈10.493; hence we used the linearizing formula Nc=10(−0.298Ct+10.493). FIG. 14, top panel, shows the means and standard deviations of the differences between the composite Ct values of male and female samples at each of the 19 loci measured. The mean difference between the male and female samples is 1.19 and the SD of the differences is 0.62. Note that this locus-specific SD will not be affected by the different efficiencies of the assay at each locus. Three runs were conducted for every locus in order to estimate σxi for the assay at that locus so that a matched filter could be created and applied. Note that a lower limit of standard deviation at each locus was set at 0.6 in order to avoid statistical anomalies resulting from the small number of runs at each locus. Only those loci for which there were no allele dropouts over at least two experiment runs and over both male and female samples were used in the plots and calculations. Applying the approach above to this data, it was found that MSNR=9.7. Hence N=6 loci are required in order to have 99.99% confidence of the test, assuming those 6 loci generate the same MSNR (Mean Signal to Noise Ratio) as the 19 loci used in this test. The combined measure m and its expected standard deviation after applying the matched filter for male and female samples is shown in FIG. 14, bottom. The same approach was applied to samples diluted 10 times from the above mentioned DNA. Now each well consisted of roughly 6 pg (equivalent amount of a single cell genome) of total DNA of female and male blood samples. As is the previous case, three replicates were tested for each locus in order to estimate the mean and standard deviations of the difference in Ct levels between male and female samples, and a lower limit of 0.6 was set on the standard deviation at each locus in order to avoid statistical anomalies resulting from the small number of runs at each locus. Only those loci for which there were no allele dropouts over at least two experiment runs and over both male and female samples were used in the plots and calculations. This resulted in 13 loci that were used in creating the matched filter. FIG. 15, with the same lay out as in FIG. 14, shows how the differences between male and female measurements are combined into a single measure. The estimated number, N, of SNPs that need to be measured in order to assure 99.99% confidence of the test is 11. This assumes that these 11 loci have the same MSNR (Mean Signal to Noise Ration) as the 13 loci tested in this experiment. Note that this result of 11 loci is significantly lower than we expect to employ in practice. The primary reason is that this experiment performed an allele-specific amplification in each Taqman well, in which 6 pg of DNA is placed. The expected standard deviation for each locus is larger when one initially performs a whole-genome amplification in order to generate a sufficient quantity of genetic material that can be placed in each well. In a later section, we describe the experiment that addresses this issue, using Multiple Displacement Amplification (MDA) whole genome amplification of single cells. A similar approach to that described above was also applied to data measured with the SYBR qPCR Assay using 20 SNPs on the X chromosome of female and male blood samples. Again, the measurement for each locus is the cycle number, Ct, that it takes the die released in the well corresponding to this locus to exceed a threshold. Note that we do not need to combine measurements from different dyes in this case, since only one dye is used to represent the total amount of genetic material at a locus, independent of allele value. Sample 0 and 1 consisted of roughly 60 pg (10 cells) of total DNA per well of female and male samples, respectively. FIG. 16, top show the means and standard deviations of differences of Ct for male and female samples at each of the 20 loci. The mean difference between the male and female samples is 1.03 and the SD of the difference is 0.78. Three runs were conducted for every locus and only those loci for which there were no allele dropouts over at least two experiment runs and over both male and female samples were used. Applying the approach above to this data, it was found that N=14 loci in order to have 99.99% confidence of the test, assuming those 14 loci have the same MSNR as the 20 used in this experiment. And again, in order to estimate the number of SNPs needed for single cell measurements, this technique was applied to samples that consist of 6 pg of total DNA of female and male origin, see FIG. 17. The estimated number N, of SNPs that need to be measured in order to assure 99.99% confidence in differentiating one chromosome copy from two, is 27, assuming those 27 loci have the same MSNR as the 20 used in this experiment. As described above, this result of 27 loci is lower than we expect to employ in practice, since this experiment uses locus-specific amplification in each qPCR well. We next describe an experiment that addresses this issue. The experiments discussed hitherto were designed to specifically address locus or allele-specific amplification of small DNA quantities, without complicating the experiment by introducing issues of cells lysis and whole genome amplification. The quantitative measurements were done on small quantities of DNA diluted from a large sample, without using whole genome pre-amplification of single cells. Despite the goal to simplify the experiment, separate dilution and pipetting of the two samples affected the amount of DNA used to compare male with female samples at each locus. To ameliorate this effect, the diluted concentrations were measured using spectrometer comparisons to DNA with known concentrations and were calibrated appropriately. We now describe an experiment that employs the protocol that will be used for real aneuploidy screening, including cell lysis and whole genome amplification. The level of amplification is in excess of 10,000 in order to generate sufficient genetic material to populate roughly 1,000 Taqman wells with 60 pg of DNA from each cell. In order to estimate the standard deviation of single genotyping assays with whole-genome pre-amplifications, multiple experiments were conducted where a single female HeLa cell (XX) was pre-amplified using Multiple Displacement Amplification (MDA) and the amounts of DNA at 20 loci on its X chromosome were measured using quantitative PCR assays. This experiment was repeated for 16 single HeLa Cells in 16 separate MDA pre-amplifications. The results of the experiment are designed to be conservative, since the standard deviation between loci from separate amplifications will be greater than the standard deviation expected between loci used in the same reaction. In actual implementation, we will compare loci of chromosomes that were involved in the same MDA amplification. Furthermore, it is conservative since we assume that the Ct of a cell with one X chromosome will be one cycle more than that of the HeLa cell (XX), i.e. we increased the Ct measurements of a double-X cell by 1 to simulate a single-X cell. This is a conservative estimate because the difference between Ct values are typically greater than 1 due to inefficiencies of the MDA and PCR assays i.e. with a perfectly efficient PCR reaction, the amount of DNA is doubled in each cycle. However, the amplification is typically less than a factor of two in each PCR cycle due to imperfect hybridization and other effects. This experiment was designed to establish an upper limit on the amount of loci that we will need to measure to screen aneuploidy that involve M2 copy errors where quantitative data is necessary. Applying the Matched Filter technique for this data, as shown in FIG. 18A, the minimum number of SNPs to achieve 99.99% is estimated as N=131. To really estimate how many SNPs are required for this approach to differentiate one or two copies of chromosomes in real aneuploidy screening, it is highly desirable to test the system on samples with one sample containing twice the amount of genetic material as in the other. This precise control is not easily achieved by sample handling in separate wells because the dilution, pipetting and/or amplification efficiency vary from well to well. Here an experiment was designed to overcome these issues by using an internal control, namely by comparing the amount of genetic material on Chromosome 7 and Chromosome X of a male sample. Multiple experiments were conducted where a single male MRC-5 cell (X) was pre-amplified using Multiple Displacement Amplification (MDA) and the amounts of DNA at 11 loci on its Chromosome 7 and 13 loci on its Chromosome X were measured using ABI Taqman assays. The difference in numbers of loci on Chromosome 7 and X was chosen because larger standard deviation of measured amount of genetic material is expected for Chromosome X. This experiment was repeated for 15 single MRC-5 Cells in 15 separate MDA pre-amplifications. After combining readouts from both FAM and VIC channels of all loci, we used the averaged composite Ct values on Chromosome 7 as the reference, which corresponds to the “normal” sample referred to in aneuploidy screening. Composite Ct values on Chromosome X were differenced by the reference, and if a significant difference voted by many loci is detected, it then corresponds to the “aneuploidy” condition. To create a matched filter, standard deviation of these differences at each loci was measured using the results of 15 independent single cell experiments. The mean and standard deviation at each loci was shown in FIG. 18B. And MSNR=0.631. So the number of SNPs to be measured to achieve 99.99% confidence, N=88. Note that this is the upper limit because we are still using single cells pre-amplified separately. Method 1b: Measuring Aneuploidy or Sex by Quantitative Techniques that do not Make Allele Calls when the Mean and Std. Deviation is not Known or is Uniform When the characteristics of each locus are not known well, the simplifying assumptions that all the assays at each locus will behave similarly can be made, namely that E(mxi) and σxi are constant across all loci i, so that it is possible to refer instead only to E(mx) and σx. In this case, the matched filtering approach m=hTdx reduces to finding the mean of the distribution of dx. This approach will be referred to as comparison of means, and it will be used to estimate the number of loci required for different kinds of detection using real data. As above, consider the scenario when there are two chromosomes present in the sample (hypothesis h0) or one chromosome present (h1). For h0, the distribution is N(μ0,σ02) and for h1 the distribution is N(μ1,σ12). Measure each of the distributions using N0 and N1 samples respectively, with measured sample means and SDs m1, m0, s1, and s0. The means can be modeled as random variables M0, M1 that are normally distributed as M0˜N(μ0, σ02/N0) and M1˜N(μ1, σ12/N1). Assume N1 and N0 are large enough (>30) so that one can assume that M1N˜(m1, s12/N1) and M0˜N(m0, s02/N0). In order to test whether the distributions are different, the difference of the means test may be used, where d=m1−m0. The variance of the random variable D is σd2=σ12/N1+σ02/N0 which may be approximated as σd2=s12/N1+s02/N0. Given h0, E(d)=0; given h1, E(d)=μ1−μ0. Different techniques for making the call between h1 for h0 will now be discussed. Data measured with a different run of the Taqman Assay using 48 SNPs on the X chromosome was used to calibrate performance. Sample 1 consists of roughly 0.3 ng of DNA per well of mixed male origin containing one X chromosome; sample 0 consisted of roughly 0.3 ng of DNA per well of mixed female origin containing two X chromosomes. N1=42 and N0=45. FIGS. 5 and 6 show the histograms for samples 1 and 0. The distributions for these samples are characterized by m1=32.259, s1=1.460, σm1=s1/sqrt(N1)=0.225; m0=30.75; s0=1.202, σm0=s0/sqrt(N0)=0.179. For these samples d=1.509 and σd=0.2879. Since this data is derived from mixed male and female samples, much of the standard deviation is due to the different allele frequencies at each SNP in the mixed samples. SD is estimated by considering the variations in Ct for one SNP at a time, over multiple runs. This data is shown in FIG. 7. The histogram is symmetric around 0 since Ct for each SNP is measured in two runs or experiments and the mean value of Ct for each SNP is subtracted out. The average std. dev. across 20 SNPs in the mixed male sample using two runs is s=0.597. This SD will be conservatively used for both male and female samples, since SD for the female sample will be smaller than for the male sample. In addition, note that the measurement from only one dye is being used, since the mixed samples are assumed to be heterozygous for all SNPs. The use of both dyes requires the measurements of each allele at a locus to be combined, which is more complicated (see section on linearizing measurements). Combining measurements on both dyes would double signal amplitude and increase noise amplitude by roughly sqrt(2), resulting in an SNR improvement of roughly sqrt(2) or 3 dB. Detection Assuming No Mosaicism and No Reference Sample Assume that m0 is known perfectly from many experiments, and every experiment runs only one sample to compute m1 to compare with m0. N1 is the number of assays and assume that each assay is a different SNP locus. A threshold t can be set half way between m0 and m1 to make the likelihood of false positives equal the number of false negatives, and a sample is labeled abnormal if it is above the threshold. Assume s1=s2=s=0.597 and use the 5-sigma approach so that the probability of false negatives or positives is 1-normcdf(5,0,1)=2.87e-7. The goal is for 5s1/sqrt(N1)<(m1−m0)/2, hence N1=100 s 12/(m1−m0)2=16. Now, an approach where the probability of a false positive is allowed to be higher than the probability of a false negatives, which is the harmful scenario, may also be used. If a positive is measured, the experiment may be rerun. Consequently, it is possible to say that the probability of a false negative should be equal to the square of the probability of a false positive. Consider FIG. 1, let t=threshold, and assume Sigma_0=Sigma_1=s. Thus (1-normcdf((t−m0)/s,0,1))2=1-normcdf((m1−t)/s,0,1). Solving this, it can be shown that t=m0+0.32(m1−m0). Hence the goal is for 5s/sqrt(N1)<m1−m0−0.32(m1−m0)=(m1−m0)/1.47, hence N1=(52)(1.472)s2/(m1−m0)2=9. Detection with Mosaicism without Running a Reference Sample Assume the same situation as above, except that the goal is to detect mosaicism with a probability of 97.7% (i.e. 2-sigma approach). This is better than the standard approach to amniocentesis which extracts roughly 20 cells and photographs them. If one assumes that 1 in 20 cells is aneuploid and this is detected with 100% reliability, the probability of having at least one of the group being aneuploid using the standard approach is 1-0.9520=64%. If 0.05% of the cells are aneuploid (call this sample 3) then m3=0.95m0+0.05m1 and var(m3)=(0.95s02+0.05s12)/N1. Thus, std(m3)2<(m3−m0)/2=>sqrt(0.95s02+0.05s12)/sqrt(N1)<0.05(m1−m2)/4=>N1=16(0.95 s22+0.05 s12)/(0.052(m1−m2)2)=1001. Note that using the goal of 1-sigma statistics, which is still better than can be achieved using the conventional approach (i.e. detection with 84.1% probability), it can be shown in a similar manner that N1=250. Detection with No Mosaicism and Using a Reference Sample Although this approach may not be necessary, assume that every experiment runs two samples in order to compare m1 with truth sample m2. Assume that N=N1=N0. Compute d=m1−m0 and, assuming σ1=σ0, set a threshold t=(m0+m1)/2 so that the probability of false positives and false negatives is equal. To make the probability of false negatives 2.87e-7, it must be the case that (m1−m2)/2>5 sqrt(s12/N+s22/N)=>N=100(s12+s22)/(m1−m2)2=32. Detection with Mosaicism and Running a Reference Sample As above, assume the probability of false negatives is 2.3% (i.e. 2-sigma approach). If 0.05% of the cells are aneuploid (call this sample 3) then m3=0.95m0+0.05m1 and var(m3)=(0.95 s02+0.05s12)/N1. d=m3−m2 and σd2=(1.95 s02+0.05 s12)/N. It must be that std(m3)2<(m0−m2)/2=>sqrt(1.95s22+0.05s12)/sqrt(N)<0.05(m1−m2)/4=>N=16(1.95s22+0.05s12)/(0.052(m1−m2)2)=2002. Again using 1-sigma approach, it can be shown in a similar manner that N=500. Consider the case if the goal is only to detect 5% mosaicism with a probability of 64% as is the current state of the art. Then, the probability of false negative would be 36%. In other words, it would be necessary to find x such that 1-normcdf(x,0,1)=36%. Thus N=4(0.36∧2)(1.95s22+0.05s12)/(0.052(m1−m2)2)=65 for the 2-sigma approach, or N=33 for the 1-sigma approach. Note that this would result in a very high level of false positives, which needs to be addressed, since such a level of false positives is not currently a viable alternative. Also note that if N is limited to 384 (i.e. one 384 well Taqman plate per chromosome), and the goal is to detect mosaicism with a probability of 97.72%, then it will be possible to detect mosaicism of 8.1% using the 1-sigma approach. In order to detect mosaicism with a probability of 84.1% (or with a 15.9% false negative rate), then it will be possible to detect mosaicism of 5.8% using the 1-sigma approach. To detect mosaicism of 19% with a confidence of 97.72% it would require roughly 70 loci. Thus one could screen for 5 chromosomes on a single plate. The summary of each of these different scenarios is provided in Table 1. Also included in this table are the results generated from qPCR and the SYBR assays. The methods described above were used and the simplifying assumption was made that the performance of the qPCR assay for each locus is the same. FIGS. 8 and 9 show the histograms for samples 1 and 0, as described above. N0=N1=47. The distributions of the measurements for these samples are characterized by m1=27.65, s1=1.40, σm1=s1/sqrt(N1)=0.204; m0=26.64; s0=1.146, σm0=s0/sqrt(N0)=0.167. For these samples d=1.01 and σd=0.2636. FIG. 10 shows the difference between Ct for the male and female samples for each locus, with a standard deviation of the difference over all loci of 0.75. The SD was approximated for each measurement of each locus on the male or female sample as 0.75/sqrt(2)=0.53. Method 2: Qualitative Techniques that Use Allele Calls In this section, no assumption is made that the assay is quantitative. Instead, the assumption is that the allele calls are qualitative, and that there is no meaningful quantitative data coming from the assays. This approach is suitable for any assay that makes an allele call. FIG. 11 describes how different haploid gametes form during meiosis, and will be used to describe the different kinds of aneuploidy that are relevant for this section. The best algorithm depends on the type of aneuploidy that is being detected. Consider a situation where aneuploidy is caused by a third segment that has no section that is a copy of either of the other two segments. From FIG. 11, the situation would arise, for example, if p1 and p4, or p2 and p3, both arose in the child cell in addition to one segment from the other parent. This is very common, given the mechanism which causes aneuploidy. One approach is to start off with a hypothesis h0 that there are two segments in the cell and what these two segments are. Assume, for the purpose of illustration, that h0 is for p3 and m4 from FIG. 11. In a preferred embodiment this hypothesis comes from algorithms described elsewhere in this document. Hypothesis h1 is that there is an additional segment that has no sections that are a copy of the other segments. This would arise, for example, if p2 or m1 was also present. It is possible to identify all loci that are homozygous in p3 and m4. Aneuploidy can be detected by searching for heterozygous genotype calls at loci that are expected to be homozygous. Assume every locus has two possible alleles, x and y. Let the probability of alleles x and y in general be px and py respectively, and px+py=1. If h1 is true, then for each locus i for which p3 and m4 are homozygous, then the probability of a non-homozygous call is py or px, depending on whether the locus is homozygous in x or y respectively. Note: based on knowledge of the parent data, i.e. p1, p2, p4 and m1, m2, m3, it is possible to further refine the probabilities for having non-homozygous alleles x or y at each locus. This will enable more reliable measurements for each hypothesis with the same number of SNPs, but complicates notation, so this extension will not be explicitly dealt with. It should be clear to someone skilled in the art how to use this information to increase the reliability of the hypothesis. The probability of allele dropouts is pd. The probability of finding a heterozygous genotype at locus i is p0i given hypothesis h0 and p1i given hypothesis h1. Given h0: p0i=0 Given h1: p1i=px(1−pd) or p1i=py(1−pd) depending on whether the locus is homozygous for x or y. Create a measurement m=1/NhΣi=1 . . . NhIi where Ii is an indicator variable, and is 1 if a heterozygous call is made and 0 otherwise. Nh is the number of homozygous loci. One can simplify the explanation by assuming that px=py and p0i, p1i for all loci are the same two values p0 and p1. Given h0, E(m)=p0=0 and σ2m|h0=p0(1−p0)/Nh. Given h1, E(m)=p1 and σ2m|h1=p1(1−p1)/Nh. Using 5 sigma-statistics, and making the probability of false positives equal the probability of false negatives, it can be shown that (p1−p0)/2>5σm|h1 hence Nh=100(p0(1−p0)+p1(1−p1))/(p1−p0)2. For 2-sigma confidence instead of 5-sigma confidence, it can be shown that Nh=4.22(p0(1−p0)+p1(1−p1))/(p1−p02. It is necessary to sample enough loci N that there will be sufficient available homozygous loci Nh-avail such that the confidence is at least 97.7% (2-sigma). Characterize Nh-avail=Σi=1 . . . nJi where Ji is an indicator variable of value 1 if the locus is homozygous and 0 otherwise. The probability of the locus being homozygous is px2+py2. Consequently, E(Nh-avaii)=n(px2+py2) and σNh-avail2=N(px2+py2)(1−px2−py2). To guarantee N is large enough with 97.7% confidence, it must be that E(Nh-avail)−2σNh-avail=Nh where Nh is found from above. For example, if one assumes pd=0.3, px=py=0.5, one can find Nh=186 and N=391 for 5-sigma confidence. Similarly, it is possible to show that Nh=30 and N=68 for 2-sigma confidence i.e. 97.7% confidence in false negatives and false positives. Note that a similar approach can be applied to looking for deletions of a segment when h0 is the hypothesis that two known chromosome segment are present, and h1 is the hypothesis that one of the chromosome segments is missing. For example, it is possible to look for all of those loci that should be heterozygous but are homozygous, factoring in the effects of allele dropouts as has been done above. Also note that even though the assay is qualitative, allele dropout rates may be used to provide a type of quantitative measure on the number of DNA segments present. Method 3: Making Use of Known Alleles of Reference Sequences, and Quantitative Allele Measurements Here, it is assumed that the alleles of the normal or expected set of segments are known. In order to check for three chromosomes, the first step is to clean the data, assuming two of each chromosome. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the data cleaning in the first step is done using methods described elsewhere in this document. Then the signal associated with the expected two segments is subtracted from the measured data. One can then look for an additional segment in the remaining signal. A matched filtering approach is used, and the signal characterizing the additional segment is based on each of the segments that are believed to be present, as well as their complementary chromosomes. For example, considering FIG. 11, if the results of PS indicate that segments p2 and m1 are present, the technique described here may be used to check for the presence of p2, p3, m1 and m4 on the additional chromosome. If there is an additional segment present, it is guaranteed to have more than 50% of the alleles in common with at least one of these test signals. Note that another approach, not described in detail here, is to use an algorithm described elsewhere in the document to clean the data, assuming an abnormal number of chromosomes, namely 1, 3, 4 and 5 chromosomes, and then to apply the method discussed here. The details of this approach should be clear to someone skilled in the art after having read this document. Hypothesis h0 is that there are two chromosomes with allele vectors a1, a2. Hypothesis h1 is that there is a third chromosome with allele vector a3. Using a method described in this document to clean the genetic data, or another technique, it is possible to determine the alleles of the two segments expected by h0: a1=[a11 . . . a1N] and a2=[a21 . . . a2N] where each element aji is either x or y. The expected signal is created for hypothesis h0: s0x=[f0x(a11, . . . a21) . . . fx0(a1N, a2N)], s0y=[fy(a11, a21) . . . fy(a1N, a2N)] where fx, fy describe the mapping from the set of alleles to the measurements of each allele. Given h0, the data may be described as dxi=s0xi+nxi, nxi˜N(0,σxi2); dyi=s0yi+nyi, nyi˜N(0,σyi2). Create a measurement by differencing the data and the reference signal: mxi=dxi−sxi; myi=dyi−syi. The full measurement vector is m=[mxT myT]T. Now, create the signal for the segment of interest the segment whose presence is suspected, and will be sought in the residual based on the assumed alleles of this segment: a3=[a31 . . . a3N]. Describe the signal for the residual as: sr=[srxT Sry1]T where srx=[frx(a31) . . . frx(a3N)], sry=[fry(a31) fry(a3N)] where frx(a3i)=δxi if a3i=x and 0 otherwise, fry(a31)=δyi if a3i=y and 0 otherwise. This analysis assumes that the measurements have been linearized (see section below) so that the presence of one copy of allele x at locus i generates data δxi+nxi and the presence of κx copies of the allele x at locus i generates data κxδxi+nxi. Note however that this assumption is not necessary for the general approach described here. Given h1, if allele a3i=x then mxi=δxi+nxi, myi=nyi and if a3i=y then mxi=nxi, myi=δyi+nyi. Consequently, a matched filter h=(1/N)R−1sr can be created where R=([σx12 . . . σxN2σy12 . . . σyN2]) The measurement is m=hTd. h0: m=(1/N)Σi=1 . . . Nsrxinxi/σxi2+sryinyi/σyi2 h1: m=(1/N)Σi=1 . . . Nsrxi(δxi+nxi)/σxi2+Sryi(δyi+nyi)/σyi2 In order to estimate the number of SNPs required, make the simplifying assumptions that all assays for all alleles and all loci have similar characteristics, namely that δxi=δyi=δ and σxi=σyi=σ for i=1 . . . N. Then, the mean and standard deviation may be found as follows: h0: E(m)=m0=0;σm|h02=(1/N2σ4)N/2)(σ2δ2+σ2δ2)=δ2/(Nσ2) h1: E(m)=m1=(1/N)(N/2σ2)(δ2+δ2)=δ2σm|h12=(1/N2σ4)(N)(σ2δ2)=δ2/(Nσ2) Now compute a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for this test of h1 versus h0. The signal is m1−m0=δ2/σ2, and the noise variance of this measurement is σm|h2+σm|h12=2δ2/(Nσ2). Consequently, the SNR for this test is (δ4/σ4)/(2δ2/(Nσ2)=Nδ2/(2σ2). Compare this SNR to the scenario where the genetic information is simply summed at each locus without performing a matched filtering based on the allele calls. Assume that h=(1/N)1 where 1 is the vector of N ones, and make the simplifying assumptions as above that δxi=δyi=δ and σxi=σyi=σ for i=1 . . . N. For this scenario, it is straightforward to show that if m=hTd: h0: E(m)=m0=0;σm|h02=Nσ2/N2+Nσ2/N2=2σ2/N h1: E(m)=m1=(1/N)(Nδ/2+Nδ/2)=δ;σm|h12=(1/N2)(Nσ2+Nσ2)=2σ2/N Consequently, the SNR for this test is Nδ2/(4σ2). In other words, by using a matched filter that only sums the allele measurements that are expected for segment a3, the number of SNPs required is reduced by a factor of 2. This ignores the SNR gain achieved by using matched filtering to account for the different efficiencies of the assays at each locus. Note that if we do not correctly characterize the reference signals sxi and syi then the SD of the noise or disturbance on the resulting measurement signals mxi and myi will be increased. This will be insignificant if δ<<σ, but otherwise it will increase the probability of false detections. Consequently, this technique is well suited to test the hypothesis where three segments are present and two segments are assumed to be exact copies of each other. In this case, sxi and syi will be reliably known using techniques of data cleaning based on qualitative allele calls described elsewhere. In one embodiment method 3 is used in combination with method 2 which uses qualitative genotyping and, aside from the quantitative measurements from allele dropouts, is not able to detect the presence of a second exact copy of a segment. We now describe another quantitative technique that makes use of allele calls. The method involves comparing the relative amount of signal at each of the four registers for a given allele. One can imagine that in the idealized case involving a single, normal cell, where homogenous amplification occurs, (or the relative amounts of amplification are normalized), four possible situations can occur: (i) in the case of a heterozygous allele, the relative intensities of the four registers will be approximately 1:1:0:0, and the absolute intensity of the signal will correspond to one base pair; (ii) in the case of a homozygous allele, the relative intensities will be approximately 1:0:0:0, and the absolute intensity of the signal will correspond to two base pairs; (iii) in the case of an allele where ADO occurs for one of the alleles, the relative intensities will be approximately 1:0:0:0, and the absolute intensity of the signal will correspond to one base pair; and (iv) in the case of an allele where ADO occurs for both of the alleles, the relative intensities will be approximately 0:0:0:0, and the absolute intensity of the signal will correspond to no base pairs. In the case of aneuploides, however, different situations will be observed. For example, in the case of trisomy, and there is no ADO, one of three situations will occur: (i) in the case of a triply heterozygous allele, the relative intensities of the four registers will be approximately 1:1:1:0, and the absolute intensity of the signal will correspond to one base pair; (ii) in the case where two of the alleles are homozygous, the relative intensities will be approximately 2:1:0:0, and the absolute intensity of the signal will correspond to two and one base pairs, respectively; (iii) in the case where are alleles are homozygous, the relative intensities will be approximately 1:0:0:0, and the absolute intensity of the signal will correspond to three base pairs. If allele dropout occurs in the case of an allele in a cell with trisomy, one of the situations expected for a normal cell will be observed. In the case of monosomy, the relative intensities of the four registers will be approximately 1:0:0:0, and the absolute intensity of the signal will correspond to one base pair. This situation corresponds to the case of a normal cell where ADO of one of the alleles has occurred, however in the case of the normal cell, this will only be observed at a small percentage of the alleles. In the case of uniparental disomy, where two identical chromosomes are present, the relative intensities of the four registers will be approximately 1:0:0:0, and the absolute intensity of the signal will correspond to two base pairs. In the case of UPD where two different chromosomes from one parent are present, this method will indicate that the cell is normal, although further analysis of the data using other methods described in this patent will uncover this. In all of these cases, either in cells that are normal, have aneuploides or UPD, the data from one SNP will not be adequate to make a decision about the state of the cell. However, if the probabilities of each of the above hypothesis are calculated, and those probabilities are combined for a sufficient number of SNPs on a given chromosome, one hypothesis will predominate, it will be possible to determine the state of the chromosome with high confidence. Methods for Linearizing Quantitative Measurements Many approaches may be taken to linearize measurements of the amount of genetic material at a specific locus so that data from different alleles can be easily summed or differenced. We first discuss a generic approach and then discuss an approach that is designed for a particular type of assay. Assume data dxi refers to a nonlinear measurement of the amount of genetic material of allele x at locus i. Create a training set of data using N measurements, where for each measurement, it is estimated or known that the amount of genetic material corresponding to data dxi is βxi. The training set βxi, i=1 . . . N, is chosen to span all the different amounts of genetic material that might be encountered in practice. Standard regression techniques can be used to train a function that maps from the nonlinear measurement, dxi, to the expectation of the linear measurement, E(βxi). For example, a linear regression can be used to train a polynomial function of order P, such that E(βxi)=[1 dxidxi2 . . . dxiP]c where c is the vector of coefficients c=[c0 c1 . . . CP]. To train this linearizing function, we create a vector of the amount of genetic material for N measurements βx=[(βx1 . . . βxN]T and a matrix of the measured data raised to powers 0 . . . P: D=[[1 dx1 dx12 . . . dx1P]T [1 dx2dx22 . . . dx2P]T . . . [1 dxNdxN2 . . . dxNP]T]T. The coefficients can then be found using a least squares fit c=(DTD)−1DTβx. Rather than depend on generic functions such as fitted polynomials, we may also create specialized functions for the characteristics of a particular assay. We consider, for example, the Taqman assay or a qPCR assay. The amount of die for allele x and some locus i, as a function of time up to the point where it crosses some threshold, may be described as an exponential curve with a bias offset: gxi(t)=αxi+βxiexp(γxit) where αxi is the bias offset, γxi is the exponential growth rate, and βxi corresponds to the amount of genetic material. To cast the measurements in terms of βxi, compute the parameter αxi by looking at the asymptotic limit of the curve gxi(−∞) and then may find βxi and γxi by taking the log of the curve to obtain log(gxi(t)−αxi)=log(βxi)+γxit and performing a standard linear regression. Once we have values for αxi and γxi, another approach is to compute βxi from the time, tx, at which the threshold gx is exceeded. βxi=(gx−αxi)exp(−γxitx). This will be a noisy measurement of the true amount of genetic data of a particular allele. Whatever techniques is used, we may model the linearized measurement as βxi=κxδxi+nxi where κx is the number of copies of allele x, δxi is a constant for allele x and locus i, and nxi˜N(0, σx2) where σx2 can be measured empirically. Method 4: Using a Probability Distribution Function for the Amplification of Genetic Data at Each Locus The method described here is relevant for high throughput genotype data either generated by a PCR-based approach, for example using an Affymetrix Genotyping Array, or using the Molecular Inversion Probe (MIPs) technique, with the Affymetrix GenFlex Tag Array. In the former case, the genetic material is amplified by PCR before hybridization to probes on the genotyping array to detect the presence of particular alleles. In the latter case, padlock probes are hybridized to the genomic DNA and a gap-fill enzyme is added which can add one of the four nucleotides. If the added nucleotide (A, C, T, G) is complementary to the SNP under measurement, then it will hybridize to the DNA, and join the ends of the padlock probe by ligation. The closed padlock probes are then differentiated from linear probes by exonucleolysis. The probes that remain are then opened at a cleavage site by another enzyme, amplified by PCR, and detected by the GenFlex Tag Array. Whichever technique is used, the quantity of material for a particular SNP will depend on the number of initial chromosomes in the cell on which that SNP is present. However, due to the random nature of the amplification and hybridization process, the quantity of genetic material from a particular SNP will not be directly proportional to the starting number of chromosomes. Let qs,A, qs,G, qs,T, qs,C represent the amplified quantity of genetic material for a particular SNP s for each of the four nucleic acids (A, C, T, G) constituting the alleles. Note that these quantities are typically measured from the intensity of signals from particular hybridization probes on the array. This intensity measurement can be used instead of a measurement of quantity, or can be converted into a quantity estimate using standard techniques without changing the nature of the invention. Let qs be the sum of all the genetic material generated from all alleles of a particular SNP: qs=qs,A+qs,G+qs,T+qs,C. Let N be the number of chromosomes in a cell containing the SNP s. N is typically 2, but may be 0, 1 or 3 or more. For either high-throughput genotyping method discussed above, and many other methods, the resulting quantity of genetic material can be represented as qs=(A+Aθ,s)N+θs where A is the total amplification that is either estimated a-priori or easily measured empirically, Aθ,s is the error in the estimate of A for the SNP s, and θs is additive noise introduced in the amplification, hybridization and other process for that SNP. The noise terms Aθ,s and θs are typically large enough that qs will not be a reliable measurement of N. However, the effects of these noise terms can be mitigated by measuring multiple SNPs on the chromosome. Let S be the number of SNPs that are measured on a particular chromosome, such as chromosome 21. We can then generate the average quantity of genetic material over all SNPs on a particular chromosome q = 1 S  ∑ s = 1 S   q s = NA + 1 S  ∑ s = 1 S   A θ , s  N + θ s ( 15 ) Assuming that Aθ,s and θs are normally distributed random variables with 0 means and variances σ2Aθ,s and σ2θs, we can model q=NA+φ where φ is a normally distributed random variable with 0 mean and variance 1 S  ( N 2  σ A θ , s 2 + σ θ 2 ) . Consequently, if we measure a sufficient number of SNPs on the chromosome such that S>>(N2σ2Aθ,s+σ2θ), we can accurately estimate N=q/A. The quantity of material for a particular SNP will depend on the number of initial segments in the cell on which that SNP is present. However, due to the random nature of the amplification and hybridization process, the quantity of genetic material from a particular SNP will not be directly proportional to the starting number of segments. Let qs,A, qs,G, qs,T, qs,C represent the amplified quantity of genetic material for a particular SNP s for each of the four nucleic acids (A,C,T,G) constituting the alleles. Note that these quantities may be exactly zero, depending on the technique used for amplification. Also note that these quantities are typically measured from the intensity of signals from particular hybridization probes. This intensity measurement can be used instead of a measurement of quantity, or can be converted into a quantity estimate using standard techniques without changing the nature of the invention. Let qs be the sum of all the genetic material generated from all alleles of a particular SNP: qs=qs,A+qs,G+qs,T+qs,C. Let N be the number of segments in a cell containing the SNP s. N is typically 2, but may be 0,1 or 3 or more. For any high or medium throughput genotyping method discussed, the resulting quantity of genetic material can be represented as qs=(A+Aθ,s)N+θs where A is the total amplification that is either estimated a-priori or easily measured empirically, Aθ,s is the error in the estimate of A for the SNP s, and θs is additive noise introduced in the amplification, hybridization and other process for that SNP. The noise terms Aθ,s and θs are typically large enough that qs will not be a reliable measurement of N. However, the effects of these noise terms can be mitigated by measuring multiple SNPs on the chromosome. Let S be the number of SNPs that are measured on a particular chromosome, such as chromosome 21. It is possible to generate the average quantity of genetic material over all SNPs on a particular chromosome as follows: q = 1 S  ∑ s = 1 S   q s = NA + 1 S  ∑ s = 1 S   A θ , s  N + θ s ( 16 ) Assuming that Aθ,s and θs are normally distributed random variables with 0 means and variances σ2Aθ,s and σ2θs, one can model q=NA+φ where φ is a normally distributed random variable with 0 mean and variance 1 S  ( N 2  σ A θ , s 2 + σ θ 2 ) . Consequently, if sufficient number of SNPs are measured on the chromosome such that S>>(N2σ2Aθ,s+σ2θ)), then N=q/A can be accurately estimated. In another embodiment, assume that the amplification is according to a model where the signal level from one SNP is s=a+α where (a+α) has a distribution that looks like the picture in FIG. 12A, left. The delta function at 0 models the rates of allele dropouts of roughly 30%, the mean is a, and if there is no allele dropout, the amplification has uniform distribution from 0 to a0. In terms of the mean of this distribution a0 is found to be a0=2.86a. Now model the probability density function of α using the picture in FIG. 12B, right. Let sc be the signal arising from c loci; let n be the number of segments; let αi be a random variable distributed according to FIGS. 12A and 12B that contributes to the signal from locus i; and let a be the standard deviation for all {αi}. sc=anc+Σi=1 . . . ncαi; mean(sc)=anc; std(sc)=sqrt(nc)σ. If a is computed according to the distribution in FIG. 12B, right, it is found to be σ=0.907a2. We can find the number of segments from n=sc/(ac) and for “5-sigma statistics” we require std(n)<0.1 so std(sc)/(ac)=0.1=>0.95a.sqrt(nc)/(ac)=0.1 so c=0.952 n/0.12=181. Another model to estimate the confidence in the call, and how many loci or SNPs must be measured to ensure a given degree of confidence, incorporates the random variable as a multiplier of amplification instead of as an additive noise source, namely s=a(1+α). Taking logs, log(s)=log(a)+log(1+a). Now, create a new random variable γ=log(1+α) and this variable may be assumed to be normally distributed ˜N(0,σ). In this model, amplification can range from very small to very large, depending on a, but never negative. Therefore α=eγ−1; and sc=Σi=1 . . . cna(1+αi). For notation, mean(sc) and expectation value E(sc) are used interchangeably E(Sc)=acn+aE(Σi=1 . . . cnαi)=acn+aE(Σi=1 . . . cnαi)=acn(1+E(α)) To find E(α) the probability density function (pdf) must be found for a which is possible since α is a function of y which has a known Gaussian pdf. pa(α)=pγ(γ)(dγ/dα). So: p γ  ( γ ) = 1 2  π  σ  e - γ 2 2  σ 2   and   dy d   α = d d   α  ( log  ( 1 + α ) ) = 1 1 + α  e - γ and  : p α  ( α ) = 1 2  π  σ  e - γ 2 2  σ 2  e - γ = 1 2  π  σ  e - ( log  ( 1 + α ) ) 2 2  σ 2  1 1 + α This has the form shown in FIG. 13 for σ=1. Now, E(α) can be found by integrating over this pdf E(α)=∫−∞∞αpα(α)dα which can be done numerically for multiple different σ. This gives E(sc) or mean(sc) as a function of σ. Now, this pdf can also be used to find var(sc): var  ( S C ) =  E  ( S c - E  ( S C ) ) 2 = E ( ∑ i = 1  …cn   a  ( 1 + α i ) - acn - aE ( ∑ i = 1  …cn   α i ) ) 2 =  E ( ∑ i = 1  …cn  a   α i - aE ( ∑ i = 1  …cn  α i ) ) 2 =  a 2  E ( ∑ i = 1  …cn  α i - cnE  ( α ) ) 2 =  a 2  E ( ( ∑ i = 1  …cn  α i ) 2 - 2  cnE  ( α )  ( ∑ i = 1  …cn  α i ) + c 2  n 2  E  ( α ) 2 ) =  a 2  E ( cn   α 2 + cn  ( cn - 1 )  α i  α j - 2  cnE  ( α )  ( ∑ i = 1  …cn  α i ) + c 2  n 2  E  ( α ) 2 ) =  a 2  c 2  n 2  ( E  ( α 2 ) + ( cn - 1 )  E  ( α i  α j ) - 2  cnE  ( α ) 2 + cnE  ( α ) 2 ) =  a 2  c 2  n 2  ( E  ( α 2 ) + ( cn - 1 )  E  ( α i  α j ) - cnE  ( α ) 2 ) which can also be solved numerically using pα(α) for multiple different σ to get var(sc) as a function of σ. Then, we may take a series of measurements from a sample with a known number of loci c and a known number of segments n and find std(sc)/E(sc) from this data. That will enable us to compute a value for α. In order to estimate n, E(sc)=nac(1+E(α)) so n ^ = S c ac ( 1 + ( E  ( α ) ) can be measured so that std  ( n ^ ) = std  ( S c ) ac ( 1 + ( E  ( α ) )  std  ( n ) When summing a sufficiently large number of independent random variables of 0-mean, the distribution approaches a Gaussian form, and thus sc (and {circumflex over (n)}) can be treated as normally distributed and as before we may use 5-sigma statistics: std  ( n ^ ) = std  ( S c ) ac ( 1 + ( E  ( α ) ) < 0.1 in order to have an error probability of 2normcdf(5,0,1)=2.7e-7. From this, one can solve for the number of loci c. Sexing In one embodiment of the system, the genetic data can be used to determine the sex of the target individual. After the method disclosed herein is used to determine which segments of which chromosomes from the parents have contributed to the genetic material of the target, the sex of the target can be determined by checking to see which of the sex chromosomes have been inherited from the father: X indicates a female, and Y indicates a make. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art how to use this method to determine the sex of the target. Validation of the Hypotheses In some embodiments of the system, one drawback is that in order to make a prediction of the correct genetic state with the highest possible confidence, it is necessary to make hypotheses about every possible states. However, as the possible number of genetic states are exceptionally large, and computational time is limited, it may not be reasonable to test every hypothesis. In these cases, an alternative approach is to use the concept of hypothesis validation. This involves estimating limits on certain values, sets of values, properties or patterns that one might expect to observe in the measured data if a certain hypothesis, or class of hypotheses are true. Then, the measured values can tested to see if they fall within those expected limits, and/or certain expected properties or patterns can be tested for, and if the expectations are not met, then the algorithm can flag those measurements for further investigation. For example, in a case where the end of one arm of a chromosome is broken off in the target DNA, the most likely hypothesis may be calculated to be “normal” (as opposed, for example to “aneuploid”). This is because the particular hypotheses that corresponds to the true state of the genetic material, namely that one end of the chromosome has broken off, has not been tested, since the likelihood of that state is very low. If the concept of validation is used, then the algorithm will note that a high number of values, those that correspond to the alleles that lie on the broken off section of the chromosome, lay outside the expected limits of the measurements. A flag will be raised, inviting further investigation for this case, increasing the likelihood that the true state of the genetic material is uncovered. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art how to modify the disclosed method to include the validation technique. Note that one anomaly that is expected to be very difficult to detect using the disclosed method is balanced translocations. M Notes As noted previously, given the benefit of this disclosure, there are more embodiments that may implement one or more of the systems, methods, and features, disclosed herein. In all cases concerning the determination of the probability of a particular qualitative measurement on a target individual based on parent data, it should be obvious to one skilled in the art, after reading this disclosure, how to apply a similar method to determine the probability of a quantitative measurement of the target individual rather than qualitative. Wherever genetic data of the target or related individuals is treated qualitatively, it will be clear to one skilled in the art, after reading this disclosure, how to apply the techniques disclosed to quantitative data. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art that a plurality of parameters may be changed without changing the essence of the invention. For example, the genetic data may be obtained using any high throughput genotyping platform, or it may be obtained from any genotyping method, or it may be simulated, inferred or otherwise known. A variety of computational languages could be used to encode the algorithms described in this disclosure, and a variety of computational platforms could be used to execute the calculations. For example, the calculations could be executed using personal computers, supercomputers, a massively parallel computing platform, or even non-silicon based computational platforms such as a sufficiently large number of people armed with abacuses. Some of the math in this disclosure makes hypotheses concerning a limited number of states of aneuploidy. In some cases, for example, only monosomy, disomy and trisomy are explicitly treated by the math. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art how these mathematical derivations can be expanded to take into account other forms of aneuploidy, such as nullsomy (no chromosomes present), quadrosomy, etc., without changing the fundamental concepts of the invention. When this disclosure discusses a chromosome, this may refer to a segment of a chromosome, and when a segment of a chromosome is discussed, this may refer to a full chromosome. It is important to note that the math to handle a segment of a chromosome is the same as that needed to handle a full chromosome. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art how to modify the method accordingly It should be obvious to one skilled in the art that a related individual may refer to any individual who is genetically related, and thus shares haplotype blocks with the target individual. Some examples of related individuals include: biological father, biological mother, son, daughter, brother, sister, half-brother, half-sister, grandfather, grandmother, uncle, aunt, nephew, niece, grandson, granddaughter, cousin, clone, the target individual himself/herself/itself, and other individuals with known genetic relationship to the target. The term ‘related individual’ also encompasses any embryo, fetus, sperm, egg, blastomere, blastocyst, or polar body derived from a related individual. It is important to note that the target individual may refer to an adult, a juvenile, a fetus, an embryo, a blastocyst, a blastomere, a cell or set of cells from an individual, or from a cell line, or any set of genetic material. The target individual may be alive, dead, frozen, or in stasis. It is also important to note that where the target individual refers to a blastomere that is used to diagnose an embryo, there may be cases caused by mosaicism where the genome of the blastomere analyzed does not correspond exactly to the genomes of all other cells in the embryo. It is important to note that it is possible to use the method disclosed herein in the context of cancer genotyping and/or karyotyping, where one or more cancer cells is considered the target individual, and the non-cancerous tissue of the individual afflicted with cancer is considered to be the related individual. The non-cancerous tissue of the individual afflicted with the target could provide the set of genotype calls of the related individual that would allow chromosome copy number determination of the cancerous cell or cells using the methods disclosed herein. It is important to note that the method described herein concerns the cleaning of genetic data, and as all living or once living creatures contain genetic data, the methods are equally applicable to any live or dead human, animal, or plant that inherits or inherited chromosomes from other individuals. It is important to note that in many cases, the algorithms described herein make use of prior probabilities, and/or initial values. In some cases the choice of these prior probabilities may have an impact on the efficiency and/or effectiveness of the algorithm. There are many ways that one skilled in the art, after reading this disclosure, could assign or estimate appropriate prior probabilities without changing the essential concept of the patent. It is also important to note that the embryonic genetic data that can be generated by measuring the amplified DNA from one blastomere can be used for multiple purposes. For example, it can be used for detecting aneuploidy, uniparental disomy, sexing the individual, as well as for making a plurality of phenotypic predictions based on phenotype-associated alleles. Currently, in IVF laboratories, due to the techniques used, it is often the case that one blastomere can only provide enough genetic material to test for one disorder, such as aneuploidy, or a particular monogenic disease. Since the method disclosed herein has the common first step of measuring a large set of SNPs from a blastomere, regardless of the type of prediction to be made, a physician, parent, or other agent is not forced to choose a limited number of disorders for which to screen. Instead, the option exists to screen for as many genes and/or phenotypes as the state of medical knowledge will allow. With the disclosed method, one advantage to identifying particular conditions to screen for prior to genotyping the blastomere is that if it is decided that certain loci are especially relevant, then a more appropriate set of SNPs which are more likely to cosegregate with the locus of interest, can be selected, thus increasing the confidence of the allele calls of interest. It is also important to note that it is possible to perform haplotype phasing by molecular haplotyping methods. Because separation of the genetic material into haplotypes is challenging, most genotyping methods are only capable of measuring both haplotypes simultaneously, yielding diploid data. As a result, the sequence of each haploid genome cannot be deciphered. In the context of using the disclosed method to determine allele calls and/or chromosome copy number on a target genome, it is often helpful to know the maternal haplotype; however, it is not always simple to measure the maternal haplotype. One way to solve this problem is to measure haplotypes by sequencing single DNA molecules or clonal populations of DNA molecules. The basis for this method is to use any sequencing method to directly determine haplotype phase by direct sequencing of a single DNA molecule or clonal population of DNA molecules. This may include, but not be limited to: cloning amplified DNA fragments from a genome into a recombinant DNA constructs and sequencing by traditional dye-end terminator methods, isolation and sequencing of single molecules in colonies, and direct single DNA molecule or clonal DNA population sequencing using next-generation sequencing methods. The systems, methods, and techniques of the present invention may be used to in conjunction with embyro screening or prenatal testing procedures. The systems, methods, and techniques of the present invention may be employed in methods of increasing the probability that the embryos and fetuses obtain by in vitro fertilization are successfully implanted and carried through the full gestation period. Further, the systems, methods, and techniques of the present invention may be employed in methods of decreasing the probability that the embryos and fetuses obtain by in vitro fertilization that are implanted and gestated are not specifically at risk for a congenital disorder. Thus, according to some embodiments, the present invention extends to the use of the systems, methods, and techniques of the invention in conjunction with pre-implantation diagnosis procedures. According to some embodiments, the present invention extends to the use of the systems, methods, and techniques of the invention in conjunction with prenatal testing procedures. According to some embodiments, the systems, methods, and techniques of the invention are used in methods to decrease the probability for the implantation of an embryo specifically at risk for a congenital disorder by testing at least one cell removed from early embryos conceived by in vitro fertilization and transferring to the mother's uterus only those embryos determined not to have inherited the congenital disorder. According to some embodiments, the systems, methods, and techniques of the invention are used in methods to decrease the probability for the implantation of an embryo specifically at risk for a chromosome abnormality by testing at least one cell removed from early embryos conceived by in vitro fertilization and transferring to the mother's uterus only those embryos determined not to have chromosome abnormalities. According to some embodiments, the systems, methods, and techniques of the invention are used in methods to increase the probability of implanting an embryo obtained by in vitro fertilization that is at a reduced risk of carrying a congenital disorder. According to some embodiments, the systems, methods, and techniques of the invention are used in methods to increase the probability of gestating a fetus. According to preferred embodiments, the congenital disorder is a malformation, neural tube defect, chromosome abnormality, Down's syndrome (or trisomy 21), Trisomy 18, spina bifida, cleft palate, Tay Sachs disease, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, cystic fibrosis, Huntington's disease, and/or fragile x syndrome. Chromosome abnormalities include, but are not limited to, Down syndrome (extra chromosome 21), Turner Syndrome (45×0) and Klinefelter's syndrome (a male with 2 X chromosomes). According to preferred embodiments, the malformation is a limb malformation. Limb malformations include, but are not limited to, amelia, ectrodactyly, phocomelia, polymelia, polydactyly, syndactyly, polysyndactyly, oligodactyly, brachydactyly, achondroplasia, congenital aplasia or hypoplasia, amniotic band syndrome, and cleidocranial dysostosis. According to preferred embodiments, the malformation is a congenital malformation of the heart. Congenital malformations of the heart include, but are not limited to, patent ductus arteriosus, atrial septal defect, ventricular septal defect, and tetralogy of fallot. According to preferred embodiments, the malformation is a congenital malformation of the nervous system. Congenital malformations of the nervous system include, but are not limited to, neural tube defects (e.g., spina bifida, meningocele, meningomyelocele, encephalocele and anencephaly), Arnold-Chiari malformation, the Dandy-Walker malformation, hydrocephalus, microencephaly, megencephaly, lissencephaly, polymicrogyria, holoprosencephaly, and agenesis of the corpus callosum. According to preferred embodiments, the malformation is a congenital malformation of the gastrointestinal system. Congenital malformations of the gastrointestinal system include, but are not limited to, stenosis, atresia, and imperforate anus. According to some embodiments, the systems, methods, and techniques of the invention are used in methods to increase the probability of implanting an embryo obtained by in vitro fertilization that is at a reduced risk of carrying a predisposition for a genetic disease. According to preferred embodiments, the genetic disease is either monogenic or multigenic. Genetic diseases include, but are not limited to, Bloom Syndrome, Canavan Disease, Cystic fibrosis, Familial Dysautonomia, Riley-Day syndrome, Fanconi Anemia (Group C), Gaucher Disease, Glycogen storage disease 1a, Maple syrup urine disease, Mucolipidosis IV, Niemann-Pick Disease, Tay-Sachs disease, Beta thalessemia, Sickle cell anemia, Alpha thalessemia, Beta thalessemia, Factor XI Deficiency, Friedreich's Ataxia, MCAD, Parkinson disease-juvenile, Connexin26, SMA, Rett syndrome, Phenylketonuria, Becker Muscular Dystrophy, Duchennes Muscular Dystrophy, Fragile X syndrome, Hemophilia A, Alzheimer dementia-early onset, Breast/Ovarian cancer, Colon cancer, Diabetes/MODY, Huntington disease, Myotonic Muscular Dystrophy, Parkinson Disease-early onset, Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, Polycystic Kidney Disease, Torsion Dystonia Combinations of the Aspects of the Invention As noted previously, given the benefit of this disclosure, there are more aspects and embodiments that may implement one or more of the systems, methods, and features, disclosed herein. Below is a short list of examples illustrating situations in which the various aspects of the disclosed invention can be combined in a plurality of ways. It is important to note that this list is not meant to be comprehensive; many other combinations of the aspects, methods, features and embodiments of this invention are possible. In one embodiment of the invention, it is possible to combine several of the aspect of the invention such that one could perform both allele calling as well as aneuploidy calling in one step, and to use quantitative values instead of qualitative for both parts. It should be obvious to one skilled in the art how to combine the relevant mathematics without changing the essence of the invention. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, the disclosed method is employed to determine the genetic state of one or more embryos for the purpose of embryo selection in the context of IVF. This may include the harvesting of eggs from the prospective mother and fertilizing those eggs with sperm from the prospective father to create one or more embryos. It may involve performing embryo biopsy to isolate a blastomere from each of the embryos. It may involve amplifying and genotyping the genetic data from each of the blastomeres. It may include obtaining, amplifying and genotyping a sample of diploid genetic material from each of the parents, as well as one or more individual sperm from the father. It may involve incorporating the measured diploid and haploid data of both the mother and the father, along with the measured genetic data of the embryo of interest into a dataset. It may involve using one or more of the statistical methods disclosed in this patent to determine the most likely state of the genetic material in the embryo given the measured or determined genetic data. It may involve the determination of the ploidy state of the embryo of interest. It may involve the determination of the presence of a plurality of known disease-linked alleles in the genome of the embryo. It may involve making phenotypic predictions about the embryo. It may involve generating a report that is sent to the physician of the couple so that they may make an informed decision about which embryo(s) to transfer to the prospective mother. Another example could be a situation where a 44-year old woman undergoing IVF is having trouble conceiving. The couple arranges to have her eggs harvested and fertilized with sperm from the man, producing nine viable embryos. A blastomere is harvested from each embryo, and the genetic data from the blastomeres are measured using an ILLUMINA INFINIUM BEAD ARRAY. Meanwhile, the diploid data are measured from tissue taken from both parents also using the ILLUMINA INFINIUM BEAD ARRAY. Haploid data from the father's sperm is measured using the same method. The method disclosed herein is applied to the genetic data of the blastomere and the diploid maternal genetic data to phase the maternal genetic data to provide the maternal haplotype. Those data are then incorporated, along with the father's diploid and haploid data, to allow a highly accurate determination of the copy number count for each of the chromosomes in each of the embryos. Eight of the nine embryos are found to be aneuploid, and the one embryo is found to be euploid. A report is generated that discloses these diagnoses, and is sent to the doctor. The report has data similar to the data found in Tables 9, 10 and 11. The doctor, along with the prospective parents, decides to transfer the euploid embryo which implants in the mother's uterus. Another example may involve a pregnant woman who has been artificially inseminated by a sperm donor, and is pregnant. She is wants to minimize the risk that the fetus she is carrying has a genetic disease. She undergoes amniocentesis and fetal cells are isolated from the withdrawn sample, and a tissue sample is also collected from the mother. Since there are no other embryos, her data are phased using molecular haplotyping methods. The genetic material from the fetus and from the mother are amplified as appropriate and genotyped using the ILLUMINA INFINIUM BEAD ARRAY, and the methods described herein reconstruct the embryonic genotype as accurately as possible. Phenotypic susceptibilities are predicted from the reconstructed fetal genetic data and a report is generated and sent to the mother's physician so that they can decide what actions may be best. Another example could be a situation where a racehorse breeder wants to increase the likelihood that the foals sired by his champion racehorse become champions themselves. He arranges for the desired mare to be impregnated by IVF, and uses genetic data from the stallion and the mare to clean the genetic data measured from the viable embryos. The cleaned embryonic genetic data allows the breeder to select the embryos for implantation that are most likely to produce a desirable racehorse. Tables 1-11 Table 1. Probability distribution of measured allele calls given the true genotype. Table 2. Probabilities of specific allele calls in the embryo using the U and H notation. Table 3. Conditional probabilities of specific allele calls in the embryo given all possible parental states. Table 4. Constraint Matrix (A). Table 5. Notation for the counts of observations of all specific embryonic allelic states given all possible parental states. Table 6. Aneuploidy states (h) and corresponding P(h|nj), the conditional probabilities given the copy numbers. Table 7. Probability of aneuploidy hypothesis (H) conditional on parent genotype. Table 8. Results of PS algorithm applied to 69 SNPs on chromosome 7. Table 9. Aneuploidy calls on eight known euploid cells. Table 10. Aneuploidy calls on ten known trisomic cells. Table 11. Aneuploidy calls for six blastomeres. TABLE 1 Probability distribution of measured allele calls given the true genotype. p(dropout) = 0.5, p(gain) = 0.02 measured true AA AB BB XX AA 0.735 0.015 0.005 0.245 AB 0.250 0.250 0.250 0.250 BB 0.005 0.015 0.735 0.245 TABLE 2 Probabilities of specific allele calls in the embryo using the U and H notation. Embryo readouts Embryo truth state U H U empty U p11 p12 p13 p14 H p21 p22 p23 p24 TABLE 3 Conditional probabilities of specific allele calls in the embryo given all possible parental states. Embryo readouts Expected truth types and conditional Parental state in probabilities matings the embryo U H U empty U × U U p11 p12 p13 p14 U × U H p21 p22 p23 p24 U × H 50% U, 50% H p31 p32 p33 p34 H × H 25% U, 25% U, p41 p42 p43 p44 50% H TABLE 4 Constraint Matrix (A). 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 −1 −.5 −.5 1 −.5 −.5 1 −.5 −.5 1 −.5 −.5 1 −.25 −.25 −.5 1 −.5 −.5 1 −.25 −.25 −.5 1 −.5 −.5 1 TABLE 5 Notation for the counts of observations of all specific embryonic allelic states given all possible parental states. Embryo readouts types and Parental Expected embryo observed counts matings truth state U H U Empty U × U U n11 n12 n13 n14 U × U H n21 n22 n23 n24 U × H 50% U, 50% H n31 n32 n33 n34 H × H 25% U, 25% U, n41 n42 n43 n44 50% H TABLE 6 Aneuploidy states (h) and corresponding P(hinj), the conditional probabilities given the copy numbers. N H P(hin) In Creneral 1 paternal monosomy 0.5 Ppm 1 maternal monosomy 0.5 Pmm 2 Disomy 1 1 3 paternal trisomy t1 0.5 * pt1 ppt * pt1 3 paternal trisomy t2 0.5 * pt2 ppt * pt2 3 maternal trisomy t1 0.5 * pm1 pmt * mt1 3 maternal trisomy t2 0.5 * pm2 pmt * mt2 TABLE 7 Probability of aneuploidy hypothesis (H) conditional on parent genotype. embryo allele counts (mother, father) genotype copy # nA nC hypothesis H AA, AA AA, AC AA, CC AC, AA AC, AC AC, CC CC, AA CC, AC CC, CC 1 1 0 father only 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 1 1 0 mother only 1 0.5 0 1 0.5 0 1 0.5 0 1 0 1 father only 0 0 0 0 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 0 1 mother only 0 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 1 0 0.5 1 2 2 0 disomy 1 0.5 0 0.5 0.25 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 disomy 0 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0 2 0 2 disomy 0 0 0 0 0.25 0.5 0 0.5 1 3 3 0 father t1 1 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 father t2 1 0.5 0 0.5 0.25 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 mother t1 1 0 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 0 mother t2 1 0.5 0 0.5 0.25 0 0 0 0 3 2 1 father t1 0 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 0 0 0 3 2 1 father t2 0 0.5 1 0 0.25 0.5 0 0 0 3 2 1 mother t1 0 1 0 0.5 0.5 0 1 0 0 3 2 1 mother t2 0 0 0 0.5 0.25 0 1 0.5 0 3 1 2 father t1 0 0 0 0 0.5 1 1 0.5 0 3 1 2 father t2 0 0 0 0.5 0.25 0 1 0.5 0 3 1 2 mother t1 0 0 1 0 0.5 0.5 0 1 0 3 1 2 mother t2 0 0.5 1 0 0.25 0.5 0 0 0 3 0 3 father t1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 1 3 0 3 father t2 0 0 0 0 0.25 0.5 0 0.5 1 3 0 3 mother t1 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 0 0 1 3 0 3 mother t2 0 0 0 0 0.25 0.5 0 0.5 1 TABLE 9 Aneuploidy calls on eight known euploid cells Chr # Cell 1 Cell 2 Cell 3 Cell 4 Cell 5 Cell 6 Cell 7 Cell 8 1 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 3 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 4 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 5 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 6 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 7 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 8 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 9 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 10 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 11 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 12 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 13 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 14 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 15 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 16 2 1.00000 2 0.99997 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 17 2 1.00000 2 0.99995 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 18 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 19 2 1.00000 2 0.99998 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 20 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 21 2 0.99993 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 22 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 0.99040 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 0.99992 X 2 0.99999 2 0.99994 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 TABLE 10 Aneuploidy calls on ten known trisomic cells Chr # Cell 1 Cell 2 Cell 3 Cell 4 Cell 5 Cell 6 Cell 7 Cell 8 Cell 9 Cell 10 1 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 3 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 4 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 5 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 6 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 7 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 0.92872 2 1.00000 8 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 9 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 10 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 11 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 12 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 13 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 14 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 15 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 0.99998 2 1.00000 16 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 0.99999 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 17 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 0.96781 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 18 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 19 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 0.99999 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 20 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 0.99997 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 21 — 1.00000 — 1.00000 — 1.00000 — 1.00000 — 1.00000 — 1.00000 — 1.00000 — 1.00000 — 1.00000 — 1.00000 22 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 23 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 TABLE 11 Aneuploidy calls for six blastomeres Chr # e1b1 e1b3 e1b6 e2b1 e2b2 e3b2 1 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 3 1.00000 2 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 3 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 2 0.99994 3 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 3 1.00000 4 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 3 1.00000 5 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 3 0.99964 6 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 3 1.00000 7 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 2 0.99866 8 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 3 0.99966 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 3 1.00000 9 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 3 0.99999 10 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 11 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 3 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 2 0.99931 12 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 13 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 3 0.98902 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 2 0.99969 14 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 0.99991 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 3 1.00000 15 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 0.99986 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 3 0.99999 16 2 1.00000 3 0.98609 2 0.74890 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 2 0.94126 17 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 0.97983 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 2 1.00000 18 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 2 0.98367 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 19 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 4 0.64546 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 3 1.00000 20 2 1.00000 2 1.00000 3 0.58327 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 2 0.95078 21 2 0.99952 2 1.00000 2 0.97594 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 0.99776 22 2 1.00000 2 0.98219 2 0.99217 1 1.00000 1 0.99989 2 1.00000 23 2 1.00000 3 1.00000 3 1.00000 1 1.00000 1 1.00000 3 0.99998 24 1 0.99122 1 0.99778 1 0.99999

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The system disclosed enables the cleaning of incomplete or noisy genetic data using secondary genetic data as a source of information, and also the determination of chromosome copy number using said genetic data. While the disclosure focuses on genetic data from human subjects, and more specifically on as-yet not implanted embryos or developing fetuses, as well as related individuals, it should be noted that the methods disclosed apply to the genetic data of a range of organisms, in a range of contexts. The techniques described for cleaning genetic data are most relevant in the context of pre-implantation diagnosis during in-vitro fertilization, prenatal diagnosis in conjunction with amniocentesis, chorion villus biopsy, fetal tissue sampling, and non-invasive prenatal diagnosis, where a small quantity of fetal genetic material is isolated from maternal blood. The use of this method may facilitate diagnoses focusing on inheritable diseases, chromosome copy number predictions, increased likelihoods of defects or abnormalities, as well as making predictions of susceptibility to various disease- and non-disease phenotypes for individuals to enhance clinical and lifestyle decisions. The invention addresses the shortcomings of prior art that are discussed above. In one aspect of the invention, methods make use of knowledge of the genetic data of the mother and the father such as diploid tissue samples, sperm from the father, haploid samples from the mother or other embryos derived from the mother's and father's gametes, together with the knowledge of the mechanism of meiosis and the imperfect measurement of the embryonic DNA, in order to reconstruct, in silico, the embryonic DNA at the location of key loci with a high degree of confidence. In one aspect of the invention, genetic data derived from other related individuals, such as other embryos, brothers and sisters, grandparents or other relatives can also be used to increase the fidelity of the reconstructed embryonic DNA. It is important to note that the parental and other secondary genetic data allows the reconstruction not only of SNPs that were measured poorly, but also of insertions, deletions, and of SNPs or whole regions of DNA that were not measured at all. In one aspect of the invention, the fetal or embryonic genomic data which has been reconstructed, with or without the use of genetic data from related individuals, can be used to detect if the cell is aneuploid, that is, where fewer or more than two of a particular chromosome is present in a cell. The reconstructed data can also be used to detect for uniparental disomy, a condition in which two of a given chromosome are present, both of which originate from one parent. This is done by creating a set of hypotheses about the potential states of the DNA, and testing to see which hypothesis has the highest probability of being true given the measured data. Note that the use of high throughput genotyping data for screening for aneuploidy enables a single blastomere from each embryo to be used both to measure multiple disease-linked loci as well as to screen for aneuploidy. In another aspect of the invention, the direct measurements of the amount of genetic material, amplified or unamplified, present at a plurality of loci, can be used to detect for monosomy, uniparental disomy, trisomy and other aneuploidy states. The idea behind this method is that measuring the amount of genetic material at multiple loci will give a statistically significant result. In another aspect of the invention, the measurements, direct or indirect, of a particular subset of SNPs, namely those loci where the parents are both homozygous but with different allele values, can be used to detect for chromosomal abnormalities by looking at the ratios of maternally versus paternally miscalled homozygous loci on the embryo. The idea behind this method is that those loci where each parent is homozygous, but have different alleles, by definition result in a heterozygous loci on the embryo. Allele drop outs at those loci are random, and a shift in the ratio of loci miscalled as homozygous can only be due to incorrect chromosome number. It will be recognized by a person of ordinary skill in the art, given the benefit of this disclosure, that various aspects and embodiments of this disclosure may implemented in combination or separately.

C12Q16876

20180126

20180607

70174.0

C12Q16876

BERTAGNA, ANGELA MARIE

SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR CLEANING NOISY GENETIC DATA AND DETERMINING CHROMOSOME COPY NUMBER

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

C12Q

ACCEPTED

Modular Display Panel

Embodiments of the present invention relate to modular display panels. In one embodiment, a modular display panel includes a printed circuit board, a shell, a plurality of LEDs, a power supply, and a heat conducting structure. The LEDs are attached to a first side of the printed circuit board. The shell contacts an opposite second side of the printed circuit board. The shell includes a back surface that includes an outer back surface of the panel. A driver circuit is disposed in the shell. The sidewalls of the shell include plastic. The printed circuit board is disposed between the power supply and the LEDs. The power supply includes a power converter for converting alternating current (AC) power to direct current (DC) power. The heat conducting structure is disposed between the power supply and the back surface of the shell. The modular display panel is sealed to be waterproof.

1. A modular display panel comprising: a printed circuit board having a first side and an opposite second side; a casing comprising a thermally conductive material, the casing being disposed at the opposite second side of the printed circuit board, wherein the casing contacts the opposite second side of the printed circuit board, wherein the casing comprises sidewalls and a back surface, wherein the back surface of the casing comprises an outer back surface of the panel, and wherein the sidewalls of the casing comprise plastic; a driver circuit disposed in the casing at the opposite second side of the printed circuit board, the driver circuit electrically coupled to the printed circuit board; a plurality of LEDs attached to the first side of the printed circuit board; a power supply for powering the plurality of LEDs, the printed circuit board being disposed between the power supply and the plurality of LEDs, wherein the power supply comprises a power converter for converting alternating current (AC) power to direct current (DC) power; a heat conducting structure disposed between the power supply and the back surface of the casing; a plurality of louvers attached to the first side of the printed circuit board; a potting material disposed at the first side of the printed circuit board; and wherein the modular display panel is sealed to be waterproof. 2. The panel of claim 1, wherein the heat conducting structure comprises the same material as the thermally conductive material. 3. The panel of claim 1, wherein the heat conducting structure comprises a different material than the thermally conductive material. 4. The panel of claim 1, wherein the power supply is housed in a power supply housing to form a power supply unit, wherein the power supply unit protrudes from the back surface of the casing along a direction opposite a display side of the panel, and wherein the power supply housing comprises the heat conducting structure. 5. The panel of claim 4, wherein the power supply housing comprises fins for extracting heat from the power supply. 6. The panel of claim 1, wherein the power supply is disposed inside a cage, wherein the cage comprises the heat conducting structure. 7. The panel of claim 1, wherein the potting material comprises a transparent material overlying the plurality of LEDs. 8. The panel of claim 1, wherein the modular display panel comprises an ingress protection (IP) rating of IP 65. 9. The panel of claim 1, wherein the modular display panel comprises an ingress protection (IP) rating of IP 66. 10. The panel of claim 1, wherein the modular display panel comprises an ingress protection (IP) rating of IP 67. 11. The panel of claim 1, wherein the modular display panel comprises an ingress protection (IP) rating of IP 68. 12. The panel of claim 1, wherein the thermally conductive material comprises a metal. 13. The panel of claim 12, wherein the metal comprises aluminum. 14. The panel of claim 1, wherein the thermally conductive material comprises plastic. 15. The panel of claim 1, wherein the casing comprises attachment points for use in attachment as part of a multi-panel modular display. 16. The panel of claim 1, wherein the panel has a height and a width, and wherein a ratio of the height to the width is 1:1 or 1:2. 17. A modular display panel comprising: a thermally conductive casing; a printed circuit board disposed in the thermally conductive casing; a plurality of LEDs attached to a first side of the printed circuit board; a plurality of louvers attached to the first side of the printed circuit board; a driver circuit electrically connected to the printed circuit board and disposed in the thermally conductive casing; and a power supply disposed at a second side of the printed circuit board, the second side being opposite the first side; wherein the panel is sealed to be waterproof with an ingress protection (IP) rating of IP 67 or IP 68; and wherein the modular display panel is configured to be modularly attached with other modular display panels to form a larger display area, and wherein the modular display panel is configured to be cooled passively and includes no air conditioning or fans. 18. The panel of claim 17, further comprising a heat sink, wherein the heat sink thermally contacts a surface of the thermally conductive casing. 19. The panel of claim 18, wherein the heat sink physically contacts a surface of the thermally conductive casing. 20. The panel of claim 17, wherein the plurality of louvers are attached with screws. 21. The panel of claim 17, further comprising a potting compound disposed at the first side of the printed circuit board. 22. The panel of claim 17, wherein the thermally conductive casing comprises a metal. 23. The panel of claim 17, wherein the thermally conductive casing comprises plastic. 24. The panel of claim 17, further comprising a housing of the power supply, wherein the power supply protrudes from an outer back side of the panel opposite a display side of the panel. 25. The panel of claim 24, wherein the housing of the power supply comprises fins for extracting heat from the power supply. 26. The panel of claim 17, wherein the panel has a height and a width, and wherein a ratio of the height to the width is 1:2. 27. A modular display panel comprising: a thermally conductive casing that comprises plastic sidewalls; means for emitting light; means for supporting the means for emitting light, the means for supporting attached to the thermally conductive casing; means for powering the means for emitting light; and means for protecting the means for emitting light, the means for protecting being disposed on a display side of the modular display panel, wherein the modular display panel is sealed to with an ingress protection (IP) rating of IP 67 or IP 68, and wherein the modular display panel is configured to be modularly attached with other modular display panels to form a larger display area, wherein the modular display panel comprises no means for active cooling. 28. The modular display panel of claim 27, further comprising means for passively cooling the means for powering. 29. The modular display panel of claim 27, further comprising means for housing the means for powering. 30. The panel of claim 29, wherein means for housing comprises means for extracting heat from the means for powering.

This application is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/369,304 filed on Dec. 5, 2016, which is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/162,439 filed on May 23, 2016, which is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/850,632 filed on Sep. 10, 2015, which is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/444,719 filed on Jul. 28, 2014. All of the above applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. U.S. application Ser. No. 14/444,719 claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/025,463, filed on Jul. 16, 2014 and also claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/922,631, filed on Dec. 31, 2013, which applications are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/328,624, filed Jul. 10, 2014, also claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/922,631 and is also incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The following patents and applications are related: U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/880,295, filed Jan. 25, 2018 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/866,294, filed Jan. 9, 2018 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/331,681, filed Oct. 21, 2016 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/341,678, filed Jul. 25, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,195,281) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/948,939, filed Nov. 23, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,535,650) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/396,102, filed Dec. 30, 2016 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,642,272) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/582,059, filed Apr. 28, 2017 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,832,897) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/802,241, filed Nov. 2, 2017 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/444,719, filed Jul. 28, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,134,773) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/850,632, filed Sep. 10, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,349,306) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/162,439, filed May 23, 2016 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,513,863) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/369,304, filed Dec. 5, 2016 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/444,775, filed Jul. 28, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,081,552) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/627,923, filed Feb. 20, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,131,600) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/829,469, filed Aug. 18, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,226,413) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/981,561, filed Dec. 28, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,372,659) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/444,747, filed Jul. 28, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,069,519) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/550,685, filed Nov. 21, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,582,237) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/641,130, filed Mar. 6, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,164,722) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/409,288, filed Jan. 18, 2017 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/582,908, filed Dec. 24, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,416,551) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/641,189, filed Mar. 6, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,528,283) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/390,277, filed Dec. 23, 2016 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/720,544, filed May 22, 2015 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/720,560, filed May 22, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,207,904) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/720,610, filed May 22, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,311,847) TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates generally to displays, and, in particular embodiments, to a system and method for a modular multi-panel display. BACKGROUND Large displays (e.g., billboards), such as those commonly used for advertising in cities and along roads, generally have one or more pictures and/or text that are to be displayed under various light and weather conditions. As technology has advanced and introduced new lighting devices such as the light emitting diode (LED), such advances have been applied to large displays. An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses an array of light-emitting diodes. A large display may be made of a single LED display or a panel of smaller LED panels. LED panels may be conventional panels made using discrete LEDs or surface-mounted device (SMD) panels. Most outdoor screens and some indoor screens are built around discrete LEDs, which are also known as individually mounted LEDs. A cluster of red, green, and blue diodes is driven together to form a full-color pixel, usually square in shape. These pixels are spaced evenly apart and are measured from center to center for absolute pixel resolution. SUMMARY Embodiments of the invention relate to lighting systems and, more particularly, to multi-panel lighting systems for providing interior or exterior displays. In one embodiment, a modular display panel comprises a casing having a recess. The casing comprises locking points for use in attachment to an adjacent casing of another modular display panel. A printed circuit board is disposed in the recess and a plurality of LEDs attached to the printed circuit board. A driver circuit is attached to the printed circuit board. A heat sink is disposed between a back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. A framework of louvers is disposed over the printed circuit board. The framework of louvers is disposed between rows of the LEDs. The framework of louvers is attached to the printed circuit board using an adhesive. In another embodiment, a modular multi-panel display system comprises a mechanical support structure, and a plurality of LED display panels mounted to the mechanical support structure so as to form an integrated display panel. Each LED display panel includes a casing having a recess. The casing comprises interlocking attachment points that are attached to an adjacent LED display panel. Each LED display panel also includes a printed circuit board disposed in the recess. A plurality of LED modules is attached to the printed circuit board. Each LED display panel also includes a heat sink disposed between a back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. Each LED display panel is hermetically sealed and exposed to the environment without use of any cabinets. The display system is cooled passively and includes no air conditioning, fans, or heating units. In yet another embodiment, a modular display panel comprises a plastic housing having a recess, and a printed circuit board disposed in the recess. A plurality of LEDs is attached to the printed circuit board. A transparent potting compound overlies the LEDs. A driver circuit is attached to the printed circuit board. A heat sink is disposed between a back side of the housing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the housing and the printed circuit board. A power supply is mounted outside the plastic housing. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding, reference is now made to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which: FIGS. 1A and 1B illustrate one embodiment of a display that may be provided according to the present disclosure; FIGS. 2A-2C illustrate one embodiment of a lighting panel that may be used with the display of FIGS. 1A and 1B; FIGS. 3A-3I illustrate one embodiment of a housing and an alignment plate that may be used with the panel of FIG. 2A; FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate a more detailed embodiment of the panel of FIG. 2A; FIG. 5 illustrates an alternative embodiment of the panel of FIG. 4A; FIGS. 6A and 6B illustrate a more detailed embodiment of the panel of FIG. 2A; FIG. 7 illustrates an alternative embodiment of the panel of FIG. 6A; FIGS. 8A-8M illustrate one embodiment of a frame that may be used with the display of FIGS. 1A and 1B; FIGS. 9A-9C illustrate one embodiment of a locking mechanism that may be used with the display of FIGS. 1A and 1B; FIGS. 10A-10D illustrate one embodiment of a display configuration; FIGS. 11A-11D illustrate another embodiment of a display configuration; FIGS. 12A-12D illustrate yet another embodiment of a display configuration; FIG. 13 illustrates a modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 illustrates a modular display panel attached to a supporting frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 15 illustrates a frame used to provide mechanical support to the modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 16A-16E illustrate an attachment plate used to attach one or more modular display panels to the frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 16A illustrates a projection view while FIG. 16B illustrates a top view and FIG. 16C illustrates a cross-sectional view of a first embodiment while FIG. 16D illustrates a bottom view and FIG. 16E illustrates a bottom view of a second embodiment; FIG. 17 illustrates a magnified view of the attachment plate or a connecting plate, frame, and display panel after mounting in accordance with embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 18 illustrates one unit of the modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 19 illustrates a magnified view of two display panels next to each other and connected through the cables such that the output cable of the left display panel is connected with the input cable of the next display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 20 illustrates a modular multi-panel display system comprising a plurality of LED display panels connected together using the afore-mentioned cables in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 21A-21C illustrate an alternative embodiment of the modular display panel attached to a supporting frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIGS. 21B and 21C illustrate alternative structural embodiments of the supporting frame; FIG. 22 illustrates a method of assembling a modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 23 illustrates a method of maintaining a modular multi-panel display that includes a mechanical support structure and a plurality of LED display panels detachably coupled to the mechanical support structure without a cabinet in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 24A-24C illustrate a display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 24A illustrates a cross-sectional view of a display panel while FIG. 24B illustrates a schematic of the display panel, and wherein FIG. 24C illustrates a schematic of the LED array as controlled by the receiver circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 25A-25D illustrate a display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 25A illustrates a projection view of the back side of the display panel, FIG. 25B illustrates a planar back side of the display panel, and FIG. 25C illustrates a planar bottom view while FIG. 25D illustrates a side view; FIG. 26 illustrates a planar view of a portion of the front side of the display panel in according with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 27A-27C illustrate cross-sectional views of the framework of louvers at the front side of the display panel in according with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 27 illustrates a cross-sectional along a direction perpendicular to the orientation of the plurality of ridges 1632 along the line 27-27 in FIG. 26; FIG. 28 illustrates a plurality of display panels arranged next to each other in accordance with embodiments of the present invention; FIGS. 29A-29D illustrates a schematic of a control system for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 29A illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wired network connection, wherein FIG. 29B illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wireless network connection, wherein FIGS. 29C and 29D illustrate the power transmission scheme used in powering the modular multi-panel display system; FIG. 30 illustrates a schematic of a sending card of the control system for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 31 illustrates a schematic of a data receiver box for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 32 illustrates a method of assembling a modular multi-panel display in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 33 illustrates a cross-sectional view of an integrated data and power cord in accordance with embodiments; FIGS. 34A and 34B illustrate cross-sectional views of connectors at the ends of the integrated data and power cable in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, wherein FIG. 34A illustrates a first connector that is configured to fit or lock into a second connector illustrated in FIG. 34B; FIGS. 35A and 35B illustrate cross-sectional views showing the first connector locked with the second connector in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, wherein FIG. 35A illustrates the first connector aligned to the second connector, while FIG. 35B illustrates the first connector securely locked to the second connector with the sealing cover sealing the connectors; FIGS. 36A and 36B illustrate one embodiment of the first connector previously illustrated in FIG. 34A and FIGS. 35A and 35B, wherein FIG. 36A illustrates a planar top view while FIG. 36B illustrates a projection view; FIGS. 37A and 37B illustrate one embodiment of the second connector previously illustrated in FIG. 34B and FIGS. 35A and 35B, wherein FIG. 37A illustrates a planar top view while FIG. 37B illustrates a projection view; FIGS. 38A-38D illustrate specific examples of an assembled display system; FIG. 38E illustrates a specific example of a frame that can be used with the system of FIGS. 38A-38D; FIG. 39 illustrates an assembled multi-panel display that is ready for shipment; and FIGS. 40A and 40B illustrate a lower cost panel that can be used with embodiments of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS In the following discussion, exterior displays are used herein for purposes of example. It is understood that the present disclosure may be applied to lighting for any type of interior and/or exterior display. Embodiments of the invention provide display panels, each of which provides a completely self-contained building block that is lightweight. These displays are designed to protect against weather, without a heavy cabinet. The panel can be constructed of aluminum or plastic so that it will about 50% lighter than typical panels that are commercially available. The lightweight design allows for easier installation and maintenance, thus lowering total cost of ownership. In certain embodiments, the display is IP 67 rated and therefore waterproof and corrosion resistant. Because weather is the number one culprit for damage to LED displays, and IP 67 rating provides weatherproofing with significant weather protection. These panels are completely waterproof against submersion in up to 3 feet of water. In other embodiments, the equipment can be designed with an IP 68 rating to operate completely underwater. In lower-cost embodiments where weatherproofing is not as significant, the panels can have an IP 65 or IP 66 rating. One aspect takes advantage of a no cabinet design-new technology that replaces cabinets, which are necessary in commercial embodiments. Older technology incorporates the use of cabinets in order to protect the LED display electronics from rain. This creates an innate problem in that the cabinet must not allow rain to get inside to the electronics, while at the same time the cabinet must allow for heat created by the electronics and ambient heat to escape. Embodiments that do not use this cabinet technology avoid a multitude of problems inherent to cabinet-designed displays. One of the problems that has been solved is the need to effectively cool the LED display. Most LED manufacturers must use air-conditioning (HVAC) to keep their displays cool. This technology greatly increases the cost of installation and performance. Displays of the present invention can be designed to be light weight and easy to handle. For example, the average total weight of a 20 mm, 14′×48′ panel can be 5,500 pounds or less while typical commercially available panels are at 10,000 to 12,000 pounds. These units are more maneuverable and easier to install saving time and money in the process. Embodiments of the invention provide building block panels that are configurable with future expandability. These displays can offer complete expandability to upgrade in the future without having to replace the entire display. Installation is fast and easy with very little down-time, which allows any electronic message to be presented more quickly. In some embodiments, the display panels are “hot swappable.” By removing one screw in each of the four corners of the panel, servicing the display is fast and easy. Since a highly-trained, highly-paid electrician or LED technician is not needed to correct a problem, cost benefits can be achieved. Various embodiments utilize enhanced pixel technology (EPT), which increases image capability. EPT allows image displays in the physical pitch spacing, but also has the ability to display the image in a resolution that is four-times greater. Images will be as sharp and crisp when viewed close as when viewed from a distance, and at angles. In some embodiments it is advantageous to build multipanel displays where each of the LEDs is provided by a single LED manufacturer, so that diodes of different origin in the manufacture are not mixed. It has been discovered that diode consistency can aid in the quality of the visual image. While this feature is not necessary, it is helpful because displays made from different diodes from different suppliers can create patchy inconsistent color, e.g., “pink” reds and pink looking casts to the overall image. Referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B, one embodiment of a multi-panel display loo is illustrated. The display loo includes a display surface 102 that is formed by multiple lighting panels 104a-104t. In the present embodiment, the panels 104a-104t use light emitting diodes (LEDs) for illumination, but it is understood that other light sources may be used in other embodiments. The panels 104a-104t typically operate together to form a single image, although multiple images may be simultaneously presented by the display 100. In the present example, the panels 104a-104t are individually attached to a frame 106, which enables each panel to be installed or removed from the frame 106 without affecting the other panels. Each panel 104a-104t is a self-contained unit that couples directly to the frame 106. By “directly,” it is understood that another component or components may be positioned between the panel 104a-104t and the frame 106, but the panel is not placed inside a cabinet that is coupled to the frame 106. For example, an alignment plate (described later but not shown in the present figure) may be coupled to a panel and/or the frame 106 to aid in aligning a panel with other panels. Further a corner plate could be used. The panel may then be coupled to the frame 106 or the alignment plate and/or corner plate, and either coupling approach would be “direct” according to the present disclosure. Two or more panels 104a-104t can be coupled for power and/or data purposes, with a panel 104a-104t receiving power and/or data from a central source or another panel and passing through at least some of the power and/or data to one or more other panels. This further improves the modular aspect of the display 100, as a single panel 104a-104t can be easily connected to the display 100 when being installed and easily disconnected when being removed by decoupling the power and data connections from neighboring panels. The power and data connections for the panels 104a-104t may be configured using one or more layouts, such as a ring, mesh, star, bus, tree, line, or fully-connected layout, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments the LED panels 104a-104t may be in a single network, while in other embodiments the LED panels 104a-104t may be divided into multiple networks. Power and data may be distributed using identical or different layouts. For example, power may be distributed in a line layout, while data may use a combination of line and star layouts. The frame 106 may be relatively light in weight compared to frames needed to support cabinet mounted LED assemblies. In the present example, the frame 106 includes only a top horizontal member 108, a bottom horizontal member no, a left vertical member 112, a right vertical member 114, and intermediate vertical members 116. Power cables and data cables (not shown) for the panels 104a-104t may route around and/or through the frame 106. In one example, the display 100 includes 336 panels 104a-104t, e.g., to create a 14′×48′ display. As will be discussed below, because each panel is lighter than typical panels, the entire display could be built to weigh only 5500 pounds. This compares favorably to commercially available displays of the size, which generally weigh from 10,000 to 12,000 pounds. Referring to FIGS. 2A-2C, one embodiment of an LED panel 200 is illustrated that may be used as one of the LED panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B. FIG. 2A illustrates a front view of the panel 200 with LEDs aligned in a 16×32 configuration. FIG. 2B illustrates a diagram of internal components within the panel 200. FIG. 2C illustrates one possible configuration of a power supply positioned within the panel 200 relative to a back plate of the panel 200. Referring specifically to FIG. 2A, in the present example, the LED panel 200 includes a substrate 202 that forms a front surface of the panel 200. The substrate 202 in the present embodiment is rectangular in shape, with a top edge 204, a bottom edge 206, a right edge 208, and a left edge 210. A substrate surface 212 includes “pixels” 214 that are formed by one or more LEDs 216 on or within the substrate 202. In the present example, each pixel 214 includes four LEDs 216 arranged in a pattern (e.g., a square). For example, the four LEDs 216 that form a pixel 214 may include a red LED, a green LED, a blue LED, and one other LED (e.g., a white LED). In some embodiments, the other LED may be a sensor. It is understood that more or fewer LEDs 216 may be used to form a single pixel 214, and the use of four LEDs 216 and their relative positioning as a square is for purposes of illustration only. In some embodiments, the substrate 202 may form the entire front surface of the panel 200, with no other part of the panel 200 being visible from the front when the substrate 202 is in place. In other embodiments, a housing 220 (FIG. 2B) may be partially visible at one or more of the edges of the substrate 202. The substrate 202 may form the front surface of the panel 200, but may not be the outer surface in some embodiments. For example, a transparent or translucent material or coating may overlay the substrate 202 and the LEDs 216, thereby being positioned between the substrate 202/LEDs 216 and the environment. As one example, a potting material can be formed over the LEDs 216. This material can be applied as a liquid, e.g., while heated, and then harden over the surface, e.g., when cooled. This potting material is useful for environmental protection, e.g., to achieve an IP rating of IP 65 or higher. Louvers 218 may be positioned above each row of pixels 214 to block or minimize light from directly striking the LEDs 216 from certain angles. For example, the louvers 218 may be configured to extend from the substrate 202 to a particular distance and/or at a particular angle needed to completely shade each pixel 214 when a light source (e.g., the sun) is at a certain position (e.g., ten degrees off vertical). In the present example, the louvers 208 extend the entire length of the substrate 202, but it is understood that other louver configurations may be used. Referring specifically to FIG. 2B, one embodiment of the panel 200 illustrates a housing 220. The housing 220 contains circuitry 222 and a power supply 224. The circuitry 222 is coupled to the LEDs 216 and is used to control the LEDs. The power supply 224 provides power to the LEDs 216 and circuitry 222. As will be described later in greater detail with respect to two embodiments of the panel 200, data and/or power may be received for only the panel 200 or may be passed on to one or more other panels as well. Accordingly, the circuitry 222 and/or power supply 224 may be configured to pass data and/or power to other panels in some embodiments. In the present example, the housing 220 is sealed to prevent water from entering the housing. For example, the housing 220 may be sealed to have an ingress protection (IP) rating such as IP 67, which defines a level of protection against both solid particles and liquid. This ensures that the panel 200 can be mounted in inclement weather situations without being adversely affected. In such embodiments, the cooling is passive as there are no vent openings for air intakes or exhausts. In other embodiments, the housing may be sealed to have an IP rating of IP 65 or higher, e.g. IP 65, IP 66, IP 67, or IP 68. Referring specifically to FIG. 2C, one embodiment of the panel 200 illustrates how the power supply 224 may be thermally coupled to the housing 220 via a thermally conductive material 226 (e.g., aluminum). This configuration may be particularly relevant in embodiments where the panel 200 is sealed and cooling is passive. Referring to FIGS. 3A-3I, one embodiment of a housing 300 is illustrated that may be used with one of the LED panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B. For example, the housing 300 may be a more specific example of the housing 220 of FIG. 2B. In FIGS. 3B-3I, the housing 300 is shown with an alignment plate, which may be separate from the housing 300 or formed as part of the housing 300. In the present example, the housing 300 may be made of a thermally conductive material (e.g., aluminum) that is relatively light weight and rigid. In other embodiments, the housing 300 could be made out of industrial plastic, which is even lighter than aluminum. As shown in the orthogonal view of FIG. 3A, the housing 300 defines a cavity 302. Structural cross-members 304 and 306 may be used to provide support to a substrate (e.g., the substrate 202 of FIG. 2A) (not shown). The cross-members 304 and 306, as well as other areas of the housing 300, may include supports 308 against which the substrate can rest when placed into position. As shown, the supports 308 may include a relatively narrow tip section that can be inserted into a receiving hole in the back of the substrate and then a wider section against which the substrate can rest. The housing 300 may also include multiple extensions 310 (e.g., sleeves) that provide screw holes or locations for captive screws that can be used to couple the substrate to the housing 300. Other extensions 312 may be configured to receive pins or other protrusions from a locking plate and/or fasteners, which will be described later in greater detail. Some or all of the extensions 312 may be accessible only from the rear side of the housing 300 and so are not shown as openings in FIG. 3A. As shown in FIG. 3B, an alignment plate 314 may be used with the housing 300. The alignment plate is optional. The alignment plate 314, when used, aids in aligning multiple panels on the frame 106 to ensure that the resulting display surface has correctly aligned pixels both horizontally and vertically. To accomplish this, the alignment plate 314 includes tabs 316 and slots 318 (FIG. 3F). Each tab 316 fits into the slot 318 of an adjoining alignment plate (if present) and each slot 318 receives a tab from an adjoining alignment plate (if present). This provides an interlocking series of alignment plates. As each alignment plate 314 is coupled to or part of a housing 300, this results in correctly aligning the panels on the frame 106. It is understood that, in some embodiments, the alignment plate 314 may be formed as part of the panel or the alignment functionality provided by the alignment plate 314 may be achieved in other ways. In still other embodiments, a single alignment panel 314 may be formed to receive multiple panels, rather than a single panel as shown in FIG. 3B. In other embodiments, the alignment functionality is eliminated. The design choice of whether to use alignment mechanisms (e.g., slots and grooves) is based upon a tradeoff between the additional alignment capability and the ease of assembly. As shown in FIG. 3C, the housing 300 may include beveled or otherwise non-squared edges 320. This shaping of the edges enables panels to be positioned in a curved display without having large gaps appear as would occur if the edges were squared. Referring to FIGS. 4A and 4B, one embodiment of a panel 400 is illustrated that may be similar or identical to one of the LED panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B. The panel 400 may be based on a housing 401 that is similar or identical to the housing 300 of FIG. 3A. FIG. 4A illustrates a back view of the panel 400 and FIG. 4B illustrates a top view. The panel 400 has a width W and a height H. In the present example, the back includes a number of connection points that include a “power in” point 402, a “data in” point 404, a main “data out” point 406, multiple slave data points 408, and a “power out” point 410. As will be discussed below, one embodiment of the invention provides for an integrated data and power cable, which reduces the number of ports. The power in point 402 enables the panel 400 to receive power from a power source, which may be another panel. The data in point 404 enables the panel to receive data from a data source, which may be another panel. The main data out point 406 enables the panel 400 to send data to another main panel. The multiple slave data points 408, which are bi-directional in this example, enable the panel 400 to send data to one or more slave panels and to receive data from those slave panels. In some embodiments, the main data out point 406 and the slave data out points 408 may be combined. The power out point 410 enables the panel 400 to send power to another panel. The connection points may be provided in various ways. For example, in one embodiment, the connection points may be jacks configured to receive corresponding plugs. In another embodiment, a cable may extend from the back panel with a connector (e.g., a jack or plug) affixed to the external end of the cable to provide an interface for another connector. It is understood that the connection points may be positioned and organized in many different ways. Inside the panel, the power in point 402 and power out point 410 may be coupled to circuitry (not shown) as well as to a power supply. For example, the power in point 402 and power out point 410 may be coupled to the circuitry 222 of FIG. 2B, as well as to the power supply 224. In such embodiments, the circuitry 222 may aid in regulating the reception and transmission of power. In other embodiments, the power in point 402 and power out point 410 may by coupled only to the power supply 224 with a pass through power connection allowing some of the received power to be passed from the power in point 402 to the power out point 410. The data in point 404, main data out point 406, and slave data out points 408 may be coupled to the circuitry 222. The circuitry 222 may aid in regulating the reception and transmission of the data. In some embodiments, the circuitry 222 may identify data used for the panel 400 and also send all data on to other coupled main and slave panels via the main data out point 406 and slave data out points 408, respectively. In such embodiments, the other main and slave panels would then identify the information relevant to that particular panel from the data. In other embodiments, the circuitry 222 may remove the data needed for the panel 400 and selectively send data on to other coupled main and slave panels via the main data out point 406 and slave data out points 408, respectively. For example, the circuitry 222 may send only data corresponding to a particular slave panel to that slave panel rather than sending all data and letting the slave panel identify the corresponding data. The back panel also has coupling points 412 and 414. In the example where the housing is supplied by the housing 300 of FIG. 3A, the coupling points 412 and 414 may correspond to extensions 310 and 312, respectively. Referring specifically to FIG. 4B, a top view of the panel 400 illustrates three sections of the housing 401. The first section 416 includes the LEDs (not shown) and louvers 418. The second section 420 and third section 422 may be used to house the circuitry 222 and power supply 224. In the present example, the third section 422 is an extended section that may exist on main panels, but not slave panels, due to extra components needed by a main panel to distribute data. Depths D1, D2, and D3 correspond to sections 416, 420, and 422, respectively. Referring to FIG. 5, one embodiment of a panel 500 is illustrated that may be similar or identical to the panel 400 of FIG. 4A with the exception of a change in the slave data points 408. In the embodiment of FIG. 4A, the slave data points 408 are bi-directional connection points. In the present embodiment, separate slave “data in” points 502 and slave “data out” points 504 are provided. In other embodiments, the data points can be directional connection points. Referring to FIGS. 6A and 6B, one embodiment of a panel 600 is illustrated that may be similar or identical to the panel 400 of FIG. 4A except that the panel 600 is a slave panel. FIG. 6A illustrates a back view of the panel 600 and FIG. 6B illustrates a top view. The panel 600 has a width W and a height H. In the present embodiment, these are identical to the width W and height H of the panel 400 of FIG. 4A. In one example, the width W can be between 1 and 4 feet and the height H can be between 0.5 and 4 feet, for example 1 foot by 2 feet. Of course, the invention is not limited to these specific dimensions. In contrast to the main panel of FIG. 4A, the back of the slave panel 600 has a more limited number of connection points that include a “power in” point 602, a data point 604, and a “power out” point 606. The power in point 602 enables the panel 600 to receive power from a power source, which may be another panel. The data point 604 enables the panel to receive data from a data source, which may be another panel. The power out point 606 enables the panel 600 to send power to another main panel. In the present example, the data point 604 is bi-directional, which corresponds to the main panel configuration illustrated in FIG. 4A. The back panel also has coupling points 608 and 610, which correspond to coupling points 412 and 414, respectively, of FIG. 4A. As discussed above, other embodiments use directional data connections. Referring specifically to FIG. 6B, a top view of the panel 600 illustrates two sections of the housing 601. The first section 612 includes the LEDs (not shown) and louvers 614. The second section 616 may be used to house the circuitry 222 and power supply 224. In the present example, the extended section provided by the third section 422 of FIG. 4A is not needed as the panel 600 does not pass data on to other panels. Depths D1 and D2 correspond to sections 612 and 616, respectively. In the present embodiment, depths D1 and D2 are identical to depths D1 and D2 of the panel 400 of FIG. 4B. In one example, the depth D1 can be between 1 and 4 inches and the depths D2 can be between 1 and 4 inches. It is noted that the similarity in size of the panels 400 of FIG. 4A and the panel 600 of FIG. 6A enables the panels to be interchanged as needed. More specifically, as main panels and slave panels have an identical footprint in terms of height H, width W, and depth D1, their position on the frame 106 of FIGS. 1A and 1B does not matter from a size standpoint, but only from a functionality standpoint. Accordingly, the display 100 can be designed as desired using main panels and slave panels without the need to be concerned with how a particular panel will physically fit into a position on the frame. The design may then focus on issues such as the required functionality (e.g., whether a main panel is needed or a slave panel is sufficient) for a particular position and/or other issues such as weight and cost. In some embodiments, the main panel 400 of FIG. 4A may weigh more than the slave panel 600 due to the additional components present in the main panel 400. The additional components may also make the main panel 400 more expensive to produce than the slave panel 600. Therefore, a display that uses as many slave panels as possible while still meeting required criteria will generally cost less and weigh less than a display that uses more main panels. Referring to FIG. 7, one embodiment of a panel 700 is illustrated that may be similar or identical to the panel boo of FIG. 6A with the exception of a change in the data point 604. In the embodiment of FIG. 6A, the data point 604 is a bi-directional connection. In the present embodiment, a separate “data out” point 702 and a “data in” point 704 are provided, which corresponds to the main panel configuration illustrated in FIG. 5. Referring to FIGS. 8A-8M, embodiments of a frame 800 are illustrated. For example, the frame 800 may provide a more detailed embodiment of the frame 106 of FIG. 1B. As described previously, LED panels, such as the panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B, may be mounted directly to the frame 800. Accordingly, the frame 800 does not need to be designed to support heavy cabinets, but need only be able to support the panels 104a-104t and associated cabling (e.g., power and data cables), and the frame 800 may be lighter than conventional frames that have to support cabinet based structures. For purposes of example, various references may be made to the panel 200 of FIG. 2A, the housing 300 of FIG. 3A, and the panel 400 of FIG. 4A. In the present example, the frame 800 is designed to support LED panels 802 in a configuration that is ten panels high and thirty-two panels wide. While the size of the panels 802 may vary, in the current embodiment this provides a display surface that is approximately fifty feet and four inches wide (50′ 4″) and fifteen feet and eight and three-quarters inches high (15′ 8.75″). It is understood that all measurements and materials described with respect to FIGS. 8A-8M are for purposes of example only and are not intended to be limiting. Accordingly, many different lengths, heights, thicknesses, and other dimensional and/or material changes may be made to the embodiments of FIGS. 8A-8M. Referring specifically to FIG. 8B, a back view of the frame 800 is illustrated. The frame 800 includes a top bar 804, a bottom bar 806, a left bar 808, a right bar 810, and multiple vertical bars 812 that connect the top bar 804 and bottom bar 806. In some embodiments, additional horizontal bars 814 may be present. The frame 800 may be constructed of various materials, including metals. For example, the top bar 804, the bottom bar 806, the left bar 808, and the right bar 810 (e.g., the perimeter bars) may be made using a four inch aluminum association standard channel capable of bearing 1.738 lb/ft. The vertical bars 812 may be made using 2″×4″×½″ aluminum tube capable of bearing a load of 3.23 lb/ft. it is understood that other embodiments will utilize other size components. It is understood that these sizes and load bearing capacities are for purposes of illustration and are not intended to be limiting. However, conventional steel display frames needed to support conventional cabinet-based displays are typically much heavier than the frame 800, which would likely not be strong enough to support a traditional cabinet-based display. For example, the frame 800 combined with the panels described herein may weigh at least fifty percent less than equivalent steel cabinet-based displays. Referring to FIG. 8C, a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8B taken along lines A1-A1 is illustrated. The horizontal bars 810 are more clearly visible. More detailed views of FIG. 8C are described below. Referring to FIG. 8D, a more detailed view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C at location Bi is illustrated. The cutaway view shows the top bar 804 and a vertical bar 812. A first flat bar 816 may be used with multiple fasteners 818 to couple the top bar 804 to the vertical bar 812 at the back of the frame 800. A second flat bar 820 may be used with fasteners 821 to couple the top bar 804 to the vertical bar 812 at the front of the frame 800. A front plate 902 belonging to a coupling mechanism 900 (described below with respect to FIG. 9A) is illustrated. The second flat bar 820 may replace a back plate of the coupling mechanism 900. In embodiments where the second flat bar 820 replaces the back plate, the second flat bar 820 may include one or more holes to provide accessibility to fasteners of the coupling mechanism 900. Referring to FIGS. 8E-8G, various more detailed views of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C are illustrated. FIG. 8E provides a more detailed view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C at location B2. FIG. 8F provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8E taken along lines C1-C1. FIG. 8G provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8E taken along lines C2-C2. A clip 822 may be coupled to a vertical bar 812 via one or more fasteners 824 and to the horizontal bar 814 via one or more fasteners 824. In the present example, the clip 822 is positioned above the horizontal bar 814, but it is understood that the clip 822 may be positioned below the horizontal bar 814 in other embodiments. In still other embodiments, the clip 822 may be placed partially inside the horizontal bar 814 (e.g., a portion of the clip 822 may be placed through a slot or other opening in the horizontal bar 814). Referring to FIGS. 8H and 8I, various more detailed views of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C are illustrated. FIG. 8H provides a more detailed view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C at location B3. FIG. 8I provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8H taken along lines D1-D1. The cutaway view shows the bottom bar 806 and a vertical bar 812. A first flat bar 826 may be used with multiple fasteners 828 to couple the bottom bar 806 to the vertical bar 812 at the back of the frame 800. A second flat bar 830 may be used with fasteners 832 to couple the bottom bar 806 to the vertical bar 812 at the front of the frame 800. A front plate 902 belonging to a coupling mechanism 900 (described below with respect to FIG. 9A) is illustrated. The second flat bar 830 may replace a back plate of the coupling mechanism 900. In embodiments where the second flat bar 830 replaces the back plate, the second flat bar 830 may include one or more holes to provide accessibility to fasteners of the coupling mechanism 900. Referring to FIGS. 8J and 8K, various more detailed views of the frame 800 of FIG. 8A are illustrated. FIG. 8H provides a more detailed view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8B at location A2. FIG. 8K provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8J taken along lines E1-E1. The two views show the bottom bar 806 and the left bar 808. A clip 834 may be used with multiple fasteners 836 to couple the bottom bar 806 to the left bar 808 at the corner of the frame 800. Referring to FIGS. 8L and 8M, an alternative embodiment to FIG. 8E is illustrated. FIG. 8L provides a more detailed view of the frame 800 in the alternate embodiment. FIG. 8M provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8L taken along lines F1-F1. In this embodiment, rather than using a horizontal bar 814, a vertical bar 812 is coupled directly to a beam 840 using a clip 838. Referring to FIGS. 9A-9C, one embodiment of a coupling mechanism 900 is illustrated that may be used to attach an LED panel (e.g., one of the panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B) to a frame (e.g., the frame 106 or the frame 800 of FIGS. 8A and 8B). For purposes of example, the coupling mechanism 900 is described as attaching the panel 200 of FIG. 2A to the frame 800 of FIG. 8B. In the present example, a single coupling mechanism 900 may attach up to four panels to the frame 800. To accomplish this, the coupling mechanism 900 is positioned where the corners of four panels meet. The coupling mechanism 900 includes a front plate 902 and a back plate 904. The front plate 902 has an outer surface 906 that faces the back of a panel and an inner surface 908 that faces the frame 106. The front plate 902 may include a center hole 910 and holes 912. The center hole 910 may be countersunk relative to the outer surface 906 to allow a bolt head to sit at or below the outer surface 906. Mounting pins 914 may extend from the outer surface 906. The back plate 904 has an outer surface 916 that faces away from the frame 106 and an inner surface 918 that faces the frame 106. The back plate 904 includes a center hole 920 and holes 922. In operation, the front plate 902 and back plate 904 are mounted on opposite sides of one of the vertical bars 808, 810, or 812 with the front plate 902 mounted on the panel side of the frame 800 and the back plate 904 mounted on the back side of the frame 800. For purposes of example, a vertical bar 812 will be used. When mounted in this manner, the inner surface 908 of the front plate 902 and the inner surface 918 of the back plate 904 face one another. A fastener (e.g., a bolt) may be placed through the center hole 910 of the front plate 902, through a hole in the vertical bar 812 of the frame 800, and through the center hole 920 of the back plate 904. This secures the front plate 902 and back plate 904 to the frame 800 with the mounting pins 914 extending away from the frame. Using the housing 300 of FIG. 3A as an example, a panel is aligned on the frame 800 by inserting the appropriate mounting pin 914 into one of the holes in the back of the housing 300 provided by an extension 310/312. It is understood that this occurs at each corner of the panel, so that the panel will be aligned with the frame 800 using four mounting pins 914 that correspond to four different coupling mechanisms 900. It is noted that the pins 914 illustrated in FIG. 9C are horizontally aligned with the holes 912, while the extensions illustrated in FIG. 3A are vertically aligned. As described previously, these are alternate embodiments and it is understood that the holes 912/pins 914 and extensions 310/312 should have a matching orientation and spacing. Once in position, a fastener is inserted through the hole 922 of the back plate 904, through the corresponding hole 912 of the front plate 902, and into a threaded hole provided by an extension 310/312 in the panel 300. This secures the panel to the frame 800. It is understood that this occurs at each corner of the panel, so that the panel will be secured to the frame 800 using four different coupling mechanisms 900. Accordingly, to attach or remove a panel, only four fasteners need be manipulated. The coupling mechanism 900 can remain in place to support up to three other panels. In other embodiments, the front plate 902 is not needed. For example, in displays that are lighter in weight the back of the panel can abut directly with the beam. In other embodiments, the center hole 920 and corresponding bolt are not necessary. In other words the entire connection is made by the screws through the plate 904 into the panel. The embodiment illustrated here shows a connection from the back of the display. In certain applications, access to the back of the panels is not available. For example, the display may be mounted directly on a building without a catwalk or other access. In this case, the holes in the panel can extend all the way through the panel with the bolts being applied through the panel and secured on the back. This is the opposite direction of what is shown in FIG. 9C. More precise alignment may be provided by using an alignment plate, such as the alignment plate 314 of FIG. 3B, with each panel. For example, while positioning the panel and prior to tightening the coupling mechanism 900, the tabs 316 of the alignment plate 314 for that panel may be inserted into slots 318 in surrounding alignment plates. The coupling mechanism 900 may then be tightened to secure the panel into place. It is understood that many different configurations may be used for the coupling mechanism 400. For example, the locations of holes and/or pins may be moved, more or fewer holes and/or pins may be provided, and other modifications may be made. It is further understood that many different coupling mechanisms may be used to attach a panel to the frame 106. Such coupling mechanisms may use bolts, screws, latches, clips, and/or any other fastener suitable for removably attaching a panel to the frame 800. FIG. 10A illustrates the power connections, FIG. 10B illustrates data connections, FIG. 10C illustrates power connections, and FIG. 10D illustrates data connections. Referring to FIGS. 10A and 10B, one embodiment of a 13×22 panel display 1000 is illustrated that includes two hundred and eighty-six panels arranged in thirteen rows and twenty-two columns. For purposes of example, the display woo uses the previously described main panel 400 of FIG. 4A (a ‘B’ panel) and the slave panel boo of FIG. 6A (a ‘C’ panel). As described previously, these panels have a bi-directional input/output connection point for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels. The rows are divided into two sections with the top section having seven rows and the bottom section having six rows. The B panels form the fourth row of each section and the remaining rows are C panels. FIGS. 10C and 10D provide enlarged views of a portion of FIGS. 10A and 10B, respectively. As illustrated in FIG. 10A, power (e.g., 220V single phase) is provided to the top section via seven breakers (e.g., twenty amp breakers), with a breaker assigned to each of the seven rows. Power is provided to the bottom section via six breakers, with a breaker assigned to each of the six rows. In the present example, the power is provided in a serial manner along a row, with power provided to the first column panel via the power source, to the second column panel via the first panel, to the third column panel via the second panel, and so on for the entire row. Accordingly, if a panel is removed or the power for a panel is unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the row will lose power. As illustrated in FIG. 10B, data is sent from a data source 1002 (e.g., a computer) to the top section via one line and to the bottom section via another line. In some embodiments, as illustrated, the data lines may be connected to provide a loop. In the present example, the data is provided to the B panels that form the fourth row of each section. The B panels in the fourth row feed the data both vertically along the column and in a serial manner along the row. For example, the B panel at row four, column two (r4:c2), sends data to the C panels in rows one, two, three, five, six, and seven of column two (r1-3:c2 and r5-7:c2), as well as to the B panel at row four, column three (r4:c3). Accordingly, if a B panel in row four is removed or the data cables are unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the column fed by that panel will lose their data connection. The next columns will also lose their data connections unless the loop allows data to reach them in the opposite direction. It is understood that the data lines may be bi-directional. In some embodiments, an input line and an output line may be provided, rather than a single bi-directional line as illustrated in FIGS. 10A and 10B. In such embodiments, the panels may be configured with additional input and/or output connections. An example of this is provided below in FIGS. 11A and 11B. Referring to FIG. 11A and 11B, one embodiment of a 16×18 panel display 1100 is illustrated that includes two hundred and eighty-eight panels arranged in sixteen rows and eighteen columns. Each power line connects to a single 110V 20 amp breaker. All external power cables are 14 AWG SOW UL while internal power cables must be 14 AWG UL. For purposes of example, the display 1100 uses the previously described main panel 500 of FIG. 5 (a ‘B’ panel) and the slave panel 700 of FIG. 7 (a ‘C’ panel). As described previously, these panels have separate input and output connection points for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels. FIGS. 11C and 11D provide enlarged views of a portion of FIG. 11A and 11B, respectively. As illustrated in FIG. 11A, power is provided from a power source directly to the first column panel and the tenth column panel of each row via a power line connected to a single 110V, 20 A breaker. Those panels then feed the power along the rows in a serial manner. For example, the power is provided to the first column panel via the power source, to the second column panel via the first panel, to the third column panel via the second panel, and so on until the ninth column panel is reached for that row. The ninth column panel does not feed power to another panel because power is provided directly to the tenth column panel via the power source. Power is then provided to the eleventh column panel via the tenth panel, to the twelfth column panel via the eleventh panel, and so on until the end of the row is reached. Accordingly, if a panel is removed or the power for a panel is unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the row that rely on that panel for power will lose power. Although not shown in FIG. 11B, the panels of the display 1100 may be divided into two sections for data purposes as illustrated previously with respect to FIG. 10B. Accordingly, as illustrated in FIG. 10B, data may be sent from a data source (e.g., a computer) to a top section via one line and to a bottom section via another line. As the present example illustrates the use of separate input and output connection points for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels, data connections between B panels have been omitted for purposes of clarity. In the present example, the data is provided to the B panels that form the fourth row of each section. The B panels in the fourth row feed the data both vertically along the column and in a serial manner along the row (as shown in FIG. 10B). For example, the B panel at row four, column two (r4:c2), sends data to the C panels in rows one, two, three, five, six, seven, and eight of column two (r1-3:c2 and r5-8:c2), as well as to the B panel at row four, column three (r4:c3). Accordingly, if a B panel in row four is removed or the data cables are unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the column fed by that panel will lose their data connection. The next columns will also lose their data connections unless the loop allows data to reach them in the opposite direction. Referring to FIGS. 12A and 12B, one embodiment of a 19×10 panel two face display 1100 is illustrated that includes three hundred and eighty panels arranged in two displays of nineteen rows and ten columns. Each face requires 19 110 V 20 AMP circuit breakers. For purposes of example, the display 1100 uses the previously described main panel 500 of FIG. 5 (a ‘B’ panel) and the slave panel 700 of FIG. 7 (a ‘C’ panel). As described previously, these panels have separate input and output connection points for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels. FIGS. 12C and 12D provide enlarged views of a portion of FIGS. 12A and 12B, respectively. As illustrated in FIG. 12A, power is provided from a power source directly to the first column panel of each face via a power line connected to a single 110V, 20 A breaker. Those panels then feed the power along the rows in a serial manner. For example, the power is provided to the first column panel of the first face via the power source, to the second column panel via the first panel, to the third column panel via the second panel, and so on until the last panel is reached for that row of that face. The tenth column panel does not feed power to the next face because power is provided directly to the first column of the second face via the power source. Power is then provided to the second column panel via the first panel, to the third column panel via the second panel, and so on until the last panel is reached for that row of that face. Accordingly, if a panel is removed or the power for a panel is unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the row that rely on that panel for power will lose power. Although not shown in FIG. 12B, the panels of the display 1200 may be divided into three sections for data purposes as illustrated previously with respect to FIG. 10B. Accordingly, as illustrated in FIG. 10B, data may be sent from a data source (e.g., a computer) to the top section via one line, to a middle section via a second line, and to a bottom section via a third line. Each master control cabinet has six data cables and is configured to be in row 4. Two rows of cabinets use only 5 cables while the sixth cable is unused and tied back. As the present example illustrates the use of separate input and output connection points for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels, data connections between B panels have been omitted for purposes of clarity. However, a separate line may be run to the B panels in the first column of each face (which would require six lines in FIG. 12B), or the B panel in the last column of a row of one face may pass data to the B panel in the first column of a row of the next face (which would require three lines in FIG. 12B). In the present example, the data is provided to the B panels that form the fourth row of each section. The B panels in the fourth row feed the data both vertically along the column and in a serial manner along the row (as shown in FIG. 10B). For example, the B panel at row four, column two (r4:c2), sends data to the C panels in rows one, two, three, five, and six of column two (r1-3:c2 and r5-6:c2), as well as to the B panel at row four, column three (r4:c3). Accordingly, if a B panel in row four is removed or the data cables are unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the column fed by that panel will lose their data connection. The next columns will also lose their data connections unless the loop allows data to reach them in the opposite direction. FIG. 13 illustrates a modular display panel in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 14 illustrates a modular display panel attached to a supporting frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 15 illustrates a frame used to provide mechanical support to the modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The multi-panel modular display panel 1300 comprises a plurality of LED display panels 1350. In various embodiments describe herein, the light emitting diode (LED) display panels 1350 are attached to a frame 1310 or skeletal structure that provides the framework for supporting the LED display panels 1350. The LED display panels 1350 are stacked next to each other and securely attached to the frame 1310 using attachment plate 1450, which may be a corner plate in one embodiment. The attachment plate 1450 may comprise holes through which attachment features 1490 may be screwed in, for example. Referring to FIGS. 13 and 14, the LED display panels 1350 are arranged in an array of rows and columns. Each LED display panel 1350 of each row is electrically connected to an adjacent LED display panel 1350 within that row. Referring to FIG. 15, the frame 1310 provides mechanical support and electrical connectivity to each of the LED display panels 1350. The frame 1310 comprises a plurality of beams 1320 forming the mechanical structure. The frame 1310 comprises a top bar, a bottom bar, a left bar, a right bar, and a plurality of vertical bars extending from the top bar to the bottom bar, the vertical bars disposed between the left bar and the right bar. The top bar, the bottom bar, the left bar and the right bar comprise four inch aluminum bars, and the vertical bars comprise 2″×4″×½″ aluminum tubes. The top bar, the bottom bar, the left bar and the right bar are each capable of bearing a load of 1.738 lb/ft, and the vertical bars are each capable of bearing a load of 3.23 lb/ft. The frame 1310 may include support structures for the electrical cables, data cables, electrical power box powering the LED displays panels 1350, data receiver box controlling power, data, and communication to the LED displays panels 1350. However, the frame 1310 does not include any additional enclosures to protect the LED panels, data, power cables from the environment. Rather, the frame 1310 is exposed to the elements and further exposes the LED display panels 1350 to the environment. The frame 1310 also does not include air conditioning, fans, or heating units to maintain the temperature of the LED display panels 1350. Rather, the LED display panels 1350 are hermetically sealed themselves and are designed to be exposed to the outside ambient. Further, in various embodiments, there are not additional cabinets that are attached to the frame 1310 or used for housing the LED display panels 1350. Accordingly, in various embodiments, the multi-panel modular display panel 1300 is designed to be only passively cooled. FIGS. 38A-38E illustrate specific examples of an assembled display system 1300 and a frame 1310. As shown in FIG. 38A, the modular display system 1300 includes a number of LED display panels 1350 mounted to frame 1310. One of the display panels has been removed in the lower corner to illustrate the modular nature of the display. In this particular example, access is provided to the back of the modular display through a cage 1390 that includes an enclosed catwalk. Since the display system 1300 is generally highly elevated, a ladder (see FIG. 38C) provides access to the catwalk. A side view of the display system is shown in FIG. 38B and back views are shown in FIGS. 38C and 38D. FIG. 38D further illustrates the cables of the panels interlocked for safe transportation. FIG. 38E illustrates the frame 1310 without the display panels 1350. In this embodiment the beams 1320 that form that outer frame are bigger than the interior beams 1325. In this case, the interior beams 1325 are aligned in a plane outside those of the frame beams 1322. The plates 1315 are also shown in the figure. Upon installation, these plates will be rotated by 90 degrees and fasten to the display panels. FIG. 16, which includes FIGS. 16A-16C, illustrates an attachment plate used to attach one or more modular display panels to the frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 16A illustrates a projection view while FIG. 16B illustrates a top view and FIG. 16C illustrates a cross-sectional view. Referring to FIGS. 16A-16C, the attachment plate 1450 may comprise one or more through openings 1460 for enabling attachment features such as screws to go through. Referring to FIG. 16C, the attachment plate 1450 comprises a top surface 1451 and a bottom surface 1452. The height of the pillars 1480 may be adjusted to provide a good fit for the display panel. Advantageously, because the frame 1310 is not screw mounted to the display panel 1350, the display panel 1350 may be moved during mounting. This allows for improved alignment of the display panels resulting in improved picture output. An alignment plate could also be used as described above. Accordingly, in various embodiments, the height of the pillars 1480 is about the same as the thickness of the beams 1320 of the frame 1310. In one or more embodiments, the height of the pillars 1480 is slightly more than the thickness of the beams 1320 of the frame 1310. FIGS. 16D and 16E illustrate another embodiment of the attachment plate 1450. In this example, the plate is rectangular shaped and not a square. For example, the length can be two to four times longer than the width. In one example, the length is about 9 inches while the width is about 3 inches. The holes in the center of the plate are optional. Conversely, these types of holes could be added to the embodiment of FIGS. 16A and 16B. In other embodiments, other shaped plates 1450 can be used. FIG. 17 illustrates a magnified view of the attachment plate or a connecting plate, frame, and display panel after mounting in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 17, one or more attachment features 1490 may be used to connect the attachment plate 1450 to the display panel 1350. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 17, the attachment plate 1450 is a corner plate. Each corner plate is mechanically connected to corners of four of the LED display panels 1350 to secure the LED display panels 1350 to the respective beams 1320 of the frame 1310. FIG. 17 illustrates that the attachment features 1490 is attached using the through openings 1460 in the attachment plate 1450. The frame is between the attachment plate 1450 and the display panel 1350. In the embodiment of FIG. 17, the beam 1320 physically contacts the display panel 1350. In another embodiment, a second plate (not shown here) could be included between the beam 1320 and the display panel 1350. The plate could be a solid material such as a metal plate or could be a conforming material such as a rubber material embedded with metal particles. In either case, it is desirable that the plate be thermally conductive. FIG. 18 illustrates one unit of the modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 18 illustrates one LED display panel 1350 of the multi-panel modular display panel 1300 comprising an input cable 1360 and an output cable 1365. The LED display panels 1350 are electrically connected together for data and for power using the input cable 1360 and the output cable 1365. Each modular LED display panel 1350 is capable of receiving input using an integrated data and power cable from a preceding modular LED display panel and providing an output using another integrated data and power cable to a succeeding modular LED display panel. Each cable ends with an endpoint device or connector, which is a socket or alternatively a plug. Referring to FIG. 18, in accordance with an embodiment, a LED display panel 1350 comprises an attached input cable 1360 and an output cable 1365, a first connector 1370, a second connector 1375, a sealing cover 1380. The sealing cover 1380 is configured to go over the second connector 1375 thereby hermetically sealing both ends (first connector 1370 and the second connector 1375). The sealing cover 1380, which also includes a locking feature, locks the two cables together securely. As will be described further, the input cable 1360 and the output cable 1365 comprise integrated data and power wires with appropriate insulation separating them. FIG. 19 illustrates two display panels next to each other and connected through the cables such that the output cable 1365 of the left display panel 1350 is connected with the input cable 1360 of the next display panel 1350. The sealing cover 1380 locks the two cables together as described above. FIG. 20 illustrates a modular multi-panel display system comprising a plurality of LED display panels connected together using the afore-mentioned cables. Referring to FIG. 20, for each row, a LED display panel 1350 at a first end receives an input data connection from a data source and has an output data connection to a next LED display panel in the row. Each further LED display panel 1350 provides data to a next adjacent LED display panel until a LED display panel 1350 at a second end of the row is reached. The power line is run across each row to power the LED display panels 1350 in that row. In one embodiment, the plurality of LED display panels 1350 includes 320 LED display panels 1350 arranged in ten rows and thirty-two columns so that the integrated display panel 1300 has a display surface that is approximately fifty feet and four inches wide and fifteen feet and eight and three-quarters inches high. In various embodiments, as illustrated in FIGS. 14 and 20, a data receiver box 1400 is mounted to the mechanical support structure or frame 1310. The data receiver box 1400 is configured to provide power, data, and communication to the LED display panels 1350. With a shared receiver box 1400, the panels themselves do not need their own receiver card. This configuration saves cost and weight. FIG. 21, which includes FIGS. 21A-21C, illustrates an alternative embodiment of the modular display panel attached to a supporting frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 21B and 21C illustrate alternative structural embodiments of the supporting frame. This embodiment differs from embodiment described in FIG. 14 in that the horizontal beams 1320A may be used to support the display panels 1350. In one embodiment, both horizontal beams 1320A and vertical beams 1320B may be used to support the display panels 1350. In another embodiment, horizontal beams 1300A but not the vertical beams 1320B may be used to support the display panels 1350. FIG. 21B illustrates an alternative embodiment including additional beams 1320C, which may be narrower than the other beams of the frame. One or more of the thinner beams 1320C may be placed between the regular sized vertical beams 1320B. FIG. 21C illustrates a further embodiment illustrating both a top view, bottom view and side view of a frame. The frame 1310 may be attached to a wall or other structure using plates 1315. The frame 1310 may comprise a plurality of vertical beams and horizontal beams. In one embodiment, the frame 1310 comprises an outer frame having a top bar, a bottom bar, a left bar and a right bar. A display panel 1350 may be supported between two adjacent beams 1320 marked as L3 beams, which may be thinner (smaller diameter) and lighter than the thicker and heavier load bearing beams 1321 marked as L2 beams used for forming the outer frame. As an illustration, the L2 beams may be 4″ while the L3 beams may be 3″ in one example. FIG. 22 illustrates a method of assembling a modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 22 illustrates a method of assembling the multi-panel display system discussed in various embodiments, for example, FIG. 14. A mechanical support structure such as the frame 1310 described above is assembled taking into account various parameters such as the size and weight of the multi-panel display, location and zoning requirements, and others (box 1501). For example, as previously described, the mechanical support structure includes a plurality of vertical bars and horizontal bars. The mechanical support structure may be fabricated from a corrosion resistant material in one or more embodiments. For example, the mechanical support structure may be coated with a weather-proofing coating that prevents the underlying substrate from corroding. A plurality of LED display panels are mounted on to the mechanical support structure so as to form an integrated display panel that includes an array of rows and columns of LED display panels as described in various embodiments (box 1503). Each of the LED display panels is hermetically sealed. Mounting the LED display panels may comprise mounting each LED display panel to a respective vertical beam using an attachment plate. Each of the LED display panels is electrically connected to a data source and to a power source (box 1505). For example, a first LED display panel in each row is electrically coupled to the display source. The other LED display panels in each row may be daisy-chain coupled to an adjacent LED display panel (e.g., as illustrated in FIG. 20). Since the assembled display structure is light weight, significant assembly advantages can be achieved. For example, the panels can be assembled within a warehouse that is remote from the final location where the display will be utilized. In other words, the panels can be assembled at a first location, shipped to a second location and finalized at the second location. An illustration of two assembled displays that are ready for shipment is provided in FIG. 39. These displays can be quite large, for example much larger than a 14×48 panel display. In some cases, a single display system is shipped as a series of sub-assemblies, e.g., as shown in the figure, and then assembled into a full display on location. In various embodiments, the assembled multi-panel display system includes no cabinets. The assembled multi-panel display system is cooled passively and includes no air conditioning or fans. FIG. 23 illustrates a method of maintaining a modular multi-panel display that includes a mechanical support structure and a plurality of LED display panels detachably coupled to the mechanical support structure without a cabinet. Each LED display panel is mechanically coupled to the mechanical support structure and three other lighting panels by a corner plate. Referring to FIG. 23, a defect is identified in one of the LED display panels so as to identify a defective LED display panel (box 1511). The identification of the defective LED display panel may be performed manually or automatically. For example, a control loop monitoring the display system may provide a warning or error signal identifying the location of the defect. In one embodiment, the health of a panel and/or the health of individual pixels can be determined. To determine the health of the panel, the power supply for each of the panels is monitored. If a lack of power is detected at any of the supplies a warning message is sent. For example, it can be determined that one of the power supplies has ceased to supply power. In the illustrated example, the message is sent from the power supply to the communication chip within the panel and then back to the receiving card. From the receiving card a message can be sent to the sending card or otherwise. For example, the message could generate a text to be provided to a repair station or person. In one example, a wireless transmitter is provided in the receiving card so that the warning message can be sent via a wireless network, e.g., a cellular data network. Upon receipt of the warning message, a maintenance provider can view the display, e.g., using a camera directed at the display. In another embodiment, the health of individual pixels is determined, for example, by having each panel include circuitry to monitor the power being consumed by each pixel. If any pixel is determined to be failing, a warning message can be generated as discussed above. The pixel level health check can be used separately from or in combination with the panel level health check. These embodiments would use bi-directional data communication between the panels and the receiver box. Image data will be transferred from the receiver box to the panels, e.g., along each row, and health and other monitoring data can be transferred from the panels back to the receiver. In addition to, or instead of, the health data discussed other data such as temperature, power consumption or mechanical data (e.g., sensing whether the panel has moved) can be provided from the panel. If a decision is made to replace the defective LED display panel, the defective LED display panel is electrically disconnected from the multi-panel display (box 1512). The attachment plate securely holding the LED display panel to the frame is removed from the defective LED display panel (box 1513). In one or more embodiments, four attachment plates are removed so as to remove a single LED display panel. This is because one attachment plate has to be removed from a respective corner of the defective LED display panel. The defective LED display panel is next removed from the multi-panel display (box 1514). A replacement LED display panel is placed in a location formerly taken by the defective LED display panel (box 1515). The attachment plate is reattached to the replacement LED display panel securely mounting the replacement LED display panel back to the display system (box 1516). Similarly, four attachment plates have to be reattached in the above example. The replacement LED display panel is electrically reconnected to the multi-panel display (box 1517). FIG. 24, which includes FIGS. 24A and 24B, illustrates a display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 24A illustrates a cross-sectional view of a display panel while FIG. 24B illustrates a schematic of the display panel. FIG. 24C illustrates a schematic of the LED array as controlled by the receiver circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 24A, the modular LED display panel comprises a plurality of LEDs 1610 mounted on one or more printed circuit boards (PCBs) 1620, which are housed within a hermetically sealed enclosure or casing. A framework of louvers 1630 is attached to the PCB 1620 using an adhesive 1640, which prevents moisture from reaching the PCB. However, the LEDs 1610 are directly exposed to the ambient in the direction of light emission. The LEDs 1610 themselves are water repellent and therefore are not damaged even if exposed to water. The louvers 1630 rise above the surface of the LEDs and help to minimize reflection and scattering of external light, which can otherwise degrade the quality of light output from the LEDs 1610. The PCB is mounted within a cavity of an enclosure, which may be a plastic casing 1650. A heat sink 1660 is attached between the PCB 1620 and the casing 1650 and contacts both the PCB 1620 and the casing 1650 to maximize heat extraction. A thermal grease may be used between the back side of the casing 1650 and the PCB 1620 to improve thermal conduction. In one example embodiment, the thermal grease is between the heat sink 1660 and the back side of the casing 1650. In a further example embodiment, the thermal grease is between the PCB 1620 and the heat sink 1660. A receiver circuit 1625 is mounted on the PCB 1620. The receiver circuit 1625 may be a single chip in one embodiment. Alternatively, multiple components may be mounted on the PCB 1620. The receiver circuit 1625 may be configured to process the received media and control the operation of the LEDs 1610 individually. For example, the receiver circuit 1625 may determine the color of the LED to be displayed at each location (pixel). Similarly, the receiver circuit 1625 may determine the brightness at each pixel location, for example, by controlling the current supplied to the LED. The air gap within the cavity is minimized so that heat is conducted out more efficiently. Thermally conductive standoffs 1626 may be introduced between the PCB 1620 to minimize the air gap, for example, between the receiver circuit 1625 and the heat sink 1660. The PCB 1620 is designed to maximize heat extraction from the LEDs 1610 to the heat sink 1660. As described previously, the casing 1650 of the display panel 1350 has openings through which an input cable 1360 and output cable 1365 may be attached. The cables may have connectors or plugs for connecting to an adjacent panel or alternatively the casing 1650 may simply have input and output sockets. A power supply unit 1670 may be mounted over the casing 1650 for powering the LEDs 1610. The power supply unit 1670 may comprise a LED driver in various embodiments. The LED driver may include a power converter for converting ac to dc, which is supplied to the LEDs 1610. Alternatively, the LED driver may comprise a down converter that down converts the voltage suitable for driving the LEDs 1610. For example, the down converter may down convert a de voltage at a first level to a de voltage at a second level that is lower than the first level. This is done so that large de currents are not carried on the power cables. The LED driver is configured to provide a constant de current to the LEDs 1610. Examples of down converters (dc to de converters) include linear regulators and switched mode converters such as buck converters. In further embodiments, the output from the power supply unit 1670 is isolated from the input power. Accordingly, in various embodiments, the power supply unit 1670 may comprise a transformer. As a further example, in one or more embodiments, the power supply unit 1670 may comprise forward, half-bridge, full-bridge, or push-pull topologies. The power supply unit 1670 may be placed inside a faraday cage to minimize RF interference to other components. The LED driver of the power supply unit 1670 may also include a control loop for controlling the output current. In various embodiments, the display panel 1350 is sealed to an IP 67 standard. As discussed herein, other ratings are possible. FIG. 24B illustrates a system diagram schematic of the display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 24B, a data and power signal received at the input cable 1360 is processed at an interface circuit 1651. The incoming power is provided to the LED driver 1653. Another output from the incoming power is provided to the output cable 1365. This provides redundancy so that even if a component in the display panel 1350 is not working, the output power is not disturbed. Similarly, the output cable 1365 includes all the data packets being received in the input cable 1360. The interface circuit 1651 provides the received data packets to the graphics processor 1657 through a receiver bus 1654. In some embodiments, the interface circuit 1651 provides only the data packets intended for the display panel 1350. In other embodiment, the interface circuit 1651 provides all incoming data packets to the graphics processor 1657. For example, the graphics processor 1657 may perform any decoding of the received media. The graphics processor 1657 may use the buffer memory 1655 or frame buffer as needed to store media packets during processing. A scan controller 1659, which may include an address decoder, receives the media to be displayed and identifies individual LEDs in the LEDs 1610 that need to be controlled. The scan controller 1659 may determine an individual LED's color, brightness, refresh time, and other parameters associated to generate the display. In one embodiment, the scan controller 1659 may provide this information to the LED driver 1653, which selects the appropriate current for the particular LED. Alternatively, the scan controller 1659 may interface directly with the LEDs 1610 in one embodiment. For example, the LED driver 1653 provides a constant current to the LEDs 1610 while the scan controller 1659 controls the select line needed to turn ON or OFF a particular LED. Further, in various embodiments, the scan controller 1659 may be integrated into the LED driver 1653. FIG. 24C illustrates a schematic of the LED array as controlled by the receiver circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 24C, the row selector 1661 and column selector 1662, which may be part of the circuitry of the scan controller 1659 described previously, may be used to control individual pixels in the array of the LEDs 1610. For example, at each pixel location, the color of the pixel is selected by powering one or more combinations of red, blue, green, and white LEDs. The row selector 1661 and column selector 1662 include control circuitry for performing this operation as an example. FIG. 25, which includes FIGS. 25A-25D, illustrates a display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 25A illustrates a projection view of the back side of the display panel, FIG. 25B illustrates a planar back side of the display panel, and FIG. 25C illustrates a planar bottom view while FIG. 25D illustrates a side view. Referring to FIG. 25A, the display panel 1350 comprises a casing 1650, which includes casing holes 1710 for attaching the attachment features 1490 (e.g., FIG. 14) and openings for the input cable 1360 and the output cable 1365. A power supply unit 1670 is mounted over the casing 1650 and protrudes away from the back side. The casing 1650 may also include stacking features 1730 that may be used to stack the display panels 1350 correctly. For example, the stacking features 1730 may indicate the path in which data cables are moving and which end of the casing 1650, if any, has to placed pointing up. The casing 1650 may further include a handle 1720 for lifting the display panel 1350. The housing of the power supply unit 1670, which may be made of plastic, may include fins 1671 for maximizing heat extraction from the power supply unit 1670. The power supply unit 1670 may be screwed into the casing 1650. FIG. 26 illustrates a planar view of a portion of the front side of the display panel in according with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 26, a plurality of LEDs 1610 is exposed between the framework of louvers 1630 comprising a plurality of support strips 1631 and a plurality of ridges 1632. The plurality of support strips 1631 and the plurality of ridges 1632 are attached to the PCB below using an adhesive as described previously. The framework of louvers 1630 may also be screwed at the corners or spaced apart distances to provide improved mechanical support and mitigate issues related to adhesive peeling. The display panel discussed thus far has the advantage of being self-cooling, waterproof and light-weight. A plastic material, e.g., an industrial plastic, can be used for the housing. Within the housing, the LED board (or boards) are enclosed without any significant air gaps (or no air gaps at all). In some embodiments, a heat conductive material can be attached to both the back of the LED board and the inner surface of the housing to facilitate heat transfer. This material can be a thermally conductive sheet of material such as a metal (e.g., an aluminum plate) and/or a thermal grease. The power supply is mounted outside the LED board housing and can also be passively cooled. As discussed herein, a thermally conductive material can be included between the power supply and the LED board, e.g., between the power supply housing and the LED panel enclosure. A thermally conductive material could also line some or all of the surfaces of the power supply housing. While the discussion thus far has related to the self-cooling panel, it is understood that many of the embodiments discussed herein also applied to fan-cooled assemblies. Two views of a fan cooled display panel are shown in FIGS. 40A and 40B. As an example, these panels can be mounted as disclosed with regard to FIG. 14 as well as the other embodiments. Other features described herein could also be used with this type of a display panel. FIG. 27, which includes FIGS. 27A-27C, illustrates cross-sectional views of the framework of louvers at the front side of the display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 27 illustrates a cross-sectional view along a direction perpendicular to the orientation of the plurality of ridges 1632 along the line 27-27 in FIG. 26. In various embodiments, the plurality of ridges 1632 have a higher height than the plurality of support strips 1631. Horizontally oriented plurality of ridges 1632 may be advantageous to remove or block water droplets from over the LEDs 1610. The relative height differences between the plurality of support strips 1631 and the plurality of ridges 1632 may be adjusted depending on the particular mounting location in one embodiment. Alternatively in other embodiments, these may be independent of the mounting location. The sidewalls and structure of the plurality of ridges 1632 may be adjusted depending on various lighting conditions and need to prevent water from accumulating or streaking over the LEDs 1610. FIG. 27A illustrates a first embodiment in which the sidewalls of the plurality of ridges 1632 are perpendicular. FIG. 278 illustrates a second embodiment in which the sidewalls of the plurality of ridges 1632 are perpendicular but the inside of the plurality of ridges 1632 is partially hollow enabling ease of fabrication. FIG. 27C illustrates a different embodiment in which the sidewalls of the plurality of ridges 1632 are angled, for example, to prevent from other sources scattering of the LEDs 1610 and generating a diffuse light output. FIG. 28 illustrates a plurality of display panels arranged next to each other in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. In addition to the features described previously, in one or more embodiments, the display panels may include locking features 1760 such as tabs and other marks that may be used to correctly align the display panels precisely. For example, the locking features 1760 may comprise interlocking attachment points that are attached to an adjacent LED display panel. FIGS. 29A-29D illustrate a schematic of a control system for a modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 29A illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wired network connection. FIG. 29B illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wireless network connection. FIGS. 29C and 29D illustrate the power transmission scheme used in powering the modular multi-panel display system. Data to be displayed at the multi-panel display system may be first received from a computer 1850, which may be a media server, at a controller 1800. The controller 1800, which may also be part of the media server, may transmit the data to be displayed to one or more data receiver boxes 1400. A very large display may include more than one receiver box 1400. The data receiver boxes 1400 receive the data to be displayed from the controller 1800, and distribute it across to the multiple display panels. As described previously, a data receiver box 1400 is mounted to the mechanical support structure or frame 1310. The data receiver box 1400 is configured to receive data from a controller 1800 and to provide power, data, and communication to the LED display panels 1350 through integrated power and data cables 1860. The input cable 1360 and the output cable 1365 in FIG. 18 are specific applications of the integrated power and data cables 1860 illustrated in FIGS. 29A and 29B. The data receive box 1400 can eliminate the need for a receiver card in each panel. In other words, the panels of certain embodiments include no receiver card. The controller 1800 may be a remotely located or located on-site in various embodiments. The controller 1800 is configured to provide data to display to the data receiver box 1400. The output of the controller 1800 may be coupled through a network cable 1840 to the data receiver box 1400. The data receiver box 1400 is housed in a housing that is separate from housings of each of the LED display panels 1300 (for example, FIG. 14). Alternatively, the output of the controller 1800 may be coupled to an ingress router of the internet and the data receiver box 1400 may be coupled to an egress router if the controller 1800 is located remotely. Referring to FIG. 29A, the controller 1800 comprises a sending card 1810 and a power management unit (PMU) 1820. The PMU 1820 receives power and provides operating voltage to the sending card 1810. The sending card 1810 receives data through data cables and provides it to the output. The sending card 1810 may comprise receiver and transmitter circuitry in various embodiments for processing the received video, up-converting, and down converting. In one or more embodiments, the sending card 1810 may be configured to receive data from the respective data receiver box 1400. The sending card 1810 may communicate with the data receiver box 1400 using an internet communication protocol such as Transmission Control Protocol and/or the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol in one embodiment. Alternatively, other suitable protocols may be used. In some embodiments, the communication between the sending card 1810 and the data receiver box 1400 may be performed using a secure protocol such as SSH or may be encrypted in other embodiments. FIG. 29B illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wireless network connection in which the data to be displayed is transmitted and received using antennas 1831 at the controller 1800 and the data receiver box 1400. The data input 1830 may be coupled to a computer 1850, for example, to a USB or DVI output. The computer 1850 may provide data to the sending card 1810, for example, through the USB and/or DVI output. The data receiver box 1400 connects the LED display panels with data to be displayed on the integrated display and with power to power each of the LED display panels 1350. The data receiver box 1400 may transmit the media or data to be displayed in a suitable encoded format. In one or more embodiments, the data receiver box 1400 transmits analog video. For example, in one embodiment, composite video may be outputted by the data receiver box 1400. Alternatively, in one embodiment, YPbPr analog component video may be outputted by the data receiver box 1400. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the data receiver box 1400 transmits digital video. The output video comprises video to be displayed encoded in a digital video format by each of the display panels under the data receiver box 1400. In one or more embodiments, the data receiver box 1400 creates multiple outputs, where each output is configured for each panel under its control. Alternatively, the display panels 1350 may be configured to decode the received data and select and display only the appropriate data intended to be displayed by that particular display panel 1350. FIGS. 29C and 29D illustrate the power transmission scheme used in powering the modular multi-panel display system. FIG. 29C illustrates the power conversion at the data receiver box 1400 produces a plurality of AC outputs that is transmitted to all the display panels. All the display panels 1350 on the same row receive output from the same AC output whereas display panels 1350 on a different row receive output from the different AC output. The power supply unit 1670 converts the received AC power to a DC current and supplies it to the LEDs 1610. FIG. 29D is an alternative embodiment in which the AC to DC conversion is performed at the data receiver box 1400. The power supply unit 1670 down converts the received voltage from a higher voltage to a lower voltage. In either of the power transmission embodiments, the power line can be configured so that power is run across all of the row (or any other group of panels). In this manner, if the power supply of any one of the panels fails, the other panels will continue to operate. One way to assist in the maintenance of the display system is to monitor the power at each panel to determine if any of the panels has failed. FIG. 30 illustrates a schematic of a sending card of the control system for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The sending card 1810 may include an inbound network interface controller, a processor for processing, an outbound network interface controller for communicating with the data receiver boxes 1400 using a specific physical layer and data link layer standards. Display packets (media packaged as data packets intended for display) received at the inbound network interface controller may be processed at the processor and routed to the outbound network interface controller. The display packets may be buffered in a memory within the sending card 1810 if necessary. As an illustration, the processor in the sending card 1810 may perform functions such as routing table maintenance, path computations, and reachability propagation. The inbound network interface controller and the outbound network interface controller include adapters that perform inbound and outbound packet forwarding. As an illustration, the sending card 1810 may include a route processor 1811, which is used for computing the routing table, maintenance using routing protocols, and routing table lookup for a particular destination. The sending card 1810 further may include multiple interface network controllers as described above. As an example, the inbound network interface controller may include an inbound packet forwarder 1812 to receive the display packet at an interface unit while the outbound network interface controller may include an outbound packet forwarder 1813 to forward the display packet out of another interface unit. The circuitry for the inbound packet forwarder 1812 and the outbound packet forwarder 1813 may be implemented separately in different chips or on the same chip in one or more embodiments. The sending card 1810 also includes an optional packet processor 1814 for performing non-routing functions relating to the processing of the packet and a memory 1815, for example, for route caching. For example, the packet processor 1814 may also perform media encoding in some embodiments. Additionally, in some embodiments, the sending card 1810 may include a high performance switch that enables them to exchange data and control messages between the inbound and the outbound network interface controllers. The communication between the various components of the sending card 1810 may be through a bus 1816. FIG. 31 illustrates a schematic of a data receiver box for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 31, a large multi-panel display modular system 1300 may include multiple data receiver boxes 1400 for displaying portions of the multi-panel modular display system 1300. The data receiver box 1400 receives the output of the controller 1800 through a network cable 1840. The data receiver box 1400 is configured to provide power, data, and communication to the LED display panels 1350 through integrated power and data cables 1860. The data receiver box 1400 comprises an interface unit 1910 that receives the network data according to the internet protocol, e.g., TCP/IP. The data receiver box 1400 may include a designated IP address and therefore receives the output of the controller 1800 that is specifically sent to it. In case the controller 1800 and the data receiver box 1400 are part of the same local area network (LAN), the data receiver box 1400 may also receive data designated towards other similar data receiver boxes in the network. However, the interface unit 1910 is configured to select data based on the IP address and ignore data destined to other boxes. The interface unit 1910 includes necessary interface controllers, and may include circuitry for up-converting and down-converting signals. The power management unit 1920 receives an ac input power for powering the data receiver box 1400 as well as the corresponding display panels 1350 that are controlled by the data receiver box 1400. In one embodiment, the power management unit 1920 comprises a switched mode power supply unit for providing power to the display panels 1350. The power management unit 1920 may be placed inside a faraday cage to minimize RF interference to other components. In various embodiments, the output from the power management unit 1920 is isolated from the input, which is connected to the AC mains. Accordingly, in various embodiments, the power management unit 1920 comprises a transformer. The primary side of the transformer is coupled to the AC mains whereas the secondary side of the transformer is coupled to the components of the data receiver box 1400. The power management unit 1920 may also include a control loop for controlling the output voltage. Depending on the output current and/or voltage, the primary side may be regulated. As examples, in one or more embodiments, the power management unit 1920 may comprise flyback, half-bridge, full-bridge, or push-pull topologies. The signal processing unit 1930 receives the media packets from the interface unit 1910. The signal processing unit 1930 may be configured to process media packets so as to distribute the media packets through parallel paths. In one or more embodiments, the signal processing unit 1930 may be configured to decode the media packets and encode them into another format, for example. The system management unit 1940 receives the parallel paths of the media packets and combines with the power from the power management unit 1920. For example, the media packets destined for different rows of the display panels may be forwarded through different output paths using different integrated power and data cables 1860. The power for powering the display panels from the power management unit 1920 is also combined with the media packets and transmitted through the integrated power and data cables 1860. FIG. 32 illustrates a method of assembling a modular multi-panel display in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 32, a mechanical support structure such as a frame is assembled as described above in various embodiments (box 1921). A plurality of LED display panels is attached directly to the mechanical support structure using a plurality of coupling mechanisms (box 1922). A receiver box is attached to the mechanical support structure (box 1923). The receiver box includes power circuitry with an ac power input and an ac power output. The receiver box further includes digital circuitry configured to process media data to be displayed by the LED display panels. AC power from the receiver box is electrically connected to each of the LED display panels (box 1924). Media data from the receiver box is electrically connected to each of the LED display panels (box 1925). For example, a plurality of integrated data and power cables are interconnected. FIGS. 33-37 illustrate particular embodiments relating to an integrated data and power cord for use with modular display panels. FIG. 33 illustrates a cross-sectional view of an integrated data and power cord in accordance with embodiments. For example, the integrated data and power cord may be used as the integrated power and data cable 1860 in FIGS. 29A and 29B and/or the input cable 1360 or the output cable 1365 in FIG. 18. Referring to FIG. 33, the integrated power and data cable 1860 includes a first plurality of wires 2011 for carrying data and a second plurality of wires 2012 for carrying power. The power may be a/c or dc. The first plurality of wires 2011 may include twisted pair. The length of the first plurality of wires 2011 and the second plurality of wires 2012 may be controlled to prevent the signal propagation delay within each LED display panel within a specific time. The first plurality of wires 2011 may be configured to transport data at a high bit rate, e.g., at least 1 Mbit/s and may be 100-1000 Mbit/s. To minimize noise, the cable 2010 as a whole may be shielded or the first plurality of wires 2011 may be shielded separately. The shielding may be accomplished by a conductive outer layer formed around the first and the second plurality of wires 2011 and 2012. FIG. 34, which includes FIGS. 34A and 34B, illustrates cross-sectional views of connectors at the ends of the integrated data and power cable in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 34A illustrates a first connector that is configured to fit or lock into a second connector illustrated in FIG. 34B. For example, the first connector 1370 and the second connector 1375 may be attached to corresponding input cable 1360 and output cable 1365 of the display panel 1350 as illustrated in FIG. 18. In various embodiments, the endpoints of the input cable 1360 is opposite to the endpoints of the output cable 1365 so that they may be interlocked together or interlocked with an adjacent panel. For example, the endpoint of the integrated data and power input cable 1360 is interlocked with an endpoint of an integrated data and power output cable 1365 of an adjacent panel, for example, as illustrated in FIG. 19 and FIG. 20. In one embodiment, a subset of the endpoints of the input cable 1360 is a male type pin while a remaining subset of the endpoints of the input cable 1360 is a female type pin. This advantageously allows the electrical connection to be made securely. Referring to FIG. 34A, the first connector 1370 includes a plurality of first openings 2020 configured to receive a plurality of pins from another connector. The plurality of first openings 2020 comprises a conductive internal surface, which is a female pin, that is configured to establish an electrical contact with an incoming male pin. The first connector 1370 further includes a plurality of second openings 2030 configured to receive power male pins from another connector. Thus, the connector is designed to integrated power and data. The pins 2031 protrude out of the plurality of second openings 2030 and are configured to fit into corresponding openings (i.e., female pins) of another connector. The diameters of the plurality of first openings 2020 and the plurality of second openings 2030 may be different to account for the different currents being carried through each. The plurality of first openings 2020 and the plurality of second openings 2030 are formed inside a first protruding section 2070 that is configured to lock inside a second protruding section 2170 of another connector. The enclosing material 2040 provide insulation and protection against external elements such as water. A sealing cover 1380 is configured to lock with the another connector and configured to prevent moisture from reaching inside the connector. As further illustrated in FIG. 34B, the second connector 1375 is configured to receive a connector similar to the first connector 1370. Thus, the pins 2121 of the second connector 1375 are configured to fit into the corresponding first openings 2020 of the first connector 1370. The plurality of first openings 2120 may be optional and may not be used in some embodiments. Similarly, the plurality of second openings 2130 of the second connector 1375 comprises a conductive internal surface, which is a female pin, that is configured to establish an electrical contact with an incoming male pin. Similar to FIG. 34A, the plurality of first openings 2020 and the plurality of second openings 2030 of the second connector 1375 in FIG. 34B are formed inside a second protruding section 2170 that is configured to lock with the first protruding section 2070 of another connector. FIG. 35, which includes FIGS. 35A and 35B, illustrates cross-sectional views showing the first connector locked with the second connector in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 35A illustrates the first connector aligned to the second connector, while FIG. 35B illustrates the first connector securely locked to the second connector with the sealing cover sealing the connectors. Referring to FIG. 35A, the plurality of first openings 2020, pins 2031 are connected to corresponding to first and the second plurality of wires 2011 and 2012 respectively. As illustrated, the electrical pins/openings of the first connector 1370 are configured to be lock with the electrical pins/openings of the second connector 1375. Further, there may be additional mechanical locking points to secure the two connectors. In one embodiment, the first connector 1370 comprises a concentric opening 2041 configured to fit in a locking position with the concentric ring 2042 on the second connector 1375. As illustrated in FIG. 35B, the first protruding section 2070 is disposed inside the second protruding section 2170 when locked. The sealing cover 1380 is moveable seals over the first and the second protruding sections 2070 and 2170 thereby preventing any moisture from entering into the connectors. The sealing cover 1380 may be able to screw over a portion of the second connector 1375 in the direction indicated by the arrow in FIG. 35B in one embodiment. FIG. 36, which includes FIGS. 36A and 36B, illustrates one embodiment of the first connector previously illustrated in FIG. 34A and FIGS. 35A and 35B. FIG. 36A illustrates a planar top view while FIG. 36B illustrates a projection view. FIG. 37, which includes FIGS. 37A and 37B, illustrates one embodiment of the second connector previously illustrated in FIG. 34B and FIGS. 35A and 35B. FIG. 37A illustrates a planar top view while FIG. 37B illustrates a projection view. Referring to FIGS. 36 and 37, besides the features previously discussed, embodiments of the present invention may also radial alignment features for radially aligning the first connector 1370 with the second connector 1375. FIG. 36A illustrates a first type of radial alignment features 2080 while FIG. 37A illustrates a second type of radial alignment features 2180. The first type of radial alignment features 2080 is configured to correctly align with the second type of radial alignment features 2180. Although the preferred embodiment has been described in detail, it should be understood that various changes, substitutions and alterations can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Large displays (e.g., billboards), such as those commonly used for advertising in cities and along roads, generally have one or more pictures and/or text that are to be displayed under various light and weather conditions. As technology has advanced and introduced new lighting devices such as the light emitting diode (LED), such advances have been applied to large displays. An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses an array of light-emitting diodes. A large display may be made of a single LED display or a panel of smaller LED panels. LED panels may be conventional panels made using discrete LEDs or surface-mounted device (SMD) panels. Most outdoor screens and some indoor screens are built around discrete LEDs, which are also known as individually mounted LEDs. A cluster of red, green, and blue diodes is driven together to form a full-color pixel, usually square in shape. These pixels are spaced evenly apart and are measured from center to center for absolute pixel resolution.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Embodiments of the invention relate to lighting systems and, more particularly, to multi-panel lighting systems for providing interior or exterior displays. In one embodiment, a modular display panel comprises a casing having a recess. The casing comprises locking points for use in attachment to an adjacent casing of another modular display panel. A printed circuit board is disposed in the recess and a plurality of LEDs attached to the printed circuit board. A driver circuit is attached to the printed circuit board. A heat sink is disposed between a back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. A framework of louvers is disposed over the printed circuit board. The framework of louvers is disposed between rows of the LEDs. The framework of louvers is attached to the printed circuit board using an adhesive. In another embodiment, a modular multi-panel display system comprises a mechanical support structure, and a plurality of LED display panels mounted to the mechanical support structure so as to form an integrated display panel. Each LED display panel includes a casing having a recess. The casing comprises interlocking attachment points that are attached to an adjacent LED display panel. Each LED display panel also includes a printed circuit board disposed in the recess. A plurality of LED modules is attached to the printed circuit board. Each LED display panel also includes a heat sink disposed between a back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. Each LED display panel is hermetically sealed and exposed to the environment without use of any cabinets. The display system is cooled passively and includes no air conditioning, fans, or heating units. In yet another embodiment, a modular display panel comprises a plastic housing having a recess, and a printed circuit board disposed in the recess. A plurality of LEDs is attached to the printed circuit board. A transparent potting compound overlies the LEDs. A driver circuit is attached to the printed circuit board. A heat sink is disposed between a back side of the housing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the housing and the printed circuit board. A power supply is mounted outside the plastic housing.

G09F1322

20180126

20180529

20180531

66503.0

G09F1322

JUNGE, KRISTINA N S

Modular Display Panel

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

G09F

PENDING

SUPPORT FOR RECIPROCATING PUMP

A skid for supporting a reciprocating pump assembly, the reciprocating pump assembly including a power end frame assembly having a pair of end plate segments and a plurality of middle plate segments disposed between the end plate segments. The end plate segments each have at least a pair of feet and the middle plate segments each having at least one foot. The skid includes a base and a plurality of pads extending from the base. At least a portion of the plurality of pads correspond to the end plate segment feet and at least another portion of the plurality of pads correspond to the at least one foot of each middle plate segment.

1. A skid for supporting a reciprocating pump assembly, the reciprocating pump assembly comprising a power end frame assembly having a pair of end plates and a plurality of middle plates disposed between the end plates, the end plates each having at least a pair of feet and the middle plates each having at least one foot, the skid comprising: a base having a pair of side segments including a top wall, a bottom wall, and a sidewall extending between the top and bottom walls forming a c-shaped channel; at least one transverse segment coupled to and extending between the pair of side segments; a plurality of spaced apart gussets disposed within the channels, the gussets extending between and connecting to the bottom wall and the top wall of the c-shaped channel; and a plurality of spaced apart pads extending from the base, the plurality of pads corresponding to the end plate feet and at least another portion of the plurality of pads corresponding to the at least one foot of each middle plate. 2. The skid of claim 1, wherein the plurality of pads have different thicknesses to accommodate bending of the base such that a top surface of each of the plurality of pads lies in substantially the same plane. 3. The skid of claim 1, wherein the spaced apart gussets are vertically secured within the channel so as to perpendicularly intersect the top and bottom walls. 4. The skid of claim 1, wherein the spaced apart gussets intersect the top and bottom at a non-perpendicular angle. 5. The skid of claim 1, wherein a portion of the spaced apart gussets intersect the top and bottom walls at a non-perpendicular angle and a portion of the spaced apart gussets intersect the top and bottom walls a perpendicular angle. 6. The skid of claim 1, wherein the at least one transverse segment is hollow. 7. The skid of claim 1, wherein the at least one transverse segment comprises three transverse segments extending between and connecting the pair of side segments. 8. The skid of claim 7, wherein the transverse segments are parallel. 9. The skid of claim 1, wherein the bottom wall includes at least one mounting opening to enable the skid to be secured to a support structure. 10. A method of mounting a reciprocating pump assembly to a support skid, the reciprocating pump assembly including a pair of end plate segments and at least one middle plate segment disposed between the end plate segments, the end plate segments each having at least a pair of feet and the at least one middle plate segment having at least one foot, the method comprising: forming a base section, wherein forming the base section includes providing a pair of side segments having a c-shaped channel therein and securing respective ends of at least one transverse segment to the pair of side segments; securing a plurality of spaced apart gussets within the c-shaped channels, the gussets extending between a bottom wall and a top wall of the c-shaped channel; securing a plurality of pads to the base section, the plurality of pads corresponding to the feet on the pair of end segments and the at least one foot on the at least one middle plate segment; aligning the feet of the pump assembly with a corresponding pad on the base section; and securing the feet of the pump assembly to the base section. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein, prior to securing the feet to the base section, the method comprises machining the plurality of pads such that a top surface of each pad lies in substantially the same plane. 12. The method of claim 10, further comprising machining the feet of the pump assembly such that a bottom surface of each of the feet lies in substantially the same plane. 13. The method of claim 10, further comprising securing a reinforcing plate to at least one side segment. 14. The method of claim 10, wherein providing at least one transverse segment comprises providing at least one transverse segment in the form of an I-beam. 15. The method of claim 10, wherein providing the at least one transverse segment member comprises providing at least one transverse segment having a hollow interior. 16. A reciprocating pump assembly comprising: a power end frame assembly having a pair of end plate segments and a plurality of middle plate segments disposed between the end plate segments, the end plate segments each having at least a pair of feet and the middle plate segments each having at least one foot; a base forming a support surface having a pair of side segments and a transverse segment connecting to and extending between the pair of side segments, the pair of side segments including a top wall, a bottom wall, and a sidewall extending between the top and bottom walls forming a c-shaped channel; a plurality of spaced apart pads extending from the support surface, the plurality of pads corresponding to the feet on the end plate segment and at least another portion of the plurality of pads corresponding to the at least one foot of each middle plate segment, the pads disposed between the support surface and the respective feet on the power end frame assembly. 17. The reciprocating pump assembly of claim 16, further comprising a plurality of spaced apart gussets disposed within the c-shaped channels, the gussets extending between and connecting to the bottom wall and the top wall of the c-shaped channel. 18. The reciprocating pump assembly of claim 16, wherein the plurality of spaced apart pads have different thicknesses to accommodate bending of the base such that a top surface of each of the plurality of pads lies in substantially the same plane. 19. The reciprocating pump assembly of claim 16, wherein the spaced apart gussets are vertically secured within the channel so as to perpendicularly intersect the top and bottom walls. 20. The reciprocating pump assembly of claim 16, wherein the bottom walls of the side segments include at least one mounting opening to enable the skid to be secured to a support structure.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/808,654, filed Jul. 24, 2015, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,879,659, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/155,793, filed May 1, 2015, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/095,689, filed Dec. 22, 2014, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/029,271, filed Jul. 25, 2014, each of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. TECHNICAL FIELD This disclosure relates to a reciprocating pump assembly, and in particular, a power end housing for a reciprocating pump assembly. BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE In oil field operations, reciprocating pumps are used for various purposes. For example, reciprocating pumps are commonly used for operations, such as cementing, acidizing, or fracing a well. Oftentimes, these reciprocating pumps are mounted to a truck, a skid or other type of platform for transport to and from the well sites. In operation, such pumps deliver a fluid or slurry at pressures up to and around 20,000 psi; however, due to such extreme operating conditions, these pumps are susceptible to damage from forces caused by excessive vibrations, bending moments and/or deformation. A typical reciprocating pump includes a fluid end and a power end, the power end configured to reciprocatingly move one or more plungers toward and away from a corresponding fluid end pump chamber. Each chamber includes an intake port for receiving fluid, a discharge port for discharging the pressurized fluid, and a one-way flow valve in each port for preventing reverse fluid flow. Manufacturing and assembling conventional power end housings is oftentimes difficult and cumbersome due to, for example, the sheer weight of the housing, the need for precise alignment certain components, and the difficultly in accessing certain areas of the housing, such as, for example, accessing and installing the crankshaft bearings within the housing. Thus, there is a need for a pump design, and in particular, a power end housing for a reciprocating pump, having a decreased weight, that can be easily assembled while at the same time able to reduce the likelihood of damage due to excessive forces caused by excessive vibrations, bending moments and/or deformation. SUMMARY In a first aspect, there is provided a skid for supporting a reciprocating pump assembly. The reciprocating pump assembly includes a power end frame assembly having a pair of end plates and a plurality of middle plates disposed between the end plates. The end plates each have at least a pair of feet and the middle plates each have at least one foot. The skid includes a base having a pair of side segments including a top wall, a bottom wall, and a sidewall extending between the top and bottom walls forming a c-shaped channel. In addition, it includes at least one transverse segment coupled to and extending between the pair of side segments and a plurality of spaced apart gussets disposed within the channels. The gussets extend between and connect to the bottom wall and the top wall of the c-shaped channel. The skid further includes a plurality of spaced apart pads extending from the base, the plurality of pads corresponding to the end plate feet and at least another portion of the plurality of pads corresponding to the at least one foot of each middle plate. In one embodiment, the plurality of pads have different thicknesses to accommodate bending of the base such that a top surface of each of the plurality of pads lies in substantially the same plane. In other embodiments, the spaced apart gussets are vertically secured within the channel so as to perpendicularly intersect the top and bottom walls. In yet another embodiment, the spaced apart gussets intersect the top and bottom at a non-perpendicular angle. In still another embodiment, a portion of the spaced apart gussets intersect the top and bottom walls at a non-perpendicular angle and a portion of the spaced apart gussets intersect the top and bottom walls a perpendicular angle. In other embodiments, the at least one transverse segment is hollow. In still other embodiments, the at least one transverse segment comprises three transverse segments extending between and connecting the pair of side segments. In other embodiments, the transverse segments are parallel. In yet another embodiment, the bottom wall includes at least one mounting opening to enable the skid to be secured to a support structure. In a second aspect, there is provided a method of mounting a reciprocating pump assembly to a support skid. The reciprocating pump assembly includes a pair of end plate segments and at least one middle plate segment disposed between the end plate segments. The end plate segments each have at least a pair of feet and the at least one middle plate segment has at least one foot. The method includes forming a base section, wherein forming the base section includes providing a pair of side segments having a c-shaped channel therein and securing respective ends of at least one transverse segment to the pair of side segments. The method also includes securing a plurality of spaced apart gussets within the c-shaped channels, the gussets extending between a bottom wall and a top wall of the c-shaped channel and securing a plurality of pads to the base section, the plurality of pads corresponding to the feet on the pair of end segments and the at least one foot on the at least one middle plate segment. The method further includes aligning the feet of the pump assembly with a corresponding pad on the base section securing the feet of the pump assembly to the base section. In other embodiments, prior to securing the feet to the base section, the method includes machining the plurality of pads such that a top surface of each pad lies in substantially the same plane. In other embodiments, the method includes machining the feet of the pump assembly such that a bottom surface of each of the feet lies in substantially the same plane. In yet another embodiment, the method further comprises securing a reinforcing plate to at least one side segment. In still another embodiment, the method includes providing at least one transverse segment in the form of an I-beam. In still another embodiment, the method includes providing at least one transverse segment having a hollow interior. In a third aspect, there is provided a reciprocating pump assembly including a power end frame assembly having a pair of end plate segments and a plurality of middle plate segments disposed between the end plate segments, the end plate segments each having at least a pair of feet and the middle plate segments each having at least one foot. The assembly further includes a base forming a support surface having a pair of side segments and a transverse segment connecting to and extending between the pair of side segments, the pair of side segments including a top wall, a bottom wall, and a sidewall extending between the top and bottom walls forming a c-shaped channel. The assembly also includes a plurality of spaced apart pads extending from the support surface, the plurality of pads corresponding to the feet on the end plate segment and at least another portion of the plurality of pads corresponding to the at least one foot of each middle plate segment. The pads are disposed between the support surface and the respective feet on the power end frame assembly. According to one aspect, the assembly includes plurality of spaced apart gussets disposed within the c-shaped channels, the gussets extending between and connecting to the bottom wall and the top wall of the c-shaped channel. In certain embodiments, the plurality of spaced apart pads have different thicknesses to accommodate bending of the base such that a top surface of each of the plurality of pads lies in substantially the same plane. In yet other embodiments, the spaced apart gussets are vertically secured within the channel so as to perpendicularly intersect the top and bottom walls. In still other embodiments, the bottom walls of the side segments include at least one mounting opening to enable the skid to be secured to a support structure. Other aspects, features, and advantages will become apparent from the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are part of this disclosure and which illustrate, by way of example, principles of the inventions disclosed. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES The accompanying drawings facilitate an understanding of the various embodiments. FIG. 1 is an illustration of a reciprocating pump assembly having a power end housing and a fluid end housing. FIG. 2A is a top perspective view of a frame assembly of the power end housing of FIG. 1. FIG. 2B is a bottom perspective view of the frame assembly of FIG. 2B. FIG. 3 is front perspective view of a middle plate segment of the frame assembly of FIGS. 2A and 2B. FIG. 4 is a partial exploded front perspective view of a plurality of the middle plate segments of FIG. 3 having a plurality of crosshead support bars. FIG. 5 is a section view of a portion of the frame assembly of FIG. 4 taken along the line 5-5. FIG. 6 is a perspective view of the crosshead support bar. FIG. 7 is a front perspective view of an endplate segment of the frame assembly of FIGS. 2A and 2B. FIG. 8 is rear perspective view of a portion of the frame assembly of FIGS. 2A and 2B in which a plurality of rear support bars are secured thereto. FIG. 9 is a partial exploded front perspective view of a portion of the frame assembly of FIGS. 2A and 2B with a plurality of crosshead support tubes supported therein. FIG. 10A is a top perspective view of a top skin assembly. FIG. 10B is a bottom perspective view of a portion of a bottom skin assembly. FIG. 10C is a perspective view of another portion of the bottom skin assembly. FIG. 10D is a front perspective view of upper and lower nose plates. FIG. 11 is a block diagram illustrating assembly of the frame assembly of FIGS. 2A and 2B. FIG. 12 is a front perspective view of another embodiment of a frame assembly in which a plurality of forged segments having extension members extending therefrom are employed to advantage. FIG. 13 is a rear view of the frame assembly of FIG. 12. FIG. 14 is a perspective view of an end plate segment of the frame assembly of FIGS. 12 and 13. FIG. 15 is a perspective view of a middle plate segment of the frame assembly of FIGS. 12 and 13. FIG. 16 is a perspective view of another embodiment of a middle plate segment. FIG. 17 is a perspective view of yet another embodiment of a middle plate segment. FIGS. 18A and 18B are perspective views of another embodiment of left and right end plate segments. FIG. 19 is a perspective view of another embodiment of a middle plate segment. FIG. 20 is a front perspective view of two adjacently positioned middle plate segments illustrated in FIG. 19. FIGS. 21-23 are simplified section views of the frame assembly of FIG. 29 taken along the line 21-21. FIGS. 24-26 are simplified section views of a crankshaft illustrating bearing races being installed onto the crankshaft. FIGS. 27 and 28 are simplified section views of the crankshaft being inserted into the frame assembly of FIGS. 40 and 41. FIG. 29 is a rear perspective view of another embodiment of a frame assembly in which the end plate segments and middle plate segments are partially cut-away. FIGS. 30-38 are illustrations of the frame assembly of FIG. 29 showing the bearing races being installed onto the bearing support surfaces. FIG. 39 is an illustration of a crankshaft support member for lifting and supporting a crankshaft during installation onto and removal from the power end housing. FIGS. 40-42 are illustrations of the crankshaft support member supporting the crankshaft during installation of the crankshaft onto the power end housing. FIG. 43 is an illustration of the crankshaft support member detached from the crankshaft after installation of the crankshaft onto the power end housing. FIGS. 44-47 illustrate the installation of the outer bearing assemblies to support the crankshaft on the power end housing. FIG. 48 is a front perspective view of a portion of a gearbox coupled to an end plate segment of a frame assembly. FIG. 49 is a front view of the gearbox and end plate segment of FIG. 48. FIG. 50 is a top view of the gearbox and end plate segment of FIGS. 48 and 49. FIG. 51 is a perspective view of an arm member illustrated in FIGS. 48-50. FIG. 52 is a side view of the arm member of FIG. 51. FIG. 53 is a section view of the arm member of FIG. 51 taken along the line 53-53 of FIG. 52. FIG. 54 is a section view of a portion of the frame assembly of FIG. 48-5 taken along the line of 54-54 of FIG. 24. FIG. 55 is a front view of a gearbox and end plate segment of FIG. 48 illustrating an arm member secured to a trailer/skid. FIG. 56 is an illustration of the power end housing of FIG. 1 secured to a skid. FIG. 57 is a top perspective view of the skid illustrated in FIG. 55. FIGS. 58 and 59 are illustrations of an alternate skid arrangement. FIG. 60 is a simplified illustration of the skid of FIGS. 58 and 59 secured to a trailer. FIG. 61 is an exploded cross sectional view of a portion of a middle plate segment of FIG. 19 and a portion of the bottom skin assembly of FIG. 10B. FIG. 62 is a cross sectional view of the bottom skin and middle plate segment of FIG. 61 welded together. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 is an illustration of a reciprocating pump assembly 10, such as, for example, a reciprocating plunger pump. Reciprocating pumps can be used, for example, as frac pumps, mud pumps, cement pumps, and the like. Terminology may be used in this disclosure that is commonly used in a given pump system; however, unless otherwise stated, this disclosure also includes comparable components of other pump systems (e.g., crossheads and pistons). Referring to FIG. 1, the pump assembly 10 includes a power end housing 12 coupled to a fluid end housing 14 via a plurality of stay rods 20. The power end housing 12 includes a crankshaft 16 depicted, for example, in FIG. 40), which is mechanically connected to a motor (not shown), which in operation, rotates the crankshaft 16 in order to drive the reciprocating pump assembly 10. In particular, rotation of the crankshaft 16 causes a plunger assembly 18 to reciprocate toward and away from the fluid end housing 14, which causes fluid to be pumped from one or more fluid cylinders (not illustrated) in the fluid end housing 14 through a discharge port 24. In one embodiment, the crankshaft 16 is cammed so that fluid is pumped from a plurality of cylinders in the fluid end housing 14 to minimize the primary, secondary and tertiary forces associated with reciprocating pumps 10. According to embodiments disclosed herein, the power end housing 14 employs a frame assembly 40 (FIGS. 2A and 2B), which provides for increased structural rigidity (i.e., increased resistance to deformation and/or deflection) and ease of assembly. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 2A and 2B, the frame assembly 40 includes a pair of end segments 42 and 44, a plurality of middle segments 46, a top skin assembly 48 and a bottom skin assembly 50 forming a forward or front wall 54, a rear or back wall 56, and a pair of sidewalls 58 and 60. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 2A and 2B, for example, the frame assembly 40 includes four equally spaced apart middle segments 46 disposed between the end segments 42 and 44 to accommodate, as discussed in further detail below, five plunger assemblies 18 thereby forming a quintuplex pump assembly. However, it should be understood the frame assembly 40 is otherwise configurable. For example, the frame assembly 40 is configurable to accommodate a duplex pump assembly, which can include at least one middle segment 46 disposed between the end segments 42 and 44. Likewise, the frame assembly 40 is configurable to accommodate a triplex pump assembly, which includes two spaced apart middle segments 46 disposed between the end segments 42 and 44. According to some embodiments, each of the segments 42, 44 and 46 are laterally spaced apart approximately twelve inches, although depending on the size of the pump assembly 10, the lateral spacing may be a longer or shorter distance. In yet other embodiments, the lateral spacing is not equal for the middle segments 46. In other embodiments, the frame assembly 40 is configured to include at least one segment 42 or 44. In still other embodiments, the frame assembly 40 includes at least one segment 42 or 44 and does not include the middle segments 46. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 2A and 2B, the frame assembly 40 includes a plurality of feet 52, which, as discussed in greater detail below, are configured to support the power end housing 12 on a support surface, such as, for example, a skid, a truck bed, trailer or other type of platform. In FIG. 2B, for example, each end segment 42 and 44 includes a foot 52 near or adjacent to the forward wall 54 and a foot 52 near or adjacent the rear wall 56. Furthermore, in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2B, each middle segment 46 includes a foot 52 extending near or adjacent to the rear wall 56. It should be understood, however, that the number, size and position of each foot 52 is variable depending on the desired configuration. For example, in some embodiments, an end segment 42 or 44 includes a single foot 52 extending entirely or at least partially between the front and rear walls 54 and 56. In some embodiments, one or more additional feet 52 are otherwise positionable between the feet 52 that are located near or adjacent to the front and rear walls 54 and 56. Thus, for example, in one embodiment, an end segment 42 or 44 includes three, four or even more spaced apart feet 52 for supporting the power end housing 12. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 2B, the feet 52 are integrally formed on segments 42, 44 and 46; however, it should be understood that in other embodiments, the feet 52 are separately attachable to the segments 42, 44 and/or 46. With continued reference to FIG. 2B, each middle segment 46 includes a single foot 52 generally near or adjacent to the rear wall 56. In alternate embodiments, each middle segment 46 includes additional feet 52. For example, in some embodiments, a middle segment 46 includes a foot 52 (not illustrated) at or near the front wall 54 or at any other position between the front and rear wall 54 or 56 in addition to the foot 52 at or near the rear wall 56. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2B, for example, a total of eight feet 52 are used to support the power end housing 14 on a support surface (not illustrated). As will be discussed in greater detail below, the provision of additional feet 52 on the frame assembly 40, and in particular, feet 52 on middle segments 46, provide an increased stiffness resulting in less deflection and/or deformation of the frame assembly 40 during operation the reciprocating pump 10 thereby increasing the operating life of certain components, such as, for example, the bearings utilized to support the crankshaft 16. Referring now to FIGS. 3-5, the middle segments 46 of FIGS. 2A and 2B are illustrated. In FIG. 3, for example, each middle segment 46 includes upper and lower grooves 80 and 82 and a bearing support surface 84. Upper and lower grooves 80 and 82 are positioned and otherwise sized so as to receive corresponding upper and lower crosshead support members 86 and 88 (FIG. 4) that, as explained in greater detail below, provide support for crosshead support tubes 100 (FIG. 9) and a means for more easily aligning and otherwise spacing apart the segments 42, 44 and 46. Furthermore, upper and lower support members 86 and 88 provide structural support to the segments 42, 44 and 46, and thus, the frame assembly 40. For example, referring specifically to FIGS. 3-6, each middle segment 46 is positioned such that the upper and lower grooves 80 and 82 are aligned to receive respective portions of the upper and lower crosshead support members 86 and 88. When secured together, the crosshead support members 86 and 88 provide additional rigidity to and maintain alignment of the segments 42, 44 and 46 and, thus, the frame assembly 40. Referring specifically to FIG. 6, the crosshead support members 86 and 88 are rigid rod-like members and are sized to extend through each of the middle segments 46 and attached to the end segments 42 and 44 (FIG. 9). In FIG. 6, the crosshead support members 86 and 88 are formed having a top surface 90, a bottom surface 92 and end surfaces 94 and 96. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 6, the top surface 90 includes a plurality of spaced apart recessed surfaces 98, each configured to receive and otherwise support at least a portion of a crosshead tube 100 (FIGS. 2A, 2B and 9) therein. Thus, for example, when the upper and lower crosshead support members 86 and 88 are positioned within the upper and lower grooves 80 and 82, respectively, the crosshead tubes 100 fit within and are supported by the recessed surfaces 98 in the upper and lower support members 86 and 88. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 6, the recessed surfaces 98 are arcuately shaped and sized to receive and otherwise conform to the outer surface of the crosshead tubes 100. It should be understood, however, that the recessed surfaces 98 can be otherwise configured. For example, in some embodiments, the recessed surfaces 98 include non-arcuately formed notches or recessed areas. In other embodiments, spaced apart extension members (not illustrated) extend outward from the top surface 90 of the support members 86 and 88, the extension members being spaced apart a sufficient distance to receive and otherwise support the crosshead tube 100 therebetween to prevent movement of the crosshead tube 100 relative to the crosshead support member 86, 88. With continued referenced to FIG. 6, each crosshead support member 86, 88 includes a support segment 102 extending between each of the recessed surfaces 98. The support segments 102 are configured to facilitate alignment and attachment of the support members 86, 88 to the segments 42, 44 and 46. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 6, for example, the bottom surface 92 of the support segments 102 includes an alignment notch or recessed portion 104 positioned to receive and otherwise engage the middle segments 46. Referring specifically to FIGS. 4 and 5, for example, the notches 104 on the upper and lower support members 86 and 88 are formed along the bottom surfaces 92 such that upon attachment of the support members 86 and 88 to the middle segments 46, such notches 104 are aligned with and are configured to conform and/or otherwise interlock with the segments 46. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 4, the frame assembly 40 includes two upper crosshead support members 86 and two lower crosshead support members 88. For example, in FIGS. 3 and 4, each middle segment 46 includes a pair of parallel upper grooves 80 and a pair of parallel and corresponding lower grooves 82 to accommodate a front or first pair of crosshead tube support members 106 and a rear or second pair of crosshead support members 108. In other embodiments, additional pairs of crosshead support members 86 and 88 are utilized, such as, for example, a third pair (not illustrated) of crosshead support members 86 and 88 disposed between the first and second crosshead support members 106 and 108. Furthermore, in alternate embodiments, a single pair of crosshead support member 86 and 88 is utilized. Notwithstanding the number and/or position of the crosshead support members 86 and 88, the crosshead support members 86 and 88 assist in alignment of segments 42, 44 and 46, provide additional support and structural rigidity to the frame assembly 40, both during assembly and operation of the reciprocating pump assembly 10, and provide a means to support the crosshead tubes 100 within the frame assembly 40. Referring now to FIG. 7, the end segment 44 is illustrated. Similar to the middle segments 46, the end segment 44 includes a bearing support surface 84 and upper and lower grooves 80 and 82 configured to receive and otherwise mate with notches 104 adjacent the end surfaces 96 on the crosshead support members 86 and 88 (FIG. 6). While only end segment 44 is illustrated, it should be understood that end segment 42 contains a similar configuration for attachment to crosshead support members 86 and 88 at the opposite end surfaces 94. Referring specifically to FIGS. 3-5 and 7, the bearing support surfaces 84 form arcuately extending openings 110 extending through each of the end and middle segments 42, 44 and 46. As discussed in further detail below, the bearing support surfaces 84 are sized to receive a bearing assembly 290 (See FIGS. 21-38 and 40-46), which facilitate the rotational movement of the crankshaft 16 (FIG. 40). As will be discussed in greater detail below, the openings 110 formed by the bearing support surfaces 84 vary in size to facilitate the assembly of bearing assemblies 290 on respective segments 42, 44 and/or 46. In FIGS. 3, 7 and 8, the rear walls 56 of the end and middle segments 42, 44 and 46 include upper and lower grooves 140 and 142. When the middle segments 46 are positioned and aligned between the end segments 42 and 44, as illustrated, for example, in FIG. 8, an upper rod member 144 and a lower rod member 146 are disposed therein to provide additional support and rigidity to frame assembly 40. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 8, two rod members 144 and 146 are illustrated. However, in other embodiments, a greater or fewer number of rod members 144 and 146 can be utilized. In yet other embodiments, the rod members 144 and 146 extend only a partial distance between the end segments 42 and 44. In other embodiments, the rod members 144 and 146 are configured in a position other than horizontally. For example, in some embodiments, the rod members 144 and/or 146 are angularly disposed along the rear wall 56 of the frame assembly 40. According to some embodiments, the rod members 144 and 146 each include spaced apart alignment notches configured to correspond to and otherwise engage with the rear wall 56 of the frame assembly 40. Such notches provide for ease of assembly and enable self-alignment of the segments 42, 44 and/or 46 during assembly. Referring to FIG. 9, once the crosshead support members 86 and 88 are secured to the frame assembly 40, and in particular, to the segments 42, 44 and 46, the crosshead tubes 100 are secured between crosshead support members 86 and 88 and are positioned generally adjacent to the front wall 54 of the frame assembly 40. Once the crosshead tubes 100 are secured thereto, the top skin assembly 48, as best illustrated in FIG. 10A, is secured to the frame assembly 40. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 10A, the top skin assembly 48 includes a front plate 160 and a rear curvilinear plate 162, which together are sized to cover and otherwise enclose the top portion of the power end housing 12 between the segments 42, 44 and/or 46 by extending from the front wall 54 to the rear wall 56 of the frame assembly 40. However, in alternate embodiments, the top skin assembly 48 is a single unitary plate extending between or at least partially between the front and rear walls 54 and 56. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 2A and 10A, the top skin assembly 48 consists of a plurality of front and rear plates 160 and 162 that are mounted between each of the segments 42, 44 and 46 to enclose the top portion of the power end housing 12. In other embodiments, the top skin assembly 48, is formed of a single unitary sheet sized to overlay the upper or top portion of the frame assembly 40, which extends between the front wall 54, the rear wall 56 and the sidewalls 58 and 60. Referring to FIGS. 2B and FIGS. 10B and 10C, the bottom skin assembly 50 is illustrated. The bottom skin assembly 50 includes a plurality of front plates 164 that are sized to fit between each of the segments 42, 44 and 46 and extending rearward from the front wall 54. The bottom skin assembly 50 further includes a drain plate 166 that extends between the end segments 42 and 44, as best illustrated in FIG. 2B. The drain plate 166 further includes a plurality of drain openings 168 aligned generally beneath the middle segments 46. In other embodiments, the bottom skin assembly 50 is formed of a single unitary sheet sized to overlay the bottom portion of the frame assembly 40, which extends between the front wall 54, the rear wall 56, and the sidewalls 58 and 60. FIG. 10D illustrates upper and lower nose plates 170 and 172, which are secured to the frame assembly 40 to form at least a portion of the front wall 54, as best illustrated in FIG. 2A. In particular, an upper nose plate 170 is secured to the frame assembly 40, between segments 42, 44 and 46, above each crosshead tube 100. Likewise, a lower nose plate 172 is secured to the frame assembly 40, between segments 42, 44 and 46, below each crosshead tube 100. Referring now to FIG. 11, a method of assembling the frame assembly 40 is illustrated. The method begins at block 200 by providing at least one middle segment 46. For example, when assembling a quintuplex pump, four middle segments 46 are provided Likewise, when assembling a triplex pump, two middle segments 46 are provided. Continuing to block 204, the middle segments 46 are positioned such that the upper and lower grooves 80 and 82 on each segment 46 are aligned. Once aligned, the crosshead support members 86 and 88 are aligned with and inserted within the upper and lower grooves 80 and 82 of each middle segment 46, as indicated at block 204. Once positioned within the grooves 80 and 82, the crosshead support members 86 and 88 are secured to the middle segments 46, as indicated at block 206. According to some embodiments, the crosshead support members 86 and 88 are tack welded to the middle segments 46; however, any other suitable means of attachment can be used. At block 208, the end segments 42 and 44 are secured to the crosshead support members 80 and 82 using similar methods of attachment. The method continues at block 210, where at least one rear support rod 144 or 146 is positioned along the rear wall 56 of the frame assembly. In particular, a rear support rod 144 is inserted within a groove 140 disposed in each end segment 42 and 44 and each middle segment 46. In some embodiments, both an upper and lower rear support rod 144 and 146 are inserted into respective upper and lower grooves 140 and 142 on each segment 42, 44 and 46 for providing additional stability to the rear portion of the frame assembly 40. According to some embodiments, the upper and lower support rods 144 and 146 are tack welded to the middle sections 46. At block 212, the method optionally includes securing a plurality of gussets 22 (FIG. 2B) between each of the end segments 42, 44 and middle segments 46, which provide additional stability to the frame assembly 40. At blocks 214 and 216, the top skin assembly 48 and the bottom skin assembly 50 are secured to the frame assembly 40 by welding or other means of attachment. Continuing on to block 218, the feet 52 on each of the segments 42, 44 and 46 are machined such that the ends of each of the feet 52 are aligned in the same plane, so that, as discussed in greater detail below, the frame assembly 40 is securable to a skid or other support surface. While FIG. 11 illustrates one method for assembling the frame assembly 40, it should be understood that the method can occur in other orders. For example, the crosshead support members 86 and 88 are securable to the end segments 42 and 44 prior to securing the cross support members 86 and 88 to the middle segments 46. In addition, the rear support members 140 and 142 are attachable to the segments 42, 44 and 46 prior to attaching the crosshead support members 86 and 88 to the segments 42, 44 and 46. Similarly, the bearing support surfaces 84 can be formed in the segments 42, 44 and/or 46 while secured to the skid. Referring now to FIGS. 12-15, an additional embodiment of the frame assembly 40 of the power end housing 12 is illustrated. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 12-15, the end segments 42 and 44 and middle segments 46 each include gussets or extensions 650 extending from a sidewall of and formed integral with each segment 42, 44 and 46 so as to provide additional strength and stability to the frame assembly 40. For example, referring specifically to FIGS. 14 and 15, each segment 44 and 46 includes a plurality of extensions 650 formed integral with and extending outward from a sidewall and in spaced apart relationship around the bearing support surfaces 84. As illustrated in FIGS. 12 and 13, each extension 650 on a middle segment 46 is positioned to align with and contact a corresponding extension 650 on an adjacently positioned end segment 42 or 44 or middle segment 46, as applicable. Additionally or alternatively, the front wall 54 of each segment 42, 44 and/or 46 is formed of an increased width such that the use and installation of separately attachable upper and lower nose plates 170 and 172 (FIGS. 2A and 2B) is not necessary. For example, as illustrated in FIGS. 16 and 17, the front wall 54 is formed integral with and extending from a sidewall of the segment 42, 44 and/or 46 such that when segments 42, 44 and/or 46 are adjacently positioned to form the frame assembly 40, the edges 50a and 50b of adjacently positioned frame members 42, 44 and/or 46 align and contact each other for subsequent welding and/or other forms of attachment. Similarly, each segment 42, 44 and/or 46 can optionally be formed with rear walls 56 integrally formed with an increased width extending from the sidewall such that the use and installation of separately attachable members disposed between each of the segments 42, 44 and/or 46 is avoided. Additionally and/or alternatively, each of the segments 42, 44 and/or 46 can be formed such that, in addition to the front and rear walls 54 and 56 being formed integral with the segments 42, 44 and/or 46, the top and bottom skins 48 and 50 can be formed integral thereto, as best illustrated in FIG. 17. Thus, when segments 42, 44 and/or 46 are adjacently positioned to form the frame assembly 40, the edges 48a and 48b and 50a and 50b of the top and bottom skins 48 and 50, respectively, of adjacently positioned frame members 42, 44 and/or 46 contact each other for subsequent welding, thereby avoiding the need for separately attachable skins 48 and 50 to be welded between the segments 42, 44 and/or 46. According to embodiments disclosed herein, one or more of the segments 42, 44 and/or 46 are forged, including extensions 650; however, other methods of manufacture are available (i.e., casting or otherwise). When segments 42, 44 and/or 46 are forged, welding time is reduced and less machining is required. As such, this results in ease of manufacture, lower costs, and higher strength. According to some embodiments, the segments 42, 44 and/or 46 are hot forged. According to some embodiments, the strength of the segments 42, 44 and/or 46 is increased by about 10-15 percent from a machined segment. According to embodiments disclosed herein, the end segments 42 and 44 may be forged and the middle segments may be machined. In other embodiments, only one end segment 42 or 44 may be forged and all or a some of the middle plate segments 46 may be forged and the remaining segments 42, 44 and/or 46 machined or otherwise formed. Referring now to FIGS. 18A-20, an additional embodiment of portions of the frame assembly 40 of the power end housing 12 is illustrated. In FIGS. 18A, 18B and 19, a plurality of extensions 650 are disposed generally adjacent to the bearing support surfaces 84 on each of the end segments 42 and 44 and the middle plate segment 46. As illustrated, five extensions 650 are spaced apart from each other and generally around the bearing support surface 84; however, it should be understood that a greater or fewer number of extensions 650 may be utilized around the bearing support surfaces 84. Additionally and as illustrated in FIGS. 18A, 18B and 19, each plate segment 42, 44 and 46 include upper and lower extensions 652 extending outwardly therefrom and disposed generally between the front wall 54 and the bearing support surfaces 84. In addition to providing additional rigidity to the frame assembly 40, the extensions 652 are used to support the crosshead tubes 100 (FIG. 9). When the extensions 652 are utilized, as illustrated in FIGS. 18A-20, crosshead tube support members 86 and 88 (FIG. 4) are no longer necessary since the extensions 652 act to align and sufficiently space apart the segments 42, 44 and/or 46 while at the same time providing support to the crosshead tubes 100. In particular, each extension 652 includes a curvilinear portion 654 sized to receive the cylindrical crosshead tubes 100. As such, the amount of welds can be substantially reduced (i.e., no need to weld the crosshead tube support members 86 and 88 to the frame assembly 40) because the only welding required is at the point of contact between adjacently positioned extension members 652. In FIGS. 18A- 20, in addition to extensions 650 and 652 being used to align and secure the segments 42, 44 and/or 46 together, the front wall 54 of each segment 42, 44 and/or 46 are sized and position to function in this fashion. A method of assembling the frame assembly 40 illustrated in FIGS. 18A-20 is hereinafter described. During assembly, at least one middle segment 46 is provided. For example, when assembling a quintuplex pump, four middle segments 46 are provided Likewise, when assembling a triplex pump, two middle segments 46 are provided. The end segments 42 and 44 and the desired number of middle segments 46 are aligned such that the ends of each extension 650, and edges of the front walls 54, rear walls 56 and top and bottom walls 58 and 60, as applicable, are aligned and otherwise adjacent to each other for attachment by welding or otherwise. In the embodiment illustrated herein, the end of each extension 650 includes a planar surface having chamfered corners to facilitate welding attachment. By including extensions 650 that are integral with segments 42, 44 and/or 46, only a single weld is necessary to connect the extensions 650 together, and thus adjacent segments 42, 44 and/or 46, rather than employing a single gusset 22 that must be welded to both adjacent segments 42, 44 and/or 46. FIGS. 21-46 illustrate an embodiment of a graduated frame assembly in which the frame assembly 40 includes bearing support surfaces 84 of varying diameters to facilitate ease of installation of bearing assemblies 290 (FIG. 28), as more fully described below. Referring specifically to FIG. 21, which is a cross-section of the frame assembly 40 taken along the line 21-21 of FIG. 29, each bearing support surface 84 is configured to receive and otherwise support the bearing assembly 290 (FIG. 28) to rotatably support the crankshaft 16 thereon. As illustrated in FIG. 21, the diameter of each of the bearing support surfaces 84 increases from the innermost middle segments 46 outward to the end segments 42 and 44. For example, in the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 21 and 29, the frame assembly 40 includes four middle segments 300, 302, 304 and 306 and end segments 308 and 310. Each segment 300-310 includes a respective bearing support surface 312, 314, 316, 318, 320 and 322 for supporting a respective bearing assembly 290 (FIG. 28). As illustrated in FIGS. 21 and 29, the innermost bearing support surfaces 314 and 316 on segments 302 and 304 are formed having inner diameters smaller than the inner diameters of adjacently positioned bearing support surfaces 312 and 318 on segments 300 and 306, respectively, as represented by an amount of twice the distance T1 (FIG. 21). Similarly, the bearing support surfaces 312 and 318 on segments 300 and 306, respectively, are formed having diameters smaller than the inner diameters of adjacently positioned bearing support surfaces 320 and 322 on end segments 308 and 310, respectively, as represented, for example, by an amount of twice the distance of T2 (FIG. 21). According to some embodiments, the diameter of bearing support surfaces 314 and 316 is about 25 inches, the diameter of bearing support surfaces 312 and 318 is about 25.25 inches, and the diameter of bearing support surfaces 320 and 322 is about 25.5 inches. It should be understood, however, that the diameters can vary depending on the size of the frame assembly 40. For example, in some embodiments, the diameters can range between 2 inches to 35 inches or even larger amounts. Regardless of the size of the frame assembly 40, and as explained in greater detail below, this configuration of varying or “graduated” diameters of the bearing support surfaces 84 enables installation of the bearing assemblies 290 to be unimpeded and simplified. With continued reference to FIGS. 21 and 29-34, installation of the outer bearing races 324 and 326 onto the bearing support surfaces 314 and 316 is described. As illustrated, the inner diameters of bearing support surfaces 312, 318, 320 and 322 are larger than the outer diameter of the outer bearing races 324 and 326. For example, in one embodiment, the outer diameter of the bearing races 324 and 326 is about 25 inches. Thus, as the outer bearing races 324 and 326 are moved in the direction of arrows 328 and 330 and through the openings 110 formed by bearing support surfaces 312, 318, 320 and 322, the relative size differences of about 0.5 inches between the outer bearing races 324 and 326 and the diameter of bearing support surfaces 320 and 322, and the relative size differences of about 0.25 inches between the outer bearing races 324 and 326 and the diameter of bearing support surfaces 312 and 318, enable unimpeded movement of the bearing races 324 and 326 therethrough. In another embodiment, the inner diameters of at least one bearing support surface 312, 318, 320 and 322 is larger than the outer diameter of at least one of the outer bearing races 324 and 326. Thus, when installing the bearing races 324 and 326 on bearing support surfaces 314 and 316, the bearing races 324 and 326 are inserted into the frame assembly 40 in the direction of arrows 328 and 330, respectively, toward middle segments 302 and 304 and through bearing support surfaces 312, 318, 320 and 322 with adequate clearance to minimize and/or substantially reduce the likelihood of the outer bearing races 324 and/or 326 contacting the bearing support surfaces 312, 318, 320 and 322 thereby “trapping” a bearing race 324 and/or 326 in the wrong position and/or otherwise damaging the bearing races 324 or 326 and/or the bearing support surfaces 312, 318, 320 and 322. In some embodiments, the outer bearing races 324 and 326 are substantially cooled to cause the races 324 and 326 to shrink, thereby increasing the gaps between the races 324 and 326 and the support surfaces 312, 318, 320 and 322. Once positioned on the bearing support surfaces 314 and 316, the temperature of the races 324 and 326 increases allowing the bearing races 324 and 326 to thermally expand to create an interference fit with the bearing support surfaces 314 and 316. Once the outer bearing races 324 and 326 are installed on the bearing support surfaces 314 and 316 (FIGS. 22 and 34), the outer bearing races 332 and 334 are then inserted into the frame assembly 40 in the direction of arrows 328 and 330, as best illustrated in FIGS. 22 and 35-38. Similar to the outer bearing races 324 and 326, the outer diameter of bearing races 332 and 334 is smaller than inner diameter of bearing support surfaces 320 and 322 to facilitate unimpeded movement of the bearing races 332 and 334 for positioning onto support surfaces 312 and 318, respectively. According to some embodiments, the outer diameter of the bearing races 332 and 334 is about 0.25 inches smaller than the inner diameters of the bearing support surfaces 320 and 322. It should be understood, however, that the outer diameter of the bearing races 332 and 334 may vary. For example, in one embodiment, the outer diameter of the bearing races 332 and 334 may range between 30/1000 of an inch to 300/1000 of an inch smaller than the inner diameters of the bearing support surfaces 320 and 322. In other embodiments, the outer diameter of at least one of the bearing races 332 and 334 is equal to or smaller than 0.30 inches, 0.25 inches, 0.20 inches, 0.15 inches, or 0.10 inches smaller than the inner diameters of the bearing support surfaces 320 and 322. In some embodiments, similar variations in diameters can be seen between outer diameters of the bearing races 324 and 326 compared with the outer diameters of bearing races 332 and 334. Referring to FIG. 23, after the bearing races 324, 326, 332 and 334 are installed on the frame assembly 40. As discussed in greater detail below, the bearing races 324, 326, 332 and 334 are used to support the crankshaft 16 on the frame assembly 40, as illustrated, for example, in FIGS. 28 and 41. Referring now to FIGS. 24-26, assembly of the crankshaft 16 and inner bearing races 412 and 414 thereon is illustrated. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 24, for example, the crankshaft 16 includes a plurality of journals 400, 402, 404, 406, 408 and 410 that are configured to receive a plurality of bearing races 412 and 414 thereon. As illustrated in FIG. 24, journals 404 and 406 are formed having a diameter that is larger than the diameters of journals 402 and 408. Likewise, journals 402 and 408 are formed having a diameter that is larger than the diameter of journals 400 and 410. According to one exemplary embodiment, the diameters of journals 402 and 408 are between about 0.030 and 0.062 inches smaller than the diameter of the journals 404 and 406, although it should be understood that the relative lengths may be either larger or smaller. In addition and according to another exemplary embodiment, the diameter of the journals 400 and 410 are between about 0.062 and 0.124 inches smaller than the diameter of the journals 404 and 406, although it should be understood that the relative lengths may be either larger or smaller. Regardless of the diameter size of journals 400, 402, 404, 406, 408 and 410, the varying sized diameters provide ease of installation and/or removal of crankshaft bearings from the crankshaft 16. For example, when assembling the bearing assemblies 412-418 onto the crankshaft 16, the inner bearing races 412 are first installed followed by the inner bearing races 414. As illustrated in FIGS. 24 and 25, for example, an inner diameter of the inner bearing races 412 is larger than the outer diameters of journal surfaces 400, 402, 408 and 410, which facilitates unimpeded installation of the bearing races 412 onto the crankshaft 16, and in particular, journals 404 and 406. In particular, the inner bearing races 412 are positioned adjacent to each end of the crankshaft 16 and moved in the direction of arrows 328 and 330 toward journals 404 and 406. Once the innermost bearing assemblies 412 are secured onto the surfaces 404 and 406, a pair of inner bearing races 414 are then positioned onto journals 402 and 408, as illustrated in FIG. 26. The inner diameter of the inner bearing races 414 is larger than the diameter of journals 400 and 410 to facilitate unimpeded movement in the direction of arrows 328 and 330 across the journals 400 and 410. Once the inner bearing races 412 and 414 are secured onto the crankshaft 16, the outer bearing components, which include bearing races 416 and 418, are then installed onto and around the journals 400 and 410, as best illustrated in FIG. 26. According to some embodiments disclosed herein, in addition to sizing the components to have different non-interfering diameters, the crankshaft 16 is optionally cooled to a predetermined temperature in order to effectuate thermal cooling thereby causing the crankshaft to contract in size. When cooled and in the contracted state, the inner bearing races 412, 414, 416 and 418 are positionable on the crankshaft 16. As the temperature of the crankshaft 16 increases, the bearing races 412, 414, 416 and 418 are secured to the crankshaft 16 by an interference fit. According to other embodiments disclosed herein, inner bearing races 412, 414, 416 and 418 can be heated (e.g., such as by induction heating) to a predetermined temperature thereby causing the inner bearing races 412, 414, 416 and 418 to increase in size. Inner bearings races 412, 414, 416 and 418 can then be positioned on crankshaft 16 and secured thereto by an interference fit. After the bearing races 412, 414, 416 and 418 are installed onto the crankshaft 16 (FIGS. 26 and 40), the crankshaft 16 is secured inside the frame assembly 40. Referring specifically to FIGS. 27, 28, 40 and 41, for example, the crankshaft 16 is moved in the direction of arrow 328 such that the inner bearing races 412 are aligned with and otherwise engage outer bearing races 324 and 326, the inner bearing races 414 are aligned with and otherwise engage the outer bearing races 332 and 334, and the bearing race 418 is aligned with the opening 110 on the end segment 44. According to some embodiments, the crankshaft 16 can be installed on the opposite side of the frame assembly 40 such that when moved in the direction opposite of arrow 328, the crankshaft 16 is inserted within the frame assembly 40. Referring now to FIGS. 39-43, a crankshaft support device 700 is employed for supporting the crankshaft 16 during installation and removal thereof. In use, the crankshaft support device 700 is configured to support the crankshaft 16 in a generally horizontal position as illustrated, for example, in FIG. 40, so as to facilitate alignment of the crankshaft 16 with the bearing support surfaces 84. As explained above, once aligned with the bearing support surfaces 84, the crankshaft 16 is movable along a horizontal axis (lifted and supported via a crane or otherwise) in the direction of arrow 328 for insertion within the openings 110 formed by the bearing support surfaces 84. Once oriented in the desired position, the support device 700 is detached from the crankshaft 16. Referring specifically to FIG. 39, the support device 700 includes a frame assembly 702 having a first segment 704 oriented to extend substantially along the length of the crankshaft 16 and a second portion 706 extending from the first portion 704. The frame assembly further includes a base section 708, which as described in further detail below, is used to secure the crankshaft 16 to the support device 700. As illustrated, the second portion 706 extends a predetermined distance from the first portion 704 so as to enable the crankshaft 16 to be spaced apart from the first portion 704 such that when inserting the crankshaft inside the bearing support surfaces 84, the first portion 704 does not contact any portion of the power end housing 12. Referring to FIGS. 39 and 43, the base section 708 includes a cavity 710 sized to correspond to and receive an end of the crankshaft 16 therein. As illustrated in FIGS. 43-44, the crankshaft end includes threaded openings corresponding to openings 716 in the base section 708. When securing the support device 700 to the crankshaft 16, the openings 716 are aligned with corresponding openings in the end of the crankshaft 16 and a pair of threaded screws 718 are inserted therethrough to securely fasten the crankshaft 16 to the support device 700. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 39-43, the first section 704 includes a pair of eyelets 720 for receiving and engaging with a hanging structure, such as a chain 722, that extends from a crane or other lifting structure (not illustrated). The eyelets 720 are positioned on the first section 704 and the length of the chains 722 are sized so that the crankshaft 16, when secured to the support device 700, remains generally horizontal and/or otherwise parallel with an axis extending through the center of the openings 110 formed by the bearing support surfaces 84. According to some embodiments, the eyelets 720 have lifting shackles (not illustrated) inserted therein to secure the support device 700 to the chains. One lifting shackle attaches to a single length chain and the second shackle attaches to an adjustable chain to provide tiling freedom during installation. For example, the eyelet 720 that is farthest from second portion 706 can be engaged with an adjustable hanging structure, such as chain 722, such that crankshaft 16 can be balanced substantially horizontally (e.g., to facilitate alignment of the crankshaft 16 with the bearing support surfaces 84) by adjusting the adjustable hanging structure. It should be understood that support structure 700 may be otherwise configured. For example, the first section 704 may extend a distance longer or shorter than the overall length of the crankshaft 16. Likewise, the length of the second section 706 may otherwise vary (i.e., may be longer or shorter than that depicted in FIGS. 39-43) and may extend in any direction other than perpendicularly from the first section 704. According to some embodiments, the support structure 700 is formed of metal, wherein the first section 704, the second section 706 and the base section are welded together. It should be understood, however, that the support structure 700 may be otherwise formed from a non-metallic material and be, for example, a single contiguous structure formed without welding. According to some embodiments and as best illustrated in FIGS. 28 and 43-47, once the crankshaft 16 is installed in the power end 12, a pair of carrier members 420 and 422, which support bearing races 290 thereon, are installed onto the end segments 310 and 308, respectively, for supporting the crankshaft 16 for rotatable movement thereof. Referring now to FIGS. 48-50, a gearbox 600 is secured to the end plate 44 of the frame assembly 40 via a pair arm members 602 to resist movement of the gearbox 600 relative to the frame assembly 40. In FIGS. 48-50, for example, two arm members 602 are illustrated; however, in other embodiments, a greater or fewer number of arm members 602 may be employed. For example, according to some embodiments, three or more arm members 602 are secured between the end plate 44 and the gearbox 600 to resist relative movement between the end plate 44 and the gearbox 600. In operation, the position of the arm members 602 are optimized in order to resist rotational and axial movement to prevent and/or otherwise eliminate damage to the frame 40 and/or gearbox 600, including the outer housing and thus, the components therein. In FIGS. 48-50, the first and second ends 604 and 606 of the arm members 602 are secured to the end plate of gearbox 600 (e.g., at gusset 620) and end plate 44 of frame assembly 40 (e.g., at gusset 620)—respectively, such that the arm members 602 extend in a parallel configuration and in the same plane (FIG. 50). In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 48, the arm members 602 generally extend and are otherwise disposed in a vertical plane that is near and/or otherwise adjacent to the front wall 54 of the frame assembly 40. However, in other embodiments, the arm members 602 may be otherwise configured to accommodate a different size and/or center of gravity of the gearbox 600, which varies depending on the size of the reciprocating pump assembly 10. For example, the arm members 602 may be secured in a non-parallel fashion and/or extend in different planes. Furthermore, the arm members 602, instead of being positioned and secured near or adjacent to the front wall 54 of the frame assembly 40, may be secured at other positions, such as, for example, at any position between the front wall 54 and the rear wall 56 of the frame assembly 40. Likewise, the arm members 602 are secured at any position along the gearbox 600 to resist rotational and/or axial movement of the gearbox 600 relative to the frame assembly 40. Referring to FIGS. 51-54, the arm member 602 includes an elongate body 608 and ball joints 610 at the first and second ends 604 and 606 to facilitate pivotable movement, as discussed further below, during installation of and attachment of the arm members 602 to the gearbox 600 and the frame assembly 40. Furthermore, in some embodiments, each arm member 602 is adjustable in length to accommodate different sized configurations of the reciprocating pump assembly 10. Referring to FIG. 53, for example, each ball joint 610 is movable relative to the elongate body 608 via a pair of threaded adjustment bolts 612, such that, when it is desired to extend the length of the arm member 602, the elongate body 608 is rotated relative to the bolts 612 on each end 604 and 606. Thus, for example, in the event it is desired to extend the length of an arm member 602, the body member 608 is rotated in the direction of arrow 614 (FIG. 51), which in turn causes rotational movement of the body member 608 with respect to the bolts 612 (FIG. 53) to extend the length of the arm member 602. Similarly, in the event it is desired to shorten the length of an arm member 602, the body member is rotated in the direction opposite of arrow 614 to cause movement of the body member 608 with respect to the bolts 612 to reduce the length of the arm member 602. Once the arm member 602 is at the desired length, a pair of nuts 616 are tightened so that they abut against the body 608 to prevent relative movement of the adjustment bolts 612 relative to the elongate body 608. While embodiments of the arm member 602 illustrated having adjustable bolts 612 on both sides of the elongate body 608, it should be understood that the arm member 602 may be otherwise configured. For example, in some embodiments, the arm member 602 is of a fixed length without the ability to be adjusted in length. In other embodiments, the arm member 602 includes only one end 604 or 606 that is adjustable in length. Thus, for example, the arm member 602 includes only a single threaded bolt 612 being adjustable to lengthen or shorten the arm member 602. In yet other embodiments, the arm member 602 includes telescoping portions (not illustrated) that slide and otherwise move in a telescoping relationship to adjust the length thereof. A cotter pin or any other locking device is usable to secure the telescoping segments to prevent separation and/or relative movement between the members during operation of the pump assembly 10. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 51-54, the arm members 602 are secured to the pump assembly 10 and the gearbox 600 via a shoulder bolt 618 disposed in each end 604 and 606. The shoulder bolts 618 secure the ends of the support members 602 to respective gussets 620 on the power end housing 12 and the gearbox 600 (FIG. 49). Referring specifically to FIG. 54, each shoulder bolt 618 is sized to fit within a corresponding counterbore 622 formed in each gusset 620. As illustrated in FIG. 54, each counterbore includes a first section 622a having a first diameter and a second section 622b having a second diameter. In FIG. 54, the first diameter is larger than the second diameter so as to, as discussed in further detail below, receive corresponding portions of the shoulder bolt 618 therein to reduce failure of the shoulder bolt 618, which oftentimes occurs in response to shear stresses generated during operation of the reciprocating pump assembly 10. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 54, the shoulder bolt 618 includes a first portion 618a having a first diameter and a second portion 618b having a second diameter, the diameters of the first and second portions 618a and 618b corresponding to the diameters of portions 622a and 622b of the counterbore 622. The shoulder bolt 618 is secured within the counterbore 622 via a threaded connection between portions 618b and 622b of the shoulder bolt 618 and the counterbore 622, respectively. According to some embodiments, the first portion 622a of the counterbore 622 is precision machined to have a clearance between the first portion 618a of the shoulder bolt 618 and the first portion 622a of the counterbore 622 of about 0.002 inches. Accordingly, when a shear force F acts on the shoulder bolt 618, a significant portion of the shear is absorbed or otherwise countered by the first portion 618a of the shoulder bolt 618 rather than the threaded second portion 618b of the shoulder bolt 618. It should be understood that the clearance between the first portion 618a of the shoulder bolt 618 and the first portion 622a of the counterbore 622 may vary (i.e., the clearance therebetween may be greater or less than 0.002 inches). By having a larger diameter first section 618a larger than the second section 618b , the shear stresses acting on the threaded section 618b are reduced thereby reducing the likelihood of failure of the connection between the arm member 602 and the frame assembly 40 and the gearbox 600. During assembly of the reciprocating pump assembly 10, the gearbox 600 is secured to the power end housing 12. Once secured, at least one arm member 602 is provided for attachment between the end segment 44 and the gearbox 600 to resist relative movement, including relative axial and rotational movement, between the gearbox 600 and the power end housing 12. According to some embodiments, the length of the arm member 602 is first adjusted to the necessary length so as to connect to both the power end housing 12 and the gearbox 600. Once positioned to the desired length, the ends 604 and 606 of the arm member 602 are aligned with the counterbores 622 on the respective power end housing 12 and the gearbox 600. The shoulder bolts 618 are then inserted through ball joints 610 on respective ends 604 and 606 and then into the counterbores 622. Each shoulder bolt 618 is tightened within the counterbores 622 to prevent separation of the shoulder bolts 618 from the counterbores 622. Alternatively, either end 604 or 606 is first secured to either the power end housing 12 or the gearbox 600 as previously described. Once secured thereto, the unsecured or free end 604 or 606 is pivoted via the ball joint 610 so that the ball joint 610 on the unsecured end of the arm member 602 is otherwise aligned with the counterbore 622 on the power end housing 12 or the gearbox 600, whichever is unattached to the arm member 602. Once aligned, a shoulder bolt 618 is used to secure the second end 604 or 606 to the corresponding counterbore 622. If, however, prior to securing the second end 604 or 604, the ball joint 610 cannot be aligned with the counterbore 622, the length of the arm member 602 is adjusted, as previously discussed, so that the ball joint 610 aligns with the counterbore 622 to enable the shoulder bolt 618 to secure the arm member 602 thereto. It should be understood that while the arm members 602 are secured between the gearbox 600 and the power end housing 12, the arm members 602 may be otherwise utilized. For example, referring to FIG. 55, one arm member 602 is secured between the power end housing 12 and a second arm 602 is secured between the gearbox 600 and either a skid or a trailer 660. Alternatively, the arm members 602 may both extend from the gearbox 600 and the power end housing 12 directly to the skid and/or trailer 660. Referring now to FIGS. 56 and 57, the power end housing 12 is supported on a skid 500. Referring specifically to FIG. 56, the skid 500 includes a base member 502, the base member having a pair of side segments 504 and 506, transverse segments 508, 510, and 512 extending between and connecting the side segments 504 and 506, and feet 514 for supporting the skid 500 on a support surface. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 56, the skid 500 includes a plurality of pads 516, 518, 520, 522, 524, 526, 528 and 530 that correspond to feet 52 on the frame assembly 40. For example, referring specifically to FIG. 55, pads 520, 522, 524 and 526 correspond to and are positioned to align with the feet 52 on the middle segments 46. Similarly, pads 516, 518, 528 and 530 correspond to and are positioned to align with feet 52 on the end segments 42 and 44. The skid 500 further includes a pair of pads 532 and 534 to support at least a portion of the fluid end housing 14 (FIG. 1). Referring specifically to FIG. 57, the side segments 504, 506 and transverse segment 508 each include a plurality of gussets 540 secured thereto to increase the stiffness of the skid 500 to resist bending and torsional loading. In FIG. 57, each side segment 504 and 506 include two spaced apart gussets 540 and the transverse segment 508 includes five spaced apart gussets 540, disposed between the pads 518, 520, 522, 524, 526, and 530. It should be understood, however, that a greater or fewer number of gussets 540 may be utilized on the skid 500 to increase the stiffness thereof. According to some embodiments, the pads 520, 522, 524 and 526 have a thickness that is different from the thickness of pads 516, 518, 528 and 530. For example, in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 56, the pads 520, 522, 524 and 526 have a thickness that is less than the thickness of pads 516, 518, 528 and 530. The varying thickness provides a gap between the feet 52 and the pads 520, 522, 524 and 526 to enable the frame assembly 40 to be shimmed in order to reduce “rocking”, vibration, deformation and other unwanted movement. During manufacture of the frame assembly 40, according to one embodiment, the feet 52 on segments 42, 44 and 46 are machined so as to lie on the same plane such that when frame assembly is supported on the pads 516, 518, 520, 522, 524, 526, 528 and 530, feet 52 on end segments 42 and 44 are in contact with pads 516, 518, 528 and 530 and feet 52 on middle segments 46 are aligned with but otherwise spaced apart from pads 520, 522, 524 and 526 to provide a gap to receive a shim or other spacer element. During assembly of the power end housing 12 to the skid 500, the desired shim or other spacer elements can be inserted in the gaps formed between the feet 52 and the pads 520, 522, 524 and 526 to reduce and or otherwise eliminate rocking or other unwanted movement of the power end housing 12 relative to the skid 500. In other embodiments, the feet 52 on middle segments 46 are formed to extend onto a different plane than the plane containing the feet 52 on the end segments 42 and 44 and the pads 520, 522, 524 and 526 have a lesser thickness than the pads 516, 518, 528 and 530. In other embodiments, each pad 516-528 is the same thickness and shims are used to fill any gap between the foot 52 and the pads 516-528. According to other embodiments, the pads have a differing thickness to accommodate bends in the skid 500. For example, in the event the transverse segment 508 is bent (i.e. the section 508 of the segment near the pad 530 is lower than the section of the segment 508 near pad 518), the pads 518, 520, 522, 524, 526, and/or 530 are machined, as needed, such that a top surface of the pads 518′, 520′, 522′, 524, 526′, and/or 530′ rest in the same plane. Accordingly, if the section 508 of the segment near the pad 530 is lower than the section of the segment 508 near pads 518, the thickness of pad 530 will be greater than the thickness of the pad 518, because a greater portion of the pad 518 must be removed in order for surfaces 518′ and 530′ to lie in the same plane. Referring now to FIGS. 58-60, an alternate skid configuration 800 is illustrated. In FIGS. 58 and 59, the skid 800 includes transverse support members 808, 810 and 812 extending between and connecting the side segments 804 and 806. The transverse support members 810 and 812 are formed having a hollow interior and provide additional rigidity and support for the areas around the pads 816, 828, 832 and 834. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 58 and 59, for example, the transverse segment 808 is shaped as an I-beam and includes a plurality of vertical gussets 840 disposed on each side of a web member 841; however, it should be understood that the transverse segment may be shapes other than an I-beam shape. The skid 800 further includes a plurality of vertical gussets 840 disposed on the side segments 804 and 806. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 59, the side segments 804 and 806 are formed having a “C” shaped channel in which the gussets 840 are disposed therein; however, it should be understood that the side segments 804 and 806 can be formed other than “C” shaped. Furthermore, the side segments 804 and 806 each include a plurality angularly disposed gussets 842 disposed within the “C” shaped channel. Gussets 840 and 842 provide additional support and rigidity to the skid 800. Referring specifically to FIGS. 58 and 59, the transverse segment 508 includes a plurality of gussets 840 disposed around pads 818, 820, 822, 824, 826 and 830 and on both sides of the web 841 to provide additional support when the power end housing 12 is secured to the skid 800. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 59, the gussets 840 are positioned so as to form a channel 844 to provide access to mounting bolts (not illustrated) to enable tighten mounting bolts to secure the feet 52 to the skid 800. According to some embodiments, each side segment 804 and 806 optionally includes a reinforcing plate 862 secured thereto to provide additional rigidity to the skid 800. In FIG. 58, for example, the reinforcing plate 862 extends substantially between the transverse support members 808 and 810. Although the reinforcing plates may extend for lesser distances and/or be formed of multiple sections. It should be understood that skids 500 and 800 may be otherwise configured. For example, a greater or fewer number of transverse segments may be utilized. Likewise, additional side segments may be positioned parallel to side segments 504, 506 and 804, 806. In other embodiments, additional segments may be angularly disposed between the side segments, the transverse segments or any combinations thereof. Referring specifically to FIGS. 58-60, the skid 800 further includes a plurality mounting openings 846 disposed on the side segments 804 and 806, the openings 846 spaced apart and positioned to enable the skid 800 to be secured to a trailer 848 (FIG. 60). In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 60, the trailer 848 includes a chassis 850 having longitudinal frame segments 852 and 854 and a transverse segment 856 extending between the longitudinal frame segments 852 and 854. The longitudinal segments 852 and 854 include slots positioned to align with the slots 846 on the skid 800 to enable the skid 800 to be secured to the chassis 850 via a plurality of bolts or any other suitable attachment means. As illustrated in FIGS. 58 and 59, the slots 846 are elongated so as to accommodate differing sized chassis 850 (i.e., the longitudinal frame segments 852 and 854 being spaced farther apart or closer together). Referring to FIG. 60, a bracket 860 is optionally attachable to and cantilevers from the chassis 850 so as to provide additional support to the skid 800 when the power end housing 12 is secured thereto. Referring now to FIGS. 61 and 62, the bottom skin 164 is welded to the middle plate segment 46. In FIGS. 61 and 62, the bottom skin 164 is formed having a generally “J” shaped groove 920 on each edge to be joined with the corresponding segment 46 (or end plate segment 42 or 44, as applicable) at its weld joint edge near the outer surface. The segment 46 has a generally reverse “J” shaped groove 905 and a backing step 910. The backing step 910 supports the root surface 919 of the bottom skin 164 on a backing surface 915. The backing surface 915 transitions to the “J” groove 905 with a mating surface 913, which abuts the mating end 917 of the bottom skin 164. The mating surface 913 prevents lateral movement of the bottom skin 164. In one embodiment, mating surface 913 has a depth about 0.06 inches and the backing surface 915 is extended for about 0.13 inches from the mating surface 913. The mating end 917 is about 0.06 inches thick and can thus evenly join the “J” groove 920 with the “J” groove 905, as further described below. The “J” groove 920 of the bottom skin 164 is joined with the “J” groove 905 of the segment 46 to form a “U” groove for receiving weld metal to enable formation of a complete penetration weld, without requiring a separate a backing plate. For example, a molten weld metal 930 is provided to the “U” groove formed from the two “J” grooves 905 and 920. In one embodiment, the weld metal 930 may be the same or materially similar to the base metal of the segment 46 and the bottom skin 164. Welding fusion occurs between the weld metal 930, the bottom skin 164 and the segment 46 and forms a fused region 935 though the thickness of the segment 46, thus unifying the three pieces (i.e., the segment 46, the weld material 930, and the bottom skin 164) into one. For example, the fused region may have a thickness of about 0.06″ to 0.13″, depending on welding power and material. The solidified weld metal 930 may not necessarily be planed as illustrated but a proximate plane surface can be achieved with proper control of the amount of the weld metal 930. Various welding methods may be used, such as flux-cored arc welding, gas metal arc welding, submerged arc welding, or other appropriate method. In some embodiments, the segment 46, the weld metal 930, and the bottom skin 164 may be submerged in a solution for welding. It should be understood that the above-mentioned welding process can be used to secure both the top and bottom skin assemblies 162 and 164 to the end and middle plate segments 42, 44 and/or 46. The various embodiments and aspects described herein provide multiple advantages such as, for example, providing a power end housing frame assembly 40 having components that can self-align, enable bearing assemblies to be inserted with minimal risk that the bearing assemblies will be trapped on the bearing support surfaces, can be more easily assembled, require less welding, can be manufactured at a reduced weight, and have increased strength thereby operating with less deflection and/or deformation to increase the operating life and integrity of the frame assembly 40 while at the same time reducing manufacturing costs. In the foregoing description of certain embodiments, specific terminology has been resorted to for the sake of clarity. However, the disclosure is not intended to be limited to the specific terms so selected, and it is to be understood that each specific term includes other technical equivalents which operate in a similar manner to accomplish a similar technical purpose. Terms such as “left” and right”, “front” and “rear”, “above” and “below” and the like are used as words of convenience to provide reference points and are not to be construed as limiting terms. In this specification, the word “comprising” is to be understood in its “open” sense, that is, in the sense of “including”, and thus not limited to its “closed” sense, that is the sense of “consisting only of”. A corresponding meaning is to be attributed to the corresponding words “comprise”, “comprised” and “comprises” where they appear. In addition, the foregoing describes only some embodiments of the invention(s), and alterations, modifications, additions and/or changes can be made thereto without departing from the scope and spirit of the disclosed embodiments, the embodiments being illustrative and not restrictive. Furthermore, invention(s) have been described in connection with what are presently considered to be the most practical and preferred embodiments and it is to be understood that the invention is not to be limited to the disclosed embodiments, but on the contrary, is intended to cover various modifications and equivalent arrangements included within the spirit and scope of the invention(s). Also, the various embodiments described above may be implemented in conjunction with other embodiments, e.g., aspects of one embodiment may be combined with aspects of another embodiment to realize yet other embodiments. Further, each independent feature or component of any given assembly may constitute an additional embodiment.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE <EOH>In oil field operations, reciprocating pumps are used for various purposes. For example, reciprocating pumps are commonly used for operations, such as cementing, acidizing, or fracing a well. Oftentimes, these reciprocating pumps are mounted to a truck, a skid or other type of platform for transport to and from the well sites. In operation, such pumps deliver a fluid or slurry at pressures up to and around 20,000 psi; however, due to such extreme operating conditions, these pumps are susceptible to damage from forces caused by excessive vibrations, bending moments and/or deformation. A typical reciprocating pump includes a fluid end and a power end, the power end configured to reciprocatingly move one or more plungers toward and away from a corresponding fluid end pump chamber. Each chamber includes an intake port for receiving fluid, a discharge port for discharging the pressurized fluid, and a one-way flow valve in each port for preventing reverse fluid flow. Manufacturing and assembling conventional power end housings is oftentimes difficult and cumbersome due to, for example, the sheer weight of the housing, the need for precise alignment certain components, and the difficultly in accessing certain areas of the housing, such as, for example, accessing and installing the crankshaft bearings within the housing. Thus, there is a need for a pump design, and in particular, a power end housing for a reciprocating pump, having a decreased weight, that can be easily assembled while at the same time able to reduce the likelihood of damage due to excessive forces caused by excessive vibrations, bending moments and/or deformation.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In a first aspect, there is provided a skid for supporting a reciprocating pump assembly. The reciprocating pump assembly includes a power end frame assembly having a pair of end plates and a plurality of middle plates disposed between the end plates. The end plates each have at least a pair of feet and the middle plates each have at least one foot. The skid includes a base having a pair of side segments including a top wall, a bottom wall, and a sidewall extending between the top and bottom walls forming a c-shaped channel. In addition, it includes at least one transverse segment coupled to and extending between the pair of side segments and a plurality of spaced apart gussets disposed within the channels. The gussets extend between and connect to the bottom wall and the top wall of the c-shaped channel. The skid further includes a plurality of spaced apart pads extending from the base, the plurality of pads corresponding to the end plate feet and at least another portion of the plurality of pads corresponding to the at least one foot of each middle plate. In one embodiment, the plurality of pads have different thicknesses to accommodate bending of the base such that a top surface of each of the plurality of pads lies in substantially the same plane. In other embodiments, the spaced apart gussets are vertically secured within the channel so as to perpendicularly intersect the top and bottom walls. In yet another embodiment, the spaced apart gussets intersect the top and bottom at a non-perpendicular angle. In still another embodiment, a portion of the spaced apart gussets intersect the top and bottom walls at a non-perpendicular angle and a portion of the spaced apart gussets intersect the top and bottom walls a perpendicular angle. In other embodiments, the at least one transverse segment is hollow. In still other embodiments, the at least one transverse segment comprises three transverse segments extending between and connecting the pair of side segments. In other embodiments, the transverse segments are parallel. In yet another embodiment, the bottom wall includes at least one mounting opening to enable the skid to be secured to a support structure. In a second aspect, there is provided a method of mounting a reciprocating pump assembly to a support skid. The reciprocating pump assembly includes a pair of end plate segments and at least one middle plate segment disposed between the end plate segments. The end plate segments each have at least a pair of feet and the at least one middle plate segment has at least one foot. The method includes forming a base section, wherein forming the base section includes providing a pair of side segments having a c-shaped channel therein and securing respective ends of at least one transverse segment to the pair of side segments. The method also includes securing a plurality of spaced apart gussets within the c-shaped channels, the gussets extending between a bottom wall and a top wall of the c-shaped channel and securing a plurality of pads to the base section, the plurality of pads corresponding to the feet on the pair of end segments and the at least one foot on the at least one middle plate segment. The method further includes aligning the feet of the pump assembly with a corresponding pad on the base section securing the feet of the pump assembly to the base section. In other embodiments, prior to securing the feet to the base section, the method includes machining the plurality of pads such that a top surface of each pad lies in substantially the same plane. In other embodiments, the method includes machining the feet of the pump assembly such that a bottom surface of each of the feet lies in substantially the same plane. In yet another embodiment, the method further comprises securing a reinforcing plate to at least one side segment. In still another embodiment, the method includes providing at least one transverse segment in the form of an I-beam. In still another embodiment, the method includes providing at least one transverse segment having a hollow interior. In a third aspect, there is provided a reciprocating pump assembly including a power end frame assembly having a pair of end plate segments and a plurality of middle plate segments disposed between the end plate segments, the end plate segments each having at least a pair of feet and the middle plate segments each having at least one foot. The assembly further includes a base forming a support surface having a pair of side segments and a transverse segment connecting to and extending between the pair of side segments, the pair of side segments including a top wall, a bottom wall, and a sidewall extending between the top and bottom walls forming a c-shaped channel. The assembly also includes a plurality of spaced apart pads extending from the support surface, the plurality of pads corresponding to the feet on the end plate segment and at least another portion of the plurality of pads corresponding to the at least one foot of each middle plate segment. The pads are disposed between the support surface and the respective feet on the power end frame assembly. According to one aspect, the assembly includes plurality of spaced apart gussets disposed within the c-shaped channels, the gussets extending between and connecting to the bottom wall and the top wall of the c-shaped channel. In certain embodiments, the plurality of spaced apart pads have different thicknesses to accommodate bending of the base such that a top surface of each of the plurality of pads lies in substantially the same plane. In yet other embodiments, the spaced apart gussets are vertically secured within the channel so as to perpendicularly intersect the top and bottom walls. In still other embodiments, the bottom walls of the side segments include at least one mounting opening to enable the skid to be secured to a support structure. Other aspects, features, and advantages will become apparent from the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are part of this disclosure and which illustrate, by way of example, principles of the inventions disclosed.

F04B70069

20180129

20180614

75864.0

F04B700

COLLINS, DANIEL S.

SUPPORT FOR RECIPROCATING PUMP

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

F04B

PENDING

System and Method for Managing Gift Credits

A system transfers money to a recipient's payment card account, without requiring an additional payment card or without acquiring a recipient's payment card or account information. A recipient registers a payment account with a service provider. A system receives an identification, generated from an entity such as a business or a person, of the recipient and information associated with an electronic notice to be transmitted to a device associated with the recipient. The system transmits the notice (advertisement or offer) to the device, the notice being associated with the recipient payment account and being transmitted prior to the recipient buying product or service associated with the notice using the recipient payment account. The notice can be associated with a network merchant category or network merchant ID for managing a gift credit identified in the notice. The system receives an indication of a purchase associated with the notice and completed using the recipient payment account and applies the gift credit.

1. A method comprising: receiving, via the Internet, a registration of a recipient payment account at a service provider, the recipient payment account being associated with a recipient; receiving, from an entity, an identification of the recipient and a spending category, the recipient payment account being registered with the service provider prior to the receiving of the identification; generating, via the service provider, a policy comprising a gift credit and the spending category, wherein the policy is at least in part defined by the entity and wherein the policy is linked to the recipient payment account; transmitting, via a processor of a computing device and via a wireless communication channel, an electronic notice to a recipient device, the electronic notice referencing the policy and being linked to the recipient payment account; monitoring, via a processor of a computing device, purchasing transactions made using the recipient payment account via a payment processing system for a qualified purchase according to the policy; and based on the qualified purchase, applying, via a processor of a computing device, the gift credit. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the recipient payment account is one of a debit account, a financial account, and a credit account. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the entity comprises one of a business entity and a person. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the spending category comprises at least one of a network merchant identification or a network merchant category. 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising: receiving an initial amount of money from an entity account associated with the entity into a service provider account, wherein the gift credit is drawn from the initial amount of money. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the gift credit is transferred to the recipient payment account and is determined by comparing an initial amount of money received from the entity to a purchase amount associated with the qualified purchase. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein if the purchase amount is less than the initial amount of money, then the gift credit transferred to the recipient payment account is a full amount of the qualified purchase, and wherein if the purchase amount is more than the initial amount of money, then the gift credit transferred is the initial amount of money. 8. The method of claim 1, further comprising: charging the recipient payment account for the qualified purchase; and reimbursing the recipient payment account when the qualified purchase appears on a transaction history of the recipient payment account. 9. The method of claim 1, further comprising: charging a percentage of an initial amount of money provided by the entity as a service fee for using the service provider. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein one of the entity, the recipient and a third party is charged the percentage of the initial amount of money. 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the spending category comprises one of an individual point of sale, a chain of stores, and a plurality of businesses in a same industry. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein a third party pays at least a portion of an initial amount of money which funds the gift credit. 13. A system comprising: a processor of a computer device; and a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium storing instructions which, when executed by the processor of the computing device, cause the processor to perform operations comprising: receiving, via the Internet, a registration of a recipient payment account at a service provider, the recipient payment account being associated with a recipient; receiving, from an entity, an identification of the recipient and a spending category, the recipient payment account being registered with the service provider prior to the receiving of the identification; generating, via the service provider, a policy comprising a gift credit and the spending category, wherein the policy is at least in part defined by the entity and wherein the policy is linked to the recipient payment account; transmitting, via a communication channel, an electronic notice to a recipient device, the electronic notice referencing the policy and being linked to the recipient payment account; monitoring purchasing transactions made using the recipient payment account via a payment processing system for a qualified purchase according to the policy; and based on the qualified purchase, applying the gift credit. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the recipient payment account is one of a debit account, a financial account, and a credit account. 15. The system of claim 13, wherein the entity comprises one of a business entity and a person. 16. The system of claim 13, wherein the spending category comprises at least one of a network merchant identification or a network merchant category. 17. The system of claim 13, wherein the non-transitory computer-readable storage medium stores further instructions which, when executed by the processor of the computing device, cause the processor of the computing device to perform operations further comprising: receiving an initial amount of money from an entity account associated with the entity into a service provider account, wherein the gift credit is drawn from the initial amount of money. 18. The system of claim 17, wherein if the gift credit is less than the initial amount of money, then the gift credit transferred to the recipient payment account is a full amount of the qualified purchase, and wherein if the gift credit is more than the initial amount of money, then the gift credit transferred is the initial amount of money. 19. The system of claim 13, wherein the non-transitory computer-readable storage medium stores further instructions which, when executed by the processor of the computing device, cause the processor of the computing device to perform operations further comprising: charging the recipient payment account for the qualified purchase; and reimbursing the recipient payment account when the qualified purchase appears on a transaction history of the recipient payment account. 20. A non-transitory computer-readable storage device storing instructions which, when executed by a processor of a computing device, cause the processor of the computing device to perform operations comprising: receiving, via the Internet, a registration of a recipient payment account at a service provider, the recipient payment account being associated with a recipient; receiving, from an entity, an identification of the recipient and a spending category, the recipient payment account being registered with the service provider prior to the receiving of the identification; generating, via the service provider, a policy comprising a gift credit and the spending category, wherein the policy is at least in part defined by the entity and wherein the policy is linked to the recipient payment account; transmitting, via a communication channel, an electronic notice to a recipient device, the electronic notice referencing the policy and being linked to the recipient payment account; monitoring purchasing transactions made using the recipient payment account via a payment processing system for a qualified purchase according to the policy; and based on the qualified purchase, applying the gift credit.

PRIORITY The present application is continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/335,358, filed Jul. 18, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/219,276, filed Mar. 19, 2014, which is a continuation-in-part application claiming priority to U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 14/193,068 (Attorney Docket 080-0050-CON), filed 28 Feb. 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,751,392, issued 10 Jun. 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 12/075,655 (Attorney Docket 080-0050), filed 13 Mar. 2008, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,676,704, issued 18 Mar. 2014, and to U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 12/475,122 (Attorney Docket 080-0051), filed 29 May 2009, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application 61/057,106, filed May 29, 2008 (Attorney Docket 080-0051-Prov), and to U.S. Non-provisional application 13/301,327 (Attorney Docket 080-0100-CIP-8), filed 21 Nov. 2011, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 12/967,253 (Attorney Docket 080-0100), filed 14 Dec. 2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,285,643, issued 9 Oct. 2012, and to U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 13/754,401 (Attorney Docket 080-0100-CIP-12), filed 30 Jan. 2013, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 13/175,234, filed 1 Jul. 2011 (Attorney Docket No. 080-0100-CON, which is a continuation of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 12/967,253, filed 14 Dec. 2010 (Docket No. 080-0100), now U.S. Pat. No. 8,285,643, issued 9 Oct. 2012, and to U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 13/771,791 (Attorney Docket 080-0100-CIP-14), filed 20 Feb. 2013, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 13/686,189, filed 27 Nov. 2012 (Docket No. 080-0100-CON-7), which is a continuation of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 13/470,969, filed 14 May 2012 (Docket No. 080-0100-CON-6), which is a continuation of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 12/967,253 (Attorney Docket 080-0100), filed 14 Dec. 2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,285,643, issued 9 Oct. 2012, the contents of each of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entireties. RELATED APPLICATIONS This continuation-in-part application claims priority to U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 14/193,068 (Attorney Docket 080-0050-CON), filed 28 Feb. 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 12/075,655 (Attorney Docket 080-0050), filed 13 Mar. 2008, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,676,704, issued 18 Mar. 2014, and to U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 12/475,122 (Attorney Docket 080-0051), filed 29 May 2009, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application 61/057,106, filed May 29, 2008 (Attorney Docket 080-0051-Prov), and to U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 13/301,327 (Attorney Docket 080-0100-CIP-8), filed 21 Nov. 2011, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 12/967,253 (Attorney Docket 080-0100), filed 14 Dec. 2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,285,643, issued 9 Oct. 2012, and to U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 13/754,401 (Attorney Docket 080-0100-CIP-12), filed 30 Jan. 2013, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 13/175,234, filed 1 Jul. 2011 (Attorney Docket No. 080-0100-CON, which is a continuation of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 12/967,253, filed 14 Dec. 2010 (Docket No. 080-0100), now U.S. Pat. No. 8,285,643, issued 9 Oct. 2012, and to U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 13/771,791 (Attorney Docket 080-0100-CIP-14), filed 20 Feb. 2013, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 13/686,189, filed 27 Nov. 2012 (Docket No. 080-0100-CON-7), which is a continuation of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 13/470,969, filed 14 May 2012 (Docket No. 080-0100-CON-6), which is a continuation of U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 12/967,253 (Attorney Docket 080-0100), filed 14 Dec. 2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,245,643, issued 9 Oct. 2012, the contents of each of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entireties. BACKGROUND 1. Technical Field The present disclosure relates to gift credits and more specifically to gift credits that are givern by an individual as a gift or by a company as a gift or benefit and are redeemable without use of a physical gift card, gift certificate, or electronic gift code but rather via the use of a gift credit recipients' existing credit/debit card or credit/debit card number according to an established policy. 2. Introduction Gift cards have been used for many years as a mechanism for individuals to give a certain amount of money to a recipient. One example platform that illustrates the current variety of available gift cards is Amazon.com. At the Amazon.com website, a gift card link sends a giver of a gift card to a mechanism in which the gift giver can purchase gift cards in a variety of forms. Examples include personalized physical gift cards that a gift giver can print and/or have mailed to a recipient. Amazon.com provides email gift cards in which the giver enters an amount and a quantity and recipient email address with a message. The redemption process is only through Amazon.com or its affiliated website www.endless.com and the website deducts purchases from the gift card balance. They explain that they will place any unused balance in the recipient's gift card account when redeemed. They expressly state that such gift cards cannot be reloaded, resold, transferred for value, redeemed for cash, or applied to any other account, except to the extent required by law. In some cases, even email gift cards from Amazon.com require various steps in order to redeem the gift cards. Amazon.com sends the recipient an email that requires the recipient to click on a link to a principal gift card. In some cases, Amazon.com sends a long gift code to the recipient that the recipient must input in a special gift code field when making a purchase. These long codes can be difficult to enter accurately because they are alphanumeric. Other problems can arise when using any kind of link or code or requiring the user to perform any additional steps to redeem the gift card. Amazon.com also offers a variety of gift cards from resellers such as Home Depot, Applebee's, P. F. Chang's, and so forth. These physical gift cards are mailed to the recipient and are for a specific amount. Similar gift cards can be printed on a printer for similar use. However, a number of problems exist with these different approaches to gift cards. For example, consider the case when a physical gift card for a restaurant such as P. F. Chang's for $50 is given and the recipient only spends $40 at P. F. Chang's. No easy mechanism exists for the recipient to know how much money is left on a particular gift card. Over time throughout the country millions of dollars are left unused due to this excess money associated with gift cards. Additionally, money is left unused when the recipient fails to keep track of gift cards or throws them away. As noted in the Nov. 19, 2010, New York Times article “The More Convenient Gift Card”, found at http://bucks.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/11/19/the-more-convenient-gift-card/, many solutions are being proposed for making “gift cards easier and more convenient to use”, including an iPhone based alternative to manage gift cards. However, the iPhone application requires recipients to upload their gift cards by entering their gift card numbers such that retailers can use the bar codes as shown on the iPhone. The problem of users losing track of gift cards still exists. The article ends with the question “How do you make gift cards more convenient, so you don't forget to use them or don't lose track of them?” This article succinctly summarizes the current state of the art. The current approaches and improvements to gift cards are helpful and make gift cards somewhat easier, but still require complicated steps. Current approaches do not solve the fundamental problem of the recipient forgetting to use a gift card or losing track of a gift card. A solution is required. SUMMARY Additional features and advantages of the disclosure will be set forth in the description that follows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or can be learned by practice of the herein disclosed principles. The features and advantages of the disclosure can be realized and obtained by means of the instruments and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. These and other features of the disclosure will become more fully apparent from the following description and appended claims, or can be learned by the practice of the principles set forth herein. This disclosure provides solutions to several gift-related problems, but focuses on systems, methods, and computer-readable storage devices for receiving an identification of a gift giver, a gift, an amount of money to pay for the gift, and a gift recipient of the gift at a first time. The system can associate a policy with the gift, and initiate, at the first time, a transfer of at least part of the amount of money to pay for the gift from the giver payment account to a holding account that is separate from the recipient payment account. The system can monitor, according to the policy, purchases of the gift recipient using the recipient payment account to yield purchasing information based on the purchasing information, and determine whether the gift recipient has made a qualifying purchase according to the policy. If so, the system can apply the amount of money to pay for the gift from the holding account to the recipient payment account. This disclosure also addresses a first set of problems associated with retaining the social experience associated with giving and receiving a gift. A system configured to practice a first example method embodiment receives an object associated with a gift via a gift processing application, wherein a recipient of the gift received the gift from a gift giver by purchasing the gift using a recipient payment account that is independent of a giver payment account, and wherein both the giver payment account and the recipient payment account existed when the gift giver chose the gift recipient and the gift through the gift processing application. Then the system receives a tag associated with the object, and can transmit the object to the gift giver. The tag can be a date, a time, a location, a manually entered tag from the gift recipient, a description of the gift, or a message, for example. The object can be, but is not limited to, an image, audio, a text-based message, or a video. The object can be any digitally storable object for presentation to the gift giver and/or gift recipient. In one variation, after the gift recipient receives the gift, the system can receive an identification of an amount of money and a merchant associated with the object, and present the amount of money and the merchant information to the giver such that the giver can make a purchase at the merchant using the giver payment account and have the amount of money applied to the purchase. The recipient payment account and/or a merchant payment account can provide the amount of money to be applied to the purchase. In a related embodiment, the system can store an image associated with a gift via a gift processing application, wherein a recipient of the gift received the gift from a gift giver by purchasing the gift using a recipient payment account that is independent of a giver payment account, and wherein both the giver payment account and the recipient payment account existed when the gift giver chose the gift recipient and the gift through the gift processing application, receive a tag associated with the image, the tag identifying the gift giver, and receive a picture of an item in the image after storing the image. Then the system can present an indication of the gift giver to the gift recipient in response to receiving the picture. The disclosure also addresses a second set of problems associated with monitoring a recipient of a gift in-store to provide reminders, suggestions, or notifications regarding suggestions or redemption of the gift. A system configured to practice a second example method embodiment can receive, via a face identification system at a merchant location, an identification of a recipient of a gift which is redeemable at the merchant using a recipient payment account that is independent of and not in control of a giver payment account, the gift having an associated policy and stored within a gift processing system. Then the system can transmit a reminder to the gift recipient via a recipient device that the gift recipient has the gift. The system can further transmit an additional offer from the merchant in addition to the gift, such as a coupon, promotion, coupon code, discount voucher, and so forth. The additional offer from the merchant can be conditional upon one of the gift recipient making a redeeming purchase in a period of time and the gift recipient making a redeeming purchase prior to leaving the merchant location. The system can place other conditions on the additional offer as well. The system can further receive an indication of a purchase made by the gift recipient using the recipient payment account at the merchant location. The disclosure addresses a third set of problems associated with managing money contributed to a gift that is ultimately not redeemed or that is under-redeemed so that no money is lost in the gift transaction. A system configured to practice a third example method embodiment can create a gift for a gift recipient, based on a request from a gift giver, and notify the recipient of the gift. The gift can be redeemable at the merchant using a recipient payment account that is independent of and not in control of a giver payment account, the gift having an associated policy and stored within a gift processing system. If the gift recipient never redeems the gift using the recipient payment account, then the giver is not charged for the gift and no transaction occurs. Alternatively speaking, the giver payment account is charged only upon redemption of the gift using the recipient payment account. To avoid accumulation of such outstanding charges, the gift can expire after a certain period of time, such as after 2 years, after a certain number of notices to the gift recipient, and so forth. In the case of the gift giver closing the giver payment account, the organization administering the giver payment account can withhold sufficient funds to cover the eventual redemption of the gift for a certain period of time, after which the funds can revert to the gift giver, or can be applied to the recipient payment account. Three separate example embodiments are presented herein for enhancing electronic delivery or redemption of gifts to provide a more immersive experience. In the first embodiment, a giver of a gift can use wearable or other ‘intimate’ electronic devices, such as smart glasses or a watch, to view sample electronic greeting or gift credits. One example of smart glasses includes Google Glass. As the gift giver views the gift or greeting card, the wearable electronic device can then show the gift giver a video clip or present some other form of media that the giver wants to be displayed to the gift recipient when receiving the gift or greeting card. The gift recipient can then also view the video clip or other media when the gift or greeting card is received, upon satisfying some trigger condition such as a geofence or a specific time of day, upon redemption, etc. In one embodiment, the recipient's wearable electronic device can automatically present the video or other media to the gift recipient, or a server can push the content to the recipient's wearable electronic device. In a second embodiment, when a gift recipient of an electronic gift uses his or her wearable electronic device to view the product for which the electronic gift was intended, the wearable electronic device can play a message for the gift recipient. For example, the gift giver buys the gift recipient an electronic gift for a watch that is redeemable when the gift recipient simply purchases the watch via an associated recipient payment account. Once the gift recipient views the watch, enters the watch aisle at the store, views an advertisement for the watch, or encounters some other trigger associated with the watch, as detected by the wearable electronic device or an associated sensor or input signal, the wearable electronic device can display to the gift recipient a video clip or other media from the gift giver. The video or other media can be a recording of the gift giver or can be selected from a set of already recorded messages, for example. In a third embodiment, when a gift recipient of an electronic gift enters the location of a merchant where the electronic gift is redeemable, a wearable electronic device can detect the location of the gift recipient. Based on the location coinciding with the merchant, the wearable electronic device can then play a media clip for the gift recipient from the gift giver. For example, the gift giver buys the gift recipient an electronic gift for the spa. The gift system associates the gift recipient and the recipient's payment account with the electronic gift. Then, once the gift recipient enters the spa, the wearable electronic device, such as smart glasses, can initiate a video clip that is attached to the electronic gift that the gift giver created. These same concepts can be adapted for other electronic devices besides smart glasses, such as smart phones, watches, implanted devices, and so forth. This approach can provide an augmented reality environment surrounding, supporting, describing, and notifying the gift recipient of details of the electronic gift. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In order to describe the manner in which the above-recited and other advantages and features of the disclosure can be obtained, a more particular description of the principles briefly described above will be rendered by reference to specific embodiments thereof that are illustrated in the appended drawings. Understanding that these drawings depict only exemplary embodiments of the disclosure and are not therefore to be considered to be limiting of its scope, the principles herein are described and explained with additional specificity and detail through the use of the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 illustrates an example system embodiment; FIG. 2A illustrates an example flow for processing a gift credit; FIG. 2B illustrates an exemplary debit card processing architecture; FIG. 2C illustrates an exemplary credit card processing architecture; FIG. 3 illustrates an example method embodiment for processing a gift credit; FIG. 4A illustrates a sample system configuration for processing gift creditcredits; FIG. 4B illustrates a sample system configuration for processing gift creditcredits exclusively in an online retail environment; FIG. 4C illustrates an exemplary packet structure for communicating v gift credit transactions with a server; FIG. 5A illustrates an example login prompt in a process for sending a gift creditcredit; FIG. 5B illustrates an example gift credit configuration screen in a process for sending a gift credit; FIG. 5C illustrates an example notification email to a recipient of a gift credit; FIG. 5D illustrates an example confirmation email to a recipient of a gift credit that the gift credit was successfully applied to a transaction; FIG. 5E illustrates an example reminder email to a recipient of an outstanding balance on a gift credit; FIG. 6 illustrates a sample flow for a releasing funds of a gift credit; FIG. 7 illustrates an example management portal for received gift credits; FIG. 8 illustrates an example management portal for sent gift credits; FIG. 9 illustrates an example interface for managing policies associated with gift credits; FIG. 10 illustrates an exemplary method for managing gift credits; FIG. 11A illustrates a first exemplary user interface for adding promotions to a gift credit; FIG. 11B illustrates a second exemplary user interface for adding promotions to a gift credit; FIG. 12 illustrates an exemplary method embodiment for adding a promotion to a gift credit; FIG. 13 illustrates an exemplary suggested recipient list of gift credits in a social networking context; FIG. 14 illustrates an example gift credit scheduler interface; FIG. 15A illustrates an example interface for a group gift credit; FIG. 15B illustrates an example architecture for interfacing between online merchants, social networks, and banks; FIG. 16 illustrates an example method embodiment for a group gift credit; FIG. 17A illustrates a sample gift credit interface integrated at a main level of an online merchant; FIG. 17B illustrates a sample gift credit interface integrated at a general category level of an online merchant; FIG. 17C illustrates a sample gift credit interface integrated at a specific category level of an online merchant; FIG. 17D illustrates a sample gift credit interface integrated at an item level of an online merchant; FIG. 18 illustrates an example method embodiment for intelligently populating and transitioning between what to offer a potential gift giver as they navigate an online merchant site; FIG. 19 illustrates an example system embodiment for providing a predictive list of gift credits and/or recipients; FIG. 20 illustrates an view of the example website with the predictive gift credit widget expanded; FIG. 21 illustrates a sample method embodiment for providing a predictive list of gift credits and/or recipients; FIG. 22 illustrates an example system configuration for processing a gift credit in connection with a club card; FIG. 23 illustrates an example method embodiment for processing a gift credit in connection with a club card; FIG. 24 illustrates an example user interface for dynamic suggestions for and adjustments to a gift credit by the gift giver; FIG. 25A illustrates a example user interface for a gift credit for an item of an as yet unknown value; FIG. 25B illustrates an example confirmation user interface for a gift credit for an item of an as yet unknown value; FIG. 26 illustrates a system and control flow for processing gift credits for items with an as yet unknown value; FIG. 27 illustrates an example method embodiment for processing gift credits for items with a value not yet known; FIG. 28 illustrates an example payment processing chain; FIG. 29 illustrates a timeline for a “dinner and a movie” scenario; FIG. 30 illustrates an exemplary user interface for requesting a reverse gift credit; FIG. 31 illustrates a method embodiment of managing a group payment associated with a payment transaction; FIG. 32 illustrates an example method embodiment for sending an object associated with receiving a gift; FIG. 33 illustrates an example method embodiment for sharing images associated with a gift; FIG. 34 illustrates an example method embodiment for face recognition with gifts; FIG. 35A illustrates a first stage of an example user interface for giving a gift credit; FIG. 35B illustrates a second stage of an example user interface for giving a gift credit; FIG. 35C illustrates a third stage of an example user interface for giving a gift credit; FIG. 35D illustrates a fourth stage of an example user interface for giving a gift credit; FIG. 36 illustrates a method embodiment of a one-click gift offering utilizing a recipient payment and delivery account; FIG. 37 illustrates a system embodiment of a one-click gift credit offering utilizing a recipient payment and delivery account; FIG. 38 illustrates an example gift credit request using a one-click gift offering utilizing a recipient payment and delivery account; FIG. 39 illustrates an exemplary gift offering preview 3900 using a one-click gift offering utilizing a recipient payment and delivery account; FIG. 40 illustrates an exemplary offering from a gift giver to a recipient; FIG. 41 illustrates a method embodiment of a one-click gift credit offering utilizing a giver payment and delivery account; FIG. 42 illustrates a system embodiment of a one-click gift credit offering utilizing a giver payment and delivery account; FIG. 43 illustrates an example user interface for a merchant portal; FIG. 44 illustrates a user purchasing portal; FIG. 45 illustrates a first method embodiment for group gifts; FIG. 46 illustrates a second method embodiment for group gifts; FIG. 47 illustrates a third method embodiment related to rewards programs; FIG. 48 illustrates a fourth method embodiment related to giver promotions; FIG. 49 illustrates a fifth method embodiment related to commercial payments; FIG. 50 illustrates a sixth method embodiment related to a policy with multiple redemption options; FIG. 51 illustrates an example method embodiment for local product enhancements; FIG. 52 illustrates an example method embodiment for handling network based fees or charges for processing a gift credit; FIG. 53 illustrates an example system for providing a “child” based gift credit; FIG. 54 illustrates an example method embodiment of a “child” based gift credit; FIG. 55 illustrates an example embodiment related to an approach that does not require coordinate with a card issuing company; FIG. 56 illustrates an example method embodiment for managing groups associated with a group payment transaction; FIG. 57 illustrates an example embodiment of smart glasses as part of an immersive gift environment; and FIG. 58 illustrates an example system embodiment of an immersive gift environment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Various embodiments of the disclosure are discussed in detail below. While specific implementations are discussed, it should be understood that this is done for illustration purposes only. A person skilled in the relevant art will recognize that other components and configurations may be used without parting from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. Any particular function disclosed in connection with one embodiment or aspect can expressly be integrated into another disclosed embodiment, function or aspect. This disclosure considers mixing and matching of the various functions although particular functions are not specifically discussed in one example. The present disclosure addresses the need in the art for removing hurdles in giving, redeeming, and processing gifts and particular to gifts or gift credits that are given and redeemed without a physical gift card or gift code. The concepts disclosed herein represent an improvement to previous approaches to providing gifts to gift recipients and which includes the concepts related to individuals giving a gift credit to a gift recipient, a business giving a gift credit or a discount credit to a customer, or a group of merchants providing a promotion in connection with the gift credit. Patent eligible improvements under recent case law do not have to be hardware or computer network improvements per se. The present disclosure describes improvements in the functioning of a computer and relies on the mechanisms that enable a more simple and focused user interaction with the system in order for a giver to give a gift to a gift recipient. Furthermore, the overall components used to achieve the giving of the gift also include additional hardware components not previously utilized when giving gift cards. These can include such components as a recipient device that receives an electronic notice linked to a recipient payment account, a monitoring system or processor that monitors recipient purchases, a service provider that receives a registration of a recipient payment account, and so forth. For example, the previous approach of giving gift cards included a giver buying a physical gift card, which has an accompanying payment account stored at a gift card payment account provider. The giver would simply hand the gift card to the gift recipient who could then take the gift card to the merchant and make a purchase. The only hardware associated with this process was the gift card payment account provider and the payment processing hardware at a merchant location. The problems with this approach have been previously articulated, such as the need to print and create a physical gift card, the need to maintain a separate gift card account, the possibility of losing the gift card and thus the gift, the benefit by the gift recipient, the extra room required in the wallet or purse to store the gift card, and so forth. Disclosed herein are a variety of embodiments in which novels steps and a new configuration of hardware components are described that improve the process of gift (credit) giving and receiving including a concept of incorporating a merchant promotion into the process. As such, the disclosure embodies an improvement in the technical field of payment processing and includes a new set of hardware components that are required to achieve the improvement. In this regard, the claims do amount to the improvement to the functioning of a computer or a network itself as well as a new physical structure implemented to achieve the gift giving process. Many features described in the embodiments disclosed herein represent computer components and payment accounts that were not previously utilized in the process of giving a gift card to a gift recipient. As such, the combined hardware components, and the combination of steps disclosed represent an improvement to computer related technology by allowing the computer performance of a function not previously performable by a computer. The combination of components is unconventional in the gift card space and represents the new use of gift credits. The improvements disclosed herein can also include software-based improvements or a set of rules that compute that improve computer related technology by allowing the computer to perform a function not previously performable by a computer. Whether under a hardware standard or under a software standard, the present disclosure represents an improvement to computer related technology and addresses and solves numerous articulated deficiency was is within the prior art. The overall process of gift giving as disclosed herein is not simply the application of conventional hardware. As has been noted above, the previous gift giving process, which employed a physical gift card, merely required a payment gift card payment provider to store the gift card account and whatever point-of-sale terminal would be required at a merchant to receive the physical gift card and process the payment. These two elements represent the conventional hardware that were previously required to process gift cards. The present solution introduces numerous new hardware components, which previously had no part in the gift card process. The combined use, in various embodiment disclosed herein, of a network service provider, a giver device, a recipient device, a monitoring service, a service provider, and/or other hardware that receives a transmitted electronic notice would all be considered as not conventional hardware for giving and receiving gift cards. As has been articulated above, there are problems with the previous approach of giving and redeeming gift cards that does utilize the realm of computer networks. The improved solution combines a set of new hardware components and an organized set of steps which resolves the problem of losing physical gift cards, expanding the size and weight of wallets and purses, and the requirement of maintaining a separate physical gift card payment account. Other improvements such as fraud detection improvement are also provided by the new method. These are real world improvements to real world problems. The combination of these various elements is not conventional or routine for managing the process of giving and redeeming gift credits. Indeed, the combination of hardware components and steps that must be taken to manage this new process of using gift credits involves a specific and discrete implementation of the process and does solve many of the identified problems with the previous infrastructure for giving and redeeming gift cards. A brief introductory description of a basic general-purpose system or computing device in FIG. 1 that can be employed to practice the concepts is disclosed herein. A more detailed description will then follow of the various credit/debit processing infrastructure, the exemplary methods, and other financial processing infrastructure and concepts in conjunction with gift credits that are redeemed using an existing payment mechanism transparently, that is, without any additional physical gift card, gift certificate or any gift code. A recipient of a gift credit can simply purchase a qualifying good or service with her Visa card, for example, and the payment processing infrastructure associated with the Visa card applies the gift credit amount automatically to the transaction. This disclosure involves more than just a direct transfer of money from one person to another, or from a gift card to a credit card account, but rather focuses on a gift card approach in which a gift card is established at a first time having a policy, and a gift recipient, at a second time that is later than the first time, executes a purchasing transaction according to the policy. When that transaction is detected, the system will implement the policy and apply the gift card funds at a third time which is later than the first time, and can be approximately around the second time or later than the second time. The implementation and use of such a policy to guide/manage gift card payment through a recipient's use of an existing account introduces many novel features that are disclosed herein. The policy can include at least one of: a class of goods or services, an amount of money, a merchant or group of merchants, a ceiling amount of money to be used in the gift card, a time frame for use of the gift card, one or more recipient accounts that when used can trigger the transfer of money from the giver account to the one or more recipient accounts, and a predetermined period of time in which if all the amount of money associated with the gift card is not used according to the policy, a remainder amount of money is transferred from the giver account to the recipient account. A new result of this approach is to render a recipient open-loop credit/debit card account into a hybrid open-loop/closed-loop account. The system monitors the activity of the account such, that for average purchase, the account is open-loop and not restricted, but the application of the gift card to specific purchases according the policy is considered closed loop. For the sake of clarity, the methods herein are discussed in terms of an exemplary system 100 as shown in FIG. 1 configured to practice the method. The steps of each method outlined herein are exemplary and can be implemented in any combination and/or permutation thereof, including combinations that exclude, add, or modify certain steps. These and other variations are discussed herein as the various embodiments are set forth. The disclosure now turns to FIG. 1. With reference to FIG. 1, an exemplary system 100 includes a general-purpose computing device 100, including a processing unit (CPU or processor) 120 and a system bus 110 that couples various system components including the system memory 130 such as read only memory (ROM) 140 and random access memory (RAM) 150 to the processor 120. The system 100 can include a cache of high-speed memory connected directly with, in close proximity to, or integrated as part of the processor 120. The system 100 copies data from the memory 130 and/or the storage device 160 to the cache for quick access by the processor 120. In this way, the cache provides a performance boost that avoids processor 120 delays while waiting for data. These and other modules can control or be configured to control the processor 120 to perform various actions. Other system memory 130 may be available for use as well. The memory 130 can include multiple different types of memory with different performance characteristics. It can be appreciated that the disclosure may operate on a computing device 100 with more than one processor 120 or on a group or cluster of computing devices networked together to provide greater processing capability. The processor 120 can include any general purpose processor and a hardware module or software module, such as module 1 162, module 2 164, and module 3 166 stored in storage device 160, configured to control the processor 120 as well as a special-purpose processor where software instructions are incorporated into the actual processor design. The processor 120 may essentially be a completely self-contained computing system, containing multiple cores or processors, a bus, memory controller, cache, etc. A multi-core processor may be symmetric or asymmetric. The system bus 110 may be any of several types of bus structures including a memory bus or memory controller, a peripheral bus, and a local bus using any of a variety of bus architectures. A basic input/output (BIOS) stored in ROM 140 or the like, may provide the basic routine that helps to transfer information between elements within the computing device 100, such as during start-up. The computing device 100 further includes storage devices 160 such as a hard disk drive, a magnetic disk drive, an optical disk drive, tape drive or the like. The storage device 160 can include software modules 162, 164, 166 for controlling the processor 120. Other hardware or software modules are contemplated. The storage device 160 is connected to the system bus 110 by a drive interface. The drives and the associated computer readable storage media provide nonvolatile storage of computer readable instructions, data structures, program modules and other data for the computing device 100. In one aspect, a hardware module that performs a particular function includes the software component stored in a non-transitory computer-readable medium in connection with the necessary hardware components, such as the processor 120, bus 110, display 170, and so forth, to carry out the function. The basic components are known to those of skill in the art and appropriate variations are contemplated depending on the type of device, such as whether the device 100 is a small, handheld computing device, a desktop computer, or a computer server. Although the exemplary embodiment described herein employs hard disk 160, those skilled in the art should appreciate that other types of computer readable media which can store data that are accessible by a computer, such as magnetic cassettes, flash memory cards, digital versatile disks, cartridges, random access memories (RAMs) 150, read only memory (ROM) 140, a cable or wireless signal containing a bit stream and the like, may also be used in the exemplary operating environment. Non-transitory computer-readable storage media expressly exclude media such as energy, carrier signals, electromagnetic waves, and signals per se. To enable user interaction with the computing device 100, an input device 190 represents any number of input mechanisms, such as a microphone for speech, a touch-sensitive screen for gesture or graphical input, keyboard, mouse, motion input, speech and so forth. An output device 170 can also be one or more of a number of output mechanisms known to those of skill in the art. In some instances, multimodal systems enable a user to provide multiple types of input to communicate with the computing device 100. The communications interface 180 generally governs and manages the user input and system output. There is no restriction on operating on any particular hardware arrangement and therefore the basic features here may easily be substituted for improved hardware or firmware arrangements as they are developed. For clarity of explanation, the illustrative system embodiment is presented as including individual functional blocks including functional blocks labeled as a “processor” or processor 120. The functions these blocks represent may be provided through the use of either shared or dedicated hardware, including, but not limited to, hardware capable of executing software and hardware, such as a processor 120, that is purpose-built to operate as an equivalent to software executing on a general purpose processor. For example, the functions of one or more processors presented in FIG. 1 may be provided by a single shared processor or multiple processors. (Use of the term “processor” should not be construed to refer exclusively to hardware capable of executing software.) Illustrative embodiments may include microprocessor and/or digital signal processor (DSP) hardware, read-only memory (ROM) 140 for storing software performing the operations discussed below, and random access memory (RAM) 150 for storing results. Very large scale integration (VLSI) hardware embodiments, as well as custom VLSI circuitry in combination with a general-purpose DSP circuit, may also be provided. The logical operations of the various embodiments are implemented as: (1) a sequence of computer-implemented steps, operations, or procedures running on a programmable circuit within a general use computer, (2) a sequence of computer-implemented steps, operations, or procedures running on a specific-use programmable circuit; and/or (3) interconnected machine modules or program engines within the programmable circuits. The system 100 shown in FIG. 1 can practice all or part of the recited methods, can be a part of the recited systems, and/or can operate according to instructions in the recited non-transitory computer-readable storage media. Such logical operations can be implemented as modules configured to control the processor 120 to perform particular functions according to the programming of the module. For example, FIG. 1 illustrates three modules Mod1 162, Mod2 164 and Mod3 166 which are modules configured to control the processor 120. These modules may be stored on the storage device 160 and loaded into RAM 150 or memory 130 at runtime or may be stored as would be known in the art in other computer-readable memory locations. The term “system” or similar terms also apply to the herein disclosed systems for processing various types of transactions. There are differences in systems for processing credit card and debit card transactions. It is assumed that with the policies and processing disclosed herein, that appropriate adaptations are made for specific systems where necessary. Those of skill in the art will understand the hardware components used for accomplishing such transactions. Gift Credits Having disclosed some components of a computing system, the disclosure now turns to FIG. 2A, which illustrates an example flow 200 of the basic approach disclosed herein for processing a gift credit. The embodiments disclosed herein are discussed in terms of an exemplary system 100 or computing device as shown in FIG. 1 configured to practice the various embodiments. A more specific exemplary system for implementing this flow 200 is illustrated in more detail in FIG. 4 with respect to a control engine that manages the redemption and processing of each gift card according to its policy via communications and instructions with various accounts and/or merchants accounts. Feature 202 represents a giver interface. An example will be used to step through the various blocks. Assume that a giver desires to give a $50 gift credit to a gift recipient. The interface 202 enables the giver to either input identification information and recipient account information or have it prepopulated based on a previous login. The interface 202 can be a web interface, a software client interface, a point of sale interface that a store employee uses on behalf of a gift giver, a self-service kiosk, a voice-based interface, an interface via a handheld device, a multi-modal interface, speech interface, or any other suitable interface. The system 100 identifies, via the gift giver selection, a predictive approach, or some other approach, a gift recipient such as a mother, sister, or friend of the gift giver, etc., and an amount that the giver desires to give to the gift recipient. The recipient credit/debit card data/account is identified via a secure communication to a database or inserted by the gift giver or recipient if necessary or possible. Through one or more different methods, the giver account and recipient account are identified. The system can apply at least part of the amount to the transaction in a variety of ways. FIG. 2B illustrates an exemplary debit card processing architecture 214. For example, assume the gift recipient 216 uses a debit card 218 for the qualifying transaction. In the debit card processing infrastructure 214, the gift recipient 216 presents the debit card 218 to a merchant 220 at a point of sale. The merchant 220 or gift recipient 216 swipes the debit card 218 through a scanner or otherwise obtains the debit card number, such as by entering the number into a computing device. The merchant system contacts the financial institution 224 indicated by the debit card number, either directly or through a debit card processing center 222. The financial institution 224 verifies that funds are available in the recipient account 226 and approves the transaction by immediately (or nearly immediately) withdrawing funds from the recipient account 226 and transferring the funds to the merchant 220. In this debit card processing infrastructure 214, if the debit card account only has $20 in the account (and the purchase was for $40), then the policy/control entity 228 can dictate to apply at least part of the gift card amount to the transaction. The system identifies that the gift recipient wants to use the debit card for a $40 transaction, whereas they only have $20 in their account, the system can credit $20 to the recipient account 226 from the giver account 230 prior to completing the transaction, at which point the debit card can be used to complete the transaction. If the recipient account 226 has sufficient funds, then the system can process the qualifying transaction in a normal fashion, and then credit the recipient account 226 the appropriate amount of $40 from the giver account 230 after the transaction with the merchant is completed. FIG. 2C illustrates an exemplary credit card processing infrastructure 232 in which the system can credit the recipient account at the time of sale or shortly thereafter. In a credit card processing infrastructure 232, the issuer 236 of the credit card 217 lends money to the gift recipient 216 to be paid to a merchant 220. In most cases, the merchant 220 and/or the gift recipient 216 swipes the credit card 217 through a machine known as reader. If the card issuer 236 approves the transaction, an acquiring bank 238, which receives credit card transactions from the merchant 220, then credits the merchant's account 242. A credit card association (not shown) may also be involved to set the terms of transactions for merchants, card-issuing banks and acquiring banks. The merchant 220 can pay the acquiring bank 238 a fee for processing the transaction. Once approved, the card issuer 236 posts the transaction to the recipient's account 226. At the end of the billing period, the cardholder 216 receives a credit card statement from the issuer 236, at which time payment for the transaction is due. In this credit card processing infrastructure 232, the system can credit the recipient account 226 when a bill is due, such as a monthly credit card bill, shortly before or on the due date. In this way, the system can hold on to the money, potentially earning interest on the money until the last minute it is needed to satisfy the gift card transaction. This floating period can be one source of revenue to fund the gift card system infrastructure and/or to provide a profit to the operators of the gift card system infrastructure. Also shown in FIG. 2C is a policy/control entity 228 and the giver account 230 which are used to communicate with, monitor and manage the gift card transactions according the principles and concepts disclosed herein. Often recipients will have multiple gift cards with varying amounts that they lose track of or have little incentive to redeem. These approaches provide a new result of reducing the barriers to obtaining a greater benefit from a gift card with far less effort on the part of the gift recipient and/or the gift giver. FIG. 3 illustrates an example method embodiment for processing a gift credit. The method may be practiced by an individual computing device or a computing device in communication with other computing devices within a network. One or more of the various computing devices can reside in a merchant bank, an acquiring bank, a giver account, a recipient account, a merchant, credit card association, a policy control entity or engine, and so forth. The system receives an identification of a gift giver of a gift card and a recipient of the gift card at a first time (302). The system identifies a giver account and a recipient account for managing the transfer of the amount of money or a gift credit from the giver account to the recipient account (304) or to a merchant bank according to a policy. The recipient account can exist prior to the first time and can be an open-loop payment mechanism that is not restricted to a particular merchant or shopping portal, such as a credit/debit card or checking account. An optional notice is sent to the recipient associated with the transfer of the amount of money to the recipient (306). The system receives information that the recipient has made a qualifying transaction using their existing recipient account (308), the transaction occurring at a second time which is later than the first time. The system then applies at least part of the amount of money to the qualifying transaction (310) in a manner according to whether the transaction is a credit or debit transaction for both the gift giver and the recipient. The system can apply the amount of money to the purchase to yield a remaining amount of money. An optional feature is the system providing a notification to the gift giver and/or the recipient (312). The gift credit may be held in the giver account until after the qualified purchase is made, and then the gift credit is transferred to the recipient account, the merchant or other location. The recipient of the gift credit can, in some circumstances, manage, change, or remove a policy associated with a gift credit. The system can receive a request from the recipient to use the amount of money or gift credit to make the purchase outside the purchase condition, deduct a penalty from the amount of money according to the purchase condition to yield a reduced amount of money, and apply the reduced amount of money to the purchase in a manner associated with the recipient payment mode. As can be appreciated, the processing system disclosed herein provides much greater flexibility and possibilities when processing gift cards. Gift Credit Processing Infrastructure FIG. 4A illustrates an example block diagram 400 of a network 416 in which the system can operate. Network 416 includes various components that make the processing disclosed herein possible. A giver interface 402 is used in a variety of ways to receive initial information about the gift giver. For example, the giver interface 402 can simply be a web site accessible via a web browser in which there is an opportunity for the gift giver to provide the basic information to identify the gift recipient, the amount associated with the gift credit and so forth. The giver interface 402 can be a device such as kiosk, ATM machine, or gas pump. A giver interface 402 can include a website in which a gift giver types into a web interface a particular gift code that may or may not be associated with a physical gift card. The system can receive this information to identify an amount, the gift giver, and the company to which the gift card applies. Then the gift giver can also add their information as the gift recipient and therefore provide the necessary information via the giver interface for the remaining transactions to occur under the processes defined herein. In this manner, any recipient of a physical gift card can easily transfer that gift card to the gift credit system disclosed herein. The gift recipient no longer has to worry about losing the gift card or forgetting to use all the money on the gift card. The disclosure temporarily turns to FIG. 4C, which illustrates an example packet 406 as is introduced in FIG. 4A. FIG. 4C shows packet 406 with various data fields. The exact names, types, sizes, and order of data fields in the packet are exemplary. The packet can be implemented in any variation thereof, including any combination or permutation of these and/or other data elements. These example fields include a security header 472, a general header 474, information about the gift giver 476, information about the gift recipient 478, a currency amount 480, a payment mode 482, a time associated with the gift credit 484, a location or geographic limitation associated with the gift credit 486 and another optional field 488 or fields. The amount can be in any currency: domestic, foreign or virtual. The system can automatically handle conversion between currencies, if needed. Some of the packet fields shown are optional. The use of such a packet enables a central control engine 404 to receive a single set of data associated with a gift card and carry out all of the transactions associated with monitoring recipient purchasing activities, apply gift card money as guided by the policy, and credit or debit money from the appropriate accounts. The packet structure can allow for the information about the gift giver 476 and the information about the gift recipient 478 to identify more than one individual. The packet can include information about each giver 476 and gift recipient 478 in the form of, for example, an email address, name, account number, or other unique identifier. Further, in the case of multiple givers, the amount field 480 can include one or more sub-amounts corresponding to each gift giver. The payment mode 482 can be identified by credit card number, bank account number, routing number, club or loyalty card number, PayPal address, and so forth. In one case, the payment mode can be a user profile such that any payment mode associated with that user profile is able to use the gift credit. Based at least in part on data received from the giver interface 402, the system can develop a packet 406 as discussed above and shown in FIG. 9. The packet 406 includes the basic information to manage, create, trigger, or perform other actions associated with the gift credit and optionally the additional information. At a basic level, the packet 406 provides information about the gift giver, the gift recipient, the amount, and other management information about how the amount is to be applied. The packet can identify whether the giver account and recipient account are credit or debit accounts. The network 416 receives this packet at a control engine 404. This can represent a computing device, acquiring bank, debit card bank, issuing bank, and/or server within the network 416 that can manage the policy of distribution, use, and/or notifications associated with the gift credit. The control engine 404 can be part of or in communication with an acquiring bank. Network 416 can be the Internet, an intranet, a virtual private network, an encrypted network, electronic or fiber-optic network, and/or any other kind of network that can include a wireline or wireless network. Therefore, the giver interface 402 can also be a wireless interface via a wireless device with the appropriate software to enable communication of such information. The control engine 404 communicates with the giver account 408 and a recipient account 410 and optionally with a third party account 412 and/or a merchant or bank 414. The control engine 404 can communicate with or operate on any one or more of these systems. For example, the third-party account 412 does not necessarily need to be involved in each transaction. Furthermore, the control engine 404 can optionally communicate directly with the merchant or bank 414. FIG. 4B illustrates a second example block diagram 450 of an architecture 450 in which the system can operate. The architecture 450 represents a model operated by an online merchant such as Amazon.com. For purposes of illustration, Amazon is used herein to represent a generic online merchant in which the data about the gift giver and gift recipient are stored or received via a user interaction to process a gift card as disclosed herein. A gift giver of a gift credit communicates with the control engine 456 through a network 454 via a user interface 452. The gift giver provides instructions to the control engine 456 through the user interface 452 to send a gift credit to the gift recipient. The gift giver can provide partial information to the control engine 456 to identify the gift recipient, such as an email address, username or a first name, last name, and mailing address. The control engine 456 and the user interface 452 can provide the giver a way to select which types of information to provide. As the gift giver enters information, the control engine 456 and the user interface 452 can also provide feedback to the giver regarding the entered information. Because the control engine 456 controls the gift card implementation based on policies, handles the transactions, and controls (at least indirectly) giver and/or recipient payment accounts, the control engine 404 and the merchant or bank 414 of FIG. 4A are effectively merged into one entity in FIG. 4B. As part of the process of creating a gift card, the control engine 456 can withdraw funds from the giver account 458 and place them in a third-party account 462 until the recipient redeems or uses the gift card. Alternatively, the control engine 456 places a hold on the gift card amount in the giver account 458 until the gift card is redeemed. The hold can be a reservation of available credit on the giver account, which is charged when the gift recipient redeems the gift card. The control engine 456 can implement other fund processing variations as well. In one aspect, the user accounts 458, 460 at Amazon are proxies for actual bank accounts such that Amazon can deposit, withdraw, hold, and perform other operations on funds in the actual bank accounts. The control engine 456 generates a gift credit associated with the recipient account 460. Gift Card User Interfaces The disclosure now turns to some example user interfaces, as shown in FIGS. 5A-5E. FIG. 5A illustrates a basic log in screen 500 where the gift giver enters credentials before entering into a giver interface to begin a gift card transaction. This provides basic information such as gift giver or recipient name 502 and a password 504, but can incorporate other authentication techniques, such as speaker verification, biometric identification, swiping a credit card (or other identification card) through a card reader, personal confirmation such as recipient high school, pet name, and so forth. FIG. 5B assumes that the gift giver has logged in and the giver's name is “George”. Here, screen 506 illustrates a welcome screen for George, optionally including a greeting 508, and presents various specific options to George for giving a gift credit. The recipient list can be prepopulated based on previous gift cards or preentered names and information associated with various people that would receive a gift card from George. This can be presented in drop down menu 510 or via some other user interface component. The gift giver fills in an amount field 512 or selects from a list of amounts from a drop down menu or other graphical or multimodal manner. The drop down menu can be prepopulated with a list of previous amounts given to this particular recipient, common amounts given, or suggested amounts based on the selected merchant, and so forth. Another field 514 provides a drop down menu (or other graphical or multimodal mechanism) of merchants. The gift giver can enter other conditions 516 associated with the gift card based on a variety of factors. FIG. 5C illustrates an example notification email 518 which explains to the gift recipient 520, Rachel, that says, “George has sent you a gift card for Home Depot for $75. You can use the gift card by simply using your Visa card at Home Depot or at homedepot.com”. The email can include a CC to the gift giver 522, in this case george@email.com. The notification is optional and can be provided via other communication modalities as well, such as voicemail, Facebook communication, tweet, SMS, personal call, a mailed letter or postcard, and so forth. The notification can include other instructions as well. FIG. 5D illustrates an email 526 that the system can optionally send to Rachel after she makes a purchase using her credit/debit card. The message 528 can include various gift details, as shown. FIG. 5E illustrates an exemplary optional reminder communication 536 from the gift credit services to the recipient, Rachel. FIG. 6 illustrates a series of steps 600 associated with the management of gift card funds. Step 602 includes selecting a policy for a gift card. This can occur via a default mode or a user selected mode to establish a certain policy or schedule for the distribution and use of the gift credit. The system includes a trigger associated with the use of the funds in step 604. The trigger can be an actual transaction using the credit/debit card in which the funds have to now be applied and released for a transaction. The last step involves releasing or applying the funds 606 to a transaction which, as noted above, can either be releasing or using those funds for a particular purchase or can involve transferring those funds directly to the recipient account or to some other location. Then the policy can include a series of triggers that cause the system to apply funds according to the policy. Gift Credit Management Portals The disclosure turns to a discussion of management interfaces for gift credits. FIG. 7 illustrates an example portal 700 in which users, including gift givers and recipients, can manage their various gift cards. A network-based server and/or a local server can provide the portal 700 in which the gift recipient receives a number of different gift credits. The prior art approach for dealing with such gift cards is to simply carry physical cards around in one's wallet or store them at home or elsewhere. The remaining amount on those particular gift cards is easily forgotten and not always easy to retrieve. This ultimately leads to wasted funds or the funds can revert to the merchant through fees or inactivity. It is almost impossible for the recipient of the gift card to remember how much money remains on the cards, especially if multiple gift cards are received at the same time. Accordingly, using the system disclosed herein, a recipient can manage, identify, and view a variety of gift cards all in one location. Portal 700 illustrates all of the gift cards for one recipient or for one payment mode (such as a checking account, Visa credit card, or PayPal account). Information 702, 704, and 708 identify various gifts from George to Rachel. FIG. 8 illustrates an example portal 800 for use by a gift giver. Both portals 700, 800 can be integrated into a same web interface so that a gift giver can manage all received and sent gift cards in one location, but the portals 700, 800 can also be completely separate. Just as a receiving party can have a portal as shown in FIG. 7 to identify all of the received cards, a portal 800 can be presented for those who send gift cards. Here, information such as found in rows 802, 804, 806 and 808 can identify the date a gift card was sent, the gift recipient, the amount, the merchant, the current status, and additional optional actions which can be taken, such as send a message, send a reminder or suggestion, or any other additional communication option for the giver to communicate with the gift recipient. FIG. 9 illustrates an example interface for managing policies associated with sent and/or received gift credits. In the interface 800 of FIG. 8, the gift giver can click on the row 802 for Tom Jones to expand a list 902 of available and/or applicable policies. The list can be a compilation of different policies from different sources or a single policy encompassing each presented aspect. FIG. 10 illustrates an exemplary method for managing gift credits. A system configured to practice the method identifies a user, which can be a gift giver and/or recipient of a gift card (1002) and retrieves a list of pending gift cards associated with the user, wherein each gift card in the list is associated with a payment mode of the user such that upon the recipient using a recipient payment mode to make a purchase, an amount of money (the gift credit) associated with one of the pending gift cards is applied to the purchase (1004). The system retrieves current status information for the list of pending gift cards (1006). The system presents at least part of the list of pending gift cards to the user (1008). Users can access this information via a gift credit management portal such as a web site, smart phone application, automated speech interface, and so forth. Gift Credit Promotions The disclosure now turns to a discussion of adding promotions to a gift credit. FIGS. 11A and 11B illustrate interfaces for a gift giver to add promotions during a creation event of a gift credit, but a gift recipient can also view and accept promotional offers when the card is received, when managing a received card, when redeeming a received gift credit, when reviewing remaining amounts, and/or at any other suitable time. FIG. 11A illustrates a window 1100 for additional accessorizing, including promotions, or upselling of the gift credit. The gift giver, George, wants to give $50 to Rachel for use at the Sizzler restaurant. The system can identify different available promotions to “accessorize” the gift credit. Here, one promo 1102 is from American Express. A gift giver can select the promo 1102 with a checkbox or other input to require Rachel to pay via American Express and thus get an extra $5 added to the gift card amount. Promo 1104 indicates that if Rachel uses the gift card on a weekday that he would get a free dessert. That box can be checked as a promotion by Sizzler in order to drive the recipient's behavior to come to the restaurant as a certain time, perhaps when business is normally slow. FIG. 11B presents a potential widget 1106 in which the system has identified the gift giver as George, the recipient as Rachel, and the merchant as Olive Garden. The system has identified that Rachel typically uses, has used, or is eligible to use one of two payment mechanisms for purchases at Olive Garden: a Visa and a MasterCard. The opportunity 1108 presented to George in FIG. 11B enables George to choose between the Visa and the MasterCard. As is shown in the widget, Visa is offering an additional $2 to the gift credit and MasterCard is offering an additional $1 to the gift credit. The Olive Garden can offer an extra $10 if it is limited to lunchtime on Saturdays. This presents an opportunity for the credit card issuers to upsell or encourage the gift giver to select a particular card for redemption of the gift credit. The gift giver, George, can click the send button to complete the transaction. If George does not select either Visa or MasterCard, the system can present additional information to George that the most common card used by Rachel is the Visa card and that the Visa card is the default if no specific card is selected. FIG. 12 illustrates an example method of the promotion-related user interfaces of FIGS. 11A and 11B. The system identifies a creation event of a gift card (1202) and identifies an applicable promotion to the gift card (1204). Then the system presents the applicable promotion to a user, either a gift giver or a gift recipient, associated with the creation event (1206). The system receives input from the user indicating acceptance of the applicable promotion (1208). Then the system can incorporate the applicable promotion into the gift card such that upon a gift recipient using a recipient payment mode associated with the gift card to make a purchase, a gift credit amount of money (or gift credit) is applied to the purchase according to the applicable promotion (1210). Gift Credits and Social Networking The disclosure now turns to a discussion of gift credits and social networking. The gift credits identified herein also advantageously can be used in specific verticals and social networks. For example, FIG. 13 illustrates a Facebook page 1300 in which a gift credit can be applied. Window 1302 includes the typical Facebook information, which can include birthdays 1304 (or other special events such as anniversaries, graduations, engagements, weddings, holidays, and so forth) in a certain order in which Mom's birthday 1306 is identified as being January 6th, the system can present a suggested option of Olive Garden and $20 as a gift credit, in addition to the Send button. The birthday list 1304 can include other entries. One entry 1308 identifies June Smith has an anniversary coming up and suggests a $25 gift credit for Cinema 10. The system can generate other suggestions upon request based on an analysis of a number of factors, such as previous gift credit history, previous use of Facebook, previous amounts given via gift credit, what others have already given June Smith (gift card amounts and gift card merchants), and so forth. The system can identify and correlate this information in order to present suggestions in window 1300 for giving gift credits from the gift giver. The example birthday list 1304 includes an entry 1310 for a $20 gift certificate for Sister through Amazon.com. Accordingly, the recipient can use that gift card in their next purchase on Amazon.com. Scheduling Gift Credits FIG. 14 illustrates an interface 1400 that enables a gift giver of a gift credit or cards to schedule recurring gift credits. For example, a gift giver wants to schedule gift cards for significant events of certain close relatives or friends. The events can be scheduled for recurring events, such as a yearly birthday gift card or at some other interval such as an anniversary gift card every five years, or for one-time events such as a wedding, birth, or graduation. Row 1402 illustrates a schedule for the giver's Mom whose birthday is on April 1st. The gift giver can select various options such as reminder and preview, choose a dollar amount, choose identification of the card to be used by the recipient to redeem the gift card, and a merchant for redemption. Messages can be added such as “Happy Birthday” which can add to the personal nature of the communication. The gift giver can then schedule gift credit email to be communicated on a certain date in advance of the birthday. The reminder option instructs the system to remind the gift giver to send a gift card for a particular recipient and/or event. The reminder can include a gift card history for that recipient or event. Row 1404 illustrates an example scheduled gift credit for Dad's birthday. Row 1406 illustrates a scheduled gift credit for Sister's anniversary at a certain date with a reminder box checked as well as the preview box checked. Row 1406 illustrates another point in which the scope of the gift credit can be modifiable. A typical physical gift card applies to a particular store or close group of stores such as the Olive Garden or any store within a mall. Because the recipient redeems the gift card by simply using a Visa card online or at a merchant store, the system can gather additional information about the purchase. Combined Gift Credits From Many to One The disclosure turns to a discussion of another aspect of this disclosure, namely a group gift card. FIG. 15A illustrates an exemplary user interface 1500 for giving a group gift card to Tom for his birthday. The display 1500 can include a number of total contributions, and a “one click” button to give the suggested (or other) amount, or a separate field or input element 1516 where the gift giver enters a certain dollar amount. A human can initiate the group gift credit and become an organizer for the card. The organizer can set the terms of the gift card, the contribution period, and other aspects associated with the gift credit. The organizer can also filter messages to the recipient from the other contributors associated with the gift credit, and so forth. The organizer can decide, for example, whether to enable voting for the gift card merchant and can manually select a particular vendor, item, or other restriction for the gift credit. In one variation, the social network is the “organizer” and can maintain that role throughout the gift credit creation process or can hand off that role to a human participant. In another variation, the highest contributor automatically assumes the role of the “organizer”. The system can hold contributed money in a third-party account until redeemed, transferred to the recipient's account, or otherwise used by the gift recipient. In the event that a group gift card is rejected or cancelled before the system completes the process, the system can refund the contributed funds to the contributors directly and optionally notify them of the failed gift credit. FIG. 15B illustrates an example architecture 1520 for interfacing between online merchants, social networks, and banks that can be used for individual or group gift credits. This architecture 1520 allows a merchant 1524, such as Amazon.com, with established user accounts 1526 with the merchant 1524 to communicate with a social network 1528, such as Facebook or MySpace, with established user accounts 1530 with the social network 1528, for the purpose of processing (i.e. giving, receiving, managing, and redeeming) gift credits. Further, a control engine 1522 can interact with the social network 1528 and/or the merchant 1524 to guide or control gift credit transactions. The control engine 1522 can communicate with a bank 1532 or other financial institution holding a group of bank accounts 1534 and a third-party account 1536 for holding funds in some gift credit scenarios. Some bank accounts 1534 correspond to the various accounts 1526, 1530 in the social network 1528 and/or the merchant 1526. The architecture 1520 can provide a user interface for the users on the social network, merchant, and/or control engine to manage gift credits. The social network 1528, merchant 1524, control engine 1522, and bank 1532 can communicate with each other via established APIs for purposes relating to creating, delivering, notifying, and predicting related to gift credits. FIG. 16 illustrates a method embodiment of this approach. In one variation, the system receives a gift card for a gift recipient from a group of givers (1602). Then the system withdraws a group of gift card amounts of money from accounts, or reserves credit available, of the group of givers (1604). The system identifies a recipient payment mode (1606). Then, upon the recipient using the recipient payment mode to make a purchase, the system applies at least part of the group of gift card amounts of money to the purchase (1608). Intelligent Transitions for Gift Credit Options FIGS. 17A-17D illustrate an aspect of this disclosure associated with intelligently transitioning gift card options, including gift credits, at a web shopping portal such as Amazon.com. Here, a window 1700 illustrates a giver George 1704 who is shopping on Amazon. A particular context 1702 is arrived at in which an item is being viewed for purchase on Amazon. The system can present an interface to George for giving a virtual card 1706 to somebody. The interface can include a widget 1708 to enable George to select a particular person as a recipient of a gift credit. George can identify in other fields a particular amount of money (i.e., a gift credit), a message field for the recipient, and/or other options relating to the gift credit. All of this information can be combined in a widget 1708 or a small window that the giver can use to give a particular gift card to a particular recipient. The fields in window 1708 can be prepopulated based on the current context of George's searching within Amazon. FIG. 17A therefore illustrates an approach in which a gift credit interface can be presented that is dynamic based on a level of surfing an internet page. If FIG. 17A represents an initial beginning of a search at Amazon in which the giver has just logged in, then the presentation of a window 1708 can represent an opportunity for George to give a gift credit to somebody just for use on Amazon. This is because the context in this scenario is only based on being in the Amazon environment. Assume that George searches for the garden section and browses to the interface shown in FIG. 17B. FIG. 17B illustrates a dynamically modifiable gift credit interface at a lower level. Here, assume that window 1712 represents a search such that the giver is in the Amazon garden environment 1714. Here, various garden tools and supplies are available. The widget 1718 that can be presented to give a virtual card 1716 can adapt to this context. As can be seen in window 1712, shovels, rakes and hoses that are available in the window 1718 can adapt such that the giver can select as the scope of the gift credit and can be dynamically modified such that garden items defines the scope of the gift credit. Therefore, when the giver uses field to select a recipient for the gift credit, and the amount is entered in field, when George hits Purchase in field 1720, then the gift credit that is given can have a dividable scope of garden items within the Amazon environment. George clicks on the shovel portion of the garden section and browses to the interface shown in FIG. 17C. FIG. 17C illustrates yet another layer. Here, assume that George has navigated to a more detailed environment within Amazon just related to shovels 1726. Window 1724 illustrates this level in which the dynamic widget 1730 presents the option to give a gift credit 1728 with a particular person who populates the To: field and the For: field is pre-populated with shovels. George clicks on the space item of the shovel portion and browses to the interface shown in FIG. 17D. FIG. 17D illustrates yet a more specific context of searching within Amazon in which a specific item such as a spade is identified 1738. Window 1736 shows review information and specific cost of $9.75 plus $2 shipping. The giver can then purchase a gift credit for the recipient manually, via a “one click” purchase, or purchase the spade itself and send it to the recipient. FIG. 18 illustrates an example method associated with the feature discussed above. In one variation, the system identifies a gift giver browsing a page of a merchant web site (1802). Then the system retrieves account information of the gift giver (1804) and analyzes content of the page (1806). External data such as social networking data, the date, location, purchasing history, etc. of the gift giver and of potential recipients can also be retrieved and analyzed. The system can display a list of gift card options to the gift giver based on the content of the page. The gift card options can include a physical gift card for a recipient, purchasing an item for the recipient, and/or sending a gift card associated with a payment mode of the recipient such that when the recipient uses the payment mode to make a purchase, a gift card amount is applied to the purchase (1808). The system can optionally update the list of gift card options as the gift giver navigates to different pages of the merchant web site based on content of the different pages (1810). Predictive Gift Credits With respect to predictive uses of gift credits, FIG. 19 illustrates a system 1900 that can be used for a predictive approach of presenting an interface for a gift giver of a gift credit. Online presence block 1902 represents an interface to the gift giver 1901 and what that interface presents to the gift giver. Specifically, with respect to predictive gift credits, the interface 1902 can present to the gift giver 1901 certain predictions about what types of gift credits the gift giver 1901 is likely to give. The system can tap in to and process various pieces of information in order to arrive at those predictions. For example, a recipient profile 1904 can be used for various recipients that are known to receive gift cards or gift credits from the gift giver 1901. A gift giver profile 1906 can include information about the giver's previous habits, own purchases, and so forth. The system can analyze social networking data 1910 or other personal data sources to identify such information as birthdays, habits, preferences, location-based information, and activities of the gift giver 1901 as well as various levels information about friends, family and associates. For example, through the social network data, the control engine 1908 and/or the online presence information 1902 can retrieve birthdays of the giver's closest friends and family. This social networking data can be very valuable when predicting what gift credits the gift giver desires to give. The giver history 1912, the recipient history 1914 and a friend wish list 1916 can also communicate with one or more of the online presence 1902 or the control engine 1908 to provide additional information that the control engine 1908 can use when predicting gift credit information. The control engine 1908 can utilize all or part of the various information, optionally assign weights to the various information, and combine it together to arrive at a prediction at any given time and based on any particular online presence information for the gift giver 1901 regarding what kinds of gift credits the gift giver desires to or should give. FIG. 20 illustrates one example of how this approach works. Assume that window 2000 is the Neiman Marcus website and widget 2002 is presented that enables the gift giver to tap into and send a gift credit for Neiman Marcus or some other merchant. The widget 2002 can be a JavaScript or other popup, for example. For example, the website 2000 is Neiman Marcus and the widget 2002 is offering gift cards for other retailers. The system can present a predicted gift card summary after the giver clicks on the gift credit button. Given the context of information from one or more social networking data, online presence, giver history, recipient history and wish lists, and various profiles and so forth, FIG. 20 illustrates a predictive list of most likely recipients and that Dad 2006 should receive $100 2008 for Home Depot 2009. A Send button 2010 is presented such that if the gift giver decides to give the predicted gift card, a single click sends off that gift card to the right person with the right scope and for the right amount that Dad can redeem using his standard payment mechanism (Visa, American Express, MasterCard, etc.) at Home Depot. More information 2012 can be provided in case the gift giver desires to tailor the particular gift credit in a more detailed way. FIG. 21 illustrates an exemplary method associated with the predictive process for gift credits. In a first aspect, the system retrieves a giving history of a gift giver (2102) and identifies a current context of the gift giver (2104). The current context can include multiple information sources, such as a current web page view, a time, a day, recently purchased gifts, recently received gifts, a browsing history, recent communications, scheduled calendar events, debt owed, and so forth. The system then generates a predictive list of gift card suggestions based on at least one of the giving history, the current context, and other optional information (2106). A gift credit suggestion can include one or more of a gift recipient, a recipient history, a gift credit amount, and a gift card merchant, for example. Then the system presents at least part of the predictive list of gift credit suggestions to the gift giver (2108). The predictive list can be based on a current activity and presented in the context of the current activity. Gift Credits with Loyalty Cards FIG. 22 illustrates another example use of the system 2200 at a point of sale 2202. A gift credit recipient pays for purchases using cash 2204, check, a payment card such as a Visa or debit card 2206 in conjunction with a club card 2208. The club card 2208 can make the recipient eligible for certain promotional discounts or savings. The gift credit can be tied to the club card 2208 to identify transactions to which the system applies the gift card. One example of such a club card or loyalty card is a Safeway club card in which the recipient receives discounts of items purchased at Safeway when they give the person at the register either the club card or a phone number which identifies them as a member of the club. In this example, the gift card server 2210 communicates with a credit card operator 2214 and a merchant server 2212 as well as hardware at a point of sale such that the gift credit can be applied to a particular purchase independent of whether the recipient used cash, a club card or a payment card in the normal fashion. For example, assume $10 in a gift credit has been presented to a recipient John. John goes to a point of sale but uses cash 2204 or a check to buy $10 worth of groceries. If the point of sale uses a club card information 2208 in order to process the transaction, the entry of the club card information can be communicated to a merchant server 2218 and/or a gift card server 2210 such that the gift credit amount can be applied to that purchase. The teller at the point of sale 2202 can simply inform the recipient that, as part of this transaction, a gift credit was used to pay $10 and thus the gift recipient does not have to pay anything for that transaction. This can be accomplished because usually the club card information is provided during the transaction to arrive at the final amount (since the club member gets discounts). Therefore, the final amount can include the application of the $10 in a gift credit. FIG. 23 illustrates an example method embodiment for processing a gift credit in connection with a club card. In this example, the system identifies at a point of sale and in connection with a purchase, a payment mode and a loyalty credit from a gift recipient as part of the purchase (2302). The system identifies a gift credit amount associated with at least one of the payment mode and the loyalty card (2304). The system applies the gift credit amount to the purchase (2306). The gift recipient can use the loyalty credit with the merchant in the form of a separately scanned physical card, or a recipient-entered passcode, password, telephone number, or other information unique to the recipient. Upselling with Gift Credits FIG. 24 illustrates another opportunity for accessorizing, upselling, or otherwise modifying a gift credit based on various pieces of information that can be presented when the gift giver purchases the gift card, but which normally cannot be presented in a standard physical gift card scenario. The system presents exemplary window 2400 just following a giver's decision to purchase a $50 gift credit. The information 2402 can say something like “You Have Chosen $50 for an Outback Steakhouse gift credit”. The system can deduce from information such as the merchant, the amount, the recipient, a recipient event, a message from the gift giver to the recipient, that the gift giver intends the gift card to be for dinner for two. The system can then determine that the average dinner for two at Outback Steakhouse is $56.50. The system can ask the gift giver if the gift giver wants to increase your gift credit by $6.50 2404 to meet the average dinner for two price. In another variation, the system can round the suggested increase amount, based on the actual average price, to a next round number, such as the next whole dollar or the next five dollar increment. Of course, the gift giver is free to adjust the increase amount up or down and can decrease the amount if the gift giver feels the amount is too high. Button 2406 receives the OK to increase the gift card for that amount. The window 2400 can also include additional information to guide the choice, such as average drink cost, dessert cost, tip amount, and so forth. “Dinner and a Movie” Gift Credits The disclosure now turns to a discussion of a “Dinner and a Movie” example embodiment. While the example presented herein is “Dinner and a Movie”, the same principles apply to virtually any scenario where the exact dollar value of the gift credit is not known or indefinite until the time of the purchase. FIG. 25A illustrates another gift card interface 2500 that differs in that no particular dollar amount is presented. This example illustrates a gift card where the gift giver wants to buy dinner and a movie for two for Rachel for her 10th anniversary 2502 and a button 2504 to buy the gift card for dinner and a movie without a specific amount. The system can associate a number of restrictions with this gift card. FIG. 26 illustrates a system 2600 for processing such a gift card request from item or service with no definite amount. Block 2604 represents a user interface that receives from gift giver 2602 a gift card request for such an item or service that has no definite amount at step 1. The request can be communicated to a server 2606. The server can then reach out and communicate with various vendors at steps 2 and 3, a first vendor 2608 and a second vendor 2610 as well as other vendors to receive estimated costs for the dinner, the movie, the bracelet, or any other item for purchase or service. Alternatively, the server 2604 performs a database lookup to estimate costs without communicating with the vendors 2606, 2608 directly. That maximum amount is communicated back to the gift giver 2606 in step 4. When the gift giver 2602 optionally confirms in step 5 that the gift card is approved, server 2606 then accesses at step 6 the giver account 2614 to either withdraw money or reserve the maximum amount for such a gift credit (which is $210 as shown in the example shown in FIG. 25B). Then, as is noted in the scenario above, when the recipient actually purchases the item or service, such as a dinner and a movie from the vendors 2606, 2608 via the recipient account 2612 at step 7, a final actual amount is identified is step 8 by the server. Step 8 also involves applying the actual amount from the held or reserved amounts from the giver account 2614 to the recipient's purchase. Step 9 involves releasing the remaining amount and step 10 optionally notifies the gift giver of the release. FIG. 27 illustrates an example method embodiment associated with the indefinite gift credit. The system first receives, from a gift giver, a first identification of a recipient and a second identification of a gift object costing an indeterminate amount of money (or gift credit) at a first time (2702). The system optionally determines an estimated maximum amount of money of the gift object (2704). The system can also optionally confirm with the gift giver that the estimated maximum amount of money is acceptable as a gift credit (2706). The system reserves the estimated maximum amount of money from a giver account (2708). The system identifies a recipient payment mode (2710). Upon the recipient using the recipient payment mode to make a purchase of the gift object at a second time that is later than the first time (2712), the system identifies an actual cost of the gift object (2714) and applies the actual cost of the gift object from the estimated maximum amount of money to the purchase (2716). The system can optionally release the remaining portion of the estimated maximum amount of money to the gift giver (2718). In one aspect, the gift credit or amount can be maintained in the giver payment account until the recipient makes the qualified purchase. FIG. 29 depicts an example timeline 2900 for a “dinner and a movie” gift credit scenario to further illustrate these principles. The timeline represents multiple days and events occurring in those days. On Monday, the giver purchases 2902 a gift credit for the recipient for “Dinner and a Movie for Two”. The system establishes a policy or set of policies guiding the gift credit. The policies for this gift credit can include a dinner and two movie tickets purchased within 12 hours of each other. Other more detailed policies can include the two movie tickets must be purchased for the same showing of the same movie, the dinner must include at least two entrees, or the two movie tickets must be purchased within the same 12 hour window. On Tuesday night, the recipient purchases dinner for two 2904, which triggers a 12 hour window. If the system is monitoring the recipient purchases in real time (or substantially real time), the system can provide a notification to the recipient that a first part of the policy associated with the gift credit has been fulfilled. The notification can include some other suggestions and reminders of the remaining policy requirements for redeeming the gift credit for “Dinner and a Movie”. However, the recipient does not purchase movie tickets for a movie within the twelve hour window, so the system resets that policy. The policy with respect to a business can identify the business through any mechanism such as through a network merchant category or a network merchant ID that identifies a category of merchants (clothing stores) or a specific merchant ID (Nordstroms). The next set of exemplary transactions 2906 shows that the recipient purchased breakfast on Thursday morning and movie tickets within the twelve hour window, but the system may or may not recognize the breakfast as a qualifying “Dinner” based on the policies. If the system recognizes the breakfast as a qualifying transaction according to the policy, then this set of transactions 2906 triggers the redemption of the gift credit. However, if the policy indicates that the “Dinner” must be purchased between the hours of 4:00 pm and midnight, then this set of transactions 2906 does not trigger the redemption of the gift credit. Turning to the third set of exemplary transactions 2908, the recipient purchases dinner for two on Saturday and restarts the twelve hour window. The system can send a notification to the recipient, such as by email, text message, via a social network, or other communication, that the transaction has started the twelve hour window for completing qualifying transactions for redeeming the gift credit. In that twelve hour window, the recipient sees a movie with his spouse. This can satisfy the policies associated with the gift credit and trigger its redemption to cover the movie and dinner. At this point, the system can send a notification to the recipient of the transactions that satisfied the policies, details of the transactions, such as the time, location, amount, merchant, and so forth. The notification can also include a description of any optional transactions that can be associated with the gift credit. Intercepting Gift Credit Transactions FIG. 28 illustrates an example payment processing chain 2800. This chain 2800 is representative and can include more or less steps, including variations with multiple concurrent paths for different payment modes, such as a branch for processing credit cards and a branch for processing debit cards. The system for processing gift credits can intercept transactions at any of multiple locations in the chain 2800, depending on the type of gift credit, the type of underlying purchase or transaction, the issuer of the gift credit, and other factors. In this chain, a user 8002 presents a credit/debit card or other payment instrument at a point of sale 8004. The point of sale can be at a brick and mortar retailer, such as a checkout cash register at Target, or a virtual storefront, such as Amazon.com or a mobile device store for downloading applications. The point of sale 8004 must first verify that the payment instrument is valid and is backed by sufficient funds or credit to complete the transaction. To this end, the point of sale 8004 can communicate with a merchant/gateway 8006. The system can intercept payments at the point of sale 8004 level and/or the merchant/gateway 8006 level in order to process gift credits associated with club cards or loyalty cards, for example. The merchant/gateway 8006 can communicate with a bank 8008, and the bank 8008 can communicate with a credit card issuing bank 8010. Either the bank 8008 or the credit card issuing bank 8010 confirms that credit is available and can reserve that credit for payment for the transaction or confirms that funds are available for the transaction and withdraws those funds from the user's account. Then the various entities communicate back through the chain to the point of sale 8004 to confirm that the user's payment device is valid and has sufficient funds or credit to complete the purchase. Then the point of sale can complete the purchase. The system can intercept these transactions at any stage in the chain and can intercept transactions at multiple stages. The system can intercept a transaction at a point of sale to apply part of the gift credit associated with a loyalty card. The system can intercept the transaction at a merchant/gateway 8006 level to apply a main portion of the gift credit amount, but can also intercept the same transaction at the credit card issuing bank 8010 level to apply a promotional bonus for using an American Express card. Reverse Gift Credits FIG. 30 illustrates an exemplary user interface 3000 for requesting a reverse gift credit. The scenario in which FIG. 30 will be discussed is a group of three friends who go out to dinner together, each order food and drinks, and at the end receive a bill or check for the combined amount, including a tip, of $53. The approach described and the user interface depicted in FIG. 30 provide a way to avoid the friends having to remember to bring cash, perform mathematical calculations to determine their share, or pay using three separate credit cards. One of the friends, Bob Jones, opens a reverse gift credit application on his smart phone or other mobile device, which displays the user interface 3000. The reverse gift card application provides an easy way for Bob to pay for the dinner and arrange for his friends to reimburse Bob for their portions. Bob logs in and the device retrieves Bob's credentials 3002 associated with at least one payment account 3004, in this case a MasterCard credit card. Then Bob can select multiple givers 3006, 3008 and enter the amount that each owes for the dinner bill. The interface 3000 can also display the total remaining on the bill 3012 that may or may not correspond to Bob's share of the bill. Bob can then submit the reverse gift credit and the system notifies Giver 1 and Giver 2 of their proposed share of the bill, such as via text message or email, such as “You and Bob had dinner together at TGI Friday's. Bob is requesting that you pay $15 as your share of the bill.” The givers can confirm the proposal, add more money to the total, or otherwise interact with the notification to revise the amount. Upon receiving the confirmations from the givers, the system debits the respective amounts of money from each giver and credits those amounts of money to Bob's account as a reimbursement for paying the entire dinner bill. Given that each person is in the system, the various credit/debit card accounts are known. The system can then confirm a payment plan for the group. Rachel then simply pays with her credit/debit card. Everyone group member's payment mechanisms is available and the respective amounts are retrieved from each giver account and associated with the transaction made by Rachel such that she is reimbursed. Rachel does not even need to be identified in the application as the one who will be making the payment. A policy can apply under the application for each particular such that when the group is identified with the respective member amounts, the group activity is monitored. For example, after all the data is entered, Rachel may have left her credit card at home. The application knows the group, knows the amount, and if George then pays the bill (rather than Rachel), the system can automatically turn Rachel into a gift giver and George the recipient. Indeed, in one aspect, no person needs to be identified as the gift giver. Each person only needs to enter their respective amount and then one in the group will pay. One or more in the group could pay as well and the system could work out the appropriate payments to each payer such that the right reimbursement is made to the correct respective payer. FIG. 31 illustrates a method embodiment of this approach. The system receives amount information from each person in a group of people who are going to be associated with a payment transaction (3020). The system associates each member of the group with a respective payment account or payment mechanism (3022). The system receives data that one person in the group paid via their payment mechanism (3024). The system then applies a respective amount of money from each person's payment account in the group to the one person who paid (other than the paying member) (3026). Rich, Social Thanking for Gifts The disclosure turns now to retaining the social experience associated with giving and receiving a gift. When a recipient receives a gift, the recipient redeems the gift by making the purchase using his or her previously existing recipient payment account. For example, the recipient can purchase a book or can purchase dinner at the Olive Garden, where the money for that gift ultimately comes from a gift giver even though the recipient purchases it using their regular method of buying products. In association with making the purchase, the recipient can use a smartphone application or some other app to take a picture associated with the gift, whether a picture of the item itself, the recipient's happy face, the store where the gift was redeemed, the recipient enjoying the purchase, and so forth. The recipient can select or take a picture. In one variation, the merchant point of sale can prompt a store clerk to remind the recipient to take a picture to share, although a backend system can push a notification to the recipient's device to take a picture. In one variation, the picture is one of the requirements that must be satisfied in order to redeem the gift. The system can apply an image recognition algorithm to ensure that the photo contains a desired object or person prior to sending the photo to the gift giver. The requirements to complete the redemption of the gift can include one or more of any number of factors such as a taking of a picture of the gift, the inclusion of the recipient's face (as verified by facial recognition software), the reception of a note or feedback such as a rating of the gift and/or a comment, a location based feedback, and so forth. Such requirements could also provide for partial redemption. For example, if the user performs 3 tasks then the gift giver pays for the full gift. If the recipient only performs one task and take the picture of the gift, then the gift giver pays for ½ of the gift. A backend system can track the recipient interactions through a device and/or an application to identify at what level the gift giver will contribute to the purchase of the gift. In a similar manner, a merchant, manufacturer, advertiser, agency, or any other entity who may have a stake in or can use the data obtained from one or more user interactions, can also provide a contribution to a portion of the gift or an added bonus or feature such as offering to pay for a dessert if the user performs three tasks associated with purchasing the gift. The system can assign or identify tags for the photo such as the date, time, location, direction, facial recognition or orientation of the camera. The recipient and/or the gift giver can assign other manual tags, such as hashtags or other textual or category tags, such as #nightoutinNYC, #anniversary, or #thebigfour-oh. A face recognizer can identify people in the image and either tag faces or prompt the user to provide identities for or otherwise label the recognized faces. The recipient can establish privacy settings for the tags, so that only specific users or groups of users can view or edit the tags. After the tags are assigned, the system can retrieve giver data, such as the ID of the gift giver, the giver phone number, gift ID number, or giver address. The system can send the photo and at least a portion of the tags to the gift giver, or to some other party indicated by the gift giver or recipient as a virtual “thank you” card. A gift app on a smartphone can prompt the user to customize the virtual “thank you” card as the gift is redeemed, or shortly thereafter. For example, when the recipient makes a qualifying purchase using the recipient payment account and triggers redemption of the gift, a gift server can detect the redemption and push a notification to the recipient's smart phone to launch the virtual “thank you” card portion of a gift app. The recipient can customize the text, audio, video, images, and other aspects associated with the virtual “thank you” card or with delivery of the virtual “thank you” card. Alternatively, the system can automatically post the photo and all or part of the tags to a social network on behalf of the recipient. The system can attach multiple pictures or videos to the virtual “thank you” card. For example, the recipient can send the gift giver a video showing a bit of the dinner that they received as the gift. The giver can indicate a preferred form to receive the virtual “thank you” card, such as email, a particular social media site, or SMS. The gift app can also receive the picture of the recipient that is associated with the redemption of the gift and enable the recipient to transmit that image to be used in any manner to thank the giver. For example, the image could be imprinted on a physical gift card and mailed to the giver as a thank you with a particular dollar amount identified by the recipient and paid for out of the recipient payment account, which is already in the system. The system can incentivize gratitude and virtual “thank you” cards by including additional offers to either the recipient or the giver as part of creating a virtual “thank you” card. The additional offers can include their own respective policies governing their redemption. For example, if the recipient receives a $50 gift to Olive Garden, the virtual “thank you” card can include a picture of the recipient's dinner at Olive Garden and a $5 gift for the giver to use at Olive Garden. A physical “thank you” gift card could be send to the giver as well. Olive Garden can fund the virtual “thank you” card, or the original recipient who now becomes a gift giver in return. The amount of such an additional offer can be predetermined and paid for as a percentage of the gift or the recipient can manually select an additional offer type and amount. The recipient of the additional offer can, in turn, forward on a second virtual “thank you” card upon redemption of the additional offer, creating a chain or loop of gifts/offers and “thank you's.” The system can store a history of virtual “thank you” cards or the images or other media assets contained in the virtual “thank you” cards. In this way, the recipient and/or the gift giver can browse and reuse certain virtual “thank you” cards or media assets. For example, if five friends contributed to a gift for the recipient, the recipient can store a photo used for one virtual “thank you” card, and reuse that photo in sending virtual “thank you” cards to the remaining givers. In another variation, the system can create a virtual “corkboard” or collage of gifts sent and received between a group of people over time. For example, the system can collect information of gifts sent between a husband and wife, and present the images in a collage or slide show, allowing the husband and wife to reminisce over past gifts and the virtual “thank you” cards exchanged at special occasions. The virtual “thank you” cards may have a greater, more enduring sentimental value for the husband and wife than the actual gifts exchanged. In a similar manner, the system can track which givers gave which items, and can provide a “gift log.” The gift log can identify that the lamp came from Kevin, and the toaster came from Fran. In a more complex alternative, the system can perform image recognition or image matching to allow a user to take a picture of an item in his or her home, and the system can match the item to an item in the gift log. When a match is determined, the system can present available data, such as when the item was received as a gift, for what event the item was received, from whom the item was received, the approximate or actual price, and so forth. The system can link multiple recipients together as a household to determine whether a particular item was received as a gift. A system configured to practice a first example method embodiment, as shown in FIG. 32, receives an object associated with a gift via a gift processing application, wherein a recipient of the gift received the gift from a gift giver by purchasing the gift using a recipient payment account that is independent of a giver payment account, and wherein both the giver payment account and the recipient payment account existed when the gift giver chose the recipient and the gift through the gift processing application (3202). Then the system receives a tag associated with the object (3204), and can transmit the object to the gift giver (3206). The optional tag can provide metadata information about the object. The tag can be a date, a time, a location, a manually entered tag from the recipient, a description of the gift, or a message, for example. The object can be, but is not limited to, an image, audio, a text-based message, or a video. The object can be any digitally storable object for presentation to the gift giver and/or receiver. In one variation, after the recipient receives the gift, the system can receive an identification of an amount of money and a merchant associated with the object, and present the amount of money and the merchant information to the gift giver such that the gift giver can make a purchase at the merchant using the giver payment account and have the amount of money applied to the purchase. The recipient payment account and/or a merchant payment account can provide the amount of money to be applied to the purchase. In a related method, as shown in FIG. 33, the system can store an image associated with a gift via a gift processing application, wherein a recipient of the gift received the gift from a gift giver by purchasing the gift using a recipient payment account that is independent of a giver payment account, and wherein both the giver payment account and the recipient payment account existed when the gift giver chose the recipient and the gift through the gift processing application (5402), receive a tag associated with the image, the tag identifying the gift giver (5404), and receive a picture of an item in the image after storing the image (5406). Then the system can present an indication of the gift giver to the recipient in response to receiving the picture (5408). Face Recognition The disclosure turns to a discussion of problems associated with monitoring a recipient of a gift in-store to provide reminders, suggestions, or notifications regarding suggestions or redemption of the gift. In a first example, a gift giver has given a recipient a gift governed by a policy indicating a merchant and a recipient payment account. The policy can include other data on how to manage redemption of the gift, such as a $50 gift to Olive Garden which the gift giver gives to the recipient and the recipient redeems by using the recipient payment account, such as a debit or credit account. Once the gift is in the gift administration system, the system can create a monitoring tag or object. The system can distribute or post the monitoring tag or object to the merchant, so that as the recipient enters the merchant's place of business (as identified, for example, by a network merchant ID or a network merchant category), surveillance cameras can capture images of the recipient's face, and match the recipient's face with the policy via face imaging or recognition technology. Face imaging or recognition technology can compare images or video of faces with stored facial characteristics to generate a positive match. An on-site face detection system at the merchant can identify when the recipient enters the merchant place of business. Upon successful recognition of the recipient by the face recognition system, the system can perform an action. The gift policy can provide the actions to perform, or the actions can be specified by the merchant, the recipient, a type of recipient, available store clerks, available inventory in that location in the store, and so forth. If an outstanding gift policy for that merchant is active in the system for the recipient, then the system can send a notification to the recipient reminding him or her that about the gift, such as an automated telephone call, text message, a popup on a smartphone, and so forth. The notification can include a reminder of the relevant portions of the policy for redeeming the gift, such as reminding the recipient to use his Visa card to make the purchase, and reminding the user that the gift amount is $50. The system can poll the merchant to locate any additional offers or promotions from the merchant, such as “you have a $50 gift card to Olive Garden, we'll add $5 to the value if you buy dinner tonight,” and include those additional offers or promotions in the notification. These additional offers or promotions can be widely available or can be tailored for the specific recipient. The system can use face recognition to identify that a recipient having an active gift has entered the merchant location, and notify in-store workers regarding the recipient. Then the in-store workers can locate the recipient or spend special attention with the recipient if or when they encounter him or her. The face recognition system can be at a single point, such as at the entry, and generate a live list of customers in the store having active gifts. Alternatively, with face recognition placed throughout the merchant location, the system can generate a rich list of the locations within the store where such recipients are in real time. The system can tap in to other data sources to supplement or augment the rich list of recipients with valid gifts, such as cell phone geolocation data, RFID tags in shopping carts, social networking data, online public profile information, a customer history database, and so forth. FIG. 34 illustrates an example method embodiment for face recognition with gifts. An example system can receive, via a face identification system at a merchant location, an identification of a recipient of a gift which is redeemable at the merchant using a recipient payment account that is independent of and not in control of a giver payment account, the gift having an associated policy and stored within a gift processing system (3402). Then the system can transmit a reminder to the recipient via a recipient device that the recipient has the gift (3404). The system can further transmit an additional offer from the merchant in addition to the gift, such as a coupon, promotion, coupon code, discount voucher, and so forth. The additional offer from the merchant can be conditional upon one of the recipient making a redeeming purchase in a period of time and the recipient making a redeeming purchase prior to leaving the merchant location. The system can place other conditions on the additional offer as well. The system can further receive an indication of a purchase made by the recipient using the recipient payment account at the merchant location. In another variation, a person is enrolled in the gift and face recognition system, such as through a previous gift that has been redeemed, but for whom no gifts are currently active. The system can recognize the person as he or she enters the merchant place of business. Based on previous sent or received gifts at the merchant or other merchants, the system can determine via social networking or gift history data that the person is likely to give a gift to a recipient. The system can generate and send a notification to the person, who would become then the gift giver, to send a prepackaged gift of $50 from to the recipient. The system can identify these relationships based on Facebook friendships, for example. An example notification could say “Tom, you know that your Facebook friend Ginny loves the Olive Garden. Why not give her a $50 gift credit to the Olive Garden for her birthday in two weeks? Click here for delivery by next Sunday.” The system can apply an algorithm to match up a potential giver with the most likely recipient(s) in his or her social network based on the taste of the recipient, holiday timing, past patterns of giving, closeness of the relationship, closeness of the upcoming holiday, birthday, or event, and so forth. With face recognition, the system can also track how many times a recipient having an active gift has entered one of the merchant's locations of business without making a purchase. For example, the recipient may stop by four different locations of Best Buy without making a purchase. At this point, the system can trigger a contact from a customer service agent or personal shopping assistant from Best Buy to call or otherwise contact the recipient to provide help. Perhaps the recipient is looking for a specific item and is willing to use the gift, but cannot find the desired item. The system can provide all or part of the gift data to the customer service agent, so that the customer service agent can provide more personalized assistance or make topic-appropriate small talk with the recipient. Delaying Funds Transfer Until Time of Transaction The disclosure turns now to managing money contributed to a gift that is ultimately not redeemed or that is under-redeemed so that no money is lost in the gift transaction. If the gift credit and corresponding policy are never used or activated by a qualifying purchase using the recipient payment account, then the system can do nothing and leave the gift funds in the giver payment account. For example, the giver buys the recipient a $50 gift for Joe's Pizza. The system sends the recipient a notification of the gift credit. For whatever reason, the recipient never goes to Joe's Pizza or never redeems the gift credit. In this case, the giver payment account is never charged for the gift, and no transaction occurs. This approach is basically a no-loss gift model because the gift is paid for post-purchase. If the gift is redeemed over multiple transactions, such as a gift having a value of $100, and redeemed in a first transaction of $40 and a second transaction of $60, the system can withdraw or transfer funds from the giver payment account as the transactions occur. Alternatively, a first transaction of less than the full gift amount can trigger a transfer of the entire gift amount from the giver payment account. A system configured to practice a third example method embodiment can create a gift for a recipient, based on a request from a gift giver, and notify the recipient of the gift. The gift credit can be redeemable at the merchant using a recipient payment account that is independent of and not in control of a giver payment account, the gift credit having an associated policy and stored within a gift processing system. If the recipient never redeems the gift credit using the recipient payment account, then the gift giver is not charged for the gift credit and no transaction occurs. Alternatively speaking, the giver payment account is charged only upon redemption of the gift credit using the recipient payment account. To avoid accumulation of such outstanding charges, the gift credit can expire after a certain period of time, such as after 2 years, after a certain number of notices to the recipient, and so forth. In the case of the gift giver closing the giver payment account, the organization administering the giver payment account can withhold sufficient funds to cover the eventual redemption of the gift credit for a certain period of time, after which the funds can revert to the gift giver, or can be applied to the recipient payment account. Identifying Transactions Almost Satisfying a Gift Policy In one variation, the recipient makes a transaction that almost satisfies the policy requirements to redeem the gift, but the transaction does not meet one or more of the policy's conditions. The system can notify the recipient that the policy was almost satisfied, and can either suggest to the recipient how to modify the transaction or what additional steps to take to satisfy the policy and redeem the gift. Alternatively, the recipient can instruct the system to amend the policy to make the transaction satisfy the policy and redeem the gift. The system can charge a percentage of the gift amount or some other amount in exchange for amending the policy to match the transaction. The system can notify the giver of the gift that the policy was almost met, and request authorization from the gift giver to modify the policy so that the transaction satisfies the policy. The request to the gift giver can provide an indication of which part of the policy would be modified, to what it would be modified, or details about the original transaction. This approach can assist a recipient who may be struggling to remember the exact conditions or terms of the policy for the gift, but can also remind the recipient that the gift exists. Merchants or the gift processing system can analyze such instances of “almost” satisfying the gift policy as analytics data to determine customer trends or preferences. Then, based on the analytics data, the merchants can either modify default gift giving settings, suggest improved policy conditions for future gifts, rearrange a cost or incentive structure to drive givers and recipients to more profitable types of gifts and policies, and so forth. While an analytics engine may gather a large number of such “almost” redemptions of gifts under their corresponding policies, the system can provide notifications to the gift giver and/or recipient only for those transactions that are within a threshold difference from satisfying the policy, which threshold can be set by the gift giver, the recipient, or the system. In a related variation, a recipient can ask the merchant to run a ‘test transaction’ prior to the actual transaction to determine whether the transaction would satisfy the policy. The result from such a test transaction can be a binary “yes” or “no,” or can provide additional details regarding why the policy would not be satisfied, or what must change in the test transaction to satisfy the policy. Coupons and Daily Deals The system can also apply policies to promotions such as coupons or daily deals. In terms of a coupon or daily deal, the person purchasing the coupon or daily deal is typically also the recipient of the coupon or daily deal. Accordingly, this section refers to a purchaser, but can be substituted for a gift giver and recipient in the appropriate places. When a purchaser purchases a group-based daily deal, such as a promotion from Groupon™, the system can associate a policy with the purchaser payment account, so that when the purchaser makes a qualifying purchase according to the policy, the system automatically applies the corresponding discount or promotion. The purchaser can register his or her purchaser payment account with a coupon or daily deal website, and register for or purchase “deals.” These deals are embodied as policies for monitoring transactions made using the purchaser payment account. The purchaser can, via a website or app through which the purchaser is enrolled and logged in, purchase or request a coupon or daily deal policy with one-click. In one variation, the user can enroll multiple purchaser payment accounts with the provider of the coupon or daily deal policy. The system can monitor purchases using any of the multiple purchaser payment accounts, and as soon as a qualify transaction is detected in one of the accounts, the policy is satisfied and deactivated for all the other accounts. One policy can apply to a group of users, such as a group who all purchased a group-based daily deal, or the system can create individual policies for each individual in the group. Tagging In one embodiment, the system can tag or annotate transactions. For example, the system can receive an indication that a person made a purchase using an existing payment account of the person to yield a transaction record. The system can annotate the transaction record to yield an annotation associated with the transaction record. A payment transacting entity can perform the annotating, such as a credit card processor, a merchant, or a bank. Annotations can be created based on an instruction from one of a merchant associated with the purchase, the recipient, or the gift giver. Annotations can be based on an aggregation of tags from multiple users. Annotations can be created based on tags from the gift giver and/or the recipient. The aggregation of tags can be generated by multiple users providing tags associated with a merchant related to the purchase. For example, user can tag the transaction in a personal financial management application, or can create social media posts associated with, mentioning, or featuring the gift, and the system can extract or determine tags for the gift or purchase. The system can implement a policy, based at least in part on the annotation, that governs at least how an amount of money from a gift giver to the person is to be applied to the payment account as a result of the purchase. The system can implement the policy by revising the policy as instructed by the annotation. The system can implement the policy, for example, by adding a second amount of money from a merchant associated with the purchase to the payment account, or by providing an offer to one of the person or the gift giver from a merchant associated with the purchase. Simplified User Interface In one embodiment, a gift portal provides a simplified user interface for giving a gift that adapts as the gift giver enters additional information. FIG. 35A illustrates an example user interface 3500 at an initial stage with blank fields for entering a recipient's name 3502, a merchant 3504, and an amount 3506. While this example is discussed in terms of a merchant and an amount, the merchant can be substituted for a category of good or service, any one of a set of merchants, multiple merchants, and so forth. Similarly, the amount can be substituted with a flexible amount defined by the type of object(s) purchased, for example. The gift giver enters information into these fields or selects from existing options to populate the fields. In this example, FIG. 35B shows that the gift giver entered “Olive Garden” into the merchant field 3504. As the user enters one or more of the fields, the system can automatically adapt the giving interface 3500 accordingly. FIG. 35C shows how the background 3508 of the user interface 3500 is adapted to match the user-entered information. This provides a customization and an instant feel of familiarity for the gift giver. Merchants can provide the data, images, audio, video, or other data to update or augment the user interface associated with their name, or the system can harvest such data from a search engine or from the merchant's website, for example. The system can provide multiple different levels of customization that fade in as the system is more and more certain of the merchant. For example, the system can fade the background image 3508 in more with each key press that increases a certainty or confidence that “Olive Garden” is the user's intended merchant. In another example shown in FIG. 35D, as the gift giver enters a recipient name “Tom” in field 3502, the system can poll the giver's contacts on a social network or in an address book, for example. When the system finds a match, the system can display an image 35010 of the recipient. If the system identifies multiple candidate recipients, such as multiple contacts with the name “Tom,” the system can display an image for each, and the user can simply click on the desired recipient. The system can also update the user interface based on synergies between the various fields 3502, 3504, 3506. For example, if the gift giver enters “Tom” and “Olive Garden,” the system can automatically retrieve or deduce what Tom's favorite dish is at Olive Garden, and display an image or a description of that dish and suggest a gift amount that covers the cost of that dish, plus a beverage and a tip. The system can account for regional price differences so that the price is adjusted to reflect Olive Garden prices near Tom, or prices for Olive Gardens that Tom regularly visits. One-Click Gift Offering In another embodiment, a method of extending a gift offering including at least one product from a gift giver to a recipient for selection by the recipient using one-click purchasing at an on-line shopping environment is disclosed. The recipient can purchase the selected product using one-click on a merchant web site or via a mobile app, for example. The recipient can enable one-click actions in advance so that a one-click or equivalent action completes a purchase via her payment account and a server can transfer money from a giver payment account to a receiver payment account to reimburse at least a portion of the cost of the gift. The system 100 can use address delivery information stored in the recipient's account to deliver the product. The address delivery information can include physical addresses or electronic addresses, and can further include delivery preferences, such as delivering digital content to a particular email address, or delivering office supplies to a ‘work’ address. In one aspect, the gift giver can purchase the selected product using his payment account and the system can use address delivery information stored in the giver's account for delivery to the recipient. FIG. 36 illustrates a method embodiment of a one-click gift offering utilizing a recipient payment and delivery account. A system 100 receives from a gift giver having a giver payment account, identification of a recipient and identification of a product associated with the recipient (3602). The product can be a gift associated with the recipient, either a tangible object such as a book, an intangible service such as a magazine subscription, or an electronic object such as a digital media download or streaming a video. The system 100 transmits to a recipient device such as a smartphone or other mobile device an offering including the product for selection by the recipient (3604). Prior to the transmission, the offering is associated with a recipient payment and delivery account that includes a recipient payment account and address delivery information for the recipient. Upon receiving a selection from the recipient of a selected product in the offering, the system 100 processes purchase and delivery of the selected product using the recipient payment and delivery account (3606). The system transfers money from the giver payment account to the recipient payment account to reimburse at least a portion of a cost of the selected product (3608). In alternate variations, the system can transfer money from the giver payment account to a holding account, and from the holding account to the recipient payment account or to the merchant directly. The system can transfer money between accounts upon detecting initiation of the purchase transaction. A direct payment from the giver account could occur as well by intercepting the transaction when the recipient makes the purchase. FIG. 37 illustrates a system embodiment of a one-click gift offering utilizing a recipient payment and delivery account. A gift giver 3702 desiring to give a gift electronically using a one-click gift offering, can submit a gift request to a server 3704 at an on-line shopping environment. The server can process the gift request and generate an offering preview that includes at least one product for confirmation by the gift giver. The gift giver can confirm or modify the offering generated by the server before returning a confirmed offering to the server. The server can extend the confirmed offering to the recipient 3706 for selection of a gift within the offering. Once the recipient selects a gift, the system completes the purchase of the gift via a vendor 3708 using the recipient's payment and delivery account 3710. The system transfers at least a portion of the cost of the gift from the giver's payment and delivery account 3712 to the recipient's payment and delivery account to reimburse the recipient for the purchase of the gift. Lastly, the system arranges for delivery of the gift from the vendor to the recipient based on delivery address information stored in the recipient's account. Alternatively, the system can transfer at least a portion of the cost of the gift from the giver's payment and delivery account directly to the on-line shopping environment and/or to the vendor. FIG. 38 illustrates an example gift request using a one-click gift offering utilizing a recipient payment and delivery account. The gift giver 3302 can submit a gift request 3800 to the server 3304 to send a gift credit to a recipient using a one-click gift offering. The gift request can include a field for a recipient 3802 that is associated with the gift giver. A recipient 3306 can be associated with a gift giver 3302 when information related to the recipient is stored in the giver's payment and delivery account 3312. For example, the giver can store address delivery information for the recipient in addition to other information such as preferences and dates of important events related to the recipient including birthday, anniversary, graduation dates, or dates of other important life events or holidays that the recipient is likely to observe or has observed in the past. Data from a social network can be linked to the giver's payment and delivery account manually or automatically, and can be based on the relationship in the social network. The gift giver can input a gift suggestion 3804 for example, a diamond necklace or the gift giver can select from a drop-down menu of gift suggestions 3806 for the recipient. Gift suggestions can include products such as recently released books and music or a service such as a magazine subscription. In some variations, as the recipient is browsing items to purchase online using the gift, an on-line shopping environment can display the gift suggestions to the user in an attempt to influence the recipient toward purchasing a suggested gift item. Alternately, the server can suggest one or more gifts for a specific recipient based on information stored in the recipient's account such as a wish list, preferences, browsing history and past gift information such as received gifts. The gift request 3800 can include gift amounts such as a minimum and maximum amount of money 3808 the gift giver is willing to spend on a gift for the recipient. Optionally, the gift request can include additional information such as quantity, greeting, manufacturer, color, availability, shipping cost, delivery date, number of products to include in the preview, etc. A message such as a birthday greeting, anniversary, holiday or congratulatory note can be included in the request as well as an amount allotted for shipping cost and a desired delivery date for the gift. For example, if a giver Aaron desires to gift his wife (the recipient) a diamond necklace for their upcoming anniversary using a one-click gift offering, he would input the desired gift, a diamond necklace, in the gift request 3804. Aaron would enter the amount of money he is willing to spend on the diamond necklace in the request, for example a minimum of $100 and a maximum of $600. Optionally, he can input an anniversary greeting and a delivery date for the diamond necklace so it arrives on or before their anniversary. FIG. 39 illustrates an exemplary gift offering preview 3900 using a one-click gift offering utilizing a recipient payment and delivery account. The server 3304 receives a gift request 3800 from the gift giver 3302 and can automatically generate the offering preview 3900 based on the information provided by the gift giver 3302 in the gift request 3800. The offering preview can include products that meet the requirements set forth in the gift request such as description, price range, color, manufacturer, delivery date, cost, etc. For example, the giver Aaron requested one diamond necklace as a gift within the price range of $100-$600. The offering preview returned by the server includes up to ten results of suggested diamond necklaces that meet the requirements specified in the gift request. The giver Aaron can select desired diamond necklaces to include in the offering to the recipient Lisa from the offering preview supplied to him by the server. For example, Aaron can select items one, two, and four from the offering preview. Aaron can also select additional items not included in the offering preview. Additionally, the offering preview can suggest related products in addition to the requested product such as a diamond bracelet and diamond earrings 3902. Providing the gift giver with related products in the offering preview can help the gift giver give the best gift possible by gifting the recipient coordinating gifts, for example, such as matching clothes or electronics and compatible accessories. For example, if Aaron does not like any of the diamond necklaces in the offering preview, he can deselect all of the necklaces and choose instead to receive an offering preview of diamond bracelets. Alternately, Aaron can decide that offering a diamond bracelet in addition to a diamond necklace would be an especially thoughtful gift. In one aspect, the gift giver can manually select diamond necklaces for the offering preview after performing a search within an on-line shopping environment such as Amazon.com for necklaces that he thinks his wife would like and that meet his gift requirements. Additionally, the offering preview can include products both selected automatically by the server and manually by the gift giver. The system can recommend to Aaron items to include as suggested items for Lisa, based on what Aaron's social network contacts have selected in similar situations, or based on what other users with similar demographics and a similar gift situation have selected. FIG. 40 illustrates an exemplary offering from a gift giver to a recipient. The offering includes products approved by the gift giver, in this case the gift giver 3302 narrowed down gift options to three diamond necklaces. The recipient, Lisa, can receive the offer electronically for example through her email and with one-click she can purchase 4002 the diamond necklace she desires from the offering, such as clicking a link included as part of an HTML formatted email message or by replying to a specially formed email address indicating which of the three diamond necklaces she wishes to purchase. The email message can include an image, short description, audio, a video, other multimedia, or links to other multimedia resources describing the suggested items so that the recipient, Lisa, can have sufficient information upon which to base a purchase decision. In this way, Lisa can instantly purchase one of the suggested items with a single step. This approach reduces friction to redeeming a gift, but can still allow the recipient, Lisa, to browse beyond the suggested items if she so desires. The system 100 automatically transfers at least a portion of the cost of the gift from the giver's payment and delivery account to the recipient's payment and delivery account to cover the cost of the gift. Optionally, the recipient can choose to add one of the necklaces as her gift to her on-line shopping cart and continue shopping 4004 for other items at Amazon.com. When the recipient checks out from the on-line store, the system automatically transfers at least a portion of the cost of the gift from the giver's payment and delivery account to the recipient's payment and delivery account. Should the recipient be unsatisfied with the offering she can opt to not accept the offering and instead use the money allotted for a diamond necklace to purchase a gift of her choice at Amazon.com 4006 or reject the offering all together 4008. The recipient can decline the offering and the system can display a default gift suggestion webpage at the on-line shopping environment that includes a variety of typical gift ideas or a specific gift suggestion webpage based on the recipient's preferences, wish list, browsing history, received gifts, etc. Alternately, the recipient can decline the offering and the system can back out of the offering as if the recipient hit the “back” button on a browser and display more products related to the gift specified by the gift giver. For example, from the offering 4000, when the recipient selects “No thanks, I'll shop for a gift” 4006 the system displays a webpage having more options for diamond necklaces. The recipient can continue to browse for a desired gift from this webpage. From this point, the recipient can browse products in the on-line shopping environment and select her gift. Additionally, should the recipient decline the offering and instead choose her own gift by browsing, she can select a gift that is either more or less than the amount of money the gift giver specified. For example, the recipient can select a gift that is significantly less than the amount of money the gift giver had allocated and the system can store the leftover funds in the recipient's payment and delivery account to apply to a future purchase at the on-line shopping environment. While the gift was intended for a diamond necklace, after the initial purchase of a diamond necklace satisfies that gift policy, the remainder amount can be freed from the gift policy to be applied to other, future purchases without restrictions or limitations or with reduced or relaxed restrictions or limitations. The recipient can select a gift that is more than the amount of money the gift giver allocated for the gift and the system can deduct the remaining cost of the product from the recipient's payment and delivery account after the giver's payment is applied. Any combination of the ideas set forth is possible and should not be limiting in any way. In another embodiment, a one-click gift offering utilizing a giver payment and delivery account without the use of a recipient payment and delivery account is discussed. This embodiment differs from the one-click gift offering utilizing a recipient payment and delivery account discussed above in that the recipient does not purchase the gift using her payment and delivery account and receive reimbursement from the giver payment and delivery account, but rather the gift is purchased directly from the giver's account and delivery information for the recipient is stored in the giver's account. As an example of this arrangement using the above-discussed parties, Aaron provides a gift to Lisa of a diamond necklace. Lisa can browse diamond necklaces using her account, and when she makes a purchase of a diamond necklace, the on-line shopping environment does not charge her account and instead charges Aaron's account. The system continues to arrange for delivery to Lisa according to her account information. If any additional funds are needed beyond the gift, Lisa's account can be charged for those additional funds. FIG. 41 illustrates a method embodiment of a one-click gift offering utilizing a giver payment and delivery account. A system 100 receives from a giver identification of a recipient and identification of a product associated with the recipient (4102). The product can be a gift associated with the recipient, either a tangible object such as a book or an intangible service such as a magazine subscription or streaming, downloading, or granting permissions to view digital content. The system generates an offering including at least one product for selection by the recipient (4104). Prior to generating an offering, the offering is associated with a giver payment and delivery account that includes a payment account of the gift giver and address delivery information for the recipient. The system associates the offering with a recipient device (4106) or with multiple recipient devices. Some example recipient devices include a smartphone or other mobile device. Then, upon receiving a selection from the recipient of a selected product in the offering via the recipient device, the system processes purchase and delivery of the selected product based on the payment account of the gift giver and address delivery information included in the giver payment and delivery account for the recipient (4108). FIG. 42 illustrates a system embodiment of a one-click gift offering utilizing a giver payment and delivery account. A gift giver 4202 desiring to give a gift electronically using a one-click gift offering, can submit a gift request to a server 4204 at an on-line shopping environment. The server 4204 can process the gift request and generate an offering preview that includes at least one product for confirmation by the gift giver 4202. The gift giver 4202 can confirm or modify the offering preview generated by the server 4204 before returning a confirmed offering to the server 4204. The server 4204 can extend the confirmed offering to the recipient 4206 for selection of a gift within the offering. Once the recipient 4206 selects a gift, the system completes the purchase of the gift via a vendor 4208 using the giver's payment and delivery account 4210. Lastly, the system arranges for delivery of the gift from the vendor 3308 to the recipient 3306 based on delivery address information stored in the giver's account. For example, a giver 4202 Aaron desires to give a gift to his wife (the recipient 4206 Lisa) for their anniversary. Aaron can complete a gift request 3800 requesting a diamond necklace as a gift within the price range of $100-$600 and can submit it to the server 4204. The server 4204 can generate an offering preview 3900 including suggested diamond necklaces for Aaron 3902 to confirm. Aaron can accept or modify the offering preview 3900 before sending a confirmed offering to the server 4204. At this point, the server 4204 sends the offering 4000 to the recipient, Lisa 4206 for selection of a gift. The recipient 4206 can accept one of the offered gifts using one-click purchasing 4002 utilizing the giver's payment and delivery account, she can decline the offering 4008 or she can decline the offering and instead shop for a gift 4006 through the on-line shopping environment utilizing the giver's payment and delivery account. After the recipient selects her gift using one-click purchasing, the system utilizes the giver's payment and delivery account 4210 to purchase the gift from the vendor 4208. The system uses address delivery information for the recipient stored in the giver payment and delivery account. In addition to payment information and address delivery information for the recipient stored in the giver's payment and delivery account, other information such as email address, preferences, recipient wish list, recipient browsing history, etc. can be stored in the giver's payment and delivery account. Optionally, information related to potential recipients can be stored in the giver's payment and delivery account based on association through a social network. Information related to the recipient can be automatically transferred or manually added by the gift giver. The concept of giving a gift using a one-click gift offering utilizing a recipient payment and delivery account or a giver payment and delivery account can be applied to multiple givers desiring to pool their resources to give one or more gifts to a recipient. In the first case, utilizing a recipient payment and delivery account, instead of the system 100 transferring money from one giver payment and delivery account to the recipient's account as reimbursement for the cost of the gift, the cost of the gift can be divided between multiple givers based on pledged amounts. The group can decide to divide the cost of a potential gift evenly among all of the members, or each member can pledge a certain amount of money or maximum amount of money toward the group gift. The system can transfer money from each of the group member's payment and delivery accounts to the recipient's payment and delivery account to cover the cost of the group gift. For example, if Ryan, Gary and Steve desire to give a group gift to Tom for his upcoming 50th birthday, they can decide to split the cost of his gift evenly up to $50 each. If Tom selects a gift from his offering that costs $120, each group member pays $40 toward the group gift. The system charges Tom's payment and delivery account and the system can automatically transfer $40 from each group member's payment and delivery account to Tom's payment and delivery account to cover the cost of the group gift. Alternately, a group can give a gift using a one-click gift offering utilizing a giver payment and delivery account. A group can designate one group member as the “group giver” that initially purchases a gift for a recipient using the one-click gift offering. After the recipient selects his desired gift from an offering 4000, the system 100 completes the purchase using the payment and delivery account of the “group giver”. The account of the “group giver” can store information related to the recipient such as email address, mailing address, preferences, browsing history, wish list, received gifts, etc. Then the system can transfer money from each of the group member's payment and delivery accounts to the “group giver” payment and delivery account to cover the cost of the group gift. For example, a group consisting of Ryan, Gary and Steve wishes to give a gift to Tom for his upcoming 50th birthday. The system designates Ryan as the “group giver” that will initially pay for the selected gift. After Tom selects a toaster using the one-click offering delivered to his smartphone, the system purchases the toaster using Ryan's payment and delivery account. Then the system transfers money from each of Gary's and Steve's payment and delivery accounts to reimburse Ryan for their portion of the cost of the gift to Tom. Utilizing group giving in the context of one-click gift offering utilizing a giver or recipient payment and delivery account allows for a group of friends to effortlessly and seamlessly give a group gift to a recipient. Merchant Portal FIG. 43 illustrates another embodiment of this disclosure that relates to a merchant portal for enabling a merchant to manage and enhance the purchasing experience at their store when a policy applies to any purchaser's activity. Every merchant in this system can have their own portal 4300 to manage how offers are processed to at least some degree. For example, Joe's Pizza may be a single shop owned by Joe in Dunkirk, Maryland. The system can provide a portal in which Joe can go in and affect the policies that are established when a giver gives a gift credit to a recipient. For example, Joe may want to reward the gift giver for choosing his store as a merchant. One such exemplary scenario for providing rewards is to map certain user behaviors to earning extra points in a loyalty or rewards system that are redeemable for discounts on gas, grocery, or other purchases. Joe can go in and for a period of time, or indefinitely, establish an offer for givers of a 44% reward of any gift credit amount given 4302. So if the giver selects Joe's for a $50 gift credit for a recipient, one policy is established to monitor the recipient's purchases. Another policy can automatically be established to monitor the giver's purchases such that when the giver goes to Joe's to eat, the giver gets a gift credit of $5 4304. Thus a second policy is established or triggered in which the merchant is the gift giver and the original giver is the recipient. After the gift giver purchases something at Joe's, and the transaction is processed, $5 will be transferred from Joe's payment account to the giver's payment account in the same fashion as disclosed herein. Joe's could also enhance the original recipient's gift credit by adding a percentage to it or adding a free dessert, or any other kind of modification to the original gift credit. All of the regifting and monitoring principles apply here too. For example, if Joe offers the original giver 44% on his or her own gift credit, the original giver can regift that and add it to the original gift credit for the original recipient, thus generating a $55 gift credit for the original recipient. The merchant portal can also enable the merchant to provide advertisements when their name is selected by a gift giver such that the gift giver is incentivized to select them for the gift credit 4306. Fees can be charged to the Merchant for placement in a particular position in the listing of merchants, size of the name, and presentation. The merchant can upload or link to a YouTube video. The merchant portal enables merchants to interact at a very unique circumstance on the network, which is when a gift giver has chosen them to give a gift to someone else. The system will provide any number of mechanisms for merchants to interact with the givers to enhance their experience in selecting the merchant for the gift credit. The merchant may simply want a “thank you!” message, or a multimedia message presented to the gift giver 4308. Offers, such as encouraging the gift giver to limit the time frame of the gift credit to a certain weekday, can be presented. The merchant may always have slow Wednesdays. The gift giver or recipient can receive an extra amount on a gift credit if the original gift credit is limited to Wednesdays. The merchant portal can allow the merchant to tailor offers to specific categories of customers. For example, the merchant portal can tie in to customer loyalty data to determine which users are frequent customers that do not need incentivizing to return to Joe's Pizza, and can refrain from offering significant (and probably unnecessary) discounts to those customers, or can conversely offer ‘loyalty’ discounts to those users. Further, the merchant portal can present customer analytics data to the merchant, showing which customers are trending down in visits to Joe's Pizza or are trending down in overall money spent, for example. Then, Joe can offer additional incentives to nurture these customers back to frequent patronage, or can reach out to them with targeted individualized offers having a custom message like “Hey Mark, we missed you last Wednesday at lunch. Here's a coupon for $3 off next Wednesday between 11:30 am and 2:00 pm.” The merchant portal can provide merchants with the ability to target specific customers with promotions or to target categories of customers. The merchant portal can also enable a merchant to manage their coupons for purchasers of coupon books. For example, the merchant can determine how many coupons are left to be redeemed and receive business intelligence about the individuals who still have not come to the store. The merchant could add incentives like an offering of an additional 44% discount if the High School team wins the football game. Then the merchant, if the team wins the game, could click on a field in the merchant portal to apply that additional discount to all the coupon holders. Thus, the merchant portal can apply both to gift credits and to the coupon books disclosed herein. Thus, the merchant portal enables a merchant to essentially effect and enhance any aspect of a policy associated with purchases at their store. For example, not only can they add gift credit options to the gift credit or other promotional offers to the giver and/or the recipient, merchants could even create their own Groupon using this approach, targeted to specific subsets of customers or to all customers. For example, a merchant may decide that if 20 users each give at least a $30 gift credit to their store, that each of the givers and/or recipients will receive a promotional offer such as an additional $3 on the gift credit or a $3 gift credit to the giver and so forth. The policy also does not have to be related to purchasing transactions. For example, the owner of a pizza parlor near a stadium may give an extra bonus to everybody that has gift credits if the Washington Redskins win their game on a certain night and those having gift credits come in. Any type of triggering event that could be entered into the system could be effected by the merchant portal. Holidays, individual birthdays of users, manually entered data, and so forth can trigger changes in the policy for one or more of the people involved in a gift credit. A service could be associated with the merchant portal in which general business intelligence is provided, such as a likely demographic, such as ages 20-30, who will use their coupons on a Friday night. With that data, the merchant could couple such information with a promotional offering to a subgroup of those current coupon holders for that merchant. To therefore provide a targeted promotional offering, the system could charge the merchant a small fee, or not, to enable the merchant to send out promotional offerings to those holding coupons (or gift credits) for that merchant that are ages 20-30, for use on a Friday night, for an additional discount or other promotion. In this manner, an enhanced level of business analytics and intelligence aid to encourage the right demographic to use their coupons or gift credits at a likely time when they would anyway. Such a promotion can also be used to encourage their off-times usage to increase business at times when the demographic is not likely to patronize the merchant. Merchants can be identified as part of the policy governing the transactions via a network merchant category or a network merchant ID, or by any other means. Indeed, yet another additional feature given this approach is the ability of merchants to provide their own offers even independent of a gift giver selecting the merchant as part of a gift credit to a recipient. For example, given that individual user's payment account information is already stored in the systems database, the owner of a pizza parlor may simply go to their portal and create their own policy such as providing or generating their own group coupon. In this case, they could simply enter data that if 440 people registered with the system come to dinner on a particular night, each person will receive a 44% off rebate. Alternatively, if 440 people registered with the system order Lobster for dinner, each person ordering Lobster that evening will receive a 25% discount off that dish. In that case, users of the system may receive emails or some type of notification of this group discount and, without needing to pre-purchase the offer, and with or without any need to accept or respond to the communication, the users may simply go and have dinner, they may or not know then whether they will receive the discount. However, if throughout the night, 440 of the users do go to dinner, then the policy can kick in and each of those 440 people can receive a 44% discount. In this regard, this can provide an improvement over the Groupon concept because users do not have to pre-purchase the Groupon prior to it becoming effective. It is a more dynamic approach where users may simply choose to go to that restaurant with the chance of the policy being fulfilled based on their purchase as well as other people's purchase such that they may receive the benefit of the group discount. Accordingly, the merchant portal provides numerous mechanisms of merchants being able to implement or effect policies associated with gift credits, group purchases, or any kind of purchase at their establishment that can be effected by a trigger or any type of event. One benefit of this approach is that it does not require any complicated or staffing matter inasmuch as the merchant portal can provide all of the various options for triggering discounts to users who have their payment account information registered. The actual process of handling a transaction at the point of sale does not change, so no additional employee training or equipment is needed. If the payment account is provided through a mobile device such as via Google wallet, then further information can be provided to the user given their location or data that they are about to use their Google wallet to make a purchase. For example, if a merchant has a 44% discount if 440 registered users of the system go to dinner that night, then if one of the users that has not yet gone to dinner that night happens to drive near the restaurant, an advertisement can be sent that says only 15 more registered users need to eat at the pizza parlor for the discount to apply. This may encourage one of the users to go to the restaurant and eat in the hopes that 14 others will also follow to trigger the group coupon according to the policy. If a user is using a mobile device to make a purchase at the restaurant and suppose that they are the 440th registered user to make a purchase, perhaps the policy could be to provide them with an extra discount because it is their purchase that has caused the group coupon to be implemented. This can be a form of a contest or game to determine which customer will ‘win’ the extra discount, which can be a complete discount, i.e. free dinner. While the example herein is 440 users to purchase at the restaurant, the promotion can be much smaller or larger, and can span a short, long, or indefinite amount of time. Thus, their mobile device may receive an extra notice or music or some other multimedia presentation that identifies them as the one who caused the group discount to be implemented for the previous 439 consumers that day. As can be appreciated, the flexibility that is provided by such a merchant portal is wide ranging and can be any combination of purchasing and/or non-purchasing related events. Personal profile data can also be used when implementing these policies. Again, if it is a particular purchaser's birthday, that data can be implemented into the policy and can be a triggering event to add a free desert or some other offering for coming to the store on that day. In this regard, the merchant portal may enable the merchant to simply say that anybody that comes in on their birthday receives a $3 discount. Therefore, such a policy can easily be implemented by the disclosed system herein because such personal information can be obtained and as each registered user makes purchases at the store, the policy can be checked to see if it is their birthday, and if so, multimedia communication can occur if the purchase is on a mobile device, or some other mechanism can be provided for the merchant to be able to communicate birthday wishes to the user and enhance the relationship of that particular user with the merchant. The policy can also be flexible enough to provide that if the purchase is within one week of the user's birthday that it can also be implemented in that case even on a grading scale. For example, the farther away from their birthday, the less the discount is. Because the system knows both the giver data and the recipient data when a transaction of generating a gift credit is performed, the merchant portal enables a social-networking type of ability to engage with people in a way not previously provided. The social network in this case involves the gift giver, merchant and recipient. Any communication (email, SMS, telephone call, multimedia presentation) can be triggered from one or more of the people in this small social network associated with a gift credit. Facebook pages can be created, Skype video conference calls can be scheduled and held. For example, the system may be able to receive the data that the gift giver is giving the gift credit to the recipient for a 25th wedding anniversary gift. The merchant, owner, or manager of the store may wish to congratulate the couple including the gift giver. A Skype three-way video conference call could be automatically scheduled and everyone could then talk about the event before or after 4310. For example, a video conference or other communication can occur between the gift giver and the merchant, wherein the gift giver explains to the merchant specific details, requests, and/or suggestions to enhance the wedding anniversary gift. The merchant can then have an opportunity to develop a relationship with the people by personally thanking them for coming and asking if they had a great time. Thus, the portal in which the gift giver is selecting the merchant and the recipient can present offers for other social networking type of communications with the merchant and/or recipient. This provides a simple opportunity, without much work or cost on the part of the merchant, to greatly enhance the customer experience. The system can automatically flag, for the merchant, customers which are likely to respond positively to such personalized attention, and which are likely to be profitable or loyal customers. Because the merchant knows in advance that a particular type of merchandise or service is to be provided, the merchant can prepare in advance and suggest relevant accessories, add-ons, or enhancements to the gift. For example, if the wedding anniversary gift is a specifically styled ring, the merchant can arrange to offer a discount on a matching tennis bracelet or other accessory. The merchant portal can provide insight into the preferences and predilections of the customers in advance to help the merchant determine what types of ‘upgrades’ to offer and at what discounts, if any. A specific video presentation can be transmitted to an iPhone to welcome the user as they arrive at the store. Merchants can also create unique policies. They may want to give an incentive just for having someone come into their store. The policy can be location based or activity based and not simply purchase based 4312. For example, a real-estate agency or a merchant selling time-shares in Fla. may want to reward users who simply come and peruse real-estate listings or listen to a time-share presentation. In yet another aspect, the group coupon can be offered dynamically. For example, the merchant may be able to set out various parameters on how much the discount should be. The simple example above is that if 440 users come in and purchase dinner tonight, then each one receives a 44% discount. However, a variable component of this might be where each of the first 430 purchasers receives a 44% discount but a gradual scale will occur for the last 44 such that the 440th purchaser receives their meal free. In a contest or promotion such as this, the order of customers becomes important. Thus, the system can determine ordering of the 440 purchasers based on arrival time, ordering time, and/or the time of the transaction. Notices can be provided to the users if desired to tell them where they might fall in the variable coupon offerings. Thus, the 431st purchaser might receive a 15% discount, the next purchaser may receive a 20% discount and so on. In addition, the policy may be fluid to the extent such that the system can monitor the restaurants or stores overall performance that night. Thus, if the restaurant already has a lot of business that night then the offering may be reduced since additional business is not necessarily needed. Thus, the particular offering and the discount provided for purchasers can be more tied to real time business needs and activities. These promotions can roll over, such that every 440th purchase on a Friday night is free, for example. This provides another distinguishing feature from the Groupon approach inasmuch as Groupon typically provides one offering for an entire community per day. The approach disclosed herein can provide a single merchant based offering in which individual merchants can have simultaneous offerings in the community. The system can referee between various offerings such that users are not inundated. However, the merchant portal approach herein enables individual merchants to easily tailor their own offerings that can further be specifically tied to their actual business performance at any given moment. The merchant portal principles set forth herein can be applied to gift, coupons, and/or coupon books. A unified merchant portal can allow merchants to manage all policy-based promotions, gifts, and offers in a single destination. The exact functionality and options provided to the merchant for managing gifts, Groupons, coupon books, etc. may vary. The same merchant portal can provide insight into customer analytics, purchasing patterns, and advertising campaigns associated with the policy-based transactions. Thus, a merchant could receive analytical data indicating that it is likely that the demographic of ages 20-30 who have coupons will likely spend them on a Saturday afternoon and evening. The merchant could then provide offerings to that demographic such that the use of those coupons by that demographic will include an additional 5% discount. Thus, the merchant offerings can be tailored to a particular subgroup of all owners of a coupon in the system. User Interface FIG. 44 illustrates another example of user interface for givers to interact with for purchasing gift credits for recipients. The policy can be put in place to apply discounts, coupons, promotions, and/or other purchaser or giver benefits according to tags or categories of merchants. For example, a user can search in a browser 4400 for merchants by product category, such as ‘consumer electronics’ which may include merchants that specialize in consumer electronics such as Best Buy and RadioShack as well as other merchants that carry a limited selection of consumer electronics such as Target or Home Depot 4402. The system can access a database of merchants, nationwide and local, as well as corresponding merchant tags for specific product categories, target demographics, price range, and so forth. A merchant can be assigned multiple tags. The user can search merchants by tag, but select a specific subset of merchants for which the policy is active. The system identifies a group of merchants that satisfy the category, then generates a policy for when the recipient makes a purchase at any one of that group of merchants. Merchants can tag their store with tags identifying part of the category 4314. For example, a merchant can log in to an interface 4300 or otherwise update the database to reflect changes or additions to their product line-up 4316. Further, users can add, remove, and update tags assigned to merchants. The tags can vary over time. In addition to searching by tag or by specific merchant, users can search by region 4404. A user can search for merchants by category or tag in a local region or nationwide. For example, the user can search for and select a gift for any pizza place in downtown Salt Lake City, or can select a gift to any Godfathers Pizza nationwide. In this manner, users can tailor a search in any geographical area such as nationwide, regional, local or even in a neighborhood. The ability for merchants to be able to tag data about their store can enable users to have a localized search but is otherwise not possible. In addition to merchant-generated tags, users can generate and assign tags to specific stores. For example, a user can tag a restaurant as “fast service” or “friendly wait staff”. Then other users can search for merchants by user-entered tags to ensure that the policy associated with a gift will be applied to stores having at least a simple majority of ‘positive’ tags or some other criteria. The system can provide an interface for merchants 4300 to intercept and ‘hijack’ gifts or promotions intended for competitors. For example, if a user has a policy in place offering $5 off a purchase of $20 or more at Domino's Pizza, Godfathers Pizza can offer the user an improved offer to entice the user away from Domino's, such as $8 off a purchase of $20 or more. Godfathers Pizza can indicate which types of users or which user characteristics are worth how much. For example, Godfathers may consider a consumer that eats pizza twice a week as more valuable, and can offer that type of user a steeper discount in order to tempt him to try switching from a competitor. In a particularly intense rivalry, a merchant can offer a policy that offers to intercept competitor's promotion or coupon policies and offer to customers promotions that provide a larger discount, for example. In one aspect, ‘hijacking’ gifts or promotions is an option that is allowed or disallowed by the gift giver and/or by the recipient of a gift. For example, a gift giver may want the recipient to go to a particular store, and so may disallow ‘hijacking’. In another example, the recipient of the gift is a starving college student who wants to maximize the return or value for money spent and is not loyal to any particular merchant. This recipient can subscribe to competitors offers to ‘hijack’ the gift to shop around and see which merchant will offer the steepest discount. The system can provide an analytics portal 4318 for merchants to view acceptance rate for coupons or promotions associated with a policy, as well as follow through rates of using the coupons or promotions according to the policy. The analytics portal can provide detailed insights into virtually every aspect of customer purchases, types of policies in force, trends in purchases and redemption of policies, advertising, customer preferences, currently ongoing promotion campaigns, and so forth. Merchants can compare their analytics data to anonymized aggregated data from other merchants in similar industries, or even direct competitors. In the analytics portal 4318, merchants can also manage specific giver and recipient offers for individual users, groups of users, and/or for all users. Merchants can manage and establish payments and guidelines for advertising to users. Merchants can also manage settings for sending automatic or manually triggered ‘thank you’ messages for users that have taken advantage of a policy. For instance, a store manager for a restaurant can receive a periodic notification of customers who have recently applied a policy to a purchase or other triggering event such as just being in a store. The system can generate automatic suggested ‘thank you’ messages for these customers, and the manager can customize the suggested messages for the specific customers. Merchants can include media such as video, audio, and images in their ‘thank you’ messages for branding or other purposes. A merchant can manage the frequency of sending reminders to users having outstanding policies eligible for that merchant, and optional additional enhancements or promotions to those outstanding policies to encourage users to make purchases at the merchant that trigger the policy. In one aspect, merchants can, through the merchant portal interface 4300, pay for priority placement in search results 4320. For example, a merchant can pay a premium to appear first in search results for all queries, for a particular query or keyword, for a particular demographic of searchers, for a particular region, at a particular time of day or time of year, and so forth. FIG. 44 illustrates an example of a listing 4406 of search results. In this listing, Joe's electronics could have paid a premium to appear first for a search in the category of electronics in southern Maryland. The price for prime placement in search results can be based on the number of competitors bidding for placement, how much customers spend on average for the category in which the placement is desired, and so forth. Merchants can pay for placement for a specific duration, for a specific number of searches, or for a specific number of purchased gifts or promotions, for example. The system can establish a persistent temporary social network involving the merchant before, during, and/or after the purchase. For example, the social network can enable communications, chat, comments, and other social interactions relating to the policy, the giver, the recipient, and/or the merchant. In one example, the merchant can enable a video chat at the point of purchase between the gift giver and the recipient, so that the three can participate in the moment of redeeming the gift enabled by the policy. Video chat on a mobile device can occur as well. Where the triggering event is location based, the system can enable these additional social networking capabilities. The system can charge fees for providing each piece of these services available through the merchant portal as a package or on an a la carte basis. Further, merchant portals 4300 can be regionalized. For example, Olive Garden can have a corporate level portal for managing nationwide policies, promotions, and merchant settings, in addition to regional and/or individual store owner portals. Thus, if a user browses to give a gift to another user for a specific Olive Garden, then the system can provide promotions and specials from the national corporate level layered on top of the region and/or the individual store level. In this way, specific stores or regions can offer layers of national, regional, and/or local incentives to users to give gifts or purchase coupons or discounts for a specific store or set of stores over other stores in the chain. FIG. 45 illustrates an example method embodiment for enabling merchants to provide promotions. The method includes receiving data from gift giver at a first-time, the data being used to identify a merchant at which a gift from the gift giver to recipient is redeemable (4502). The system presents a group of merchants associated with the data to the gift giver and each merchant of the group of merchants offers a promotion in connection with the gift (4504). The system receives from the gift giver a selection of a chosen merchant from the group of merchants with the chosen merchants having an associated promotion (4506). The system generates a policy including the gift, the chosen merchant and the associated promotion (4508). The policy in this case not only includes the standard gift amount, the chosen merchant data about the recipient, but it also includes the associated promotion. Upon receiving an indication of a triggering event caused by the recipient, the system applies the gift and the associated promotion to the purchase according to the policy (4510). In one aspect, the gift has an associated amount of money that is drawn from a giver payment account. The giver payment account can be independent of the recipient payment account. Further, the giver account and the recipient account both exist prior to the first time. Thus, two friends, each with existing payment accounts of some type, can participate in this process using those existing payment accounts. One example of a triggering event is that the recipient made a purchase at the chosen merchant using a recipient payment account. When the system presents the group of merchants, it can pre-sort to group by at least one of location, price, promotional offerings and similarity to the data. The group of merchants can include a competitor to a particular merchant. The placement of one merchant in the group of merchants can be determined based in part on a payment from the at least one merchant. In another aspect, the chosen merchant includes a category of merchants and in another aspect the category merchants can share common characteristics. Examples of common characteristics include at least one of the price range, a product or product category, a specific product, a location, a franchise, and the manual selection by the gift giver. The triggering events can be purchases made by a recipient account using a debit or credit card, a Google wallet, and a location of mobile devices. Other trigger events can be location-based or non-purchasing events such as news information, political information, weather data, sports data and so forth. Any source of external data can be utilized as a triggering event. The policy can be broad enough and flexible enough to encompass any triggering event. Merchant Promotions for Interactions FIG. 46 illustrates yet another method embodiment. Assume that Mary has a gift credit purchased for $50 at Olive Garden, and thus a policy exists which is monitoring a triggering event such as her being at an Olive Garden restaurant, or making a purchase using her existing payment account at the Olive Garden. One triggering event (4600), such as an identification that Mary is at the Olive Garden through a location-based service which tracks her iPhone, independent of any purchase, can cause the system to engage in a dialog with the user (4602). Questions can be transmitted to her iPhone. These can be of any type and could include suggestions for purchasing lunch or dinner. An additional offering can be provided if they answer the questions. For example, the system and/or the merchant could offer an additional $5 to the gift credit if they answer three questions. Any type of interaction is contemplated here. Perhaps if the user views a short video, then the boost to the gift is offered. The recipient Mary of the gift, could be asked if they want to receive additional promotions when they are at the merchant location (the merchant associated with the gift credit). The recipient could also opt in to receive notifications if they are at a competitor's location or at any location. The system could ask for additional information to enable this interaction. For example, the system can ask for the user's telephone number or other identifying data if necessary such that when their location triggers the process, the system can text, or call, or utilize that identification data to ask the questions or present the interaction. Then, if the recipient engages in the required interaction, then the system will add the promotion to their existing gift for that merchant (4604). Thus, in one example, assume that Mary gets a gift credit from John for the Olive Garden and included in that gift is an invitation to potentially receive additional promotions when she is at the restaurant. She then goes to the restaurant with her mobile device. The system detects that she is at the right location and engages in an interaction such as asking questions, running a brief promotional ad for their specials that night, or otherwise presents an interaction with her. It can even be an interaction on a device at a restaurant table or other device at the restaurant besides Mary's mobile device. Such a merchant device can be any device at the merchant which can present an interaction to the user. The recipient device is typically a mobile device carried by the gift recipient that can also be used to present interactions. The recipient could even order their meal on their mobile device or a device at the table or elsewhere. Mary fulfills the requirement of the interaction and thus the system presents her with a promotion such as a free desert, an extra $3 on her gift for the purchase, and so forth. The interactions can be inter-personal interactions with a waiter, for example, which the waiter enters into a point of sale device or other merchant device on behalf of the customer. In another variation, the interactions are interactions on a paper receipt, such as survey questions or other questions, which the user fills out with pen and paper, and which are reported or recorded by the merchant. Then, assume that Mary's meal is $55 . When Mary purchases the meal using her existing payment account, then the system not only processes the $50 gift credit from John, but also one or more promotions from the system and/or the merchant (4606). If it is an additional $3 promotion, then $3 would be transferred from a merchant account to Mary's payment account. Any type of promotion is contemplated. Implementing the promotion can involve modifying the policy over the gift for the Olive Garden to add money from another account, or in any other fashion modify that policy to implement the promotion. It can also include a hybrid of money offerings, later coupons, free deserts or a free second meal, and so forth. A system separate from the merchant can offer this service and then charge a merchant a fee for the service. The promotion can be a $10 discount from their next meal at the Olive Garden. In this case, the policy that governs Mary's gift for the Olive Garden can simply be modified such that $10 is added to her gift for purchases at the Olive Garden. These provide an incentive and an opportunity for merchants to engage in a personal interaction with their customers while at the store using their mobile devices or a merchant device and can greatly enhance the customer experience and loyalty. The promotions and associated required interactions can be targeted to all users, specific users, or randomly selected users. For example, the merchant can indicate that every 1,000th customer should receive a 50% discount in exchange for providing feedback on the merchant experience as well as some level of demographic information. The merchant can target interactions at new customers, at users who are in a social graph of at least two other regular customers, at customers who spend at least a minimum amount of money or who have a minimum number of people in their party, and so forth. Further, the system can vary the type and quantity of the interactions requested from the user based on transaction information, a user profile, analytics goals, social networking data, and so forth. The customer can provide all or part of the requested feedback as part of the interaction, and the completeness of the feedback can determine the extent of the promotion. For example, if the customer answers ⅔ of the questions associated with the interaction, the system can apply ⅔ of the promotion. The user could engage in answering questions or playing a game, such that their success in the game is tied proportionally to the amount of additional discount or benefit they receive. The user can play all or part of these games on a smartphone or other mobile device. The game can offer rewards that enhance a gift or a promotion associated with a coupon by simply modifying the policy. For example, each user can spin a wheel on a virtual screen, which is unlocked based on location (i.e. the mobile device indicating a location within or near to the merchant). When the wheel stops spinning at a particular ‘slot’ or region, that slot or region indicates a bonus, such as an extra $5 off, or free breadsticks, or $10 off your next visit. Then the system can modify the existing policy to implement the wheel spinning prize or can create a new policy. The games can span multiple users and mobile devices. For example, a merchant establishes a trivia test game for a particular day. All users with coupons (or all users with capable mobile devices) can take the trivia test on that particular day, either on their mobile device or on a merchant-provided device, such as a kiosk or other device at tables in a restaurant (which can be separate or integrated into a table, for example). At the end of the day, the user(s) with the highest score in the trivia test receive a discount or promotion either on their previous purchase, via a policy, or on a future purchase. This approach can be applied to any kind of single-player or multi-player game. This approach enhances the sense of community and camaraderie of customers, and makes the user experience at the merchant more ‘sticky’ so users have positive feelings, and a desire to return and patronize the merchant. Tying in to Customer Loyalty Programs Many merchants, such as grocery stores, offer loyalty or rewards programs. For example, a grocery store can offer a 5 cent discount per gallon on gas purchases to customers that spend at least $100 at the grocery store. Customers may earn points via making purchases at the grocery store which can then be redeemed for groceries or gas. The grocery store can have its own gas pump nearby or can partner with a separate gas station company to provide such benefits. In some cases, extra points are offered in the rewards program for specific purchases. For example, one grocery store offers a multiplier to reward points (such as 4× the normal amount) for purchases of physical gift credits for participating gift credits. For example, for every $10 gift credit purchase at the store, the purchaser gets 40 points. For every $25 gift credit purchase, the user gets 440 points and one 44 cent per gallon fuel reward. This arrangement provides one way for a merchant to make their establishment more attractive to consumers by allowing them to accomplish two tasks, i.e. grocery shopping and filling up with gas, in one destination. A problem with the existing rewards program for buying gift cards is that one must go to the store and buy a physical gift card. This method requires the expense of printing and generating the separate gift cards that are just thrown away after they are used or they can be lost and thus the value not redeemed. One way to enhance the existing arrangement is to offer policy-based gift credits of the type disclosed herein to consumers while they are at the pump. Many grocery stores already offer traditional gift cards for sale, so the target audience is already familiar with gift cards and is susceptible to purchasing gift cards. One way to provide loyalty rewards or discounts at the gas pump is to track ‘points’ earned by purchases that a customer can use for discounts on gas or on future grocery purchases. The grocery stores can offer additional points for buying gift cards through the grocery store. The concept of policy-based gift credits can be applied to this scenario, with the grocery stores being ‘resellers’ of policy-based gift credits. While merchants can ‘resell’ physical gift cards, they do not need to purchase and stock inventory of policy-based gift credits and are thus not ‘resellers’ in the strictest sense. In one example, a user purchases a policy-based gift credit at a gas pump point of sale associated with a grocery store, and the gas pump point of sale can serve dual purpose of facilitating the purchase of gas as well as the purchase of the gift credit. The user can enter their loyalty or rewards information as part of the transaction, such as by entering their phone number or by swiping or scanning a loyalty card. The user also pays with their credit card, debit card or other mechanism. Therefore, the system can utilize the reward program data, with the giver's payment account data, in addition to receiving the gift credit recipient data, to establish the policy for fulfilling the gift credit and rewarding the giver via the rewards program. The gift credit can be associated with purchases at one or more merchants, such as selected merchants that pay for inclusion. In exchange for the user purchasing the gift credit, the system can adjust the price of the gas down in real time. For example, the grocery store and gas pump can run a promotion where for every $25 worth of gift credits purchased, the customer receives an additional 44-cent discount off the current gas purchase. In one example, assume the user buys a $100 Home Depot gift credit at the gas pump. At the pump, the user can interact with the point of sale display and inputs on the gas pump, or can interact with a mobile device such as a smart phone or tablet to see a list of participating merchants for gift credits. The system receives the payment account data of the purchaser, reward program data for a rebate on gas, and the recipient data. Upon making the purchase, the gas pump point of sale can automatically apply a discount to the price per gallon for gas. If the user makes the purchase in the grocery store, the system can automatically apply or deposit points in the user's loyalty rewards program account that are eligible for use at the gas pump or for other discounts or promotions. Since the gift credits as disclosed herein are not separate physical gift cards, a purchase in the grocery store can be accomplished via a grocery store display such as at the self-checkout point of sale or at the manned checkout isle. A display can present an inquiry asking “do you want any gift credits today?” The user may have already entered in their rewards number and swiped a card associated with their payment account. The user can then electronically pick a gift credit for the Olive Garden, or Home Depot, and quickly identify the amount and the recipient as well. The display can be connected to a back end server that provides the ability to tailor the filtering and focusing of potential recipients. For example, when the user slides their card or enters their rewards data, the system can then know who the user is and have data that can narrow the likely recipients of gift credits. The user can then simply enter the basic data, pick a recipient, and commit to the gift credit. The grocery store can then process the purchase and add the $50 gift credit to the grocery purchase, plus any other fees, and add the enhancement to the rewards program accordingly. Thus, electronically, all of the goals of the purchase are met without the need for a physical gift card. Further, all of the benefits of the gift credit as set forth herein are met. FIG. 47 illustrates a method embodiment according to the description above. At a point of sale device which includes a display that the purchaser can interact with, the system will receive information identifying the user (4700). This information can be a reward program number, a payment account information such as a credit card or debit card and PIN, a fingerprint, or any other identifying data. The system then knows the person and can provide a personalized interaction for purchasing a gift credit through the display. The interactive display in one embodiment can be the purchaser's home computer or a mobile device and not a point of sale device. The system presents an offer to the purchaser to buy a gift credit (4702). The display can say “John Doe, welcome to Safeway. Would you like to buy a gift card for your Mother's Birthday next week?” The system then receives data via the display associated with the gift credit (4704). The user can provide the amount (say $50), the merchant (Olive Garden, Home Depot) and the recipient. Since the system knows the purchaser, the identification of the recipient can be accomplished through a narrowed search. For example, since the system knows the person at the point of sale, their personalized contact list can be presented. Predictive data such as friends and/or family in their social network that have birthdays or anniversaries in the next two months could be presented. The system will know of the user's purchasing history as well. The offer can say “John, do you want to buy an Olive Garden $50 gift credit for your mother's birthday next week? Last year you bought her an Olive Garden Gift Card and her feedback said she loved it. Click here to accept, and you will also get 4× your rewards points for a gas purchase at the grocery store.” The user will provide information in one several different ways to identify the recipient of the gift credit as part of the data. If a predetermined set of data for a gift credit is provided as in the example above, the user can in one click accept the offer. For example, in one click, John could purchase a $50 gift credit for the Olive Garden for his mother, and optionally also receive rewards on John's reward program. The display can also present other personal data such as a picture of his mother redeeming the previously given gift credit or the message his mother gave as feedback for the card. The display could also tap into wish lists of friend or others in a social network, and receive data on other suggested gift credits which have additional offers or provide a variety when compared with previous purchases. Users could also get extra bonuses for buying the gift credits in bulk. The display can present an offer from a merchant to buy two gift credits for Bed Bath and Beyond as the holidays are approaching. Because of the bulk purchase, extra rewards or discounts are provided to the gift giver. A grandmother may have presented to her, on the display, to buy the same gift credit for Toys R Us for each of her twelve grandchildren. This can be presented in a compact format such as “Joan, here is a picture of your grandchildren, would you like to buy a $20 Toys R Us gift credit for each of them?” The grouping of recipients can be a list, a characterization (“your three best friends” or “your four children”), a picture of a group of people, or a suggested list of recipients. This can simplify and speed up the process of purchasing the gift credit at a merchant point of sale or on another computing device, such as a gas pump, an ATM, in your car at a stoplight, a smartphone, and so forth. Just as set forth above, it is assumed that the recipient has a payment account in the system such that they can redeem the gift credit via a purchase or other triggering mechanism, independent of a physical gift instrument. The system then implements a benefit through the rewards program for the purchaser (4706) and establishes the policy for the gift credit in the normal fashion (4708). The system will then have all of the necessary data to accomplish the following: (1) providing rewards to the purchaser for the purchase of the gift credit at the particular merchant; (2) establishing a policy for the gift credit as disclosed herein; and (3) enabling the purchaser to receive additional discounts such as on gas or other purchases through the rewards program of the merchant. The point of sale with an interactive display can be at a gas station pump, check out station, self-checkout station, in an isle of the grocery store, or in any location. If the purchase is at a gas pump, the need for a rewards number can be eliminated. Thus, the “reward” or the discount could simply apply to a current purchase of a separate item or service that is associated with the gift credit. This approach can simplify the process where while the user has 3 minutes of time while pumping gas, the interactive display can present the options of buying gift credits for recipients. If the user purchases a gift credit at that time, a discount will be provided for the gas being currently pumped. Thus, in any of the scenarios disclosed herein, the need for the rewards program can be optional. Indeed, the rewards program can be tied to the giver's credit card. For example, if the purchaser buys a gift credit at the grocery store, without being a member of a rewards program for that grocery store, the system could provide a discount on gas if the giver purchases gas later using that same payment account. In this manner, a “policy” could be established for that credit card which monitors those purchases and when a gas purchase is made, the discount is provided. The benefit of this approach is that when the user buys gas they do not need to provide a telephone number or other identifying information for their rewards program. In this way, the system can engage users right at the pump to enable users to buy a policy-based gift credit for another person or for themselves and get the discount instantaneously. The user could even make purchases in this manner on their own computer or mobile device. In this scenario, the user may simply be at home and be able to make a purchase of a gift credit while also having an opportunity to enter in their grocery store club card data to receive reward points for an additional discount on gas or discount on further grocery purchases. This enables participating stores to provide increased incentives to encourage purchasers to come to their brick and mortar store when making on-line gift credit purchases as disclosed herein. Commercial Payments Through Gift Credits In another example, people can opt to be paid through the use of a gift credit having an associated policy as disclosed herein. For example, if a person performs a job and desires to be paid for that job, the principles disclosed herein can be utilized as a method to enable them to be paid in a novel manner. As an example, consider John who has earned $800 as a contractor for completing a project for the ACME company. John, rather than receiving a check, desires to maximize the potential ease and benefit of receiving money by being paid through a gift credit connected to his debit or credit card. In this scenario, John could either request a direct payment to his payment account or as a reimbursement for a purchase that he is going to make. For example, John could essentially make himself of a gift credit of the type disclosed herein. If John is to be paid $800, John may know that he desires to make an $800 purchase of a pair of skis. He may be able to seek a promotion or identify a discount at a merchant and be able to create his own gift credit. In this case, he could request from the ACME company that they reimburse him for a purchase of the pair of skis at REI. A graphical user interface can be presented such that the ACME company is able to present the recipient with a mechanism of opting to be paid via the use of a gift credit. In this case, John could request that a gift credit be given to him from the company for $800 to be used at REI. Then, to “be paid” by the ACME company, John would simply go and make his $800 purchase of the skis at REI at which point, the system as disclosed herein would monitor the John's purchases such that after the purchase is made, he would be reimbursed for $800 of the purchase. A benefit of this approach could be that John may make himself for eligible for promotions or other offers or discounts by choosing to be a recipient of the gift credit in this manner. Plus, it gives the recipient flexibility in being able to choose the entity, item or basis policy parameters of a gift credit that is going to be given to them. Thus, all of the associated benefits that can be offered through a gift credit program can enable John to not only receive the $800 for being paid for the work of the ACME company, but he may be able to receive an additional $50 in promotions or discounts which me otherwise may not be able to receive if he were simply making the purchase of the skis independent of the context of using the gift credit. In this respect, being able to make commercial payments like expense credits provides an additional functionality and opportunity for additional promotions and branding that otherwise may not be available through a standard approach to making a commercial payment from a company to a contractor or an employee. In addition, companies may be able to easily offer benefits to their employees by enabling them to have their payment accounts available to a system that enables them to receive and create their own gift credits as recipients for bonuses and other offers from their companies. Such an approach could become a standard way for additional gift credits to be able to be processed in the system which easily enables recipients and giver individuals or companies alike to be eligible for other promotions and discounts. As with other disclosures set forth above, the entity giving such a gift credit, such as the ACME company in this case, would also be available to receive promotions in which the giving entity could have a policy associated with purchases that they may make which also constitute a secondary gift credit for the giver as part of the transaction of generating a gift credit for the recipient. FIG. 48 illustrates a fourth example method embodiment related to giver promotions. In this example, the policy governing a gift from a gift giver to a recipient further includes an associated promotion which can be applied to the qualifying purchase. Thus, the policy governs not only recognition of a qualifying transaction, but also identifies a promotion, or which promotion, can apply to the transaction. The promotion can be applied directly at the merchant point of sale such as a price discount, or can be applied completely independently of the transaction at the merchant, such as an additional amount of money applied to the gift. The promotion can be governed by the same policy rules as the qualifying transaction, or the promotions can have different policy rules which may be in addition to the policy rules governing the qualifying transaction. For example, the primary policy can provide $50 to be applied to purchases at Target, and the promotion policy can further indicate that if the transaction is over $100 and contains at least $40 of groceries that an additional $20 will be applied to the purchase. In these examples, the giver promotion is enabled because the giver either has some preferred relationship with the merchant associated with the policy, or because the giver is the merchant associated with the policy. While this method embodiment is discussed in terms of a worker and a payer, the same principles can be applied to any transaction in which the giver is either a merchant or associated with a merchant. Further, in another variation, the payer is a merchant of a family of merchants such as a restaurant chain, a corporation that owns several different store brands, or a loosely affiliated group of stores such as a guild of stores in a shopping mall. Then, the policy can cover purchases made in these groups of merchants. The system receives, at a first time, an identification of a payer, a payment, a payment amount, a worker receiving the payment, wherein the worker is associated with rendering services for the payer in exchange for the payment, wherein the payer is associated with a payer payment account including a credit or debit account existing prior to the first time, and the worker is associated with a worker payment account, including a credit or debit account existing prior to the first time, wherein the payer payment account and the worker payment account are independent of each other and have no control over each other, and wherein the payer is a merchant (4802). The system associates a policy with the payment, wherein the policy is at least in part payer defined, wherein the policy applies to purchases made at the payer, and wherein the policy indicates a promotion to be applied to purchases made at the payer (4804). The system monitors, according to the policy and at a second time which is later than the first time, purchases made at the payer using the worker payment account to yield purchasing information (4806). Based on the purchasing information, the system determines whether the worker has made a qualifying purchase using the worker payment account according to the policy (4808). When the qualifying purchase has occurred, the system applies at least part of the payment and the promotion to the qualifying purchase (4810). As an example, Mario contracts to do plumbing work for a grocery store. The grocery pays Mario for the plumbing work with $300 subject to a policy limited to purchases made at the grocery store, but providing an additional promotion on top of the $300 dollars. The promotion can even be dynamic, changing over time or based on some other circumstances or information. Thus, to receive the payment, Mario simply shops at the grocery store, and the system automatically applies the promotion to the purchases, if applicable. In other scenarios, the gifts are not considered payments for services rendered, and are simply gifts, such as gift certificates, rewards, or various other promotions provided by the merchant. FIG. 49 illustrates a fifth example method embodiment related to commercial payments. This is an example where a worker receives payment for a service rendered from a payer subject to a policy. As set forth above, this can be advantageous because it is automatically applied to an existing account and is simpler than receiving a paper check, signing the check, and driving to the bank to cash or deposit the check. The system receives, at a first time, an identification of a payer, a payment, a payment amount, a worker receiving the payment, wherein the worker is associated with rendering services for the payer in exchange for the payment, wherein the payer is associated with a payer payment account including a credit or debit account existing prior to the first time, and the worker is associated with a worker payment account, including a credit or debit account existing prior to the first time, and wherein the payer payment account and the worker payment account are independent of each other and have no control over each other (4902). The system associates a policy with the payment, wherein the policy is at least in part payer defined (4904). The system monitors, according to the policy and at a second time which is later than the first time, purchases made using the worker payment account to yield purchasing information (4906). Based on the purchasing information, the system determines whether the worker has made a qualifying purchase using the worker payment account according to the policy (4908). When the qualifying purchase has occurred, the system applies at least part of the payment to the qualifying purchase (4910). As an example, Mario contracts to do plumbing work for a grocery store. The grocery store can pay Mario for the plumbing work with a gift of $300 that applies to purchases made at the grocery store. Thus, Mario does not have to make any additional effort to be receive payment, such as cashing a check or processing a credit card, and simply makes his regular purchases at the grocery store. Additionally, the grocery store receives a benefit because it only pays for the cost of the goods purchased, but receives benefit equal to the retail price of those goods. Because of this difference, the grocery store can potentially offer Mario a larger payment than if the payment were made via cash, check, or credit/debit card. FIG. 50 illustrates a sixth example method embodiment related to a policy with multiple redemption options. In this example, the system receives, at a first time, an identification of a payer, a payment, a payment amount, a worker receiving the payment, wherein the worker is associated with rendering services for the payer in exchange for the payment, wherein the payer is associated with a payer payment account including a credit or debit account existing prior to the first time, and the worker is associated with a worker payment account, including a credit or debit account existing prior to the first time, wherein the payer payment account and the worker payment account are independent of each other and have no control over each other, and wherein the payer is a merchant (5002). The system associates a policy with the payment, wherein the policy is at least in part payer defined, wherein a first variation of the policy applies to purchases made at the payer and indicates a promotion, and wherein a second variation of the policy applies to purchases made at other merchants (5004). The system monitors, according to the policy and at a second time which is later than the first time, purchases made at the payer using the worker payment account to yield purchasing information (5006). Based on the purchasing information, the system determines whether the worker has made a qualifying purchase using the worker payment account according to the policy, and determine whether the qualifying purchase falls under the first variation or the second variation (5008). When the qualifying purchase has occurred under the first variation, the system can apply at least part of the payment and the promotion to the qualifying purchase (5010), and when the qualifying purchase has occurred under the second variation, the system can apply at least part of the payment to the qualifying purchase without the promotion (5012). As another example, Mario contracts to do plumbing work for a grocery store. The grocery store pays Mario for the plumbing work with a gift of $300 that applies to purchases made at any grocery store, but the gift is valued at $350 at the grocery store where Mario did the work. Thus, the grocery store can incentivize Mario's repeat business by offering him additional money to shop at the grocery store over others, and Mario receives a perceived additional benefit or bonus pay for the work performed. This embodiment can also be applied to scenarios in which the gift is a gift and not payment for services rendered. In another aspect, the method can include receiving, via the Internet, a registration of a recipient payment account at a service provider, the recipient payment account being associated with a recipient and receiving, from an entity, an identification of the recipient and a spending category, the recipient payment account being registered with the service provider prior to the receiving of the identification. The entity can be a person, a business, or any entity. The method can include generating, via the service provider, a policy comprising a gift credit and the spending category, wherein the policy is at least in part defined by the entity and wherein the policy can be linked to the recipient payment account, and transmitting, via a processor of a computing device and via a communication channel, an electronic notice to a recipient device, the electronic notice referencing the policy and can be linked to the recipient payment account. The method includes monitoring, via a processor of a computing device, purchasing transactions made using the recipient payment account via a payment processing system for a qualified purchase according to the policy and, based on the qualified purchase, applying, via a processor of a computing device, the gift credit. The spending category can be at least one of a network merchant identification or a network merchant category. The method can further include receiving an initial amount of money from an entity account associated with the entity into a service provider account, wherein the gift credit can be drawn from the initial amount of money. The gift credit can be transferred to the recipient payment account and can be determined by comparing an initial amount of money received from the entity to a purchase amount associated with the qualified purchase. If the purchase amount is less than the initial amount of money, then the gift credit transferred to the recipient payment account can be a full amount of the qualified purchase. If the purchase amount is more than the initial amount of money, then the gift credit transferred is the initial amount of money. The method can further include charging the recipient payment account for the qualified purchase and reimbursing the recipient payment account when the qualified purchase appears on a transaction history of the recipient payment account. In another aspect, the method can include charging a percentage of an initial amount of money provided by the entity as a service fee for using the service provider. One of the entity, the recipient and a third party can be charged the percentage of the initial amount of money. In another aspect, the spending category can include one of an individual point of sale, a chain of stores, and a plurality of businesses in a same industry. A third party can also pays at least a portion of an initial amount of money which funds the gift credit.] Local Product Enhancement FIG. 51 illustrates an example method embodiment for local product enhancements. Local product enhancements can be based around a single payment account, such as an account tied to a credit or debit account, that is accepted as payment at multiple local merchants that are part of a gift network. The gift administering system can reward consumers for frequenting merchants in the network. For example, the system can email special offers to consumers. The system can track buying habits of consumers and can tailor offers or promotions or advertising targeted to merchants the consumers frequent most or that the system determines would be of interest to the consumer. For example, if similar consumers frequently visit merchant X, then this consumer may also like merchant X. The network can extend to or cooperate with networks in other cities. For example, if a consumer purchases a reloadable card, the consumer can use that card multiple cities. This approach is convenient for consumers who travel between locations with participating merchants, because the consumer can use the same card. The system can also provide games, badges, accomplishments, or achievements for the users to earn or play. Earning a particular achievement or status can unlock additional benefits, discounts, promotions, etc. A system configured to practice the example method embodiment receives an identification of a gift giver, a gift, an amount of money to pay for the gift, and a recipient of the gift at a first time, wherein the giver is associated with a giver payment account, including a credit payment account or a debit payment account existing prior to the first time, and the recipient is associated with a recipient payment account, including a credit payment account or a debit payment account existing prior to the first time, and wherein the giver payment account and the recipient payment account are independent of each other and have no control over each other (5100). The system can associate a policy with the gift, wherein the policy is at least in part giver defined (5102). The system can initiate, at the first time, a transfer of at least part of the amount of money to pay for the gift from the giver payment account to a holding account that is separate from the recipient payment account (5104). The system can monitor, according to the policy, purchases of the recipient at a second time, which is later than the first time, using the recipient payment account to yield purchasing information based on the purchasing information (5106). The system can determine whether the recipient has made a qualifying purchase using the recipient payment account according to the policy (5108). If the qualifying purchase has occurred, the system can apply at least part of the amount of money to pay for the gift from the holding account to the recipient payment account (5110). In another variation, the system can generate a policy that governs the application of a discount at a merchant, and present an electronic gift credit to a consumer at a first time, the electronic gift credit being associated with a policy. Upon receipt of a purchase of the electronic gift credit from the consumer, the system can activate the policy, wherein the consumer is associated with a consumer payment account including a credit payment account or a debit payment account existing prior to the first time. The system can monitor, according to the policy, purchases at a second time, which is later than the first time, using the consumer payment account to yield purchasing information. Based on the purchasing information, the system can determine whether the consumer has made a qualifying purchase using the recipient payment account at the merchant according to the policy, and if the qualifying purchase has occurred, apply a benefit associated with the qualifying purchase to the consumer. The benefit can be a discount, a reimbursement of at least part of a purchase price, points, or a free item at the merchant, for example. The policy can govern application of a respective discount for various merchants. The policy can be based on a purchasing history of the consumer or on a scoring of points based on consumer activity. The merchants associated with the policy can be chosen based on a purchasing history of the consumer. If the benefit is points, the system can further activate a second policy based at least in part on the points, the second policy being associated with a second merchant, and monitor, according to the second policy, purchases at a third time, which is later than the second time, using the consumer payment account to yield second purchasing information. Then the system can, based on the second purchasing information, determine whether the consumer has made a second qualifying purchase using the consumer payment account at the second merchant according to the second policy, and, if the second qualifying purchase has occurred, apply a second benefit associated with the second qualifying purchase to the consumer. The second benefit can be a discount or a reimbursement for the second qualifying purchase. Network Fees for Processing Gifts Payment processing networks, such as a merchant payment processing system, a payment aggregator, a credit card network, or a bank or collection of banks, can process gifts and intercept transactions to detect qualifying transactions for a gift. These entities can process such transactions in exchange for a fee. For example, the additional processing power and cost associated with transferring funds for a gift may have an associated cost. Thus, the payment processing network may refuse to process such gifts without receiving a fee or some compensation. The fees can be paid in advance of processing the gift, can be paid on a one-time basis, on a per-monitored-transaction basis, on a recurring basis as long as transactions are being monitored in association with the policy, and so forth. The exact amount of the fee, timing of payment of the fee, as well as which parties pay the fee can vary, as shown in the examples below. In one example, a gift giver is creating a gift for a recipient. After selecting the recipient, amount, and other information for the policy, such as at a checkout stage in an online purchasing environment, the system can present the recipient with the amount of the processing fee. The processing fee can be a flat fee, based on the amount of the gift, or based on some other factors. The exact processing fee may not be known, so the system can present a range of fees or an estimated or average fee. The giver can pay the fee up front as the gift and policy are created. Alternatively, the giver can indicate that the fee be paid out of the gift amount itself. The giver can pay the processing fee before the gift is created, or afterwards such as upon detecting a qualifying transaction triggering application of the gift. The processing fee can be split between multiple parties, so that the giver pays a portion, the merchant pays a portion, the recipient pays a portion, and so forth. Particular merchants or payment processing networks can offer promotions or incentives to attract or drive business into particular patterns, such as one payment network offering reduced or eliminated fees to lure away customers from other payment networks. These promotions may include various conditions which must be triggered to receive the reduced fee rate. Thus, in these cases, the entire fee may be withheld, reserved, or paid in advance, and when the conditions are satisfied a portion is refunded. Alternatively, the system can detect the conditions and charge a reduced rate fee or nothing at all. FIG. 52 illustrates a method embodiment for processing gift transactions according to a policy. A system configured to practice this method identifies a policy governing a gift transaction from a gift giver to a recipient via a giver payment account and a recipient payment account (5202), and determines, for the policy, a processing fee and an entity, such as a payment processor or a payment processing network, to receive the processing fee (5204). Then, upon receiving an indication that a qualifying purchase, under the policy, has been detected in monitored purchases made using the recipient payment account, the system can pay the processing fee to the entity from a gift amount, the giver account, the recipient account, or a merchant at which the qualifying purchase was made (5206). When the entity is a payment processor, the entity can monitor the purchases. The processing fee can be fixed and established prior to the policy and can optionally be incorporated in the policy itself, so that the system can extract parameters of the policy, and read the processing fee from those parameters. Alternatively, the amount of the processing fee can vary based on a set of rules, such as rules for changing the processing fee amount based on a merchant at which the qualifying purchase is made, a purchase amount of the qualifying purchase, a time of day, an amount of time elapsed since creation of the policy, a type of good or service purchased via the qualifying purchase, or status of at least one of the giver or the recipient. In another variation, the system can present to the giver creating a gift and an associated policy an indication of the processing fee. The giver can either provide approval of the processing fee in advance, pay the processing fee in advance, or indicate that the processing fee will be deducted from the gift amount. In certain conditions, a merchant or other party can create promotional conditions for reducing the processing fees of the payment processing network. The system can identify those promotional conditions associated with the processing fee, and upon determining that the qualifying purchase satisfies the promotional conditions, refund or simply not charge the processing fee. Merchant Identification of the Transaction Using an Algorithm When a recipient receives a gift for a giver-selected merchant, the system can identify when the recipient goes to a location of that merchant and makes a qualifying purchase under the policy to receive the gift via the recipient's payment account used to make the qualifying purchase. The transaction information received by the recipient's payment account may only include limited information about the specific store location where the purchase is made. This may make detection of qualifying purchases under the policy difficult with certainty that this the merchant is indeed the merchant the giver intended. The system can use an algorithm that includes selected data available about the purchase to increase the confidence that the transaction is for the intended giver-selected merchant. This algorithm may include data that is weighted differently and can include other available data to determine an accuracy store score for the transaction, or a certainty score that the merchant is what the giver intended and thus satisfies the gift policy. The system can collect and evaluate data such as transaction store data passed by the credit card processor including complete or partial store names, address, zip or other information, transaction store data passed by the store merchant processor including complete or partial cardholder names, address, zip or other information, geo tracking information about where the purchase was made, information provided by the recipient when using the gift, or any other available information. Other sources of information can include social networks, financial tracking tools, communications between the giver and recipient, and so forth. The system can weight each of these available data elements via an algorithm that determines the level of certainty about the transaction being for the merchant. If the certainty level exceeds a threshold, then the system applies the gift amount to the recipient payment account to implement the gift. Child Based Application The disclosure next turns to the subject of the present claims. The claims in this application primarily cover the “child” based application of the principles disclosed herein. There are several aspects of the principles herein in which a child or other person who does not have a debit/credit account can give or receive a gift credit. In some cases, the person may have a debit/credit account, but wishes to keep that account separate from the gift for privacy, security, accounting, or other reasons. Assume that a 10-year-old child, Mason, does not have a debit/credit account. His grandmother wants to give him a $20 gift credit for the Lego® store but has no means to accomplish that through a “recipient” payment account since Mason has no such account with which to associate a gift policy. There are several possible solutions to this dilemma. The first solution is to associate Mason with a third party such as a parent who has a payment account that can be used to process the gift. Communications can exist between all parties to the transaction to facilitate notices and information throughout the process. Mason in this example does not have a debit/credit card account but has access to devices, such as smart phones, tablet computing devices, or desktop or laptop computers, through which Mason can receive emails, instagrams or other electronic communication. FIG. 53 illustrates the overall system. FIG. 53 illustrates an example system embodiment of a “child” based application. A general system 5300 enables the giving of a gift credit to a recipient who does not have a recipient payment account. In this example, a giver Gwen has giver device 5302 which is used to initiate the process of giving the gift. The giver has a giver payment account 5306 as is typically disclosed herein. A giver interface 5304 provides the ability of Gwen to be able to provide the basic information to process the gift. In this case, the gift is from Gwen, the recipient is Mason and the mechanism by which the gift is going to be redeemed is through Virginia's Visa account. The store at which the gift if given is a Lego® store and the amount is $50. Interface 5304 can be a general interface which of course can be utilized through an application on a hand-held device or a laptop or desktop computer or any electronic device which enables a connection to the processing service 5308 in the network. In one variation, interface 5304 is a web interface which can be accessed on virtually any web-enabled device from any location. The structure of this gift therefore has several implications. First, three people are involved: the giver Gwen, the recipient Mason, and a third party Virginia that has a recipient payment account that will be used to redeem the gift. The system may utilize social networking or family relationships or other mechanisms to interconnect recipients such as Mason with other third party individuals that have recipient payment accounts. For example, if Virginia is Mason's mother, then it makes sense for Mason to receive the information about the gift credit but that its redemption is through a payment account that is utilized by a separate individual. In one variation, the giver indicates the third party. In another variation, the giver provides the gift to the recipient, after which the recipient selects the third party. In yet another variation, the giver selects the recipient, and the system analyzes the recipient's social network, familial, or other connections, or a gift redemption history for the recipient, to suggest a group of possible third parties to the giver. Then the giver can select one from the group of possible third parties. Once the processing service 5308 has the necessary information, the various notices and policies can be set up in order to affect the transfer of the gift. For example, Mason's device 5310 can receive a notification of the gift through an email, a text, a social networking communication, or other notification. The notification can be something like what is shown in window 5312 which states Mason: “Gwen has given you $50 at the Lego store.” Other instructions of course could be provided such as: “this gift if redeemable through your mom's Visa account. Accordingly, let your mom know that when she spends $50 at the Lego store that that money will be paid or reimbursed by Gwen.” On a third party device, Virginia's device 5314, a notification could be provided in a window 5316 which can provide such information as the following: “Virginia: Gwen has given Mason a $50 Lego gift credit to be redeemed using your Visa account.” The recipient payment account 5318 of course is associated with Virginia. In one variation, the system notifies the third party of the gift prior to notifying the recipient, and requests confirmation or acceptance from the third party. For example, if the third party is unwilling or unable to serve in that role for the recipient, the third party can reject the request, forcing the giver, system, or recipient to select an alternate third party. The system can wait to send the recipient a notification of the gift until the third party has been approved, or can notify the recipient of the selected third party and indicate that the third party has not yet been confirmed and may change. The recipient or the third party can establish preferences or settings in advance for automatically confirming gifts for particular recipient/third party combinations, such as a mother establishing a setting to always approve requests to be a third party for any of her children. Accordingly, in this case, the policy that the system establishes (for enabling the processing of this gift credit) would be similar to what is disclosed herein with the addition of other notifications of communications to Mason. For example, the policy would involve initiating the monitoring of uses of the recipient payment account 5318 to track for a purchase at a Lego store according to the policy. Once a purchase is made at the Lego store, then $50 is applied from a giver payment account, a holding account, or some other mechanism to handle the contribution from Gwen for that gift. Notifications of course can be timed or coordinated between Mason's device 5310, Virginia's device 5314 and Gwen's device 5302 in order to make the gift giving experience more enjoyable. For example, once a purchase is initiated at a Lego store according to the recipient payment account 5318, a FaceTimeTM or visual communication session could be established between Gwen's device 5302 and Mason's device 5310 such that Gwen can personally view Mason at the Lego store while a purchase is being made. Any type of communication such as text, email, teleconference (such as between any of the 3 devices) and so forth could be initiated based on the qualifying purchase from the recipient payment account 5318. Furthermore, in connection with the policy, location-based services could also be used to initiate a social networking communication between the parties in this case. For example, the policy could not only affect monitoring purchases made by the recipient payment account but also monitor the location of at least one of the parties to initiate communications. In this case, if Mason and Virginia were to go into a Lego store and the location based tracking of Mason's device indicated that he was in the vicinity or within a Lego store, then the processing service 5318 could initiate a communication between Gwen's device 5302 and Mason's device 5310 such that they could communicate (in any manner) and talk or text about Legos even before the initiation of a purchase made by the recipient payment account. In this case, since this particular embodiment may typically focus on giving gifts to children, the giver or other parties could also participate in the choosing of which Lego set Mason desires prior to its purchase. In addition, any party to this transaction could also add other parties so that other people can join in to the discussion and the social experience, for example, if other cousins or brothers or sisters or aunts or uncles need to be part of the conversation, the system could include a group of individuals that are associated with this gift such that a triggering event, such as a location position of a device, the initiation of a purchase by the recipient payment account, and so forth, could initiate a multi-person video conferencing call or audio conference or group text or email to initiate communication by a number of people. Therefore, as Mason enters a Lego store, it is possible within this system to initiate a call in which Mason answers his phone 5310 and 5 people are on the call congratulating him on redeeming the gift and having a Happy Birthday. Thus, the system disclosed in FIG. 53 can be utilized for not only enabling a financial transaction between three people but could also be utilized to initiate social networking experiences. The social networking experience can be extended into a game or treasure hunt, as well. The giver, Gwen, can record audio, text, or video messages for Mason, and tag them to specific locations, so that when Mason and Virginia are both in those locations in the store, Mason's device or Virginia's device can automatically play the recorded audio, text, or video message. For example, Gwen can make a video recording and associate it with a particular location, store, or item within a store, such as a Lego Death Star. Then, when Mason comes within 10 feet of the Lego Death Star, or lingers for more than 30 seconds within a certain distance of the Lego Death Star, or meets some other location or proximity criteria, Mason's device can automatically play the video recording, in which Gwen may comment on the particular item or give advice to Mason. In another social aspect of shopping online to redeem a gift, Mason and Virginia may be browsing a merchant website, and the system can broadcast screen captures of their device to Gwen or to other parties. The system can also record audio or video of Mason and Virginia as they browse the merchant website, so Gwen or the other parties can see the facial expressions and hear the discussions of Mason and Virginia as they are shopping online. As with the other policies disclosed herein, if the purchase made is less than $50 and an unused portion of the gift, or unused money, remains on the account, then the system could provide reminders, additional bonuses, added value, and so forth via emails or notifications to Mason's device 5310, Virginia's device 5314 and/or Gwen's device 5302. These can also be tailored to be individual notifications as might be desired. For example, within a month after the purchase which left $15 on the gift, Mason may only receive a reminder of that amount with information about a new Lego set that is now available for that amount or slightly more with the offer that the Lego store will pitch in the extra $5 to buy a $20 set and to simply let his mom know that if she uses her payment account to make the purchase, then the additional $5 will be offered. An example method is shown in FIG. 54 which includes receiving an identification of a gift giver, a gift, an amount of money to pay for the gift, and a recipient of the gift at a first time, wherein the giver is associated with a giver payment account, including a credit payment account or a debit payment account existing prior to the first time (5402). The recipient is associated with a third party who has a third party payment account, which is a credit payment account or a debit payment account existing prior to the first time. The giver payment account and the third party payment account are independent of each other and have no control over each other (5404). The system associates a policy with the gift, wherein the policy is at least in part giver defined and monitors, according to the policy, purchases of the third party at a second time, which is later than the first time, using the third party payment account to yield purchasing information (5406). Based on the purchasing information, the system determines whether the third party has made a qualifying purchase using the third party payment account according to the policy (5408) and, if the qualifying purchase has occurred, applies at least part of the amount of money to pay for the gift for the recipient to the third party payment account (5410). In one aspect, the method includes initiating, at the first time, a transfer of at least part of the amount of money to pay for the gift from the giver payment account to a holding account that is separate from the third party payment account, wherein applying at least part of the amount of money to pay for the gift for the recipient to the third party payment account includes transferring the at least part of the amount of money from the holding account to the third party payment account. The gift can be associated with a group of third party payment accounts. In the example of a child recipient, the group of third party payment accounts can include a mother's payment account, a father's payment account, and an older brother's payment account, optionally subject to approval by one of the mother or the father so that the older brother does not accidentally or unintentionally redeem the gift without the recipient being present. In another aspect, the money for the gift remains in the giver account until a triggering even such as a location-based event or a purchase is initiated, or a purchase is completed. Various communications can also be initiated by virtue of triggering events associated with the policy. In other words, the policy in this case can include people and various triggers (like a location based trigger for the recipient device which causes the initiation of a social networking or conference communication). In connection with the processing of a gift to a recipient that does not have a recipient payment account, another aspect of this disclosure is that ability of such a recipient to be able to trade or make modifications to their gift. As disclosed herein, there are a number of mechanisms by which recipients can re-gift, add to, top up, chop up, and so forth their gifts. All of these capabilities would be available to a recipient 5310 of a gift in which that recipient does not have a particular payment account. In each case, that recipient would be able to have those gifts redeemed using a separate recipient payment account 5318. In addition, however, the recipient 5310 or the third party 5314 might also be able to further modify the policy and processing of the gift. For example, shown in FIG. 53 is another person, Dad 5320 that has a dad payment account 5322. Assume that Mason happens to be shopping with his dad at the mall and they see the Lego store and desire to redeem the account. A mechanism could be provided in which Mason is associated with a number of recipient accounts which are modifiable according to guidelines or restrictions. For example, Mason may receive a gift credit that is redeemable through Virginia's payment account 5318 but he may have the opportunity or ability to also redeem all or part of the gift through dad's payment account 5322. In this case, Mason could use his device 5310 to communicate with the processing service 5318 and utilize a gift management application to select a different recipient payment account for use in redeeming his gift. Restrictions could be placed on this such as only a part of the gift can be redeemed through payment account 5322. For example, Mason may only be able to have half of that gift redeemed through his dad's payment account 5322 or no restrictions may apply at all. Of course, the system can also send notifications to the various devices if such changes occur and perhaps need to be approved by Virginia. In such a case, the appropriate modifications could be made such that the policy now monitors purchases using the dad payment account 5322 at which point if Mason and his dad are at the Lego store, and the dad makes a purchase using the dad payment account 5322, that the appropriate amount of money is applied to that gift and it is thus in part or fully redeemed. Such changes can be made retroactively to apply to already completed purchases as well as processing and monitoring current purchases. In addition, as noted above, Mason could engage in an application in which he could trade his gift money from one account to another. For example, he could change his $50 Lego gift credit to an iTunes $50 gift credit if that is authorized by the system. Furthermore, he may want to trade his $50 gift credit with a friend or a sibling who has a $60 iTunes card from Gwen. Such trades could also be envisioned through this system between children in which they enter into an environment in which they can make offers and counteroffers and trade their gift credits amongst others at which point the various changes would be made once deals are established. For example, if Mason trades a $50 Lego gift credit for a $60 iTunes card, then the policy associated with Mason's gift would therefore change such that the policy then would involve $60 and the merchant would be the iTunes store and purchases at the iTunes store would be monitored through the recipient payment account 5318. As can be seen, this mechanism enables children or anybody without a recipient payment account to be associated with people who have payment accounts and enable them to receive, manage, trade, modify and so forth gifts received in a way that is fun and easy and in a way that encourages social interaction and increases purchases made at participating merchants. A secondary aspect of the “child” based gift credit is to have a credit waiting at a store once the child receives a notification of the gift credit electronically. When the child identifies themselves at the store, the credit can be applied. For example, returning to FIG. 53, if Gwen 5302 gives Mason a $50 gift credit at the Lego store, then there may be a number of different mechanisms for Mason to be able to identify himself at the store. One example is that Mason's device 5310 has a location-based system in which when he walks into the store, an application is initiated, or a notification is sent such that the identification can be made. For example, a merchant system can notify a clerk at the store that Mason is in the store and has a $50 gift credit. This ability to provide such a notification can be done through a mobile device such that it becomes easy and enjoyable for Mason to be in the store. In other words, Mason can walk in the store, the clerk can receive the notification and then simply say “Hi Mason, are you here to redeem your $50 gift credit?” Then, the credit can be essentially already applied for the purchase. The $50 amount could have been withdrawn from the giver's payment account 5306 and kept in a holding account or already applied to the store such that no credit or debit card or cash needs to be even processed as part of a financial transaction. Further, if a $55 dollar Lego set is purchased, then the remaining amount only need to be paid to complete the entire transaction. The notification from the processing service 5308 to Mason's device 5310 of course can be modified to simply say “Gwen has given you a $50 gift credit to the Lego store. Simply bring your iPhone to the store and the store will be notified that you are there and help you redeem your gift. Enjoy!” This can provide a simple mechanism for a child to redeem the gift independent of a third party payment account. This approach can include some additional identity verification, such as a photo of the recipient, a secret password, or PIN transmitted to Mason, so that the store can attempt to confirm that Mason is bearing the iPhone. This approach can prevent a malicious sibling or other party from bringing Mason's iPhone to the store to redeem a gift intended for Mason. In one aspect, the giver 5302 can choose the method of redemption, i.e., the giver can establish the policy which is going to cover the redemption of that gift. The policy could be to redeem the gift at the store by the recipient. The policy could include redeeming the gift by use of one or more recipient payment accounts. The processing service 5308 can have that various information already pre-established for the particular recipient. Therefore, when Gwen chooses Mason as the recipient, then the system can already have configured the various possible ways in which Mason can be given the opportunity to redeem that gift. Therefore, Gwen can choose amongst those possibilities in formulating and structuring the gift for the recipient. In this way too, the giver, who likely know the recipient very well, could tailor the redemption of the gift in a manner which is most beneficial perhaps to the recipient. For example, if Gwen knows that Mason needs to spend some time with his dad, then she can structure the giving of the gift such that it has to be done through dad's payment account 5322 without the ability or the flexibility of changing which payment account is to be utilized for the redemption of that gift. Therefore, such a structure can be used to improve a family interaction and enable enjoyable family interactions. In another variation, Gwen can impose other limitations on the gift, such as a multiple transaction requirement, so that Mason and his dad must make at least two separate trips to the Lego store on two separate days prior to making the purchase to redeem the entire amount of the gift credit. A third aspect is to have the credit loaded associated with a gift credit onto an application or an account that is released when a mobile device is within a Geo fence of a retail location associated with the policy. The mobile device or an application can be interacted with by the retailer such as via a scan or another means and the credit is used for a purchase according to the policy. Thus, for example, in this third aspect, the mobile device 5310, when it enters into the geo fence of the retail location, could automatically generate a QR code or a barcode that a retail clerk could scan or receive via other means which can be used to purchase the product. In other words, the money that is associated with the gift could be loaded into a separate gift credit account which is then associated with that QR code or symbol at which point at the retail store. The recipient, Mason in this example, utilizes the device 5310 to actually make the purchase as though he had a physical gift card. Once that purchase is made, it would be processed in a similar way to having received a closed loop physical gift card for that Lego store. Of course in this process, the giver Gwen could also structure a gift to the recipient in such a way as to make the gift specific to a kind of purchase rather than a particular store. For example, Gwen may give Mason a $100 gift credit to go toward a bicycle at which point further interactions may involve triggering an application when he enters into a geo fence of a retail location that sells bicycles and furthermore initiating a social interaction in which if a bicycle is actually purchased at that store (many other products are likely available as well), then Gwen could approve of unlocking the gift credit at which point the QR code or other code could be presented which is capable of being used by the retail location in order to make the purchaser apply the gift credit to the purchase. Similarly, the gift to Mason could include a $50 gift credit for groceries at which point the geo location could be considered as any grocery store at which point the system triggers or releases the money in the account and enables the recipient to utilize their mobile phone in order to actually accomplish a financial transaction in which that money is available. Accordingly, in this aspect of the disclosure, a holding account or a gift credit account can be established but held and not released and available for use until a triggering event occurs in some manner associated with the recipient or recipient device. The triggering event may be multiple events such as the recipient going to several geo locations in a particular order that then would trigger the release and availability of the funds. The funds may be held in the giver account. The release and availability of the funds in these cases occurs electronically such that an actual purchase can be made either in a closed-loop or partial closed-loop case or even in an open-loop case. For example, the gift might be $100 once Mason spends 10 hours in the library during the week studying. The system could then monitor using location based services of the device to see if the conditions of the policy are established at which point the gift credit can be released and the money becomes available for use utilizing the mobile device 5310. In another aspect, the processing service 5308 could monitor the triggering events associated with the recipient device 5310 at which point a physical gift card could be mailed out to the recipient so that they actually have a standard physical closed-loop or open-loop gift card for use as they desire. For example, Gwen may desire to give Mason a $100 gift credit for use at Disney Land if Mason is in class every day at school for the month of April. If the geo location indicates that Mason has achieved the terms of the policy, then the system automatically mails out a Disney Land gift credit to Mason for use on his trip during the summer. Gwen can set up a hierarchy of gifts so that when the criteria for a first gift are met and the gift card is mailed out to Mason, the system automatically engages a second gift and notifies Mason of the next requirements. In this way, the incentives can be chained together so that earning one gift unlocks a next gift. Accordingly, in this aspect, where the recipient does not have a recipient payment account that is to be used to redeem the gift card, a blending of an “in the cloud” solution with a physical solution can be implemented to increase the enjoyment and benefits of gift cards is disclosed herein. Transactions Without Coordination of Credit Issuing Company This disclosure now turns to the primary subject matter covered in the claims. An example method embodiment is shown in FIG. 55 and includes receiving an identification of a giver of a gift and a recipient of the gift at a first time, wherein the giver is associated with a giver payment account and the recipient has a recipient number associated with a recipient device (5500). This number can be a phone number, picture, alphanumeric string of characters, or characters associated with the recipient device. In one example, the giver can choose a recipient by selecting their phone number, a dollar amount (say $50) and a merchant, such as Olive Garden. The system associates a policy with the gift in which the policy references and includes at least the merchant and the amount of money (5502). The system receives the amount of money from the giver payment account and stores the amount of money in a holding account (5504) and monitors, via a processor of a computing device, for interactions between the recipient and the merchant. In one embodiment, the monitoring occurs via a geolocation of the recipient device using an application on the recipient device, at a second time which is later than the first time to yield information (5506). In one aspect the system does not withdraw the funds from the giver payment account but the finds remain there and it becomes the holding account. Based on the information, and when the information indicates that the recipient device is at the merchant geolocation, the system requests a confirmation from the recipient via the recipient device to determine whether the recipient desires to use the gift at the merchant (5508). The “qualifying purchase” is thus made but monitored in a different manner than disclosed above in that it is not directly monitored based on the use of a payment card. The interaction with the user and/or the merchant indicate that the qualifying purchase has occurred. The data on the transaction can be reported from the merchant and not monitored based on credit card company or bank account transactions. In one case, the recipient may not have made a purchase or may not want to have the gift apply at that visit. The recipient can control whether the amount of money or a portion thereof is applied. The system receives a confirmation that the recipient desires to use the gift at the merchant (5510) and receives from the merchant (or the user or other source) a confirmation of a transaction using a recipient payment account that existed prior to the first time, wherein the recipient payment account is independent of the giver payment account (5512). The system then transfers or applies at least a portion of the amount of money from the holding account to redeem the gift (5516). The money could be transferred to a merchant account, wherein the merchant credits the recipient payment account using the at least a portion of the amount of money. By way of the example above, the recipient may have spent $25 at the Olive Garden and confirms that they would like the gift card to apply. The system would provide a payment of $25 to the Olive Garden or directly to the card company associated with the recipient payment account. When the payment goes to the Olive Garden, then they can automatically or manually credit the recipient payment account for the amount of the gift used. The processor can communicate with the recipient via an application on a smart phone. The application manages the communications such that when a geolocation connects with a policy, the system “pings” the application and a notification comes up for the user to notify the user of the gift and to inquire about whether the user would like to apply the gift. This moment provides an opportunity to interact with the user at this stage for both the merchant and/or the gift credit processor. When the recipient accepts the gift via communication with a text message or via an application or any other mechanism, the recipient may also agree to other terms such as providing permission to utilize the recipient's name, address, contact information (email, phone number, twitter account, etc.) to accomplish the giving of the gift. If the recipient indicates via the interaction that they desire to use the gift at the merchant, the system can time stamp a record associated with the gift and then “ping” or communicate with the merchant at some point about the gift and seek confirmation of the transaction. If there is a match, i.e., the record shows that the recipient did purchase a $25 meal at the Olive Garden, then the gift can be redeemed as disclosed herein such as by the merchant crediting the card used by the recipient for the qualifying purchase. In this manner, other than a few interactions, the recipient still makes the purchase in their normal fashion. The actual flow of money could occur where $25 is directly deposited into the recipient payment account (whether associated with the card used for the purchase or not) or the payment could transfer money to the merchant who then credits the card of the recipient that was used in the transaction. Communications to the recipient can occur during this time, especially if the recipient needs to sign something to receive the credit. Another embodiment of the application would provide a user interface by which the recipient could interact with the system as the recipient decides how to apply the gift. For example, through the application, the recipient links non-related accounts, which include but are not limited to credit card accounts, utility accounts, telephone accounts, loan accounts, online video streaming accounts, online music streaming accounts, internet service provider accounts, cable or satellite television accounts, and any account to which a recipient makes regular payments. Via the user interface, the application displays the transaction information. After the recipient, through the application, confirms that they are applying the gift to the transaction, the application presents to the recipient options for applying the gift. The recipient could apply the money credited back directly to the transaction through the merchant or the credit card issuing company as previously disclosed, or the application provides the options of applying the money to one of the non-related accounts or a combination of the non-related accounts to which the recipient linked through the application. This provides the recipient an ability to pay other bills with the money credited back. The application could further provide a method for prioritizing the non-related accounts in a manner that would help the recipient to intelligently apply the gift to an account. This could include arranging them according to predetermined criteria. For example, the recipient is redeeming the $25 he spent at Olive Garden and the application is prompting the user with the different options for applying the $25 credit. The recipient previously linked his credit card account, Netflix account, and Verizon account to the application. The application, based on an algorithm, arranges the accounts according to priority. The criteria for priority include but are not limited to payment due dates, interest rates, amount due, etc. In this example, the recipient has a payment due on his Verizon account whereas his other accounts are not due for another week, so the application suggests paying into the Verizon account. The recipient then chooses the account or accounts to which he would like to apply the $25 credit. The system then transfers $25 from the holding account to the user-specified account or accounts. Another service the application can provide includes a list of each gift, the merchant with which the gift is associated, and the amount of money or a remainder amount, which amount will be further disclosed in ensuing paragraphs. With this list, the application could then integrate information from the merchants into the list of the gifts, merchants, and amount of money. Such information includes but is not limited to current promotions, daily specials, and events. For example, the recipient has a remainder amount of $25 from a gift to Olive Garden. The application can display information next to the gift associated with Olive Garden that Olive Garden currently is holding a promotional offer of two entrees for the price of one. This allows the recipient to access the application in order to see a comprehensive list of all the gifts and special offers that are currently relevant to the recipient. In all embodiments of the application specified, the application is not limited to an application on a cell phone, but could be an application on a cell phone, tablet, personal computer, or could be a web-based application or communicated via text or email. In the event that the recipient device is not capable of being monitored for a geolocation or the recipient opts out of using the application on the recipient device through which a geolocation is monitored, the system “pings” or communicates with the merchant on a periodic basis requesting a name, an address, and a transaction with which the recipient is associated. If the merchant finds a transaction associated with one of the name and the address, the system then sends a text message or email to the recipient to confirm the transaction as well as to inquire about whether they would like to apply the gift to the transaction. Once the recipient has confirmed that they would like to apply the gift to the transaction, the system proceeds to credit the accounts in the manner disclosed previously. Other aspects of this embodiment include the following. The system can apply at least a portion of the amount of money by transferring at least a portion of the amount of money from the holding account to a merchant account or other account such as directly to the recipient account. The merchant if they receive the transfer, can credit the recipient payment account using the at least a portion of the amount of money from the merchant account. The at least a portion of the amount of money can be less than the amount of money to yield a remainder amount. If so, then as disclosed above, the remainder amount can be maintained or transferred immediately or after a period of time to any one of the giver payment account, the recipient payment account, or another account. The remainder can be split between several accounts as well according to the policy. A transfer fee could be extracted from the remainder amount before transferring the at least part of the remainder amount. The transfer fee can be one of a flat fee and a percentage of the remainder amount. The transfer fee can be based on an amount of time occurring between a qualifying purchase by the recipient and transferring the at least part of the remainder amount. The at least a portion of the amount of money can be less than the amount of money to yield a remainder amount, in which case the method further can include transferring the remainder amount from the holding account to one of the giver payment account and the recipient payment account. Transferring of the remainder amount can occur if no additional qualifying purchase occurs after a predetermined amount of time has passed since a qualifying purchase. The giver can specify in the policy or elsewhere the predetermined amount of time. Before transferring the at least part of the remainder amount, the method can include transmitting an offer to the recipient, in association with the qualifying purchase, to apply the remainder amount to the recipient payment account for a fee, receiving from the recipient an acceptance of the offer and charging the fee to the recipient payment account. The system, according to the policy, can also notify the recipient of the amount of money or the remainder amount of money in the account after a predetermined time-period has passed. This helps to inform the recipient of the funds that are available to use at the various merchants. For example, the policy could specify that the system will notify the user of the gift if after two months the $25 gift to Olive Garden sits in the holding account untouched. The policy could also specify that the system will continue to notify the user of the gift on a periodic basis until the recipient redeems the gift or the remainder amount. The notifications can be in the form of a text message, a notification via an application on a smart phone, or an email. Automatic Identification of Giver Groups A group of friends may be in a group setting and which to each contribute a portion to a shared gift from one set of the group to another an individual or other group of individuals in the group. Several examples and variations are discussed to illustrate these principles. These examples assume that everybody in the group is enrolled in a gift system, such as by signing up for an app and providing their credit/debit card information. An account with the gift system can then store this information in respective user accounts. The system can automatically look at social groups, based on ‘friend’ relationships on a social network, email communications, or other indication of a social group, and location data reported by people in the social groups. For example, a group of 5 friends have smartphones and can download and install a gift app. Instead of smartphones, the friends may have any other suitable device for reporting location data to the gift system, whether through an app, a service, daemon, web page, or other mechanism. If some of the friends do not have the app beforehand, they can install the app and enroll, register, or create an account with the gift system on the spot. Part of enrollment can include linking one or more social network profiles. Then the gift system can tap into social network profiles and look at friends or social connections to determine if they are also signed up with the gift system. Then, if you go to dinner with 5 friends, each friend's phone or app reports a location to the gift system, which can identify and pre-create a group based on location-based services and the social networking data. Thus, while the 5 friends are sitting down to eat dinner at a restaurant, each of the friends has their smartphone or respective devices. If one of the friends opens up the dinner payment app, the gift system can automatically identify those friends at the table using location-based services on the fly, or can retrieve the pre-created group. The system can further incorporate a certainty threshold based on similar patterns of movement and inactivity, how long the group is together at the same location, how physically close they are to each other, calendar events, discussion of the dinner on social media, and so forth. The app can include a button for a user to indicate “I'm paying,” and can optionally provide further information such as a title of the event, a password for others to join, pre-approve members of the group, send notifications, records, or receipts to the group, and so forth. Then the other friends open the app on their corresponding devices to indicate that they are contributing their portion to the payer. If Tom arrived first at the restaurant and indicated “I'm paying,” then as other people arrived or opened their app, the interface of the app can change to provide them a description of the group, Tom's Olive Garden dinner. If Jane opens the app at dinner, the app can display “Tom's Olive Garden group.” Jane can join the group and contribute to the meal by simply opening the app, which is be preconfigured or prepopulated for her to simply enter an amount for her portion of the meal. Everyone else in the group can do likewise via the app to contribute their portion of the meal. In one variation, the payer can scan or snap a photograph of the receipt, which the gift system or the smartphone can perform optical character recognition and/or parse to identify specific items in the receipt and their associated costs. In this way, a user does not have to enter an amount, but can simply identify which items he or she consumed, and can optionally enter a percentage of a single item, such as if two users split a large order of fajitas. In a busy restaurant, multiple potential social groups may exist to which a user may belong. When the system is unsure of which group a user should be associated with, the app can provide a menu or a foyer of available groups, and prompt the user to select one to join. The menu can provide information such as a time, name, who is paying, who else is in the group, and so forth. Further, the gift system and apps can provide an extra automated interface for specific events, such as a birthday of someone in the group. The system can automatically detect when someone in the group has a birthday and either automatically switch to a birthday mode or prompt one of the users, within the app or via an extra-app notification, about the birthday. The birthday recognition can be applied on an exact day or within a window of days, such as one week before and one week after a birthday. When 5 friends go to a restaurant within one week or two weeks or within some temporal threshold of one of the friend's birthday, the gift system and/or the app can automatically adjust. For example, the app can present an option based on an assumption or prediction that everybody is there to celebrate this person's birthday and that the friend having the birthday will not be paying. If Tom was paying for the birthday lunch, the app can automatically title the group “Angie's Birthday—Tom's paying” or some similar text indicating the birthday recipient and the paying party. Then, the apps on the devices of the other friends in the group can automatically display options to pay for a fourth of the total cost of the meal at the restaurant. In other words, 4 people would be splitting the meal for 5 people and they could each equally split the cost. In other variations, the 4 people can cover their own meal and a quarter of the cost of the meal of the birthday recipient. These options can be established automatically based on user preferences or can be established by the user paying for the meal, for example. The interface can present that as well as an option where everybody is just paying independently. The app interface can be very simple. The interface can allow people to have the group preconfigured or potentially add somebody that is at dinner who is not automatically identified as part of the group, such as a user who does not have a smartphone or is not a member of the social network. The app interface can allow for searching for additional participants or manually adding a participant who is not in the search results. For example, one of the friends already in the group, or the payer/creator of the group, can add others to the group. If others are already signed up, the app can locate and identify them very easily. For example, the app or the gift system can generate a PIN number for the friends to enter to join the group. Then that person can use somebody else's smartphone to log in and enter a dollar amount or percentage to contribute to the dinner. Once the gift system receives all the data from the various apps, smartphones, or web interfaces, then the payer simply pays for the meal as usual, such as by giving his or her credit or debit card to the waiter. The waiter can process the card normally. The gift system can establish a policy where individual people in the group then have $25 or $30 or whatever amount or percentage they indicated automatically contributed to the payment via the payer's credit or debit card. The payer purchases the meal with his or her credit card, the system identifies that purchase for $100 , and can initiate a transfer of funds in the appropriate amounts from each of the other participant's accounts to the payer's payment account. The money from each of these accounts can immediately be transferred out and placed into a holding account or the money for each individual person at the table can remain in their giver account in this case until the payer pays. Then the system monitors the payer's account for the payment, and upon identification of the payment, can transfer money from all of the other accounts into my account. Alternatively, the gift system can intercept the purchase, such that only the payer's portion is paid from his account and all the other accounts pay the merchant directly. The gift system can preconfigure the group for a specific meal so that the members of the group are predetermined, such as via an app and gift server architecture. In one variation, one of the user devices serves as the gift server without needing any additional infrastructure. When users open the app, they can almost vie for the opportunity to actually be the one that handles the payment and they get reimbursed. One of the friends can lock themselves in as the designated person to pay for the meal. Further, a user could even lock themselves in as the designated payer in advance, such as if they know they will be meeting for dinner tomorrow. One person can open the app and volunteer to pay prior to even arriving at the restaurant. As a group is determined, the gift system can establish a social environment for determining who is going to pay. Alternatively, the social environment can assist in selecting people from a social network that are going. The social environment can even block the birthday person from viewing the group, participating in the group in advance (to keep it a surprise), or from contributing to payment via the app. In that case, the payer can open the app, identify the group that is going to be at dinner, identify the person whose birthday it is, and even send a message saying “Happy Birthday, dinner is on us” to the birthday person. Then, when that person opens the app that night or in advance of the dinner, the birthday person sees the birthday message and wouldn't have the opportunity to go in and help pay. FIG. 56 illustrates a method embodiment for managing groups associated with a group payment transaction, and for splitting a transaction among multiple participants automatically based on social network or location data. A system configured to practice the method accesses social networking data to identify a group of people, at a first time, who are associated with a purchase at a second time which is later than the first time (5602). The system can identify the group of people based at least in part on location, social network connection, calendar events, communication logs, or entry of a passcode to join a group, for example. The system can identify the group of people based on location data indicating relative location to each other, which may or may not include absolute location data. The social networking data can identify a person of the group of people who does not have to contribute to the qualifying purchase according to the policy. The social networking data can further identify at least one of a birthday, an anniversary or other special event for a person of the group of people. The system identifies a respective payment account and a respective payment amount associated with each person of the group of people to yield respective payment accounts and respective payment amounts wherein the respective payment accounts include a payer payment account and other payment accounts (5604). The system can receive, via an application or app on each person's wireless device, data associated with the policy for establishing part of the policy. For example, the data can include a respective person's contribution to the qualifying transaction, an identification of a person to be part of the group of people, and an identification of a person to be excluded from the group. Then the system establishes a policy associated with the group of people and the respective payment accounts and respect payment amounts (5606). The policy can exclude at least one person of the group of people from contributing to the qualifying purchase, such as a person having a birthday who the rest of the group is treating to dinner. The system monitors purchases of a payer of the group of people for a qualifying purchase using the payer payment account and according to the policy (5608), and, upon detection of at least an initiation of the qualifying purchase using the payer payment account, manages automatically a respective contribution from at least one of the other payment accounts to pay for the qualifying purchase (5610). Managing respective contributions can include the payer payment account paying for an entire price of the qualifying purchase in which the respective contributions from each of the other payment accounts reimburse the payer payment account for a portion of the entire price. In another variation, the system can intercept the payment of the qualifying purchase after initiation of the qualifying purchase using the payer payment account, and cause each of the payer payment account and at least one of the other payment accounts to pay a contribution amount to the qualifying purchase directly to a merchant account associated with the qualifying purchase. Immersive Gifts and Gift Tracking Three separate example embodiments are presented herein for enhancing electronic delivery or redemption of gifts to provide a more immersive experience. Three examples are discussed herein in terms of the example smart glasses illustrated in FIG. 57 as part of an immersive gift environment 5700. In this example, a recipient 5702 has a wearable electronic device 5704 or other ‘intimate’ electronic devices, such as smart glasses, Google Glass, clothing with ‘smart’ components, or a watch. The recipient receives an electronic gift from a gift giver through a gift processing server 5706. The gift is governed by a policy that monitors transactions of the recipient payment account 5710 for a qualifying transaction, and applies funds to the qualifying transaction from the giver payment account 5708. This arrangement can be modified to include various other steps or possible ways of applying funds from the giver payment account to the recipient payment account for the gift. In the first embodiment, a gift giver of a gift can use the wearable electronic device 5718 or some other device 5714, 5716 to view sample electronic greeting or gift credits. As the giver views the gift or greeting card, the wearable electronic device 5704 can then show the giver a video clip or present some other form of media that the giver wants to be displayed to the recipient 5702 when receiving the gift or greeting card. This information can be sent to the gift interaction server 5712, which governs when and how to deliver the video or other media to the recipient 5702. The recipient 5702 can then also view the video clip or other media when the gift or greeting card is received, upon satisfying some trigger condition such as a geofence or a specific time of day, upon redemption, etc. In one embodiment, the recipient's 5702 wearable electronic device 5704 can automatically present the video or other media to the recipient 5702, or a server can push the content to the recipient's 5702 wearable electronic device 5704. In one example, the gift interaction server 5712 can coordinate with multiple different recipient devices for a coordinated presentation, such as sending audio to a smart phone and corresponding video to smart glasses. In a second embodiment, when a recipient 5702 of an electronic gift uses his or her wearable electronic device 5704 to view the product associated with the policy governing the electronic gift, the wearable electronic device 5704 can play a message for the recipient 5702 either by itself or according to instructions received from the gift interaction server 5712. For example, the giver buys the recipient 5702 an electronic gift for a watch that is redeemable when the recipient 5702 simply purchases the watch via an associated recipient payment account 5710. The wearable electronic device 5704 can store the message and conditions for triggering the message. Then, as the wearable electronic device 5704 monitors its various sensors and inputs, if the conditions are satisfied the wearable electronic device 5704 can present the message to the recipient without receiving any additional instructions, and can even present the message when no network connection is available. Once the recipient 5702 views the watch, enters the watch aisle at the store, views an advertisement for the watch, or encounters some other trigger associated with the watch, as detected by the wearable electronic device 5704 or an associated sensor or input signal, the wearable electronic device 5704 can display to the recipient 5702 a video clip or other media from the giver. The video or other media can be a recording of the giver or can be selected from a set of already recorded messages, for example. In a third embodiment, when a recipient 5702 of an electronic gift enters the location of a merchant according to the policy governing the electronic gift, a wearable electronic device 5704 can detect the location of the recipient 5702. Based on the location coinciding with the merchant, the wearable electronic device 5704 can then play a media clip for the recipient 5702 from the giver. For example, the giver buys the recipient 5702 an electronic gift for the spa. The gift system associates the recipient 5702 and the recipient's 5702 payment account with the electronic gift. Then, once the recipient 5702 enters the spa, the wearable electronic device 5704, such as smart glasses, can initiate a video clip that is attached to the electronic gift that the giver created. These same concepts can be adapted for other electronic devices besides smart glasses, such as smart phones, watches, implanted devices, and so forth. This approach can provide an augmented reality environment surrounding, supporting, describing, and notifying the recipient 5702 of details of the electronic gift. In one variation, instead of or in addition to triggering delivery of a video or other media, triggering a certain condition associated with the gift can initiate some other activity, such as starting a video recording on smart glasses. For example, if the recipient 5702 enters the watch aisle at the store, thereby activating a trigger, the recipient's 5702 Google Glass can automatically begin recording video of when the recipient 5702 first sees the watch, and his or her reaction thereto, the decision process, and so forth. This video can be recorded and saved for later viewing, or can be immediately broadcast to devices 5714, 5716, 5718 of the giver or other parties designated by the giver or the recipient 5702. In one example, the recipient can agree to submit the video to the watch manufacturer, the merchant, or the electronic gift processing entity via the gift interaction server 5712 for use in promotional or advertising purposes in exchange for a larger gift amount or as part of an entry into a contest. The video of the moments leading up to the purchase can be edited by the recipient 5702 prior to broadcasting or posting the video for others to see on a website or social network. Having disclosed some basic system components and concepts, the disclosure now turns to the exemplary method embodiment shown in FIG. 58. For the sake of clarity, the methods are discussed in terms of an exemplary system configured to practice the methods. The steps outlined herein are exemplary and can be implemented in any combination or order thereof, including combinations that exclude, add, or modify certain steps. A first example method embodiment includes receiving an indication that a gift giver has given a gift credit to a recipient for use at a merchant (5802), receiving a media from the giver (5804), and, upon confirmation from the recipient, presenting the media on a device of the recipient (5806). The device can be part of glasses worn by the recipient. A second example embodiment includes receiving an indication that a gift giver has given a gift credit associated with a merchant to a recipient, presenting on a device associated with the recipient information about a gift associated with the gift credit, and following the presenting of the information, presenting a media event created by the giver. A third example embodiment includes receiving an indication that a gift giver has given a recipient a gift credit at a merchant, monitoring a location of a device associated with the recipient, and, when the device is at a merchant location associated with the merchant, presenting a media clip associated with the buyer on the device. Wearable or other devices can be used to track which gifts were received from which givers. For example, when a recipient redeems a gift by making a qualifying purchase under a policy using his or her recipient payment account, the system can track that transaction and flag the item purchased. The system can associate the giver with that item. Then, the recipient can later query the system, such as by looking at the item via a wearable computing device, to which the system can respond by displaying the giver, the date of the gift, the gift amount, the gift occasion, any notes from the giver, and any other available metadata describing the gift. The system can also display this information via an online portal or a database on a smartphone app, for example. This can allow the recipient to easily recall which gifts came from whom. The system can also track the location of the items, such as using surveillance camera feeds, or smartphone cameras, or other location-providing data sources. The system can provide a summary of all gifts in a particular room or at a particular address, for example. Another embodiment, which is incorporated herein by reference from a priority case (application Ser. No. 13/754,401), and from which more information is found in the parent case, relates to converting value from one form of currency or media to another. Note FIGS. 32-36 in application Ser. No. 13/754,401. Disclosed are systems, methods, and non-transitory computer-readable storage media for converting gifts from one exchange medium to another exchange medium. A system implementing this method receives a request to convert a first gift amount associated with a first recipient account and a first policy from a first medium of exchange to a second medium of exchange. The first policy can indicate when a first qualifying transaction using the first recipient according to the first medium of exchange account would trigger application of the first gift amount to the first qualifying transaction. The system identifies a second recipient account associated with the second medium of exchange, and converts the first gift amount from the first medium of exchange to the second medium of exchange to yield a second gift amount. Then the system can adapt the first policy to a second policy associated with the second gift amount and the second medium of exchange, wherein the second policy indicates when a second qualifying transaction using the second recipient account according to the second medium of exchange would trigger application of the second gift amount to the second qualifying transaction. In one example, a gift giver provides value to fund a gift not using money, but instead using frequent flyer miles or some other non-currency based value storage medium. The giver provides the frequent flyer miles to the system, which debits the frequent flyer miles from the giver account, and uses that value to create a gift that is currency based and the associated policy governing the gift. Also disclosed herein is another exemplary method embodiment for creating a gift in one medium of exchange from stored value in another medium of exchange. A system implementing an example method embodiment accesses a first account representing stored value in a first medium of exchange, and an amount of the stored value from the first medium of exchange is user selected or system selected. Then the system converts the amount of the stored value to a second medium of exchange to yield a converted amount, and the system or the user can give the converted amount in the second medium of exchange to a recipient as a gift, wherein the gift is associated with a recipient account for the second medium of exchange, and wherein the gift is associated with a policy monitoring transactions made using the recipient account such that the converted amount is applied to a transaction satisfying conditions of the policy. As an example of this scenario, a gift giver creates a gift and funds the gift with frequent flyer miles or some other non-currency based medium of exchange. The gift is funded using a different non-currency medium of exchange, such as gas points. The gift can have an associated policy governing the gift and its use, such as indicating a recipient account and conditions which a transaction must satisfy to trigger application of the gift. So the giver funds a gift using frequent flyer miles to create a gift and policy for a recipient to use with the recipient's gas point account under specific conditions. Embodiments within the scope of the present disclosure may also include tangible and/or non-transitory computer-readable storage media for carrying or having computer-executable instructions or data structures stored thereon. Such non-transitory computer-readable storage media can be any available media that can be accessed by a general purpose or special purpose computer, including the functional design of any special purpose processor as discussed above. By way of example, and not limitation, such non-transitory computer-readable media can include RAM, ROM, EEPROM, CD-ROM or other optical disk storage, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium which can be used to carry or store desired program code means in the form of computer-executable instructions, data structures, or processor chip design. When information is transferred or provided over a network or another communications connection (either hardwired, wireless, or combination thereof) to a computer, the computer properly views the connection as a computer-readable medium. Thus, any such connection is properly termed a computer-readable medium. Combinations of the above should also be included within the scope of the computer-readable media. Computer-executable instructions include, for example, instructions and data that cause a general-purpose computer, special purpose computer, or special purpose processing device to perform a certain function or group of functions. Computer-executable instructions also include program modules that are executed by computers in stand-alone or network environments. Generally, program modules include routines, programs, components, data structures, objects, and the functions inherent in the design of special-purpose processors, etc. that perform particular tasks or implement particular abstract data types. Computer-executable instructions, associated data structures, and program modules represent examples of the program code means for executing steps of the methods disclosed herein. The particular sequence of executable instructions or associated data structures represents examples of corresponding acts implementing the functions described in the steps. Those of skill in the art will appreciate that other embodiments of the disclosure may be practiced in network computing environments with many types of computer system configurations, including personal computers, hand-held devices, multi-processor systems, microprocessor-based or programmable consumer electronics, network PCs, minicomputers, mainframe computers, and the like. Embodiments may also be practiced in distributed computing environments where tasks are performed by local and remote processing devices that are linked (either by hardwired links, wireless links, or a combination thereof) through a communications network. In a distributed computing environment, program modules can reside in local and/or remote memory storage devices. The various embodiments described above are provided by way of illustration only and should not be construed to limit the scope of the disclosure. For example, the principles herein are applicable to gift credits, virtual gift cards, gifts,associated with any type of payment mode, including cash, checks, credit cards, debit cards, loyalty cards, and so forth. The principles herein can be applied to any gift credit, gift card, gift or benefit that can be redeemed by using a payment mechanism to make a purchase in the normal fashion without the recipient using a separate physical card or entering a code. Any function disclosed herein in connection with one embodiment can be blended or incorporated into another embodiment. Given generally that redemption of a gift credit, gift card, gift or benefit is managed by a policy, any policy features discussed above can be blended to provide new policies, although such new policy is not specifically set forth in a single discussion of any embodiment. Those skilled in the art will readily recognize various modifications and changes that may be made to the principles described herein without following the example embodiments and applications illustrated and described herein, and without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Additional features and advantages of the disclosure will be set forth in the description that follows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or can be learned by practice of the herein disclosed principles. The features and advantages of the disclosure can be realized and obtained by means of the instruments and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. These and other features of the disclosure will become more fully apparent from the following description and appended claims, or can be learned by the practice of the principles set forth herein. This disclosure provides solutions to several gift-related problems, but focuses on systems, methods, and computer-readable storage devices for receiving an identification of a gift giver, a gift, an amount of money to pay for the gift, and a gift recipient of the gift at a first time. The system can associate a policy with the gift, and initiate, at the first time, a transfer of at least part of the amount of money to pay for the gift from the giver payment account to a holding account that is separate from the recipient payment account. The system can monitor, according to the policy, purchases of the gift recipient using the recipient payment account to yield purchasing information based on the purchasing information, and determine whether the gift recipient has made a qualifying purchase according to the policy. If so, the system can apply the amount of money to pay for the gift from the holding account to the recipient payment account. This disclosure also addresses a first set of problems associated with retaining the social experience associated with giving and receiving a gift. A system configured to practice a first example method embodiment receives an object associated with a gift via a gift processing application, wherein a recipient of the gift received the gift from a gift giver by purchasing the gift using a recipient payment account that is independent of a giver payment account, and wherein both the giver payment account and the recipient payment account existed when the gift giver chose the gift recipient and the gift through the gift processing application. Then the system receives a tag associated with the object, and can transmit the object to the gift giver. The tag can be a date, a time, a location, a manually entered tag from the gift recipient, a description of the gift, or a message, for example. The object can be, but is not limited to, an image, audio, a text-based message, or a video. The object can be any digitally storable object for presentation to the gift giver and/or gift recipient. In one variation, after the gift recipient receives the gift, the system can receive an identification of an amount of money and a merchant associated with the object, and present the amount of money and the merchant information to the giver such that the giver can make a purchase at the merchant using the giver payment account and have the amount of money applied to the purchase. The recipient payment account and/or a merchant payment account can provide the amount of money to be applied to the purchase. In a related embodiment, the system can store an image associated with a gift via a gift processing application, wherein a recipient of the gift received the gift from a gift giver by purchasing the gift using a recipient payment account that is independent of a giver payment account, and wherein both the giver payment account and the recipient payment account existed when the gift giver chose the gift recipient and the gift through the gift processing application, receive a tag associated with the image, the tag identifying the gift giver, and receive a picture of an item in the image after storing the image. Then the system can present an indication of the gift giver to the gift recipient in response to receiving the picture. The disclosure also addresses a second set of problems associated with monitoring a recipient of a gift in-store to provide reminders, suggestions, or notifications regarding suggestions or redemption of the gift. A system configured to practice a second example method embodiment can receive, via a face identification system at a merchant location, an identification of a recipient of a gift which is redeemable at the merchant using a recipient payment account that is independent of and not in control of a giver payment account, the gift having an associated policy and stored within a gift processing system. Then the system can transmit a reminder to the gift recipient via a recipient device that the gift recipient has the gift. The system can further transmit an additional offer from the merchant in addition to the gift, such as a coupon, promotion, coupon code, discount voucher, and so forth. The additional offer from the merchant can be conditional upon one of the gift recipient making a redeeming purchase in a period of time and the gift recipient making a redeeming purchase prior to leaving the merchant location. The system can place other conditions on the additional offer as well. The system can further receive an indication of a purchase made by the gift recipient using the recipient payment account at the merchant location. The disclosure addresses a third set of problems associated with managing money contributed to a gift that is ultimately not redeemed or that is under-redeemed so that no money is lost in the gift transaction. A system configured to practice a third example method embodiment can create a gift for a gift recipient, based on a request from a gift giver, and notify the recipient of the gift. The gift can be redeemable at the merchant using a recipient payment account that is independent of and not in control of a giver payment account, the gift having an associated policy and stored within a gift processing system. If the gift recipient never redeems the gift using the recipient payment account, then the giver is not charged for the gift and no transaction occurs. Alternatively speaking, the giver payment account is charged only upon redemption of the gift using the recipient payment account. To avoid accumulation of such outstanding charges, the gift can expire after a certain period of time, such as after 2 years, after a certain number of notices to the gift recipient, and so forth. In the case of the gift giver closing the giver payment account, the organization administering the giver payment account can withhold sufficient funds to cover the eventual redemption of the gift for a certain period of time, after which the funds can revert to the gift giver, or can be applied to the recipient payment account. Three separate example embodiments are presented herein for enhancing electronic delivery or redemption of gifts to provide a more immersive experience. In the first embodiment, a giver of a gift can use wearable or other ‘intimate’ electronic devices, such as smart glasses or a watch, to view sample electronic greeting or gift credits. One example of smart glasses includes Google Glass. As the gift giver views the gift or greeting card, the wearable electronic device can then show the gift giver a video clip or present some other form of media that the giver wants to be displayed to the gift recipient when receiving the gift or greeting card. The gift recipient can then also view the video clip or other media when the gift or greeting card is received, upon satisfying some trigger condition such as a geofence or a specific time of day, upon redemption, etc. In one embodiment, the recipient's wearable electronic device can automatically present the video or other media to the gift recipient, or a server can push the content to the recipient's wearable electronic device. In a second embodiment, when a gift recipient of an electronic gift uses his or her wearable electronic device to view the product for which the electronic gift was intended, the wearable electronic device can play a message for the gift recipient. For example, the gift giver buys the gift recipient an electronic gift for a watch that is redeemable when the gift recipient simply purchases the watch via an associated recipient payment account. Once the gift recipient views the watch, enters the watch aisle at the store, views an advertisement for the watch, or encounters some other trigger associated with the watch, as detected by the wearable electronic device or an associated sensor or input signal, the wearable electronic device can display to the gift recipient a video clip or other media from the gift giver. The video or other media can be a recording of the gift giver or can be selected from a set of already recorded messages, for example. In a third embodiment, when a gift recipient of an electronic gift enters the location of a merchant where the electronic gift is redeemable, a wearable electronic device can detect the location of the gift recipient. Based on the location coinciding with the merchant, the wearable electronic device can then play a media clip for the gift recipient from the gift giver. For example, the gift giver buys the gift recipient an electronic gift for the spa. The gift system associates the gift recipient and the recipient's payment account with the electronic gift. Then, once the gift recipient enters the spa, the wearable electronic device, such as smart glasses, can initiate a video clip that is attached to the electronic gift that the gift giver created. These same concepts can be adapted for other electronic devices besides smart glasses, such as smart phones, watches, implanted devices, and so forth. This approach can provide an augmented reality environment surrounding, supporting, describing, and notifying the gift recipient of details of the electronic gift.

G06Q20342

20180129

20180614

84047.0

G06Q2034

HOLLY, JOHN H

System and Method for Managing Gift Credits

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

G06Q

PENDING

Video Conferencing Over IP Networks

A method for communication includes establishing multiple communication links over a packet network between a server and plurality of client computers that are to participate in a video teleconference. The client computers may also create secondary communication links that function similarly to links between the server and client computers. The server receives from the client computers uplink audio packets and uplink video packets, which respectively contain audio and video data captured by each of the client computers. The server mixes the audio data from the uplink audio packets so as to create respective streams of mixed audio data for transmission to the client computers and transmits to the client computers downlink audio packets containing the respective streams of mixed audio data. The server relays the video data to the client computers in downlink video packets. The client computers receive and synchronize the video data with the mixed audio data.

1-62. (canceled) 63. A method comprising: establishing, by at least one processor of a first computing device, a first communication link over a network between the first computing device and a communications server; receiving, by the at least one processor and from the communications server, data associated with a video conference application associated with initiating a video conference between the first computing device and a second computing device; establishing, by the at least one processor and using the video conference application, a second communication link, over the network or a second network, between the first computing device and the second computing device; transmitting, by the at least one processor, audio and video packets via the second communication link, wherein the audio and video packets respectively comprise audio and video data; and transmitting, by the at least one processor, synchronization packets via the second communication link, wherein the audio and video data are synchronized for output at the second computing device based on synchronization information comprised in the synchronization packets. 64. The method of claim 63, further comprising: establishing, by the at least one processor, a third communication link, over the network or the second network, between the first computing device and a third computing device, wherein each of the first, second, and third computing devices are enabled to participate in the video conference. 65. The method of claim 63, wherein the audio and video packets comprise or are comprised in the synchronization packets. 66. The method of claim 63, wherein the audio and video packets are transmitted substantially simultaneously with the synchronization packets. 67. The method of claim 63, further comprising: transmitting, by the at least one processor, a first codec for the second computing device, wherein the first codec is used by the second computing device to decode at least one of the audio and video data. 68. The method of claim 63, wherein the first computing device comprises a first mobile phone, and wherein the second computing device comprises a second mobile phone. 69. The method of claim 63, further comprising: receiving, by the at least one processor via the second communication link, second audio packets, second video packets, and second synchronization packets, wherein the second audio and video packets respectively comprise second audio and second video data, and wherein the second audio and second video data are synchronized for output at the first computing device based on second synchronization information comprised in the second synchronization packets. 70. A non-transitory computer-readable medium comprising code that, when executed, causes at least one processor of a first computing device to perform the operations of: establishing, by the at least one processor, a first communication link over a network between a first computing device and a communications device; receiving, by the at least one processor, data associated with a video conference operation initiated or to be initiated between the first computing device and a second computing device; establishing, by the at least one processor, a second communication link, over the network or a second network, between the first computing device and the second computing device; transmitting, by the at least one processor, audio and video data; and transmitting, by the at least one processor and to the second computing device via the second communication link, synchronization data, wherein output of the audio and video data at the second computing device is synchronized based on the synchronization data. 71. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 70, further comprising code that, when executed, causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: establishing, by the at least one processor, a third communication link, over the network or a second network, between the first computing device and a third computing device, wherein each of the first, second, and third computing devices is enabled to participate in a three-way video conference. 72. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 70, wherein the three-way video conference is initiated by at least one of the first computing device or the second computing device. 73. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 70, wherein the audio data is comprised in a first packet, wherein the video data is comprised in the first packet or a second packet, and wherein the synchronization data is comprised in the first packet, or the second packet, or a third packet. 74. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 70, further comprising code that, when executed, causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: selecting, by the at least one processor, a first codec for the second computing device; and transmitting, by the at least one processor, the first codec to the second computing device, wherein the first codec is used by the second computing device to decode at least one of the audio data or the video data. 75. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 70, wherein the video conference operation is part of a mobile application. 76. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 70, wherein the audio and video data are transmitted either substantially simultaneously with or separately from the synchronization data. 77. A first computing device comprising: at least one memory comprising instructions; and at least one processor configured to execute the instructions, wherein executing the instructions causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: establishing, by the at least one processor, a first communication link over a network between a first computing device and a communications system; receiving, by the at least one processor and from the communications system, data associated with a video conference application associated with initiating a video conference between the first computing device and a second computing device; establishing, by the at least one processor, a second communication link, over the network or a second network, between the first computing device and the second computing device; transmitting, by the at least one processor and to the second computing device via the second communication link, audio and video data; and transmitting, by the at least one processor and to the second computing device via the second communication link, synchronization packets, wherein the audio and video data are output at the second computing device based on synchronization information comprised in the synchronization packets. 78. The first computing device of claim 77, wherein executing the instructions further causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: establishing, by the at least one processor, a third communication link over the network between the first computing device and a third computing device, wherein each of the first, second, and third computing devices is enabled to participate in the video conference. 79. The first computing device of claim 78, wherein the third communication link is established using the video conference application. 80. The first computing device of claim 78, wherein executing the instructions further causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: transmitting, by the at least one processor, the audio and video data via the third communication link; and transmitting, by the at least one processor, the synchronization packets via the third communication link, wherein the audio and video data are synchronized for output at the third computing device based on the synchronization information. 81. The first computing device of claim 77, wherein executing the instructions further causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: selecting, by the at least one processor, a first codec for the second computing device; and transmitting, by the at least one processor, the first codec to the second computing device. 82. The first computing device of claim 77, wherein the communications system comprises, is, or is comprised in the second computing device, or wherein executing the instructions further causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: receiving, by the at least one processor via the second communication link, second audio and video data, and second synchronization packets, and wherein the second audio and second video data are output at the first computing device based on synchronization information comprised in the second synchronization packets.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/495,734, filed Apr. 24, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/935,987, filed Nov. 9, 2015, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,635,315, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/507,405, filed Oct. 6, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,185,347, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/890,382, filed Aug. 6, 2007, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,856,371, which claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application 60/835,998, filed Aug. 7, 2006, the disclosures of all which are incorporated herein by reference in entirety for all purposes. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates generally to video teleconferencing, and specifically to methods and systems for video teleconferencing over packet networks. BACKGROUND Video teleconferencing (also known simply as video conferencing) is well known in the art as a means for allowing remote parties to participate in a discussion. Voice, video, and optionally other data are transmitted between the parties over a communication network, such as the Internet, LANs, and/or telephone lines. The parties are able to see, speak to and hear the other parties simultaneously over audio and video channels. Early video conferencing systems used dedicated hardware systems and ISDN lines for communication among the conference parties. More recently, however, low-cost software-based solutions have become available for video conferencing over Internet Protocol (IP) packet networks. Systems of this sort include Microsoft® NetMeeting and Windows® Live Messenger, Yahoo!® Messenger, and Skype®. SUMMARY Embodiments of the present invention that are described herein below provide methods, systems and software for use in packet-based video teleconferencing. These methods permit client computers to exchange video images and audio data via a server on the Internet or other packet network in a multipoint-to-multipoint conference. Alternatively, point-to-point conferences, with or without a dedicated server, are also supported. The server receives and transmits synchronization information from and to the client computers, along with video images and mixed audio data. The client computers use this information in synchronizing the individual video images captured by the other client computers with the mixed audio data, for output to users. There is therefore provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a method for communication, including: establishing communication links over a packet network between a server and plurality of client computers that are to participate in a video teleconference; receiving at the server from the client computers uplink audio packets and uplink video packets, which respectively contain audio and video data captured by each of the client computers; mixing the audio data from the uplink audio packets at the server so as to create respective streams of mixed audio data for transmission to the client computers; transmitting from the server to the client computers downlink audio packets containing the respective streams of mixed audio data; relaying the video data from the server to the client computers in downlink video packets; receiving and synchronizing the video data with the mixed audio data at the client computers; and outputting the synchronized video and mixed audio data to a respective user of each of the client computers. In a disclosed embodiment, establishing the communication links includes establishing respective first and second communication links between first and second client computers and a server over the packet network using different, respective first and second transport layer protocols. Additionally or alternatively, establishing the communication links includes establishing a first communication link between a server or client computer and establishing a concurrent second communication link between a different server or directly with another client computer. In some embodiments, receiving the uplink video packets includes controlling a quality of the video data conveyed to the server by the client computers by transmitting instructions from the server to the client computers. In one embodiment, transmitting the instructions includes receiving messages from the client computers that are indicative of downlink bandwidth availability for transmission from the server to the client computers, and determining the quality of the video data responsively to the downlink bandwidth availability. Typically, receiving the messages includes detecting, at one of the client computers, a delay in receiving one or more of the downlink audio and video packets, and informing the server of the delay, and transmitting the instructions includes instructing the clients to reduce the quality of the video data transmitted in the uplink video packets responsively to detecting the delay at the one of the clients. Additionally or alternatively, controlling the quality includes instructing the client computers to increase or decrease at least one quality parameter selected from a group of quality parameters consisting of an image resolution, a degree of image compression, a frame rate and a bandwidth. Additionally or alternatively, controlling the quality includes determining the optimal bandwidth setting for each client computer separately by determining the minimum and maximum bandwidth of each client computer and constructing a linear programming model to generate the optimal bandwidth for each client computer. Additionally or alternatively, receiving the uplink packets includes detecting, at the server, a delay in the audio data, and eliminating an interval of silent audio data in order to compensate for the delay. In one embodiment, eliminating the interval includes marking, at one or more of the client computers, at least one block of the audio data as a silent block, and eliminating the silent block from the mixed audio data. In some embodiments, each of the downlink video packets contains the video data captured by a respective one of the client computers. In one embodiment, outputting the synchronized video and mixed audio data includes displaying the video data captured by the respective one of the client computers in a respective window among multiple windows displayed by each of the client computers. Typically, synchronizing the video data includes controlling, at the client computer, the multiple windows so that the video data conveyed from each of the client computers are synchronized with the mixed audio data. Additionally or alternatively, relaying the video data includes passing the video data from the uplink video packets to the downlink video packets without transcoding of the video data at the server. In a disclosed embodiment, receiving the uplink audio and video packets includes receiving at the server synchronization data from each of the client computers, and including generating synchronization information at the server based on the synchronization data, and transmitting the synchronization information from the server to the client computers for use in synchronizing the video data with the mixed audio data. Typically, the plurality of client computers includes at least three client computers that participate in the video teleconference. There is also provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a method for communication, including: establishing a first communication link between a first client computer and a server over a packet network using a first transport layer protocol; establishing a second communication link between a second client computer and the server over the packet network using a second transport layer protocol, which is different from the first transport layer protocol; and exchanging audio and video data packets in a video teleconference between the first and second client computers via the server using the first and second transport layer protocols respectively over the first and second links. In a disclosed embodiment, the first transport layer protocol is a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), and the second transport layer protocol is a User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and establishing the first communication link includes opening a secure socket between the client computer and the server. Alternatively, the first communication link is a unicast link, and the second communication link is a multicast link. There is additionally provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a method for communication, including: configuring a first client computer to run a server program in a video teleconferencing application; establishing a communication link over a packet network between the server program running on the first client computer and at least a second client computer; and exchanging audio and video data packets via the server program in a video teleconference between the first and at least the second client computer using client programs running on the client computers. Typically, configuring the first client computer includes deciding, using the video teleconferencing application, whether to use the server program on the first client computer or a remote server in conducting the video teleconference. There is further provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, communication apparatus, including: a plurality of client computers, which are connected to communicate over a packet network and are configured to capture audio and video data and to transmit over the packet network uplink audio packets and uplink video packets, which respectively contain the audio and video data; and a conference server, which is coupled to establish communication links over the packet network with the client computers that are to participate in a video teleconference and to receive the uplink audio packets and uplink video packets over the communication links, and which is configured to mix the audio data from the uplink audio packets so as to create respective streams of mixed audio data for transmission to the client computers, and to transmit to the client computers downlink audio packets containing the respective streams of mixed audio data while relaying the video data from the uplink video packets to the client computers in downlink video packets, wherein the client computers are configured to synchronize the video data with the mixed audio data, and to output the synchronized video and mixed audio data to a respective user of each of the client computers. There is moreover provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a conference server, including: a network interface, which is coupled to establish communication links over a packet network with a plurality of client computers that are to participate in a video teleconference, and to receive from the client computers uplink audio packets and uplink video packets, which respectively contain audio and video data captured by each of the client computers; and a processor, which is configured to mix the audio data from the uplink audio packets so as to create respective streams of mixed audio data for transmission to the client computers, and to transmit to the client computers via the network interface downlink audio packets containing the respective streams of mixed audio data while relaying the video data from the uplink video packets to the client computers in downlink video packets, for synchronization by the client computers with the mixed audio data. There is furthermore provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a conference server, including: a network interface, which is coupled to communicate over a packet network with a plurality of client computers; and a processor, which is configured to establish, via the network interface, a first communication link with a first client computer using a first transport layer protocol, and a second communication link with a second client computer using a second transport layer protocol, which is different from the first transport layer protocol, and to exchange audio and video data packets in a video teleconference between the first and second client computers using the first and second transport layer protocols respectively over the first and second links. There is also provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, communication apparatus, including first and second client computers, which are coupled to communicate with one another over a packet network, wherein the first client computer is configured to run a server program in a video teleconferencing application, to establish a communication link over the packet network between the server program running on the first client computer and the second client computer, and to exchange audio and video data packets via the server program in a video teleconference between the first and second client computers using client programs running on the first and second client computers. There is additionally provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a computer software product, including a computer-readable medium in which program instructions are stored, which instructions, when read by a server, cause the server to establish communication links over a packet network with a plurality of client computers that are to participate in a video teleconference, and to receive from the client computers uplink audio packets and uplink video packets, which respectively contain audio and video data captured by each of the client computers, wherein the instructions cause the server to mix the audio data from the uplink audio packets so as to create respective streams of mixed audio data for transmission to the client computers, and to transmit to the client computers via the network interface downlink audio packets containing the respective streams of mixed audio data while relaying the video data from the uplink video packets to the client computers in downlink video packets, for synchronization by the client computers with the mixed audio data. There is further provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a computer software product, including a computer-readable medium in which program instructions are stored, which instructions, when read by a client computer that is to participate in a video teleconference, cause the client computer to establish a communication link over a packet network with a conference server, and to transmit uplink audio packets and uplink video packets, which respectively contain audio and video data captured by the client computer, wherein the instructions cause the client computer to receive from the server downlink audio packets containing the a stream of mixed audio data generated by the server and to receive downlink video packets containing the video data transmitted by other client computers in the video teleconference, and to synchronize the video data with the mixed audio data for output to a respective user of each of the client computers. There is moreover provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a client computer, including: a user interface; and a processor, which is configured to establish a communication link over a packet network with a conference server so as to participate in a video teleconference, and to transmit uplink audio packets and uplink video packets, which respectively contain audio and video data captured by the client computer, wherein the processor is configured to receive from the server downlink audio packets containing the a stream of mixed audio data generated by the server and to receive downlink video packets containing the video data transmitted by other client computers in the video teleconference, and to synchronize the video data with the mixed audio data for output via the user interface. There is furthermore provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a computer software product, including a computer-readable medium in which program instructions are stored, which instructions, when read by a server, cause the server to establish, via a packet network, a first communication link with a first client computer using a first transport layer protocol, and to establish, via the packet network, a second communication link with a second client computer using a second transport layer protocol, which is different from the first transport layer protocol, and to exchange audio and video data packets in a video teleconference between the first and second client computers using the first and second transport layer protocols respectively over the first and second links. There is also provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a computer software product, including a computer-readable medium in which program instructions are stored, which instructions, when read by a first client computer, cause the first client to run a server program in a video teleconferencing application, to establish a communication link over a packet network between the server program running on the first client computer and a second client computer, and to exchange audio and video data packets via the server program in a video teleconference between the first and second client computers using client programs running on the first and second client computers. In some embodiments, a method is provided comprising: establishing, by at least one processor of a first computing device, a first communication link over a network between the first computing device and a communications server; receiving, by the at least one processor and from the communications server, data associated with a video conference application associated with initiating a video conference between the first computing device and a second computing device; establishing, by the at least one processor and using the video conference application, a second communication link, over the network or a second network, between the first computing device and the second computing device; transmitting, by the at least one processor, audio and video packets via the second communication link, wherein the audio and video packets respectively comprise audio and video data; and transmitting, by the at least one processor, synchronization packets via the second communication link, wherein the audio and video data are synchronized for output at the second computing device based on synchronization information comprised in the synchronization packets. In some embodiments, the method further comprises establishing, by the at least one processor, a third communication link, over the network or the second network, between the first computing device and a third computing device, wherein each of the first, second, and third computing devices are enabled to participate in the video conference. In some embodiments, the audio and video packets comprise or are comprised in the synchronization packets. In some embodiments, the audio and video packets are transmitted substantially simultaneously with the synchronization packets. In some embodiments, the method further comprises transmitting, by the at least one processor, a first codec for the second computing device, wherein the first codec is used by the second computing device to decode at least one of the audio and video data. In some embodiments, the first computing device comprises a first mobile phone, and wherein the second computing device comprises a second mobile phone. In some embodiments, the method further comprises receiving, by the at least one processor via the second communication link, second audio packets, second video packets, and second synchronization packets, wherein the second audio and video packets respectively comprise second audio and second video data, and wherein the second audio and second video data are synchronized for output at the first computing device based on second synchronization information comprised in the second synchronization packets. In some embodiments, the method further comprises a non-transitory computer-readable medium is provided comprising code that, when executed, causes at least one processor of a first computing device to perform the operations of: establishing, by the at least one processor, a first communication link over a network between a first computing device and a communications device; receiving, by the at least one processor, data associated with a video conference operation initiated or to be initiated between the first computing device and a second computing device; establishing, by the at least one processor, a second communication link, over the network or a second network, between the first computing device and the second computing device; transmitting, by the at least one processor, audio and video data; and transmitting, by the at least one processor and to the second computing device via the second communication link, synchronization data, wherein output of the audio and video data at the second computing device is synchronized based on the synchronization data. In some embodiments, the code, when executed, causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of establishing, by the at least one processor, a third communication link, over the network or a second network, between the first computing device and a third computing device, wherein each of the first, second, and third computing devices is enabled to participate in a three-way video conference. In some embodiments, the three-way video conference is initiated by at least one of the first computing device or the second computing device. In some embodiments, the audio data is comprised in a first packet, wherein the video data is comprised in the first packet or a second packet, and wherein the synchronization data is comprised in the first packet, or the second packet, or a third packet. In some embodiments, the code, when executed, causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: selecting, by the at least one processor, a first codec for the second computing device; and transmitting, by the at least one processor, the first codec to the second computing device, wherein the first codec is used by the second computing device to decode at least one of the audio data or the video data. In some embodiments, the video conference operation is part of a mobile application. In some embodiments, the code, the audio and video data are transmitted either substantially simultaneously with or separately from the synchronization data. In some embodiments, a first computing device is provided comprising: at least one memory comprising instructions; and at least one processor configured to execute the instructions, wherein executing the instructions causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: establishing, by the at least one processor, a first communication link over a network between a first computing device and a communications system; receiving, by the at least one processor and from the communications system, data associated with a video conference application associated with initiating a video conference between the first computing device and a second computing device; establishing, by the at least one processor, a second communication link, over the network or a second network, between the first computing device and the second computing device; transmitting, by the at least one processor and to the second computing device via the second communication link, audio and video data; and transmitting, by the at least one processor and to the second computing device via the second communication link, synchronization packets, wherein the audio and video data are output at the second computing device based on synchronization information comprised in the synchronization packets. In some embodiments, executing the instructions further causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of establishing, by the at least one processor, a third communication link over the network between the first computing device and a third computing device, wherein each of the first, second, and third computing devices is enabled to participate in the video conference. In some embodiments, the third communication link is established using the video conference application. In some embodiments, executing the instructions further causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: transmitting, by the at least one processor, the audio and video data via the third communication link; and transmitting, by the at least one processor, the synchronization packets via the third communication link, wherein the audio and video data are synchronized for output at the third computing device based on the synchronization information. In some embodiments, executing the instructions further causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: selecting, by the at least one processor, a first codec for the second computing device; and transmitting, by the at least one processor, the first codec to the second computing device. In some embodiments, the video communications system comprises, is, or is comprised in the second computing device, or wherein executing the instructions further causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: receiving, by the at least one processor via the second communication link, second audio and video data, and second synchronization packets, and wherein the second audio and second video data are output at the first computing device based on synchronization information comprised in the second synchronization packets. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will be more fully understood from the following detailed description of the embodiments thereof, taken together with the drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a schematic, pictorial illustration of a system for video teleconferencing, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a schematic, pictorial illustration of a system for video teleconferencing, in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a flow chart that schematically illustrates a method for initiating a video teleconference, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention FIG. 4 is a schematic representation of a screen displayed by a client computer in a video teleconference, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a flow chart that schematically illustrates a method for synchronizing and displaying data in a video teleconference, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a flow chart that schematically illustrates a method for controlling bandwidth in a video teleconference, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a table showing the timing of audio and video data transmitted by client computers in a video teleconference, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 is a table showing messages sent to a server by a client computer in a video teleconference, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a table showing messages sent from a server to a client computer in a video teleconference, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 10 is a table showing timing of audio and video data frames received by a client computer in a video teleconference, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 is a schematic, pictorial illustration of a system 20 for video teleconferencing, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Users 22 access the system via client computers 24, 26, 28, which are typically equipped with suitable user interface components, including a video camera 30, a display monitor 31, and audio input/output (I/O) components 32. (In the description that follows, client computers are alternatively referred to simply as “clients.”) Client computers 24 and 26 communicate with a conference server 34 via a packet network 36, such as the public Internet. Optionally, users may also communicate with the conference server and participate in the conference using a telephone handset (not shown) via a switched telephone network, such as a land or mobile network. In some embodiments, a separate management server 38, similarly coupled to network 36, may be used for management tasks, such as tracking the client computers and/or users who are participating in each conference and conveying management messages (as opposed to audio and video data) to and from the client computers. For these purposes, servers 34 and 38 are typically connected by a communication link 40, which may be either in-band (via network 36) or out-of-band. In some embodiments, client computers maintain a concurrent, secondary connection with the server or other client computers during the video teleconference. The ability to maintain a concurrent, secondary connection provides a multitude of benefits to enhance the quality and reliability of the conferencing system. Server 34 (and likewise server 38) typically comprises a general-purpose computer processor 42, with suitable interfaces 44 to the network or networks on which the client computers are located. Client computers 24, 26, 28 may likewise comprise general-purpose computers, such as desktop or laptop computers, or may alternatively comprise portable computing devices with wireless communication interfaces and with sufficient computing power and suitable user interface components for performing the functions that are described herein. Processor 42 and client computers 24, 26, 28 perform the functions that are described herein under the control of software, which may be downloaded in electronic form (over a network, for example), or may be provided on tangible media, such as optical, magnetic or electronic memory media. Video teleconferencing requires real-time, two-way transmission of video and audio data. In the Internet environment, this requirement may be complicated by intermediary components, such as a firewall 46. Firewalls are used, as is known in the art, to prevent malicious traffic on network 36 from reaching client computer 26. For this purpose, the firewall may prevent packets that are sent using simple, connectionless transport level protocols, such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), from reaching computer 26. UDP could otherwise be used conveniently and efficiently for transmitting real-time data. Other sorts of intermediary components, such as proxy servers (not shown), may cause similar sorts of problems. In such cases, it may be necessary for the server to use a connection-oriented transport level protocol, such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), or possibly even a secure socket to transmit audio and video data downstream to the client computer. (In the present patent application and in the claims, the terms “downstream” and “downlink” are used in the conventional sense to refer to transmission of data packets from a server to a client, while “upstream” and “uplink” refer to transmission from a client to a server.) Server 34 is configured, as described herein below, to determine the appropriate and most efficient transport layer protocol to use for each client computer in a given video teleconference. The server may thus use TCP, with or without a secure socket, to communicate with one client computer in a given conference, while using UDP to communicate with another client computer in the same conference. The client computers are typically not aware of these differences in transport layer protocol. Thus, system 20 supports both point-to-point and multipoint-to-multipoint conferences in which different client computers simultaneously use different transport layer protocols. In the example shown in FIG. 1, client computers 28 are connected to server 34 via a local area network (LAN) 48. This configuration permits server to transmit downlink packets to these client computers using a multicast or broadcast protocol. Optionally, interface 44 to LAN 48 may comprise multiple network interface cards, each configured to communicate with a respective subnet, in which case server 34 may transmit downlink packets simultaneously to several multicast groups on different subnets. Multicast and broadcast have the advantage of high efficiency in utilization of network resources, but they operate only in the downlink direction, not uplink. Client computers 28 may thus watch and listen by multicast or broadcast to a video teleconference involving one or more of client computers 24 and 26 on network 36. If one or more of client computers 28 are to participate actively in the conference, however, they will typically have to use a different, unicast protocol for uplink communication with server 34. FIG. 2 is a schematic, pictorial illustration of a system 50 for video teleconferencing, in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. In this example, users 52 and 54 of respective computers 56 and 58 conduct a point-to-point video teleconference over network 36, with computer 56 acting as both client and server. The principles of this embodiment may similarly be applied in multipoint-to-multipoint conferencing, as long as the computer acting as the server has sufficient computing power to support multiple clients. The teleconferencing software that is installed on computers 56 and 58 includes both a client component 60 and a server component 62. Client component 60 is configured to communicate with an external, remote server (such as server 34 in FIG. 1) for purposes of setting up the video teleconference and exchanging video and audio data. In this mode of operation, server component 62 is dormant. In some circumstances, however, such as when user 52 initiates a point-to-point teleconference, client component 60 may decide to use server component 62 as a local server to set up the conference and exchange data with computer 58. Alternatively, server 34 may instruct client component 60 to use server component 62 when the client component contacts the server to establish the video teleconference. In either case, this sort of local server operation is advantageous in reducing packet transmission delays between computers 56 and 58, since the packets are transmitted directly between the two computers, rather than relayed through server 34. This use of local servers also reduces the load on server 34. When client component 60 invokes server component 62, the server component starts to run and emulates the operation of remote server 34. In other words, server component 62 communicates with client component 60 on computer 58 to invite user 54 to join the video teleconference, and then transmits and receives audio and video packets to and from computer 58 via network 36 in the same manner as does server 34. The client component on computer 58 need not be aware that it is communicating with a local server on computer 56, rather than a remote server. Within computer 56, the client and server components pass data one to the other using an internal transport protocol, rather than over a network, but the principles of operation of the client and server components remain the same. Thus, although the methods that are described herein below make reference specifically, for the sake of clarity, to the elements of system 20 (FIG. 1), these methods may likewise be applied, mutatis mutandis, in system 50, as well as in other point-to-point, point-to-multipoint, and multipoint-to-multipoint conferencing topologies. FIG. 3 is a flow chart that schematically illustrates a method for initiating a video teleconference, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The method is initiated when a client computer logs on to server 34 (or server 38, depending on the system configuration), at a log-on step 70. For secure, reliable log-on and avoidance of problems due to components such as firewalls and proxies, the client computer may use a secure connection to the server. For example, the client computer may use the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) over a Secure Socket Layer (SSL), commonly referred to as HTTPS, at step 70. In response to the client log-on, server 34 sends one or more capabilities messages to the client, at a capability determination step 72. These messages tell the client which protocols and codecs (video and audio) the server can support, and may also indicate the IP address and port that the client should use in communicating with the server. The client chooses a protocol and codec according to its own capabilities and notifies the server of its choice. Different clients in the same conference may use different codecs, within the decoding capabilities of the server and the other clients. In order to choose the transport protocol to use in communication with the client in a given teleconference, the client informs server 34 whether the client is going to be an active participant or will be listening only, at a status determination step 74. For listen-only clients, the server ascertains whether the client is connected to the server via a multicast-capable network (such as LAN 48), at a multicast checking step 76. If so, the server instructs the client to join the appropriate multicast group for the video teleconference, and subsequently transmits downlink audio and video data packets to this client by multicast, at a multicast step 78. In an alternative embodiment, not shown in this figure, the server may be configured to transmit downlink packets to a given client or clients via multicast, while receiving uplink packets from such clients using a unicast transport protocol. When multicast is unavailable or inappropriate, server 34 checks whether UDP can be used in communication with this client, at a UDP checking step 80. For this purpose, for example, the server may transmit a sequence of UDP packets to the client and request that the client respond to the UDP packets that it receives. On this basis, the server determines how many of the UDP packets were lost en route. (If a component such as firewall 46 blocks the UDP packets, then all the packets will be lost.) If the number of UDP packets lost is less than a small, predetermined threshold percentage, the server concludes that a UDP link can be used effectively for communicating with this client, at a UDP selection step 82. Because UDP is connectionless and does not require acknowledgment, it generally gives lower delay in packet delivery than connection-oriented protocols. As the next alternative, the server may attempt to establish a TCP connection, and to communicate with the client using the TCP connection without a secure socket, at a TCP checking step 84. Some intermediary components, such as firewalls, may be configured to allow any TCP connection to be established between the server and the client, while others may allow only HTTP messages to be transmitted over such a TCP connection. If the server is successful in setting up a non-secured TCP connection with the client (with or without HTTP), the server will then use such TCP connections for exchanging audio and video data with the client during the video teleconference, at a TCP selection step 86. When possible, the server may give preference to using TCP without HTTP, in order to avoid possible delays in packet delivery that may be caused by HTTP proxy servers. Otherwise, the server will establish and use HTTPS for conveying audio and video packets to and from the client, at a HTTPS selection step 88. HTTPS incurs greater overhead than the other protocols noted above, but it has the advantage of passing data without interruption through nearly all firewalls, proxies and other intermediary components. Normally, HTTPS messages are conveyed as an encrypted payload within a TCP datagram. Once the HTTPS connection between the server and the client is established, however, packets with substantially any sort of payload (encrypted or not) will be conveyed through intermediary devices as long as they have the appropriate TCP/SSL header. The server and client may thus insert audio and video data in the payload of each of these packets in a proprietary format, rather than using conventional HTTP requests and replies. In other embodiments, client computers may establish concurrent, secondary connections to enhance the quality and reliability of the video teleconference. In one embodiment, client computers may attempt to establish a peer to peer (p2p) connection with other client computers of the same video teleconference. Once a p2p connection is established, the client computers may stop sending audio and video packets to the server 34 and start sending the packets through the p2p connection. Unlike traditional p2p based communication systems, the conferencing system of the current embodiment starts a call via the server-based connection, which typically yields much faster call connection times than p2p connections. Also unlike traditional p2p systems, in conferencing system of the current embodiment, the client computer does not drop its connection with the server 34 even after it has switched to sending the audio and video packets through the p2p channel. This allows the client computers to switch to the server-based connection with no disruption to the user's video teleconference experience if the p2p connection fails. The client computers can then switch back to the p2p channel when it is reestablished. This switching provides a seamless video teleconference. In another embodiment, client computers in a video teleconference may maintain a concurrent, secondary connection to a second server that is a backup to the primary server. If the primary server becomes unavailable during the video teleconference, client computers can seamlessly switch to using connections with the second server to continue the video teleconference. Client computers can also either switch back to the primary server when the connections are reestablished, or treat the second server as the new primary server and in parallel establish second connections to a new second server. In another embodiment, a client computer may send and receive traffic via both the primary and secondary connections simultaneously in a video teleconference. For example, the client computer may use this approach to achieve greater end-to-end throughput between two client computers. In embodiments using multiple connections, the handoff and synchronization of the media traffics between the first and second connections during a video teleconference can be achieved in many different ways. As an example, each packet could contain a sequence number when sent from a source such as a client computer or server. A centralized network jitter buffer could be included in the receiver side of each client computer. The centralized network jitter buffer would receive packets from the same source but via different connections. The centralized network jitter buffer would then pool the packets into a single jitter buffer where the packets would be buffered and sorted based on their assigned sequence number. A single sorted sequence of packets would then be supplied for subsequent processing steps at the client computer. FIG. 4 is a schematic representation of a screen 90 displayed by a client computer in a video teleconference, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The screen comprises multiple windows 92, 94, 96, each of which is fed with video data conveyed by server 34 from a different client computer. In other words, each of the client computers participating in the video teleconference transmits uplink video packets, which the server then relays to the other client computers in the video teleconference for display in the respective windows. At the same time, the server mixes the uplink audio data from these client computers to create mixed audio downlink packets. Thus, for example, the client computer that displays screen 90 will receive separate video packets representing each of the individual images to be displayed in windows 92, 94 and 96, as transmitted by the other client computers in the video teleconference, and will receive audio packets containing a mix of the uplink audio data transmitted by these client computers. To display screen 90, the client computer synchronizes the images in windows 92, 94 and 96 with the mixed audio data, as described in detail herein below. Screen 90 also includes on-screen controls 98, which enable the user of the client computer to interact with the teleconferencing software. For example, the controls may comprise an “invite” button, which brings up a list of contacts and their availability. The user may select contacts to invite to a teleconference, whereupon the client computer attempts to establish communications with the contacts (using a model similar to instant messaging and Internet voice services). Other controls may permit the user to mute uplink voice, block uplink video, leave the video teleconference, and perform other sorts of functions that will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The user may choose to view video images of all the other teleconference participants, or may alternatively choose to view only a subset of the participants (in order to conserve bandwidth, for example). Although different client computers may use cameras 30 with different levels of resolution and image format, the client software running on each of the computers typically adjusts the images so that all of windows 92, 94, 96 have the same size and format. FIG. 5 is a flow chart that schematically illustrates a method for synchronizing and displaying data in a video teleconference, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Client computers participating in the video teleconference transmit uplink audio, video and synchronization packets to server 34, at an uplink transmission step 100. To reduce communication delays, as well as reducing the computational load on the server, the client computers transmit audio and video data in separate packets, and generally transmit relatively small packets at regular intervals. Each packet is marked with a timestamp, as explained in detail herein below, while the synchronization packets indicate how the audio and video data should be aligned according to their respective timestamps. For example, depending on the audio codec used by a given client computer, the client computer may generate a block of compressed audio data every 20 ms. Each block may be sent in its own packet, or a group of blocks may be combines in a single packet. (For instance, six of these blocks may be combined into an audio uplink packet every 120 ms.) Server 34 may determine the size of the audio packets based on the arrival statistics of packets that it receives from the client computers, such as delay, timing jitter and packet loss, and/or other network conditions, and may instruct the clients to use the packet size that it determines in this manner. When TCP is used as the transport layer protocol, the TCP buffer size at the client and server is typically set to zero, so that packets are transmitted immediately (without the delay that TCP may otherwise add in an attempt to optimize overall throughput). Furthermore, to avoid retransmission of lost packets, the client computer and server may be programmed to suppress the impact of the packet acknowledgement feature of TCP, possibly by acknowledging all TCP packet serial numbers regardless of whether or not the packets were actually received. During a teleconference, any given user will typically be silent much of the time, while listening to the other users. The client computer senses these silent intervals and marks the corresponding audio blocks in the uplink audio packets as “silent.” To ensure proper detection of silent intervals, the teleconferencing software on the client computer may control the automatic gain control of the audio driver on the client computer to prevent the driver from turning up the gain when the user is not speaking. Server 34 tracks the timestamps of the uplink audio and video packets that it receives from the participating client computers, at a delay detection step 102. The server may thus determine that a delay has developed in the stream of audio data arriving from one (or more) of the clients. If so, the server drops blocks or packets of audio data that the client in question has marked as silent, at a silence removal step 104, in order to restore proper synchronization. Similarly, if the server detects a delay in the uplink video packets from one of the clients, it may drop video frames. After temporally aligning the uplink audio data, server 34 creates an audio mix for transmission to each of the client computers in the video teleconference, at a mixing step 106. Each client receives a mix of the audio data generated by the other clients. Thus, the server generates a number of different audio mixes, equal to the number of clients who are actively participating in the video teleconference. The audio mix packets contain their own timestamps, determined by the server, and may be accompanied by audio sync packets generated by the server. In addition to transmitting the audio mix and audio sync packets to the client, the server also relays to each client the video data and video sync packets transmitted by the other clients, at a packet relay step 108. In other words, while the audio data are mixed at the server, the video images and sync messages transmitted by the various clients are kept separate. Each client receives the audio mix, video and sync packets, at a packet reception step 110. The video data from each of the other clients are used to generate an image in the corresponding window 92, 94, 96, as shown in FIG. 4. The clients use the information in the sync packets, together with the timestamps in the audio mix and video packets, to synchronize the individual video images with the mixed audio. In other words, the client plays the audio mix and decides, based on the sync information and timestamps, which video frames to display in each of the windows at each point in time. The client may speed up or slow down the video display in one or more of windows 92, 94, 96 in order to keep the timestamps of the video and the audio mix data properly aligned. If the client detects a delay in the audio stream, it may cut out any remaining silent intervals, or it may resample and slightly accelerate the sound output to make up the delay. If the client detects excessive delays, however, the client may notify the server of the problem, and the server will take remedial action, as described herein below with reference to FIG. 6. A detailed scenario illustrating the operation of the synchronization mechanisms described above is presented herein below in an Appendix. FIG. 6 is a flow chart that schematically illustrates a method for controlling bandwidth in a video teleconference, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. This method is carried out in parallel with the method of FIG. 5 in the course of a teleconference in system 20. An object of this method is to make optimal use of the bandwidth available between the client computers and server 34. The bandwidth utilization is optimal in the sense that the client computers receive and display video images transmitted by the other client computers with the best possible image quality that can be supported reliably by the available bandwidth. “Quality” in this context may be expressed in terms of the image resolution, the frame update rate, or the degree of image compression (wherein greater compression, in lossy compression schemes, means poorer quality), all of which affect the bandwidth required for transmission of the video stream. Quality may be measured by bandwidth, delay, jitter, and packet loss. The available bandwidth is determined, as explained further herein below, based on messages sent from the client computers to the server. This available bandwidth usually corresponds (with some exceptions) to the bandwidth of the “weakest link” in the video teleconference, i.e., the bandwidth of the client with the slowest connection to the server. Although other client computers in the video teleconference with faster connections to the server may be capable of transmitting uplink video packets with higher quality, the server would then have to expend considerable computing power in transcoding the high-quality video frames to a lower-quality format suitable for the “weakest link.” In order to avoid placing this additional burden on the server, the client computers are instructed by the server to limit the quality of their video transmissions to the available bandwidth by adjusting adjusts one or several local quality parameters accordingly. Alternatively or additionally, the server may be capable of performing certain video transcoding functions, as well, in order to compensate for bandwidth discrepancies among the clients. In one embodiment, at the start of the video teleconference, all clients begin transmitting video data packets at a low data rate, such as 48 kbps, at a transmission initiation step 120. Server 34 relays the video data packets (along with the audio mix packets, as described above) to the other clients, at a video relay step 122. The clients check the arrival statistics of the video data packets, at a bandwidth checking step 124. For example, the clients may check the average delay, jitter and/or fraction of packets lost. Low values of these statistical parameters indicate that the downlink transmissions to the client in question are well within the bounds of the available downlink bandwidth for this client, and additional bandwidth is still available for downlink transmission. When the client computers determine at step 24 that they have additional bandwidth available, they send control messages to server 34 informing the server of the situation. The server checks the control messages from all the client computers to verify that all have additional bandwidth available, and if so, signals the client computers to increase the quality of the video images that they are transmitting, at a quality upgrade step 126. The clients then recheck the arrival statistics at step 124. If the packet arrival statistics are still favorable, the client computers notify the server, which then repeats step 126. The clients and server iterate through steps 124 and 126 as long as additional, unused bandwidth remains available. As the bandwidth used for downlink transmission in the video teleconference approaches the limit of available downlink bandwidth, however, the statistical packet arrival parameters will begin to increase. Thus, a client may note, for example, an increase in average packet delay, and will notify the server accordingly. At this point, the server will stop instructing the clients to increase video quality and may even instruct the clients to back off a step in order to leave a margin for bandwidth fluctuations. During the video teleconference, the client computers continue to monitor the packet arrival statistics, at a monitoring step 128. As a result, a client may note that one (or more) of the parameters has increased by more than a preset threshold above the initial, baseline value. For example, the client may determine that the packet delay has increased by 200 ms relative to the baseline. This sort of increase may indicate that a change in network conditions has reduced the downlink bandwidth available to the client. The client immediately sends a message to notify the server of the problem, at a server notification step 130. To ensure rapid response, the client exchanges control messages with server 34 (using TCP) via a different socket from the one that is used for audio and video data, and the messages are handled by a dedicated software module in the server. The advantage of using the dedicated socket and module in this manner is that the communication channels of the conference server may be loaded with audio and video data, which may cause a delay in processing of the message sent at step 130. The dedicated module and socket, on the other hand, are not burdened with audio and video data and may therefore be able to respond immediately. Alternatively or additionally, when bandwidth problems occur, clients may notify not only conference server 34, but also management server 38 (assuming a separate management server is in use). Generally, upon receiving the message sent by the client at step 130, server 34 or 38 immediately instructs the clients in the video teleconference to reduce their video transmission quality, at a quality reduction step 132. As a result, the quality of the video images displayed by all the clients will be reduced, but all of the participants in the video teleconference will still be able to see all of the other participants and maintain full participation. Alternatively, when one (or a few) of the client computers has significantly less bandwidth available than the remaining client computers in the video teleconference, the server may instruct this “weak” client to reduce the number of live video windows that it is displaying. The server may then pass video data downstream to the weak client only from those other clients whose images are displayed in the live windows, while cutting off the video streams from other clients. In this manner, the user of the weak client is still able to hear the audio and see images of some of the other participants, without detracting from the experience of the other participants. (In extreme cases, the weak client may be instructed to turn off the live video display entirely.) In another embodiment, the server determines optimal bandwidth for each client computer in two steps. In a first step, the server determines, for each client computer, maximum and minimum uplink and downlink bandwidths. In a second step, the server constructs a linear programming model based on results obtained from the first step and solves it in one-step to generate the optimal video bandwidth values for each client computer in the video teleconference. In the current embodiment, the first step includes calculating BW_up_Max_N, which refers to the maximum uplink bandwidth used by a conferencing client N. BW_up_Max_N is set by the upper bound of the video bitrate for compressing a specific video source configuration (i.e., video resolution and frame rate) set by the video conferencing system. This upper bound value is empirically determined for each video codec adopted by a video conferencing system. At this value the conferencing system of the current embodiment shall produce satisfactory video quality, further increases of the video bitrate above this value would not yield significant improvement in video quality. BW_up_Min_N refers to the minimum uplink bandwidth used by a client computer N. This value is similarly set by the lower bound of the video bitrate configured by a video conferencing system for a specific video source configuration. The Table 1 lists some typical lower and upper bounds of video bitrate values for various common video resolutions used in video conferencing application. H.264 or VP8 video codec is assumed in this embodiment. TABLE 1 Sample Video Bandwidths as Defined by Video Source Configuration Resolution BW_up_Min (Kbit/s) BW_up_Max (Mbit/s) CIF 96 0.384 VGA 384 1 720P 768 2 Different bitrate values can be adopted for different client computers within the same application. For example, a lower max bitrate value may be defined for mobile client computers versus desktop client computers. In practice, the total bandwidth used by a client computer includes audio and network protocol bandwidths in addition to video bandwidth. Because video bandwidth typically takes up the majority of total bandwidth, this disclosure ignores the difference between total bandwidth and video bandwidth in the subsequent discussions. However, this simplification does not affect the validity and applicability of the method described here. BW_dn_Max_N refers to the maximum downlink bandwidth available for client computer N and may be calculated or measured. A person having ordinary skill in the art would be able to devise many methods to measure the capacity of a network transmission channel. For example, a Forward Error Correction (FEC) method may be used to generate excessive traffic to flood the communication channel in order to measure the actual throughput of the channel. Specifically, the server applies a FEC algorithm on video packets transmitted to client computer N. The method starts with injecting 50% redundant packets into the downlink and measuring the throughput values at the client computer. The method continues by injecting double the amount of redundant packets into the downlink until the throughput values as measured by the client computer remain the same in two subsequent measurements. The method the stops, and the last value is the final maximum bandwidth value. This method allows the conferencing system of the current embodiment to measure the channel capacity with actual traffic, which increases the accuracy of the channel capacity measurement. It also allows the system to continue to transmit ongoing video packets while measuring the channel capacity, so the video teleconference is not interrupted. Finally, since the excessive throughput is actually redundant packets for the corresponding video packets, when the test approaches the maximum bandwidth capacity and packet loss occurs, the system is able to sustain video transmission quality by leveraging the properties of FEC. BW_dn_Min_N refers to the minimum downlink bandwidth available for client computer N and may be calculated or measured. The default value may be 0. It also be set to a reasonable higher value to reduce the amount of computation needed to calculate the optimal uplink bandwidth. For example, it can be set to: BW_dn_Min_N=ΣBW_up_Min_i, where i=1, SizeofGroup and N=i!. In this example, the minimum downlink bandwidth for client N should be at least as high as the sum of minimum uplink bandwidth by all other clients in the video teleconference. To calculate the optimal uplink bandwidth for each client computer, the following conditions are present in this embodiment: For each client computer N, its current uplink bandwidth is always between minimum and maximum values: BW_up_Min_n<=BW_up_Cur_n<=BW_up_Max_n, where 1<=n<=SizeOfGroup (Condition 1). For each client computer N, its current downlink bandwidth is always between minimum and maximum values: BW_dn_Min_n<=BW_dn_Cur_n <=BW_dn_Max_n, where 1<=n<=SizeOfGroup (Condition 2). In the conferencing system of the current embodiment, a server receives a video stream from a client computer n and sends a copy of the video stream to each of the other client computers i (where i.noteq.n) in the video teleconference. Therefore, at each client computer n, the current total receiving (downlink) video bandwidth should equal to the sum of current uplink video bandwidth from all other clients computers i (where i.noteq.n) in the video teleconference, assuming no packet loss. This can be captured in the following condition: ΣBW_up_Cur_i<=BW_dn_Max_n, where i=1, SizeofGroup and n=i! (Condition 3). To achieve maximum quality for a video teleconference, the conferencing system in the current embodiment sets the goal to maximize channel utilization (e.g., higher video bandwidth yields higher video quality) but not too high so as to incur packet loss (e.g., when traffic exceeds channel capacity), which would significantly degrade video quality. This can be described in the following mathematical expression: Σ(BW_up_Cur_i/BW_up_Max_i)→MAX, where i=1, SizeofGroup. The above expression can be solved based on Conditions 1 through 3 and using a linear programming model, such as a standard “Simplex” linear programming method. The resulting BW_up_Cur_i value is then the optimal video bandwidth setting for each client individually. In comparison to commonly practiced video communication quality of service systems where small step adjustments are incrementally applied to empirically determine the optimal working configuration for the system, the conferencing system of the current embodiment can achieve optimal configuration in much faster convergence time, yielding more stable system behavior and higher communication quality. It will be appreciated that the embodiments described above are cited by way of example, and that the present invention is not limited to what has been particularly shown and described hereinabove. Rather, the scope of the present invention includes both combinations and subcombinations of the various features described hereinabove, as well as variations and modifications thereof which would occur to persons skilled in the art upon reading the foregoing description and which are not disclosed in the prior art. Appendix—Audio/Video Synchronization The scenario presented in this Appendix assumes that client computers belonging to three users, Alice, Bob and Charlie, are to participate in a video teleconference via server 34. Each client computer keeps track of two different times: Clock Time (CT)—the internal computer time, using ticks to represent the number of milliseconds since the computer was last restarted. Stream Time (ST)—the time elapsed since the computer started to send audio and video to the server. Like the clock time, it is measured in milliseconds. In the video teleconference, every client computer periodically sends two different types of sync messages, one for audio and one for video, indicating the relation between clock time and stream time. The clock time is the same for audio and video, but the stream time is typically different, because the computer does not always start to send the video data at the exact same time as starting to send the audio data. Sync messages are sent at preset intervals (typically in the range 1-5 sec). Each data message transmitted by a client computer holds the video (or audio) data itself in binary format, along with a timestamp indicating the corresponding stream time. FIG. 7 is a table showing the timing of audio and video data transmitted by the participants in this sample video teleconference, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. For each user, the table shows the sequence of audio data blocks and video frames generated by the corresponding computer, labeled with the corresponding clock times and stream times. As noted above, the stream times of the audio and video data for each user start at different points in clock time. (For example, for Alice, the audio stream starts at CT=1000, while the video stream starts at CT=1100.) These discrepancies are resolved by the use of sync messages. FIG. 8 is a table showing the messages sent to server 34 by Alice's computer, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. When Alice starts to send her video, her computer sends an audio sync message with her computer clock time (1000) and ‘0’ (zero) in the stream time, followed by an audio data packet containing audio data and ‘0’ stream time. Immediately thereafter, the computer begins transmitting the video stream with a video sync message (clock time 1100, stream time 0), followed by a video data packet with ‘0’ stream time. Subsequent audio and video data packets contain a timestamp indicating the current stream time, which is incremented by the appropriate audio interval or video interval. After the preset synchronization interval has elapsed (in this case, 1 sec) in a given data stream, the computer transmits a further sync packet, giving the current clock time and stream time. Thus, as shown in FIG. 8, the computer transmits a video sync packet at CT=2100, ST=1000. (Because of the shorter audio interval, the time covered by FIG. 8 does not include the next audio sync packet.) The periodic sync packets permit the server and client computers to detect and correct inaccuracies of synchronization. FIG. 9 is a table showing the messages sent from server 34 to Alice's computer, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. As noted earlier, the video data and video sync packets from Bob's and Charlie's computers are passed through by the server to Alice's computer without change. The server generates downlink audio data packets containing a mix of the audio data received from Bob's and Charlie's computers. The stream time of the audio mix, which is inserted by the server as a timestamp in the downlink audio data packets, is determined by the server and generally does not correspond to the stream times of the client computers. Therefore, the server also generates and transmits to Alice's computer audio sync packets, which indicate the correspondence between the stream time of the audio mix and the individual clock times of Bob's and Charlie's computers. Alice's computer plays the received audio mix and synchronizes the video data with the audio using the time information (clock time and stream time) contained in the sync messages. For each downlink audio data packet, the client computer performs the following steps: Receive the audio mix data message. Get the audio mix stream time from this message. Add this audio mix stream time to the clock time from the synchronization message of every participant and get the clock time for this audio mix (different clock time for each participant). Find the same clock time in the video stream of each participant, using the video synchronization and data messages. Display the video frame corresponding to this clock time. FIG. 10 is a table showing the timing of the audio mix and video data frames received by Alice's computer, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The table illustrates how Alice's computer synchronizes the video data sent by Bob's and Charlie's computers with the audio mix. For example, at stream time 900 in the audio mix (in the leftmost column of the table), Alice's computer determines that Bob's clock time is 1500, while Charlie's clock time is 1600. Alice's computer uses these clock times as an index to find the closest corresponding frames in Bob's and Charlie's video streams. Thus, for audio stream time 900, Alice's computer will display the frame from Bob's video stream that has clock time 1460 and video stream time 360, while displaying the frame from Charlie's video stream that has clock time 1560 and stream time 360 (coincidentally the same as Bob's).

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Video teleconferencing (also known simply as video conferencing) is well known in the art as a means for allowing remote parties to participate in a discussion. Voice, video, and optionally other data are transmitted between the parties over a communication network, such as the Internet, LANs, and/or telephone lines. The parties are able to see, speak to and hear the other parties simultaneously over audio and video channels. Early video conferencing systems used dedicated hardware systems and ISDN lines for communication among the conference parties. More recently, however, low-cost software-based solutions have become available for video conferencing over Internet Protocol (IP) packet networks. Systems of this sort include Microsoft® NetMeeting and Windows® Live Messenger, Yahoo!® Messenger, and Skype®.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Embodiments of the present invention that are described herein below provide methods, systems and software for use in packet-based video teleconferencing. These methods permit client computers to exchange video images and audio data via a server on the Internet or other packet network in a multipoint-to-multipoint conference. Alternatively, point-to-point conferences, with or without a dedicated server, are also supported. The server receives and transmits synchronization information from and to the client computers, along with video images and mixed audio data. The client computers use this information in synchronizing the individual video images captured by the other client computers with the mixed audio data, for output to users. There is therefore provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a method for communication, including: establishing communication links over a packet network between a server and plurality of client computers that are to participate in a video teleconference; receiving at the server from the client computers uplink audio packets and uplink video packets, which respectively contain audio and video data captured by each of the client computers; mixing the audio data from the uplink audio packets at the server so as to create respective streams of mixed audio data for transmission to the client computers; transmitting from the server to the client computers downlink audio packets containing the respective streams of mixed audio data; relaying the video data from the server to the client computers in downlink video packets; receiving and synchronizing the video data with the mixed audio data at the client computers; and outputting the synchronized video and mixed audio data to a respective user of each of the client computers. In a disclosed embodiment, establishing the communication links includes establishing respective first and second communication links between first and second client computers and a server over the packet network using different, respective first and second transport layer protocols. Additionally or alternatively, establishing the communication links includes establishing a first communication link between a server or client computer and establishing a concurrent second communication link between a different server or directly with another client computer. In some embodiments, receiving the uplink video packets includes controlling a quality of the video data conveyed to the server by the client computers by transmitting instructions from the server to the client computers. In one embodiment, transmitting the instructions includes receiving messages from the client computers that are indicative of downlink bandwidth availability for transmission from the server to the client computers, and determining the quality of the video data responsively to the downlink bandwidth availability. Typically, receiving the messages includes detecting, at one of the client computers, a delay in receiving one or more of the downlink audio and video packets, and informing the server of the delay, and transmitting the instructions includes instructing the clients to reduce the quality of the video data transmitted in the uplink video packets responsively to detecting the delay at the one of the clients. Additionally or alternatively, controlling the quality includes instructing the client computers to increase or decrease at least one quality parameter selected from a group of quality parameters consisting of an image resolution, a degree of image compression, a frame rate and a bandwidth. Additionally or alternatively, controlling the quality includes determining the optimal bandwidth setting for each client computer separately by determining the minimum and maximum bandwidth of each client computer and constructing a linear programming model to generate the optimal bandwidth for each client computer. Additionally or alternatively, receiving the uplink packets includes detecting, at the server, a delay in the audio data, and eliminating an interval of silent audio data in order to compensate for the delay. In one embodiment, eliminating the interval includes marking, at one or more of the client computers, at least one block of the audio data as a silent block, and eliminating the silent block from the mixed audio data. In some embodiments, each of the downlink video packets contains the video data captured by a respective one of the client computers. In one embodiment, outputting the synchronized video and mixed audio data includes displaying the video data captured by the respective one of the client computers in a respective window among multiple windows displayed by each of the client computers. Typically, synchronizing the video data includes controlling, at the client computer, the multiple windows so that the video data conveyed from each of the client computers are synchronized with the mixed audio data. Additionally or alternatively, relaying the video data includes passing the video data from the uplink video packets to the downlink video packets without transcoding of the video data at the server. In a disclosed embodiment, receiving the uplink audio and video packets includes receiving at the server synchronization data from each of the client computers, and including generating synchronization information at the server based on the synchronization data, and transmitting the synchronization information from the server to the client computers for use in synchronizing the video data with the mixed audio data. Typically, the plurality of client computers includes at least three client computers that participate in the video teleconference. There is also provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a method for communication, including: establishing a first communication link between a first client computer and a server over a packet network using a first transport layer protocol; establishing a second communication link between a second client computer and the server over the packet network using a second transport layer protocol, which is different from the first transport layer protocol; and exchanging audio and video data packets in a video teleconference between the first and second client computers via the server using the first and second transport layer protocols respectively over the first and second links. In a disclosed embodiment, the first transport layer protocol is a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), and the second transport layer protocol is a User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and establishing the first communication link includes opening a secure socket between the client computer and the server. Alternatively, the first communication link is a unicast link, and the second communication link is a multicast link. There is additionally provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a method for communication, including: configuring a first client computer to run a server program in a video teleconferencing application; establishing a communication link over a packet network between the server program running on the first client computer and at least a second client computer; and exchanging audio and video data packets via the server program in a video teleconference between the first and at least the second client computer using client programs running on the client computers. Typically, configuring the first client computer includes deciding, using the video teleconferencing application, whether to use the server program on the first client computer or a remote server in conducting the video teleconference. There is further provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, communication apparatus, including: a plurality of client computers, which are connected to communicate over a packet network and are configured to capture audio and video data and to transmit over the packet network uplink audio packets and uplink video packets, which respectively contain the audio and video data; and a conference server, which is coupled to establish communication links over the packet network with the client computers that are to participate in a video teleconference and to receive the uplink audio packets and uplink video packets over the communication links, and which is configured to mix the audio data from the uplink audio packets so as to create respective streams of mixed audio data for transmission to the client computers, and to transmit to the client computers downlink audio packets containing the respective streams of mixed audio data while relaying the video data from the uplink video packets to the client computers in downlink video packets, wherein the client computers are configured to synchronize the video data with the mixed audio data, and to output the synchronized video and mixed audio data to a respective user of each of the client computers. There is moreover provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a conference server, including: a network interface, which is coupled to establish communication links over a packet network with a plurality of client computers that are to participate in a video teleconference, and to receive from the client computers uplink audio packets and uplink video packets, which respectively contain audio and video data captured by each of the client computers; and a processor, which is configured to mix the audio data from the uplink audio packets so as to create respective streams of mixed audio data for transmission to the client computers, and to transmit to the client computers via the network interface downlink audio packets containing the respective streams of mixed audio data while relaying the video data from the uplink video packets to the client computers in downlink video packets, for synchronization by the client computers with the mixed audio data. There is furthermore provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a conference server, including: a network interface, which is coupled to communicate over a packet network with a plurality of client computers; and a processor, which is configured to establish, via the network interface, a first communication link with a first client computer using a first transport layer protocol, and a second communication link with a second client computer using a second transport layer protocol, which is different from the first transport layer protocol, and to exchange audio and video data packets in a video teleconference between the first and second client computers using the first and second transport layer protocols respectively over the first and second links. There is also provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, communication apparatus, including first and second client computers, which are coupled to communicate with one another over a packet network, wherein the first client computer is configured to run a server program in a video teleconferencing application, to establish a communication link over the packet network between the server program running on the first client computer and the second client computer, and to exchange audio and video data packets via the server program in a video teleconference between the first and second client computers using client programs running on the first and second client computers. There is additionally provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a computer software product, including a computer-readable medium in which program instructions are stored, which instructions, when read by a server, cause the server to establish communication links over a packet network with a plurality of client computers that are to participate in a video teleconference, and to receive from the client computers uplink audio packets and uplink video packets, which respectively contain audio and video data captured by each of the client computers, wherein the instructions cause the server to mix the audio data from the uplink audio packets so as to create respective streams of mixed audio data for transmission to the client computers, and to transmit to the client computers via the network interface downlink audio packets containing the respective streams of mixed audio data while relaying the video data from the uplink video packets to the client computers in downlink video packets, for synchronization by the client computers with the mixed audio data. There is further provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a computer software product, including a computer-readable medium in which program instructions are stored, which instructions, when read by a client computer that is to participate in a video teleconference, cause the client computer to establish a communication link over a packet network with a conference server, and to transmit uplink audio packets and uplink video packets, which respectively contain audio and video data captured by the client computer, wherein the instructions cause the client computer to receive from the server downlink audio packets containing the a stream of mixed audio data generated by the server and to receive downlink video packets containing the video data transmitted by other client computers in the video teleconference, and to synchronize the video data with the mixed audio data for output to a respective user of each of the client computers. There is moreover provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a client computer, including: a user interface; and a processor, which is configured to establish a communication link over a packet network with a conference server so as to participate in a video teleconference, and to transmit uplink audio packets and uplink video packets, which respectively contain audio and video data captured by the client computer, wherein the processor is configured to receive from the server downlink audio packets containing the a stream of mixed audio data generated by the server and to receive downlink video packets containing the video data transmitted by other client computers in the video teleconference, and to synchronize the video data with the mixed audio data for output via the user interface. There is furthermore provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a computer software product, including a computer-readable medium in which program instructions are stored, which instructions, when read by a server, cause the server to establish, via a packet network, a first communication link with a first client computer using a first transport layer protocol, and to establish, via the packet network, a second communication link with a second client computer using a second transport layer protocol, which is different from the first transport layer protocol, and to exchange audio and video data packets in a video teleconference between the first and second client computers using the first and second transport layer protocols respectively over the first and second links. There is also provided, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a computer software product, including a computer-readable medium in which program instructions are stored, which instructions, when read by a first client computer, cause the first client to run a server program in a video teleconferencing application, to establish a communication link over a packet network between the server program running on the first client computer and a second client computer, and to exchange audio and video data packets via the server program in a video teleconference between the first and second client computers using client programs running on the first and second client computers. In some embodiments, a method is provided comprising: establishing, by at least one processor of a first computing device, a first communication link over a network between the first computing device and a communications server; receiving, by the at least one processor and from the communications server, data associated with a video conference application associated with initiating a video conference between the first computing device and a second computing device; establishing, by the at least one processor and using the video conference application, a second communication link, over the network or a second network, between the first computing device and the second computing device; transmitting, by the at least one processor, audio and video packets via the second communication link, wherein the audio and video packets respectively comprise audio and video data; and transmitting, by the at least one processor, synchronization packets via the second communication link, wherein the audio and video data are synchronized for output at the second computing device based on synchronization information comprised in the synchronization packets. In some embodiments, the method further comprises establishing, by the at least one processor, a third communication link, over the network or the second network, between the first computing device and a third computing device, wherein each of the first, second, and third computing devices are enabled to participate in the video conference. In some embodiments, the audio and video packets comprise or are comprised in the synchronization packets. In some embodiments, the audio and video packets are transmitted substantially simultaneously with the synchronization packets. In some embodiments, the method further comprises transmitting, by the at least one processor, a first codec for the second computing device, wherein the first codec is used by the second computing device to decode at least one of the audio and video data. In some embodiments, the first computing device comprises a first mobile phone, and wherein the second computing device comprises a second mobile phone. In some embodiments, the method further comprises receiving, by the at least one processor via the second communication link, second audio packets, second video packets, and second synchronization packets, wherein the second audio and video packets respectively comprise second audio and second video data, and wherein the second audio and second video data are synchronized for output at the first computing device based on second synchronization information comprised in the second synchronization packets. In some embodiments, the method further comprises a non-transitory computer-readable medium is provided comprising code that, when executed, causes at least one processor of a first computing device to perform the operations of: establishing, by the at least one processor, a first communication link over a network between a first computing device and a communications device; receiving, by the at least one processor, data associated with a video conference operation initiated or to be initiated between the first computing device and a second computing device; establishing, by the at least one processor, a second communication link, over the network or a second network, between the first computing device and the second computing device; transmitting, by the at least one processor, audio and video data; and transmitting, by the at least one processor and to the second computing device via the second communication link, synchronization data, wherein output of the audio and video data at the second computing device is synchronized based on the synchronization data. In some embodiments, the code, when executed, causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of establishing, by the at least one processor, a third communication link, over the network or a second network, between the first computing device and a third computing device, wherein each of the first, second, and third computing devices is enabled to participate in a three-way video conference. In some embodiments, the three-way video conference is initiated by at least one of the first computing device or the second computing device. In some embodiments, the audio data is comprised in a first packet, wherein the video data is comprised in the first packet or a second packet, and wherein the synchronization data is comprised in the first packet, or the second packet, or a third packet. In some embodiments, the code, when executed, causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: selecting, by the at least one processor, a first codec for the second computing device; and transmitting, by the at least one processor, the first codec to the second computing device, wherein the first codec is used by the second computing device to decode at least one of the audio data or the video data. In some embodiments, the video conference operation is part of a mobile application. In some embodiments, the code, the audio and video data are transmitted either substantially simultaneously with or separately from the synchronization data. In some embodiments, a first computing device is provided comprising: at least one memory comprising instructions; and at least one processor configured to execute the instructions, wherein executing the instructions causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: establishing, by the at least one processor, a first communication link over a network between a first computing device and a communications system; receiving, by the at least one processor and from the communications system, data associated with a video conference application associated with initiating a video conference between the first computing device and a second computing device; establishing, by the at least one processor, a second communication link, over the network or a second network, between the first computing device and the second computing device; transmitting, by the at least one processor and to the second computing device via the second communication link, audio and video data; and transmitting, by the at least one processor and to the second computing device via the second communication link, synchronization packets, wherein the audio and video data are output at the second computing device based on synchronization information comprised in the synchronization packets. In some embodiments, executing the instructions further causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of establishing, by the at least one processor, a third communication link over the network between the first computing device and a third computing device, wherein each of the first, second, and third computing devices is enabled to participate in the video conference. In some embodiments, the third communication link is established using the video conference application. In some embodiments, executing the instructions further causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: transmitting, by the at least one processor, the audio and video data via the third communication link; and transmitting, by the at least one processor, the synchronization packets via the third communication link, wherein the audio and video data are synchronized for output at the third computing device based on the synchronization information. In some embodiments, executing the instructions further causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: selecting, by the at least one processor, a first codec for the second computing device; and transmitting, by the at least one processor, the first codec to the second computing device. In some embodiments, the video communications system comprises, is, or is comprised in the second computing device, or wherein executing the instructions further causes the at least one processor to perform the operations of: receiving, by the at least one processor via the second communication link, second audio and video data, and second synchronization packets, and wherein the second audio and second video data are output at the first computing device based on synchronization information comprised in the second synchronization packets.

H04N7147

20180129

20180531

96408.0

H04N714

ESKANDARNIA, ARVIN

Video Conferencing Over IP Networks

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04N

PENDING

TRANSPARENT LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY ON DISPLAY CASE

A point-of-sale advertising system for use with a display case having a front glass sheet positioned in front of a cavity for accepting goods, the system containing a transparent LCD positioned behind the front glass sheet, and a plurality of LEDs positioned adjacent to one pair of opposing edges of the LCD and arranged so that light which is emitted from the LEDs is directed backwards towards the cavity. Further embodiments may also contain a door assembly and frame surrounding the front glass sheet and LCD, a switch positioned to determine when the door assembly is open or closed, and electrical circuitry adapted to turn off the LEDs when the door is open and turn on the LEDs when the door is closed.

1. A display case comprising: a housing that defines a cavity that is adapted to receive goods; a front glass substrate positioned over said cavity; a transparent LCD adapted to produce an image such that an individual may see through said LCD into said cavity, said LCD having a first pair of opposing edges; and a plurality of LEDs adapted to provide lighting for said LCD, said LEDs positioned adjacent to at least one of said first pair of opposing edges of said LCD. 2. The display case of claim 1 wherein said LEDs are configured such that light which is emitted from said LEDs is directed backward toward said cavity. 3. The display case of claim 2 wherein said LEDs are configured such that light which is emitted from said LEDs is primarily directed backward toward said cavity. 4. The display case of claim 2 wherein said LEDs are configured such that light which is emitted from said LEDs is adapted to reflect back toward said LCD to create a backlight for said LCD. 5. The display case of claim 1 wherein: a first set of said LEDs is positioned adjacent to a first one of said opposing edges of said LCD; and a second set of said LEDs is positioned adjacent to a second one of said opposing edges of said LCD. 6. The display case of claim 5 wherein: said LCD has a second pair of opposing edges; and said first pair of opposing edges is longer than said second pair of opposing edges. 7. The display case of claim 5 wherein: said LCD has a second pair of opposing edges; and said first pair of opposing edges is shorter than said second pair of opposing edges. 8. The display case of claim 5 wherein: said LCD has a second pair of opposing edges; a third set of said LEDs is positioned adjacent to a first one of said opposing edges of said second pair; and a fourth set of said LEDs is positioned adjacent to a second one of said opposing edges of said second pair. 9. The display case of claim 1 wherein said first pair of opposing edges are vertical edges of said LCD. 10. The display case of claim 1 wherein said first pair of opposing edges are horizontal edges of said LCD. 11. The display case of claim 1 further comprising a rear glass substrate positioned over said cavity such that said LCD is positioned between said rear glass substrate and said front glass substrate. 12. The display case of claim 1 wherein said LEDs are in line with said at least one of said first pair of opposing edges of said LCD. 13. The display case of claim 1 wherein said LEDs are planar with said LCD. 14. The display case of claim 1 wherein said LEDs abut said at least one of said first pair of opposing edges of said LCD. 15. The display case of claim 1 further comprising a door assembly comprising said front glass substrate and said LCD. 16. The display case of claim 15 further comprising: a switch positioned to determine when said door assembly is open or closed; and electrical circuitry in communication with said switch, said electrical circuitry adapted to turn off said LEDs when said door assembly is open and turn on said LEDs when said door assembly is closed. 17. The display case of claim 1 further comprising: masking around a portion of said front glass substrate; wherein said LEDs are positioned behind said masking. 18. The display case of claim 17 further comprising: a power supply in electrical communication with said LEDs; wherein said power supply is positioned behind said masking. 19. The display case of any of claims 1 to 18 wherein said display case is of a type selected from coolers and freezers.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/649,764, filed Oct. 11, 2012, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/546,809, filed Oct. 13, 2011, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD Embodiments generally relate to a transparent liquid crystal display (LCD) positioned adjacent to the display glass in a display case. Embodiments include a system and method for backlighting the LCD as well. BACKGROUND OF THE ART Display cases are used in a number of different retail establishments for illustrating the products that are available for sale. In some instances these display cases may be coolers or freezers which are placed in grocery stores, convenience stores, gas stations, restaurants, or other retail establishments. In other instances these display cases may be non-refrigerated transparent containers used in a jewelry or watch store, bakery, deli, antique shop, sporting goods store, electronics store, or other retail establishments. While the design and appearance of the product itself does provide some point-of-sale (POS) advertising, it has been found that additional advertising at the POS can increase the awareness of a product and in turn create additional sales. Most retail establishments already contain some POS advertising, and depending on the type of establishment the proprietor may want to limit the amount of ‘clutter’ in the retail area—resulting in a very limited space for additional POS advertising. It has now become desirable to utilize the transparent glass that is typically placed in display cases with additional POS advertising. Most notably, it has been considered that transparent LCDs may be positioned along with the transparent glass and could display additional advertising materials while still allowing a patron to view the products inside the display case. SUMMARY OF THE EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS One exemplary embodiment provides a transparent LCD within the door of a display case. The LCD may be sandwiched between a pair of glass substrates. A plurality of LEDs may be positioned within the door assembly to provide additional illumination of the interior of the display case, reflecting and refracting off the products within the display case, effectively creating a backlight for the transparent LCD. The assembly may contain a switch so that an electronic controlling unit can detect when the door is open or closed. When closed, the LEDs are illuminated. When open, the LEDs are preferably off, but may be simply reduced in power. In some embodiments the LEDs may remain on even when the door is opened. Another exemplary embodiment provides a transparent LCD within the front glass assembly of a display case. In these embodiments, the LEDs may remain on whenever the LCD is displaying an image. Here, the LCD may be positioned behind a front glass. In any of the embodiments, the video data for the LCD may be provided by CAT-V cable. Also in any of the embodiments, the LEDs may be positioned along opposing edges of the assembly or along all edges of the assembly. The foregoing and other features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the following more detailed description of the particular embodiments, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A better understanding of an exemplary embodiment will be obtained from a reading of the following detailed description and the accompanying drawings wherein identical reference characters refer to identical parts and in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective illustration of a display case containing an exemplary embodiment of the transparent LCD. FIG. 2 is a sectional view showing the interior of the display case shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a rear elevation view of the door assembly from the embodiment shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 4 is a logic flow chart showing one embodiment for controlling the LED lighting for the transparent LCD. FIG. 5A is an illustration of an embodiment of the transparent LCD used with a vending machine. FIG. 5B is an illustration of an embodiment of the transparent LCD built within the counter of a general retail establishment. FIG. 5C is an illustration of an embodiment of the transparent LCD used with a bakery display case. FIG. 6 is a side elevation view of an exemplary front glass assembly. FIG. 7 is a rear elevation view of an exemplary front glass assembly. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The invention is described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which exemplary embodiments of the invention are shown. This invention may, however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the exemplary embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. In the drawings, the size and relative sizes of layers and regions may be exaggerated for clarity. The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the terms “comprises” and/or “comprising,” when used in this specification, specify the presence of stated features, integers, steps, operations, elements, and/ or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. Embodiments of the invention are described herein with reference to illustrations that are schematic illustrations of idealized embodiments (and intermediate structures) of the invention. As such, variations from the shapes of the illustrations as a result, for example, of manufacturing techniques and/or tolerances, are to be expected. Thus, embodiments of the invention should not be construed as limited to the particular shapes of regions illustrated herein but are to include deviations in shapes that result, for example, from manufacturing. Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and scientific terms) used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. It will be further understood that terms, such as those defined in commonly used dictionaries, should be interpreted as having a meaning that is consistent with their meaning in the context of the relevant art and will not be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein. FIG. 1 is a perspective illustration of a display case 100 containing an exemplary embodiment of the transparent LCD 90 and 91. The display case 100 typically contains a plurality of products 57 which are offered for sale. As shown in the figure, transparent LCD 90 is displaying an advertising graphic while transparent LCD 91 is clear, showing a view similar to a traditional display case. The front portion of the door assembly 60 may be described in two parts. The first is a transparent portion 55 which contains the LCD 90. The second is a masked portion 50 which may allow room for various electrical components to run the LCD and backlighting. The section line 2-2 is shown as a vertical line, which cuts horizontally through the display case 100. FIG. 2 is a sectional view showing the interior of the display case 100 shown in FIG. 1. Again, various products 57 are shown within the interior of the display case 100. The transparent LCD 91 is preferably sandwiched between two pieces of glass, a front glass 190 and a rear glass 191. As known in the art, a transparent LCD typically contains the core elements of a traditional LCD (front/rear polarizers, electrical controlling layer/TFT array, and color glass) with the notable lack of a traditional direct backlight. These LCDs are typically ‘normal white’ such that when zero volts are applied, the cells are substantially transparent, and as the voltage increases, the cells darken. A switch 180 is preferably positioned so that it can sense whether the door assembly 60 has been opened. The switch 180 may be attached to the rear portion of the door assembly 60 or to the door jamb 175. The switch 180 may be any one of the following: push button, push to make, push to break, or any electrical component that can break an electrical circuit. The operation of the switch 180 is described more fully below. As known in the art, LCDs act as a light filter and thus require light to pass through the device in order to create an image. Here, to increase the luminance through the LCD 91, a plurality of LEDs 126 have been positioned along the top of the door assembly 60 along with another plurality of LEDs 125 which are positioned along the bottom of the door assembly 60. While both sets 125 and 126 are not required, it has been found that utilizing both top and bottom LEDs 125 and 126 results in the greatest luminance and uniformity of the light. The LEDs 125 and 126 may be positioned adjacent to the LCD 91 and between the front glass 190 and rear glass 191. Further, the LEDs 125 and 126 may be placed behind the masking portion 50 of the door assembly 60 so that the LEDs are not visible to a patron. An optional light diffusing element may be positioned between the LEDs 125 and 126 and the products 57. However, as shown in the figure, the light from the LEDs 125 and 126 may be permitted to bounce and scatter off various surfaces within the interior of the display case 100. Most notably, the light from the LEDs 125 and 126 may bounce/scatter off the products 57, both increasing the visibility of the products 57 as well as increasing the uniformity of the light emitted through the LCD 91. The light from the LEDs 125 and 126 may also bounce/scatter off the interior surfaces of the display case. The LEDs 125 and 126 are generally positioned so that the primary direction of emitted light is towards the interior cavity of the display case 100. FIG. 3 is a rear elevation view of the door assembly from the embodiment shown in FIG. 1. The masking portion 50 is shown surrounding the LCD 91. Several electronic components may be positioned behind the masking portion 50. A first power supply 325 may be in electrical communication with the LEDs 125, which are preferably positioned along the bottom edge of the door assembly 60 and below the LCD 91. A second power supply 326 may be in electrical communication with the LEDs 126, which are preferably positioned along the top edge of the door assembly 60 and above the LCD 91. In other embodiments, the LEDs may be positioned along the vertical edges (i.e. left and right) of the door assembly 60 rather than the horizontal edges (i.e. top and bottom). In still further embodiments, the LEDs may be position along all of the edges of the door assembly (i.e. top, bottom, left, and right). In some embodiments, a single power source may be placed in electrical communication with both sets of LEDs 125 and 126. If two power supplies 325 and 326 are used, they are preferably each in electrical communication with an electrical processor unit 300, which may be used to direct the amount of power to be sent to each set of LEDs. Even if two power supplies are not used, the sole power supply may preferably be in electrical communication with the electrical processor unit 300. Additionally, the switch 180 is preferably in electrical communication with the electrical processor unit 300. The electrical processor unit 300 may comprise any one of the following: EPROM, EEPROM, microprocessor, RAM, CPU, or any form of software driver capable of reading electrical signals from the switch 180 and controlling the power sent to the LEDs. The timing and control board (TCON) for the LCD 91 may be contained within the electrical processor unit 300 and thus is preferably in electrical communication with the LCD 91. A power input 350 may also be in electrical communication with the electrical processor unit 300. The power from power input 350 may then be sent to the power supplies 325 and 326 or the power may be distributed directly from the power input 350 to the power supplies 325 and 326 without going through the electrical processor unit 300. A video signal input 375 may also be in electrical communication with the electrical processor unit 300. In an exemplary embodiment, the video signal input 375 would comprise a CAT-V cable. In other embodiments, the video signal input may instead comprise a wireless receiver. FIG. 4 is a logic flow chart showing one embodiment for controlling the LED lighting for the transparent LCD 91. In some embodiments, this logic may provide at least a portion of the software for the electrical processor unit 300. Once the software has started, the system would preferably read the data from the switch 180 to determine if the door is open or closed. If the door is closed, the LEDs are preferably turned on, to increase the luminance through the LCD as well as the appearance of the products. If the door is open, the LEDs are preferably turned off, so that a patron is not subject to the bright illumination of the LEDs. Of course, there should still be illumination within the interior of the display case, sometimes provided by traditional fluorescent lighting. Whether the door is currently open or closed, the system should return to re-read the data from the sensor 180 to determine if the door's status has changed since the last check. This ‘loop’ is preferably run almost constantly, so that changes in the door's status can be almost instantaneously accounted for. FIG. 5A is an illustration of an embodiment of the transparent LCD 450 used with a vending machine 400. FIG. 5B is an illustration of an embodiment of the transparent LCD 450 built within the counter 500 of a general retail establishment. FIG. 5C is an illustration of an embodiment of the transparent LCD 450 used with a bakery display case 600. In contrast to the embodiments described above, these embodiments do not contain a door or door assembly, but rather a front glass assembly 700. FIG. 6 is a side elevation view of an exemplary front glass assembly 700. In this embodiment, the LCD 450 is placed behind a front glass 455 and the LEDs 475/476 are positioned along the vertical edges of the front glass assembly 700. Preferably, the LEDs 475/476 are positioned behind the masking portion 50. FIG. 7 is a rear elevation view of an exemplary front glass assembly 700. In this embodiment, a first set of LEDs 475 are positioned along the left vertical edge of the front glass assembly 700 and a second set of LEDs 476 are positioned along the right vertical edge of the front glass assembly 700. A single power source 480 is in electrical communication with both sets of LEDs 475 and 476. An electrical processor unit 715 is also preferably in electrical communication with the power source 480 as well as the LCD 450. A power input 350 may also be in electrical communication with the electrical processor unit 715. The power from power input 350 may then be sent to the power supply 480 or the power may be distributed directly from the power input 350 to the power supply 480 without going through the electrical processor unit 715. A video signal input 375 may also be in electrical communication with the electrical processor unit 715. In an exemplary embodiment, the video signal input 375 would comprise a CAT-V cable. In other embodiments, the video signal input may instead comprise a wireless receiver. Having shown and described a preferred embodiment of the invention, those skilled in the art will realize that many variations and modifications may be made to affect the described invention and still be within the scope of the claimed invention. Additionally, many of the elements indicated above may be altered or replaced by different elements which will provide the same result and fall within the spirit of the claimed invention. It is the intention, therefore, to limit the invention only as indicated by the scope of the claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE ART <EOH>Display cases are used in a number of different retail establishments for illustrating the products that are available for sale. In some instances these display cases may be coolers or freezers which are placed in grocery stores, convenience stores, gas stations, restaurants, or other retail establishments. In other instances these display cases may be non-refrigerated transparent containers used in a jewelry or watch store, bakery, deli, antique shop, sporting goods store, electronics store, or other retail establishments. While the design and appearance of the product itself does provide some point-of-sale (POS) advertising, it has been found that additional advertising at the POS can increase the awareness of a product and in turn create additional sales. Most retail establishments already contain some POS advertising, and depending on the type of establishment the proprietor may want to limit the amount of ‘clutter’ in the retail area—resulting in a very limited space for additional POS advertising. It has now become desirable to utilize the transparent glass that is typically placed in display cases with additional POS advertising. Most notably, it has been considered that transparent LCDs may be positioned along with the transparent glass and could display additional advertising materials while still allowing a patron to view the products inside the display case.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS <EOH>One exemplary embodiment provides a transparent LCD within the door of a display case. The LCD may be sandwiched between a pair of glass substrates. A plurality of LEDs may be positioned within the door assembly to provide additional illumination of the interior of the display case, reflecting and refracting off the products within the display case, effectively creating a backlight for the transparent LCD. The assembly may contain a switch so that an electronic controlling unit can detect when the door is open or closed. When closed, the LEDs are illuminated. When open, the LEDs are preferably off, but may be simply reduced in power. In some embodiments the LEDs may remain on even when the door is opened. Another exemplary embodiment provides a transparent LCD within the front glass assembly of a display case. In these embodiments, the LEDs may remain on whenever the LCD is displaying an image. Here, the LCD may be positioned behind a front glass. In any of the embodiments, the video data for the LCD may be provided by CAT-V cable. Also in any of the embodiments, the LEDs may be positioned along opposing edges of the assembly or along all edges of the assembly. The foregoing and other features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the following more detailed description of the particular embodiments, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings.

G09F2306

20180129

20180531

67632.0

G09F2306

DUONG, THOI V

TRANSPARENT LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY ON DISPLAY CASE

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

G09F

PENDING

MOBILE TERMINAL AND CHARGEABLE COMMUNICATION MODULE

A mobile terminal is provided with a housing, a circuit board included in the housing and having a thickness direction normal to a plane of the circuit board, a battery pack included in the housing, and a non-contact charging module included in the housing. The non-contact charging module includes a charging coil formed of a wound conducting wire; a communication coil arranged adjacent to the charging coil; and a magnetic sheet on which the charging coil and the communication coil are arranged. The magnetic sheet has four edges that collectively define a rectangular profile of the magnetic sheet, and at most three pairs of adjacent edges respectively meet to form at most three corners. At least a portion of the non-contact charging module overlaps with the circuit board as viewed in the thickness direction of the circuit board.

1. A mobile terminal comprising: a housing having a rectangular shape in a plan view of the housing defined by two short sides along a lateral direction and two long sides along a longitudinal direction, a camera, a battery, and a circuit board included in the housing; a wireless charging coil arranged in the housing and including a winding portion and two leg portions; and a magnetic sheet arranged in the housing, wherein the magnetic sheet has a rectangular shape including four edges and four corner portions, each pair of adjacent edges forms a virtual corner, each corner portion is receded inwardly from its corresponding virtual corner by a receding distance, and at least one of four receding distances is greater than another one of the four receding distances. 2. The mobile terminal according to claim 1, wherein the wireless charging coil is formed in a shape selected from a circular shape, an oval shape, and a rectangular shape. 3. The mobile terminal according to claim 1, wherein the wireless charging coil is formed to define a hollow portion surrounded by the winding portion of the wireless charging coil, and the largest span of the hollow portion is greater than 15.5 mm. 4. The mobile terminal according to claim 3, wherein the hollow portion has a circular shape and a diameter of the circular-shape hollow portion is greater than 15.5 mm. 5. A mobile terminal comprising: a housing having a rectangular shape in a plan view of the housing defined by two short sides along a lateral direction and two long sides along a longitudinal direction, a camera, a battery, and a circuit board included in the housing; a wireless charging coil arranged in the housing and including a winding portion and two leg portions; and a magnetic sheet arranged in the housing, wherein the magnetic sheet has a rectangular shape including four edges and four corner portions each formed by a pair of adjacent edges, and three of the four corner portions are convex and one of the four corner portions is concave. 6. The mobile terminal according to claim 5, wherein the wireless charging coil is formed in a shape selected from a circular shape, an oval shape, and a rectangular shape. 7. The mobile terminal according to claim 5, wherein the wireless charging coil is formed to define a hollow portion surrounded by the winding portion of the wireless charging coil, and the largest span of the hollow portion is greater than 15.5 mm. 8. The mobile terminal according to claim 7, wherein the hollow portion has a circular shape and a diameter of the circular-shape hollow portion is greater than 15.5 mm. 9. A mobile terminal comprising: a housing having a rectangular shape in a plan view of the housing defined by two short sides along a lateral direction and two long sides along a longitudinal direction, a camera, a battery, and a circuit board included in the housing; a wireless charging coil arranged in the housing and including a winding portion and two leg portions; and a magnetic sheet arranged in the housing, wherein the magnetic sheet has a rectangular shape including four edges and four corner portions each formed by a pair of adjacent edges, and a first shape of one of the four corner portions is different from a second shape of three of the four corner portions. 10. The mobile terminal according to claim 9, wherein the wireless charging coil is formed in a shape selected from a circular shape, an oval shape, and a rectangular shape. 11. The mobile terminal according to claim 9, wherein the wireless charging coil is formed to define a hollow portion surrounded by the winding portion of the wireless charging coil, and the largest span of the hollow portion is greater than 15.5 mm. 12. The mobile terminal according to claim 11, wherein the hollow portion has a circular shape and a diameter of the circular-shape hollow portion is greater than 15.5 mm.

BACKGROUND Technical Field The present invention relates to a mobile terminal which includes a non-contact charging module including a non-contact charging module and an NFC antenna. Description of the Related Art In recent years, NFC (Near Field Communication) antennas that utilize RFID (Radio Frequency IDentification) technology and use radio waves in the 13.56 MHz band and the like are being used as antennas that are mounted in communication apparatuses such as mobile terminal devices. To improve the communication efficiency, an NFC antenna is provided with a magnetic sheet that improves the communication efficiency in the 13.56 MHz band and thus configured as an NFC antenna module. Technology has also been proposed in which a non-contact charging module is mounted in a communication apparatus, and the communication apparatus is charged by non-contact charging. According to this technology, a power transmission coil is disposed on the charger side and a power reception coil is provided on the communication apparatus side, electromagnetic induction is generated between the two coils at a frequency in a band between approximately 100 kHz and 200 kHz to thereby transfer electric power from the charger to the communication apparatus side. To improve the communication efficiency, the non-contact charging module is also provided with a magnetic sheet that improves the efficiency of communication in the band between approximately 100 kHz and 200 kHz. Mobile terminals that include such NFC modules and non-contact charging modules have also been proposed (for example, see PTL 1). CITATION LIST Patent Literature PTL 1 Japanese Patent No. 4669560 BRIEF SUMMARY Technical Problem The term “NFC” refers to short-range wireless communication that achieves communication by electromagnetic induction using a frequency in the 13.56 MHz band. Further, non-contact charging transmits power by electromagnetic induction using a frequency in a band between approximately 100 kHz and 200 kHz. Accordingly, an optimal magnetic sheet for achieving highly efficient communication (power transmission) in the respective frequency bands differs between an NFC module and a non-contact charging module. On the other hand, since both the NFC module and the non-contact charging module perform communication (power transmission) by electromagnetic induction, the NFC module and the non-contact charging module are liable to interfere with each other. That is, there is a possibility that when one of the modules is performing communication, the other module will take some of the magnetic flux, and there is also the possibility that an eddy current will be generated in the other coil and weaken electromagnetic induction of the one module that is performing communication. Therefore, in PTL 1, the NFC module and the non-contact charging module each include a magnetic sheet and are each arranged as a module, which in turn hinders miniaturization of the communication apparatus. The communication directions of the NFC module and the non-contact charging module are made to differ so that mutual interference does not arise when the respective modules perform communication, and as a result the communication apparatus is extremely inconvenient because the communication surface changes depending on the kind of communication. In addition, in recent years there has been an increase in the use of smartphones in which a large proportion of one surface of the casing serves as a display portion, so that if the aforementioned communication apparatus is applied to a smartphone it is necessary to perform one of the kinds of communication on the surface where the display section exists. Also, when the non-contact charging module is provided in the mobile terminal, downsizing the mobile terminal is difficult and there is a room for improvement. An object of the present invention is to provide a mobile terminal that may achieve a reduction of thickness by making a non-contact charging coil, an NFC antenna, and a magnetic sheet into a single module, and that may achieve a communication and a power transmission in the same direction. Also, another object of the present invention is to improve both power transmission efficiency of the non-contact charging and communication efficiency of NFC communication by laminating two types of magnetic sheets. Solution to Problem The mobile terminal of the present invention comprises a housing, a battery pack contained in the housing, and a non-contact charging module contained in the housing. The non-contact charging module includes a charging coil formed of a wound conducting wire, an NFC coil arranged so as to surround the charging coil, a first magnetic sheet supporting the charging coil, and a second magnetic sheet placed on the first magnetic sheet and supporting the NFC coil. The battery pack is arranged in a first area in a plane normal to a thickness direction of the housing, and the non-contact charging module is arranged in a second area adjacent to the first area. The non-contact charging module overlaps with a cross point between a first center line of the second area, which extends in parallel to an interface between the first area and the second area, and a second center line of the second area, which extends orthogonal to the interface and extends in a width direction of the housing. The battery pack is arranged in the first area and the non-contact charging module is arranged in the second area. Therefore, the battery pack and the non-contact charging module are arranged adjacent to each other. Thus, connecting the battery pack to the non-contact charging module may be easy. The non-contact charging module overlaps with a cross point between the first center line of the second area, which extends in parallel to an interface between the first area and the second area, and a second center line of the second area, which extends in a width direction of the housing. Therefore, weight imbalance caused by non-contact charging module in the interface direction of housing may be avoided. The mobile terminal of the present invention comprises a housing, a battery pack contained in the housing, and a non-contact charging module contained in the housing. The non-contact charging module includes a charging coil formed of a wound conducting wire, an NFC coil arranged so as to surround the charging coil, a first magnetic sheet supporting the charging coil, and a second magnetic sheet placed on the first magnetic sheet and supporting the NFC coil. The battery pack is arranged in a first area in a plane normal to a thickness direction of the housing, and the non-contact charging module is arranged in a second area adjacent to the first area. The non-contact charging module overlaps with a cross point between a first center line of the second area, which extends in parallel to an interface between the first area and the second area, and a second center line of the second area, which extends orthogonal to the interface and extends in a width direction of the battery pack. The battery pack is arranged in the first area and the non-contact charging module is arranged in the second area. Therefore, the battery pack and the non-contact charging module are arranged adjacent to each other. Thus, connecting the battery pack to the secondary-side non-contact charging module may be easy. The non-contact charging module overlaps with a cross point between the first center line of the second area, which extends in parallel to an interface between the first area and the second area, and a second center line of the second area, which extends in a width direction of the battery pack. Therefore, weight imbalance caused by non-contact charging module in the interface direction of battery pack may be avoided. The mobile terminal of the present invention comprises a housing, a battery pack contained in the housing, and a non-contact charging module contained in the housing. The non-contact charging module includes a charging coil formed of a wound conducting wire, an NFC coil arranged so as to surround the charging coil, a first magnetic sheet supporting the charging coil, and a second magnetic sheet placed on the first magnetic sheet and supporting the NFC coil. The battery pack is arranged in a first area in a plane normal to a thickness direction of the housing, and the non-contact charging module is arranged in a second area adjacent to the first area. The non-contact charging module is arranged on a side closer to the first area relative to a first center line of the second area extending in parallel to an interface between the first area and the second area. The battery pack is arranged in the first area and the non-contact charging module is arranged in the second area. Therefore, the battery pack and the non-contact charging module are arranged adjacent to each other. Thus, connecting the battery pack to the non-contact charging module may be easy. The non-contact charging module is arranged on a side closer to the first area relative to the first center line of the second area extending in parallel to the interface between the first area and the second area. Therefore, the weight of non-contact charging module is not biased to an opposite side of the first area relative to the first center line of the second area. Thus, causing discomfort to a user may be avoided. Advantageous Effects of Invention According to the present invention, a non-contact charging module and a communication apparatus that enable a reduction in size by making a non-contact charging coil, an NFC antenna, and a magnetic sheet into a single module, that can ease adverse effects by modularization and that also enable communication and power transmission in the same direction. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an exploded perspective view of a mobile terminal according to a first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2A is a plan view of a mobile terminal and FIG. 2B is a side view of a mobile terminal according to a first embodiment. FIG. 3 is a cross-section view of a circuit board and a secondary-side non-contact charging module of a first embodiment. FIGS. 4A to 4E are an exploded view of a secondary-side non-contact charging module according to a first embodiment. FIGS. 5A to 5D illustrate relations between a primary-side non-contact charging module that includes a magnet, and a charging coil; FIG. 6 illustrates a relation between the size of an inner diameter of a hollow portion of a charging coil and an L value of the charging coil when an outer diameter of the hollow portion of the charging coil is kept constant with respect to a case where a magnet is provided in a primary-side non-contact charging module and a case where a magnet is not provided therein. FIG. 7 illustrates a relation between an L value of a charging coil and a percentage of hollowing of a center portion with respect to a case where a magnet is provided in a primary-side non-contact charging module and a case where a magnet is not provided therein. FIGS. 8A to 8D illustrate a secondary-side non-contact charging module according to a first embodiment. FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram illustrating a first magnetic sheet that includes an L-shaped slit according to a first embodiment. FIGS. 10A to 10C illustrate a frequency characteristic of a first magnetic sheet and a second magnetic sheet according to a first embodiment. FIG. 11A to 11C are plan views explaining a charger which charges a secondary-side non-contact charging module according to a first embodiment. FIG. 12 is a perspective view illustrating an example of charging a secondary-side non-contact charging module according to a first embodiment. FIG. 13 is a plan view of a mobile terminal according to a second embodiment. FIG. 14 is a plan view of a mobile terminal according to a third embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION An embodiment of a mobile terminal according to an embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. The First Embodiment As shown in FIG. 1, a mobile terminal 10 includes a housing 11, a communicating hole 12 through which the inside and the outside of the housing 11 communicate, a camera unit 16 mounted on a circuit board 14, a battery pack housed in the housing 11, and a secondary-side non-contact charging module (non-contact charging module) 20. Furthermore, the mobile terminal 10 includes a heat dissipating sheet 22 (which is shown in FIG. 2B) provided on the secondary-side non-contact charging module 20, a display unit 24 provided at a side of an aperture 11A of the housing 11A, and a protection cover 26 covering the display unit 24. As described in FIG. 2A and 2B, the housing 11 is formed into a substantially rectangular shape in a plane normal to a thickness direction of the housing 11. The housing 11 includes a first area positioned at the opposite of the communicating hole 12 in a plane normal and a second area 32 positioned adjacent to the first area 31. The battery pack 18 is located in the first area 31 and the secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 and the camera unit 16 are located in the second area 32. As described in FIG. 3, the circuit board 14 includes a base substrate 34 located in the second area 32 of the housing 11 and a plurality of electronic components which are located on a side 34A facing the secondary-side non-contact charging module 20. Also, the circuit board 14 is provided with a shield case 36 covering the plurality of electronic components which are located on the side 34A facing the secondary-side non-contact charging module 20. The camera unit 16 is located on the side 34A facing the secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 of the base substrate 34 and includes a camera module capable of taking an image through the communicating hole 12. As describe in FIG. 2A and 2B, the battery pack 18 is formed into a substantially rectangular shape and located in the first area 31 in a plane normal to the thickness direction of the housing 11. As described in FIG. 4A, the secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is located in the second area 32 of the housing 11 (as shown in FIG. 2A). And the secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 includes a charging coil 41 that includes a wound conducting wire 42 and a NFC coil 43 that is disposed so as to surround charging coil 41. Also, the secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 includes a first magnetic sheet 44 that supports the charging coil 41 and a second magnetic sheet 45 that is placed the NFC coil 43 from the same direction. An insulative double-faced tape or adhesive or the like is used to adhere the upper face of first magnetic sheet 44 and the lower face of second magnetic sheet 45, to adhere the upper face of first magnetic sheet 44 and the lower face of the charging coil 41, and to adhere the upper face of second magnetic sheet 45 and the lower face of the NFC coil 43. It is advantageous to arrange the entire charging coil 41 on first magnetic sheet 44 so as not to protrude therefrom, and to arrange the entire NFC coil 43 on second magnetic sheet 45 so as not to protrude therefrom. It is advantageous to arrange second magnetic sheet 45 so as not to protrude from first magnetic sheet 44. Adopting such a configuration can improve the communication efficiency of both the charging coil 41 and the NFC coil 43. Note that slit 48 is formed in first magnetic sheet 44. The shape of slit 48 may be the shape shown in FIG. 4A (a shape as shown in FIG. 9 that is described later), or may be the shape shown in FIG. 4D. Also, in FIG. 4A, although the slit 48 does not extend to a center portion 44B, the slit 48 may extend to a center portion 44B. This may enable a whole of two leg portions 432a and 432b to be completely housed in the slit 48. The following is an detailed explanation of the charging coil 41, the NFC coil 43, the first magnetic sheet 44, and the second magnetic sheet 45. [Regarding Charging Coil] The charging coil 414 will be described in detail using FIG. 4B. In the present embodiment, charging coil 41 is wound in a substantially square shape, but may be wound in any shape such as a substantially rectangular shape including a substantially oblong shape, a circular shape, an elliptical shape, and a polygonal shape. The charging coil 41 has two leg portions (terminals) 432a and 432b as a starting end and a terminating end thereof, and includes a litz wire constituted by around 8 to 15 conducting wires having a diameter of approximately 0.1 mm or a plurality of wires (preferably, around 2 to 15 conducting wires having a diameter of 0.08 mm to 0.3 mm) that is wound around a hollow portion as though to draw a swirl on the surface. For example, in the case of a coil including a wound litz wire made of 12 conducting wires having a diameter of 0.1 mm, in comparison to a coil including a single wound conducting wire having the same cross-sectional area, the alternating-current resistance decreases considerably due to the skin effect. If the alternating-current resistance decreases while the coil is operating, heat generation by the coil decreases and thus charging coil 41 that has favorable thermal properties can be realized. At this time, if a litz wire that includes 8 to 15 conducting wires having a diameter of 0.08 mm to 1.5 mm is used, favorable power transfer efficiency can be achieved. If a single wire is used, it is advantageous to use a conducting wire having a diameter between 0.2 mm and 1 mm. Further, for example, a configuration may also be adopted in which, similarly to a litz wire, a single conducting wire is formed of three conducting wires having a diameter of 0.2 mm and two conducting wires having a diameter of 0.3 mm. Terminals 432a and 432b as a current supply section supply a current from a commercial power source that is an external power source to charging coil 41. Note that an amount of current that flows through charging coil 41 is between approximately 0.4 A and 2 A. In the present embodiment the amount of current is 0.7 A. In charging coil 41 of the present embodiment, a distance between facing sides (a length of one side) of the hollow portion having a substantially square shape is 20 mm (between 15 mm and 25 mm is preferable), and a distance between facing sides (a length of one side) at an outer edge of the substantially square shape is 35 mm (between 25 mm and 45 mm is preferable). Charging coil 41 is wound in a donut shape. In a case where charging coil 41 is wound in a substantially oblong shape, with respect to facing sides of the hollow portion of the substantially oblong shape, a distance between short sides (a length of one side) is 15 mm (between 10 mm and 20 mm is preferable) and a distance between long sides (a length of one side) is 23 mm (between 15 mm and 30 mm is preferable). Further, with respect to facing sides at an outer edge of a substantially square shape, a distance between short sides (a length of one side) is 28 mm (between 15 mm and 35 mm is preferable) and a distance between long sides (a length of one side) is 36 mm (between 20 mm and 45 mm is preferable). In a case where charging coil 41 is wound in a circular shape, the diameter of the hollow portion is 20 mm (between 10 mm and 25 mm is preferable) and the diameter of an outer edge of the circular shape is 35 mm (between 25 mm and 45 mm is preferable). Further, in some cases charging coil 41 utilizes a magnet for alignment with a coil of a non-contact charging module inside a charger that supplies power to charging coil 41 as a counterpart for power transmission. A magnet in such a case is defined by the standard (WPC) as a circular (coin shaped) neodymium magnet having a diameter of approximately 15.5 mm (approximately 10 mm to 20 mm) and a thickness of approximately 1.5 to 2 mm or the like. A favorable strength of the magnet is approximately 75 mT to 150 mT. Since an interval between a coil of the primary-side non-contact charging module and charging coil 41 is around 2 to 5 mm, it is possible to adequately perform alignment using such a magnet. The magnet is disposed in a hollow portion of the non-contact charging module coil on the primary side or secondary side. In the present embodiment, the magnet is disposed in the hollow portion of charging coil 41. That is, for example, the following methods may be mentioned as an aligning method. For example, a method is available in which a protruding portion is formed in a charging surface of a charger, a recessed portion is formed in an electronic device on the secondary side, and the protruding portion is fitted into the recessed portion to thereby physically (geometrically) perform compulsory aligning. A method is also available in which a magnet is mounted on at least one of the primary side and secondary side, and alignment is performed by attraction between the respective magnets or between a magnet on one side and a magnetic sheet on the other side. As described in FIG. 11A, a method is also available in which a large number of coils 53 are provided in a wide area in the primary-side non-contact charging module 52 of the charger 50 (the primary-side) so that the mobile terminal 10 (the secondary-side) can be charged anywhere on the surface of the charger 50. As described in FIG. 11B, a method is also available in which the coil 53 of the primary-side non-contact charging module 52 of the charger 50 (the primary-side) is moved in a direction of the X axial and the Y axial so that the coil 53 can move to a position of the charging coil 41 of the mobile terminal 10 (the secondary-side). Furthermore, as described in FIG. 11C, a method is also available in which the coil 53 of the primary-side non-contact charging module 52 of the charger 50 (the primary-side) is formed to be relatively large so that the charging coil 41 of the mobile terminal 10 (the secondary-side) can be aligned with the coil 53. Thus, various methods can be mentioned as common methods for aligning the coils of the primary-side (charging-side) non-contact charging module and the secondary-side (charged-side) non-contact charging module, and the methods are divided into methods that use a magnet and methods that do not use a magnet. The secondary- side non-contact charging module 20 is configured to be adaptable to both of a primary side (charging-side) non-contact charging module that uses a magnet and a primary-side non-contact charging module that does not use a magnet. Therefore, charging can be performed regardless of the type of primary-side non-contact charging module, which in turn, improves the convenience of the module. The influence that a magnet has on the power transmission efficiency of non-contact charging module 100 will be described. When magnetic flux for electromagnetic induction is generated between the primary-side non-contact charging module and non-contact charging module 20 to transmit power, the presence of a magnet between or around the primary-side non-contact charging module and non-contact charging module 20 leads extension of the magnetic flux to avoid the magnet. Otherwise, the magnetic flux that passes through the magnet becomes an eddy current or generates heat in the magnet and is lost. Furthermore, if the magnet is disposed in the vicinity of first magnetic sheet 44, first magnetic sheet 44 that is in the vicinity of the magnet saturates and the magnetic permeability thereof decreases. Therefore, the magnet that is included in the primary-side non-contact charging module may decrease an L value of charging coil 41. As a result, transmission efficiency between the non-contact charging modules will decrease. To prevent this, in the present embodiment the hollow portion of charging coil 41 is made larger than the magnet. That is, the area of the hollow portion is made larger than the area of a circular face of the coin-shaped magnet, and an inside edge (portion surrounding the hollow portion) of charging coil 41 is configured to be located at a position that is on the outer side relative to the outer edge of the magnet. Further, because the diameter of the magnet is 15.5 mm or less, it is sufficient to make the hollow portion larger than a circle having a diameter of 15.5 mm. As another method, charging coil 41 may be wound in a substantially oblong shape, and a diagonal of the hollow portion having a substantially oblong shape may be made longer than the diameter (maximum 15.5 mm) of the magnet. As a result, since the corner portions (four corners) at which the magnetic flux concentrates of charging coil 41 that is wound in a substantially oblong shape are positioned on the outer side relative to the magnet, the influence of the magnet can be suppressed. Effects obtained by employing the above described configuration are described hereunder. FIGS. 5A to 5D illustrate relations between the primary-side non-contact charging module including the magnet, and the charging coil. FIG. 5A illustrates a case where the aligning magnet is used when the inner width of the wound charging coil is small. FIG. 5B illustrates a case where the aligning magnet is used when the inner width of the wound charging coil is large. FIG. 5C illustrates a case where the aligning magnet is not used when the inner width of the wound charging coil is small. FIG. 5D illustrates a case where the aligning magnet is not used when the inner width of the wound charging coil is large. Primary-side non-contact charging module 200 that is disposed inside the charger includes primary-side coil 210, magnet 220, and a magnetic sheet (not illustrated in the drawings). In FIGS. 5A to 5D, first magnetic sheet 44, second magnetic sheet 45, and charging coil 41 inside non-contact charging module 20 are schematically illustrated. Secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 and primary-side non-contact charging module 200 are aligned so that primary-side coil 210 and charging coil 41 face each other. A magnetic field is generated between inner portion 211 of primary-side coil 210 and inner portion 133 of charging coil 41 and power is transmitted. Inner portion 211 and inner portion 133 face each other. Inner portion 211 and inner portion 33 are close to magnet 220 and are liable to be adversely affected by magnet 220. In addition, because magnet 220 is disposed in the vicinity of first magnetic sheet 44 and second magnetic sheet 45, the magnetic permeability of the magnetic sheets in the vicinity of magnet 220 decreases. Naturally, second magnetic sheet 45 is closer than second magnetic sheet 45 to magnet 220, and is more liable to be affected by magnet 220. Therefore, magnet 220 included in primary-side non-contact charging module 200 weakens the magnetic flux of primary-side coil 210 and charging coil 41, particularly, at inner portion 211 and inner portion 133, and exerts an adverse effect. As a result, the transmission efficiency of the non-contact charging decreases. Accordingly, in the case illustrated in FIG. 5A, inner portion 133 that is liable to be adversely affected by magnet 220 is large. In contrast, in the case illustrated in FIG. 5C in which a magnet is not used, the L value increases because the number of turns of charging coil 41 is large. As a result, since there is a significant decrease in the numerical value from the L value in FIG. 5C to the L value in FIG. 5A, when using a wound coil having a small inner width, the L-value decrease rate with respect to an L value in a case where magnet 220 is included for alignment and an L value in a case where magnet 220 is not included is extremely large. Further, if the inner width of charging coil 41 is smaller than the diameter of magnet 220 as illustrated in FIG. 5A, charging coil 41 is directly adversely affected by magnet 220 to a degree that corresponds to the area of charging coil 41 that faces magnet 220. Accordingly, it is better for the inner width of charging coil 41 to be larger than the diameter of magnet 220. In contrast, when the inner width of charging coil 41 is large as illustrated in FIG. 5B, inner portion 133 that is liable to be adversely affected by magnet 220 is extremely small. In the case illustrated in FIG. 5D, the L value is smaller than in FIG. 5C because the number of turns of charging coil 41 is less. Consequently, because a decrease in the numerical value from the L value in the case illustrated in FIG. 5D to the L value in the case illustrated in FIG. 5B is small, the L-value decrease rate can be suppressed to a small amount in the case of coils that have a large inner width. Further, as the inner width of charging coil 41 increases, the influence of magnet 220 can be suppressed because the distance from magnet 220 to the edge of the hollow portion of charging coil 41 increases. Since communication module 20 is mounted in an electronic device or the like, charging coil 41 cannot be made larger than a certain size. Accordingly, if the inner width of charging coil 41 is made large to reduce the adverse effects from magnet 220, the number of turns will decrease and the L value itself will decrease regardless of the presence or absence of a magnet. Therefore, charging coil 41 can be increased to the maximum size in a case where the area of magnet 220 and the area of the hollow portion of charging coil 41 are substantially the same (the outer diameter of magnet 220 is about 0 to 2 mm smaller than the inner width of charging coil 41, or the area of magnet 220 is a proportion of about 75% to 95% relative to the area of the hollow portion of charging coil 41). Hence, the accuracy of the alignment between the primary-side non-contact charging module and the secondary-side non-contact charging module can be improved. Further, if the area of magnet 220 is less than the area of the hollow portion of charging coil 41 (the outer diameter of magnet 220 is about 2 to 8 mm smaller than the inner width of charging coil 41, or the area of magnet 220 is a proportion of about 45% to 75% relative to the area of the hollow portion of charging coil 41), even if there are variations in the alignment accuracy, it is possible to ensure that magnet 220 is not present at a portion at which inner portion 211 and inner portion 33 face each other. In addition, as charging coil 41 that is mounted in non-contact charging module 20 having the same lateral width and vertical width, the influence of magnet 220 can be suppressed more by winding the coil in a substantially rectangular shape rather than in a circular shape. That is, comparing a circular coil in which the diameter of a hollow portion is represented by “x” and a substantially square coil in which a distance between facing sides of the hollow portion (a length of one side) is represented by “x,” if conducting wires having the same diameter as each other are wound with the same number of turns, the respective conducting wires will be housed in respective non-contact charging modules 100 that have the same width. In such case, length y of a diagonal of the hollow portion of the substantially square-shaped coil will be such that y>x. Accordingly, if the diameter of magnet 220 is taken as “m,” a distance (x−m) between the innermost edge of the circular coil and magnet 220 is always constant (x>m). On the other hand, a distance between the innermost edge of a substantially rectangular coil and magnet 220 is a minimum of (x−m), and is a maximum of (y−m) at corner portions 431a to 431d. When charging coil 41 includes corners such as corner portions 431a to 431d, magnetic flux concentrates at the corners during power transmission. That is, corner portions 431a to 431d at which the most magnetic flux concentrates are furthest from magnet 220, and moreover, the width (size) of non-contact charging module 100 does not change. Accordingly, the power transmission efficiency of power reception coil 30 can be improved without making non-contact charging module 100 a large size. The size of charging coil 41 can be reduced further if charging coil 41 is wound in a substantially oblong shape. That is, even if a short side of a hollow portion that is a substantially oblong shape is smaller than m, as long as a long side thereof is larger than m it is possible to dispose four corner portions outside of the outer circumference of magnet 220. Accordingly, when charging coil 41 is wound in a substantially oblong shape around a hollow portion having a substantially oblong shape, charging coil 41 can be wound in a favorable manner as long as at least the long side of the hollow portion is larger than m. Note that, the foregoing description of a configuration in which the innermost edge of charging coil 41 is on the outer side of magnet 220 that is provided in primary-side non-contact charging module 200 and in which four corners of the substantially rectangular hollow portion of charging coil 41 that is wound in a substantially rectangular shape are on the outside of magnet 220 refers to a configuration as shown in FIG. 5B. That is, the foregoing describes a fact that when an edge of the circular face of magnet 220 is extended in the stacking direction and caused to extend as far as non-contact charging module 20, a region surrounded by the extension line is contained within the hollow portion of charging coil 41. FIG. 6 illustrates a relation between the size of the inner diameter of the wound charging coil and the L value of the charging coil when the outer diameter of the wound charging coil is kept constant, with respect to a case where a magnet is provided in the primary-side non-contact charging module and a case where the magnet is not provided therein. As shown in FIG. 6, when the size of magnet 220 and the outer diameter of charging coil 41 are kept constant, the influence of magnet 220 on charging coil 41 decreases as the number of turns of charging coil 41 decreases and the inner diameter of charging coil 41 increases. That is, the L value of charging coil 41 in a case where magnet 220 is utilized for alignment between the primary-side non-contact charging module and the secondary-side non-contact charging module and the L value of charging coil 41 in a case where magnet 220 is not utilized for alignment approach each other. Accordingly, a resonance frequency when magnet 220 is used and a resonance frequency when magnet 220 is not used become extremely similar values. At such time, the outer diameter of the wound coil is uniformly set to 30 mm. Further, by making the distance between the edge of the hollow portion of the charging coil 41 (innermost edge of charging coil 41) and the outer edge of magnet 220 greater than 0 mm and less than 6 mm, the L values in the case of utilizing magnet 220 and the case of not utilizing magnet 220 can be made similar to each other while maintaining the L values at 15 μH or more. The conducting wire of charging coil 41 may be a single conducting wire that is stacked in a plurality of stages, and the stacking direction in this case is the same as the stacking direction in which first magnetic sheet 44 and charging coil 41 are stacked. At such time, by stacking the layers of conducting wire that are arranged in the vertical direction with a space interposed in between, stray capacitance between conducting wire on an upper stage and conducting wire on a lower stage decreases, and the alternating-current resistance of charging coil 41 can be suppressed to a small amount. Further, the thickness of charging coil 41 can be minimized by winding the conducting wire densely. By stacking the conducting wire in this manner, the number of turns of charging coil 41 can be increased to thereby improve the L value. However, in comparison to winding of the charging coil 41 in a plurality of stages in the stacking direction, winding of charging coil 41 in one stage can lower the alternating-current resistance of charging coil 41 and raise the transmission efficiency. If charging coil 41 is wound in a polygonal shape, corner portions (corners) 431a to 431d are provided as described below. Charging coil 41 that is wound in a substantially square shape refers to a coil in which R (radius of a curve at the four corners) of corner portions 431a to 431d that are four corners of the hollow portion is equal to or less than 30% of the edge width of the hollow portion. That is, in FIG. 4B, in the substantially square hollow portion, the four corners have a curved shape. In comparison to right angled corners, the strength of the conducting wire at the four corners can be improved when the corners are curved to some extent. However, if R is too large, there is almost no difference from a circular coil and it will not be possible to obtain effects that are only obtained with a substantially square charging coil 41. It has been found that when the edge width of the hollow portion is, for example, 20 mm, and radius R of a curve at each of the four corners is 6 mm or less, the influence of a magnet can be effectively suppressed. Further, when taking into account the strength of the four corners as described above, the greatest effect of the rectangular coil described above can be obtained by making radius R of a curve at each of the four corners an amount that corresponds to a proportion of 5 to 30% relative to the edge width of the substantially square hollow portion. Note that, even in the case of charging coil 41 wound in a substantially oblong shape, the effect of the substantially oblong coil described above can be obtained by making radius R of a curve at each of the four corners an amount that corresponds to a proportion of 5 to 30% relative to the edge width (either one of a short side and a long side) of the substantially oblong hollow portion. Note that, in the present embodiment, with respect to the four corners at the innermost end (hollow portion) of charging coil 41, R is 2 mm, and a preferable value for R is between 0.5 mm and 4 mm. Further, when winding charging coil 41 in a rectangular shape, preferably, leg portions 432a and 432b are provided in the vicinity of corner portions 431a to 431d. When charging coil 41 is wound in a circular shape, irrespective of where leg portions 432a and 432b are provided, leg portions 432a and 432b can be provided at a portion at which a planar coil portion is wound in a curve. When the conducting wire is wound in a curved shape, a force acts that tries to maintain the curved shape thereof, and it is difficult for the overall shape to be broken even if leg portions 32a and 32b are formed. In contrast, in the case of a coil in which the conducting wire is wound in a rectangular shape, there is a difference in the force with which the coil tries to maintain the shape of the coil itself with respect to side portions (linear portions) and corner portions. That is, at corner portions 431a to 431d in FIG. 4B, a large force acts to try to maintain the shape of charging coil 41. However, at each side portion, a force that acts to try to maintain the shape of charging coil 41 is small, and the conducting wire is liable to become uncoiled from charging coil 41 in a manner in which the conducting wire pivots around the curves at corner portions 431a to 431d. As a result, the number of turns of charging coil 41 fluctuates by, for example, about ⅛ turn, and the L value of charging coil 41 fluctuates. That is, the L value of charging coil 41 varies. Accordingly, it is favorable for winding start point 432aa and winding end point 432bb of the conducting wire which is wound a plurality of times until winding end point 432bb is formed to be adjacent to corner portions 431a to 431d. At this time, the conducting wire is bent to a larger degree in a gradual manner at winding end point 432bb compared to winding start point 432aa. This is done to enhance a force that tries to maintain the shape of leg portion 432b. If the conducting wire is a litz wire, a force that tries to maintain the shape of charging coil 41 is further enhanced. In the case of a litz wire, since the surface area per wire is large, if an adhesive or the like is used to fix the shape of charging coil 41, it is easy to fix the shape thereof. In contrast, if the conducting wire is a single wire, because the surface area per conducting wire decreases, the surface area to be adhered decreases and the shape of charging coil 41 is liable to become uncoiled. According to the present embodiment charging coil 41 is formed using a conducting wire having a circular sectional shape, but a conducting wire having a square sectional shape may be used as well. In the case of using a conducting wire having a circular sectional shape, since gaps arise between adjacent conducting wires, stray capacitance between the conducting wires decreases and the alternating-current resistance of charging coil 41 can be suppressed to a small amount. [Regarding NFC Coil] NFC coil 43 according to the present embodiment that is illustrated in FIG. 4C is an antenna that carries out short-range wireless communication which performs communication by electromagnetic induction using the 13.56 MHz frequency, and a sheet antenna is generally used therefor. NFC coil 43 includes second magnetic sheet 45 having a ferrite magnetic body as a principal component, protective members between which the magnetic sheet is interposed, a matching circuit, a terminal connection section, a substrate, a chip capacitor for matching and the like. NFC coil 43 may be housed in a radio communication medium such as an IC card or IC tag, or may be housed in a radio communication medium processing apparatus such as a reader or a reader/writer. NFC coil 43 in an antenna pattern that is formed with a spiral-shaped conductive material (that is, is formed by winding a conducting wire). The spiral structure may be a spiral shape that has an open portion at the center, and the shape thereof may any one of a circular shape, a substantially rectangular shape, a substantially square shape, and a polygonal shape. In the present embodiment, NFC coil 43 is a rectangular shape, and particularly is a square shape. Adopting a spiral structure causes a sufficient magnetic field to be generated and enables communication by generation of inductive power and mutual inductance. Further, since a circuit can be formed directly on the surface of or inside second magnetic sheet 45, it is possible to form NFC coil 43, matching circuit, and terminal connection section directly on second magnetic sheet 45. The matching circuit is constituted by a chip capacitor that is mounted so as to form a bridge with an electric conductor of NFC coil 43 that is formed on a substrate, and therefore the matching circuit can be formed on the NFC coil. Connecting the matching circuit with the coil forms NFC coil 43 in which the resonance frequency of the antenna is adjusted to a desired frequency, which suppresses the occurrence of standing waves due to mismatching, and which operates stably with little loss. The chip capacitor used as a matching element is mounted so as to form a bridge with the electric conductor of NFC coil 43. The substrate can be formed of a polyimide, PET, a glass-epoxy substrate, an FPC substrate or the like. By using a polyimide or PET or the like, NFC coil 43 that is thin and flexible can be formed by printing or the like. According to the present embodiment, the substrate is constituted by an FPC substrate having a thickness of 0.2 mm. Note that the above described NFC coil 43 is merely an example, and the present invention is not limited to the above described configuration or materials and the like. NFC coil 43 can be formed in a thin condition by forming a conducting wire on a substrate by pattern printing. Unlike charging coil 41, the amount of current during communication is extremely small, so that NFC coil 43 can be formed by pattern printing. The current is approximately 0.2 A to 0.4 A. The width of NFC coil 43 is between 0.1 mm and 1 mm, and the thickness is between 15 μm and 35 μm. In the present embodiment the conducting wire of NFC coil 43 is wound for four turns, and the number of turns may be from two to six. The length of the sides of the outer shape of NFC coil 43 is approximately 39 mm×39 mm (a preferable length of one side is between 30 mm and 60 mm), and the size of the substrate is approximately 39.6 mm×39.6 mm (a preferable length of one side is between 30 mm and 60 m). In a case where NFC coil 43 is wound in an oblong shape, with respect to the outer diameter of the substrate and NFC coil 43, preferably the length of a long side is between 40 mm and 60 mm and the length of a short side is between 30 mm and 50 mm. Further, with respect to the four corners, R is between 0.1 mm and 0.3 mm at the innermost edge of NFC coil 43 and R is between 0.2 mm and 0.4 mm at the outermost edge thereof, and the four corners of the outermost edge necessarily curve more gradually than the four corners at the innermost edge. [Regarding First Magnetic Sheet] First magnetic sheet 44 includes flat portion 44A on which charging coil 41 and second magnetic sheet 45 are mounted, center portion 44B that is substantially the center portion of flat portion 44A and that corresponds (faces) to the inside of the hollow region of charging coil 41, and slit 48 into which at least a part of the two leg portions 432a and 432b of charging coil 41 is inserted. Slit 48 is not limited to a slit shape that penetrates through first magnetic sheet 44 as shown in FIG. 4D, and may be formed in the shape of a recessed portion that does not penetrate therethrough. Forming slit 48 in a slit shape facilitates manufacture and makes it possible to securely house the conducting wire. On the other hand, forming slit 48 in the shape of a recessed portion makes it possible to increase the volume of first magnetic sheet 44, and it is thereby possible to improve the L value of charging coil 41 and the transmission efficiency. Center portion 44B may be formed in a shape that, with respect to flat portion 12, is any one of a protruding portion shape, a flat shape, a recessed portion shape, and the shape of a through-hole. If center portion 44B is formed as a protruding portion, the magnetic flux of charging coil 41 can be strengthened. If center portion 44B is flat, manufacturing is facilitated and charging coil 41 can be easily mounted thereon, and furthermore, a balance can be achieved between the influence of an aligning magnet and the L value of charging coil 41 that is described later. A detailed description with respect to a recessed portion shape and a through-hole is described later. A Ni—Zn ferrite sheet, a Mn—Zn ferrite sheet, or a Mg—Zn ferrite sheet or the like can be used as first magnetic sheet 44. First magnetic sheet 44 may be configured as a single layer, may be configured by stacking a plurality of sheets made of the same material in the thickness direction, or may be configured by stacking a plurality of different magnetic sheets in the thickness direction. It is preferable that, at least, the magnetic permeability of first magnetic sheet 44 is 250 or more and the saturation magnetic flux density thereof is 350 mT or more. An amorphous metal can also be used as first magnetic sheet 44. The use of ferrite sheet (sintered body) as first magnetic sheet 44 is advantageous in that the alternating-current resistance of charging coil 41 can be reduced, while the use of amorphous metal as the magnetic sheet is advantageous in that the thickness of charging coil 41 can be reduced. First magnetic sheet 44 is substantially square within a size of approximately 40×40 mm (from 35 mm to 50 mm), and is formed in a size that is equal to or somewhat larger than the size of the substrate of NFC coil 43. In a case where first magnetic sheet 44 is a substantially oblong shape, a short side thereof is 35 mm (from 25 mm to 45 mm) and a long side is 45 mm (from 35 mm to 55 mm). The thickness thereof is 0.43 mm (in practice, between 0.4 mm and 0.55 mm, and preferably between 0.3 mm and 0.7 mm). It is desirable to form first magnetic sheet 44 in a size that is equal to or larger than the size of the outer circumferential edge of second magnetic sheet 45. First magnetic sheet 44 may be a circular shape, a rectangular shape, a polygonal shape, or a rectangular and polygonal shape having large curves at four corners. Also, the secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 includes a charging coil 41 that includes a wound conducting wire 42 and a NFC coil 43 that is disposed so as to surround charging coil 41. Also, the secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 includes a first magnetic sheet 44 that supports the charging coil 41 and a second magnetic sheet 45 that is placed the NFC coil 43 from the same direction and a slit 48 provided on the first magnetic sheet 44. The leg portions 432a and 432b are housed in the slit 48. Slit 48 illustrated in FIG. 4D houses the conducting wire of at least a part of each of the two leg portions 432a and 432b that extend from winding start point 432aa (innermost portion of coil) and winding end point 432bb (outermost edge of coil) of charging coil 41 to lower edge 414 of first magnetic sheet 44. Thus, slit 48 prevents the conducting wire from winding start point 32aa of the coil to leg portion 32a overlapping in the stacking direction at a planar winding portion of charging coil 41. In addition, slit 48 prevents leg portions 432a and 432b overlapping in the stacking direction of NFC coil 43 and thereby increasing the thickness of secondary- side non-contact charging module 20. Slit 48 is formed so that one end thereof is substantially perpendicular to an end (edge) of first magnetic sheet 44 that intersects therewith, and so as to contact center portion 44B of first magnetic sheet 44. In a case where charging coil 41 is circular, by forming slit 48 so as to overlap with a tangent of center portion 44B (circular), leg portions 432a and 432b can be formed without bending a winding start portion of the conducting wire. In a case where charging coil 41 is a substantially rectangular shape, by forming slit 48 so as to overlap with an extension line of a side of center portion 44B (having a substantially rectangular shape), leg portions 432a and 432b can be formed without bending the winding start portion of the conducting wire. The length of slit 48 depends on the inner diameter of charging coil 41 and the size of first magnetic sheet 44. In the present embodiment, the length of slit 48 is between approximately 15 mm and 30 mm. Slit 48 may also be formed at a portion at which an end (edge) of first magnetic sheet 44 and center portion 44B are closest to each other. That is, when charging coil 41 is circular, slit 48 is formed to be perpendicular to the end (edge) of first magnetic sheet 44 and a tangent of center portion 44B (circular), and is formed as a short slit. Further, when charging coil 41 is substantially rectangular, slit 48 is formed to be perpendicular to an end (edge) of first magnetic sheet 44 and a side of center portion 44B (substantially rectangular), and is formed as a short slit. It is thereby possible to minimize the area in which slit 48 is formed and to improve the transmission efficiency of a non-contact power transmission device. Note that, in this case, the length of slit 48 is approximately 5 mm to 20 mm. In both of these configurations, the inner side end of the linear recessed portion or slit 48 is connected to center portion 44B. Next, adverse effects on first magnetic sheet 44 produced by the magnet for alignment described in the foregoing are described. As described above, when magnet 220 is provided in primary-side non-contact charging module 200 for alignment, due to the influence of magnet 220, the magnetic permeability of first magnetic sheet 44 decreases at a portion that is close to magnet 220 in particular. Accordingly, the L value of charging coil 41 varies significantly between a case where magnet 220 for alignment is provided in primary-side non-contact charging module 200 and a case where magnet 220 is not provided. It is therefore necessary to provide the magnetic sheet such that the L value of charging coil 41 changes as little as possible between a case where magnet 220 is close thereto and a case where magnet 220 is not close thereto. When the electronic device in which non-contact charging module is mounted is a mobile phone, in many cases non-contact charging module is disposed between the case constituting the exterior package of the mobile phone and a battery pack located inside the mobile phone, or between the case and a substrate located inside the case. In general, since the battery pack is a casing made of aluminum, the battery pack adversely affects power transmission. This is because an eddy current is generated in the aluminum in a direction that weakens the magnetic flux generated by the coil, and therefore the magnetic flux of the coil is weakened. For this reason, it is necessary to alleviate the influence with respect to the aluminum by providing first magnetic sheet 44 between the aluminum which is the exterior package of the battery pack and charging coil 41 disposed on the exterior package thereof. Further, there is a possibility that an electronic component mounted on the substrate will interfere with power transmission of charging coil 41, and the electronic component and charging coil 41 will exert adverse effects on each other. Consequently, it is necessary to provide a magnetic sheet or a metal film between the substrate and charging coil 41, and suppress the mutual influences of the substrate and charging coil 41. In consideration of the above described points, it is important that first magnetic sheet 44 that is used in non-contact charging module 100 has a high level of magnetic permeability and a high saturation magnetic flux density so that the L value of charging coil 41 is made as large as possible. It is sufficient if the magnetic permeability of first magnetic sheet 44 is 250 or more and the saturation magnetic flux density thereof is 350 mT or more. In the present embodiment, first magnetic sheet 44 is a Mn—Zn ferrite sintered body having a magnetic permeability between 1,500 and 2,500, a saturation magnetic flux density between 400 and 500, and a thickness between approximately 400 μm and 700 μm. However, first magnetic sheet 44 may be made of Ni—Zn ferrite, and favorable power transmission can be performed with primary-side non-contact charging module 200 as long as the magnetic permeability thereof is 250 or more and the saturation magnetic flux density is 350 or more. Charging coil 41 forms an LC resonance circuit through the use of a resonant capacitor. At such time, if the L value of charging coil 41 varies significantly between a case where magnet 220 provided in primary-side non-contact charging module 200 is utilized for alignment and a case where magnet 220 is not utilized, a resonance frequency with the resonant capacitor will also vary significantly. Since the resonance frequency is used for power transmission (charging) between primary-side non-contact charging module 200 and non-contact charging module 100, if the resonance frequency varies significantly depending on the presence/absence of magnet 220, it will not be possible to perform power transmission correctly. However, by adopting the above described configuration, variations in the resonance frequency that are caused by the presence/absence of magnet 220 are suppressed, and highly efficient power transmission is performed in all situations. A further reduction in thickness is enabled by using a Mn—Zn ferrite sheet as the ferrite sheet. That is, the frequency of electromagnetic induction is defined by the standard (WPC) as a frequency between approximately 100 kHz and 200 kHz (for example, 120 kHz). A Mn—Zn ferrite sheet provides a high level of efficiency in this low frequency band. Note that a Ni—Zn ferrite sheet provides a high level of efficiency at a high frequency. Accordingly, in the present embodiment, first magnetic sheet 44 that is used for non-contact charging for performing power transmission at a frequency between approximately 100 kHz and 200 kHz is constituted by a Mn—Zn ferrite sheet, and second magnetic sheet 45 that is used for NFC communication in which communication is performed at a frequency of approximately 13.56 MHz is constituted by a Ni—Zn ferrite sheet. A hole may be formed at the center of center portion 44B of first magnetic sheet 44. Note that, the term “hole” may refer to either of a through-hole and a recessed portion. Although the hole may be larger or smaller than center portion 44B, it is favorable to form a hole that is smaller than center portion 44B. That is, when charging coil 41 is mounted on the first magnetic sheet, the hole may be larger or smaller than the hollow portion of charging coil 41. If the hole is smaller than the hollow portion of charging coil 41, all of charging coil 41 will be mounted on first magnetic sheet 44. As described in the foregoing, non-contact charging module is configured to be adaptable to both a primary-side (charging-side) non-contact charging module 200 that uses a magnet and primary-side non-contact charging module 200 that does not use a magnet. Thus, charging can be performed regardless of the type of primary-side non-contact charging module 200 and convenience is thereby improved. There is a demand to make the L value of charging coil 41 in a case where magnet 220 is provided in primary-side non-contact charging module 200 and the L value of charging coil 41 in a case where magnet 220 is not provided therein close to each other, and to also improve both L values. In addition, when magnet 220 is disposed in the vicinity of first magnetic sheet 44, the magnetic permeability of center portion 44B of first magnetic sheet 44 that is in the vicinity of magnet 220 decreases. Therefore, a decrease in the magnetic permeability can be suppressed by providing the hole in center portion 44B. FIG. 7 illustrates a relation between an L value of a charging coil in a case where a magnet is provided in the primary-side non-contact charging module and a case where a magnet is not provided, and the percentage of hollowing of the center portion. Note that a percentage of hollowing of 100% means that the hole in center portion 44B is a through-hole, and a percentage of hollowing of 0% means that a hole is not provided. Further, a percentage of hollowing of 50% means that, for example, a hole (recessed portion) of a depth of 0.3 mm is provided with respect to a magnetic sheet having a thickness of 0.6 mm. As shown in FIG. 7, in the case where magnet 220 is not provided in primary-side non-contact charging module 200, the L value decreases as the percentage of hollowing increases. At such time, although the L value decreases very little when the percentage of hollowing is from 0% to 75%, the L value decreases significantly when the percentage of hollowing is between 75% and 100%. In contrast, when magnet 220 is provided in primary-side non-contact charging module 200, the L value rises as the percentage of hollowing increases. This is because the charging coil is less liable to be adversely affected by the magnet. At such time, the L value gradually rises when the percentage of hollowing is between 0% and 75%, and rises significantly when the percentage of hollowing is between 75% and 100%. Accordingly, when the percentage of hollowing is between 0% and 75%, while maintaining the L value in a case where magnet 220 is not provided in primary-side non-contact charging module 200, the L value in a case where magnet 220 is provided in primary-side non-contact charging module 200 can be increased. Further, when the percentage of hollowing is between 75% and 100%, the L value in a case where magnet 220 is not provided in primary-side non-contact charging module 200 and the L value in a case where magnet 220 is provided in primary-side non-contact charging module 200 can be brought significantly close to each other. The greatest effect is achieved when the percentage of hollowing is between 40 and 60%. Magnet 220 and the first magnetic sheet can adequately attract each other when magnet 220 is provided and the L value of a case where magnet 220 is provided in primary-side non-contact charging module 200 is increased to 1 μH or more while the L value of a case where no magnet 220 is provided in primary-side non-contact charging module 200 is maintained. [Regarding Second Magnetic Sheet] Second magnetic sheet 45 illustrated in FIG. 4E is constituted by a metal material such as ferrite, permalloy, sendust or a silicon steel sheet. Ni-based soft magnetic ferrite is preferable as second magnetic sheet 45. Second magnetic sheet 45 can be made by molding ferrite fine particles using a dry pressing method, and sintering the molded ferrite to form a ferrite sintered body having high density. It is preferable that the density of the soft magnetic ferrite is 3.5 g/cm3 or more. Moreover, it is preferable that the size of the magnetic body made of the soft magnetic ferrite is greater than or equal to a crystal grain boundary. Second magnetic sheet 45 is a sheet-like (or a plate-like, film-like, or layer-like) magnetic sheet that is formed to a thickness between approximately 0.07 mm and 0.5 mm. The size of the outer shape of second magnetic sheet 45 is approximately the same as the outer shape of NFC coil 43. However, it is advantageous to make the outer shape of second magnetic sheet 45 approximately 1 to 3 mm larger than the outer shape of NFC coil 43. The thickness of second magnetic sheet 45 is 0.1 mm, which is half the thickness or less of first magnetic sheet 44. The magnetic permeability is at least 100 to 200. A protective member that is adhered to the upper and lower faces (front and rear faces) of first magnetic sheet 44 and second magnetic sheet 45 may be manufactured by employing at least one means selected from a resin, an ultraviolet curable resin, a visible light-curable resin, a thermoplastic resin, a thermosetting resin, a heat-resistant resin, synthetic rubber, a double coated tape, an adhesive layer, and a film, and such means may be selected by considering not only flexibility with respect to bends and flexures and the like of NFC coil 43, but also heat resistance and moisture resistance and the like. Further, one face, both faces, one side-face, both side-faces, or all faces of NFC coil 43 may be coated with the protective member. In particular, in the present embodiment, flexibility is provided by previously crushing first magnetic sheet 44 and second magnetic sheet 45 into small pieces. Therefore, it is useful to provide a protective sheet so that the large number of small pieces that are arranged in a sheet shape do not become scattered. [Regarding Configuration of Non-contact Charging Module] FIGS. 8A to 8D illustrate the secondary-side non-contact charging module according to the present embodiment. FIG. 8A is a top view of the secondary-side non-contact charging module. FIG. 8B is a bottom view of the secondary-side non-contact charging module. FIG. 8C is a sectional view along a line A-A in FIG. 8A. FIG. 8D is an enlarged sectional view of an area on the right side of line B-B′ in FIG. 8C. When the power reception direction of charging coil 41 and the communication direction of NFC coil 43 are made the same direction and charging coil 41 and NFC coil 43 are brought close together, simply disposing charging coil 41 and NFC coil 43 results in a situation where the mutual presence of charging coil 41 and NFC coil 43 reduces the power transmission efficiency of the counterpart. That is, at a time of non-contact charging, there is a possibility that magnetic flux generated by primary-side non-contact charging module 200 will be received as transmitted electricity by NFC coil 43, and consequently the power of the electricity received by charging coil 41 will decrease. Consequently, there is a possibility that the power transmission efficiency will decrease. Further, as far as NFC coil 43 is concerned, the magnetic flux that primary-side non-contact charging module 200 generates is extremely large, and is generated for a long time period. Accordingly, there is a possibility that a current that is too large for NFC coil 43 will arise in NFC coil 43, and there are cases where such a current causes adverse effects on NFC coil 43. On the other hand, when NFC coil 43 communicates, an eddy current is generated in charging coil 41 and interferes with the communication of NFC coil 43. That is, because of differences in the size of the power that is transmitted, the diameter of the conducting wire, the number of turns, and the overall size are larger in charging coil 41 than in NFC coil 43. Consequently, from the viewpoint of NFC coil 43, charging coil 41 is a large metal body. A magnetic flux that attempts to cancel out a magnetic flux emitted during communication by NFC coil 43 flows through charging coil 41, and significantly reduces the communication efficiency of NFC coil 43. Therefore, in the present embodiment, NFC coil 43 is disposed around the circumference of charging coil 41. Consequently, when performing non-contact charging, it is difficult for NFC coil 43 to receive electricity from magnetic flux that primary-side non-contact charging module 200 generates since NFC coil 43 is positioned at a location that is separated from primary-side non-contact charging module 200, and it is difficult for NFC coil 43 to take power that should be received by charging coil 41. As a result, a decrease in the power transmission efficiency can be suppressed. Conversely, in a case where NFC coil 43 is disposed inside a hollow portion of charging coil 41, since NFC coil 43 receives all of the magnetic flux at a time of non-contact charging, NFC coil 43 takes a lot of power that should be received by charging coil 41. Note that, even if charging coil 41 receives magnetic flux during communication by NFC coil 43, the magnetic flux has no influence on charging coil 41 because the magnetic flux and current are extremely small as far as charging coil 41 is concerned. That is, although charging coil 41 generates an eddy current with respect to NFC coil 43, since the eddy current of charging coil 41 does not flow in NFC coil 43 to a degree that influences NFC coil 43, NFC coil 43 is placed on the outer side of charging coil 41 and the opening area is made large to thereby improve the communication efficiency of NFC coil 43. Further, when NFC coil 43 communicates, since charging coil 41 is disposed on the inner side thereof, the region of charging coil 41 that is adjacent to NFC coil 43 is small relative to the size of NFC coil 43. As a result, it is difficult for an eddy current to arise in charging coil 41. Conversely, if charging coil 41 is disposed on the outer side, charging coil 41 will be larger than the small NFC coil 43, and as a result the region of charging coil 41 that is adjacent to NFC coil 43 will be relatively larger. Therefore, an eddy current that arises in charging coil 41 will be extremely large as far as NFC coil 43 is concerned, and the communication of NFC coil 43 will be significantly interfered with. Note that, even if an eddy current arises in NFC coil 43 during non-contact charging, the eddy current will be small as far as charging coil 41 is concerned and will therefore not affect charging coil 41. First magnetic sheet 44 has a frequency characteristic that can improve power transmission of electromagnetic induction between approximately 100 and 200 kHz that performs non-contact charging. However, when there is a peak at approximately 100 to 200 kHz, communication of NFC coil 43 can also be improved at the 13.56 MHz band at which NFC communication is performed. On the other hand, second magnetic sheet 45 has a frequency characteristic that can improve communication of electromagnetic induction at a frequency of approximately 13.56 MHz at which NFC coil 43 performs communication. However, when there is a peak at approximately 13.56 MHz, there is almost no influence on the efficiency of non-contact charging in a band of approximately 100 to 200 kHz at which non-contact charging is performed. With respect to NFC coil 43 and charging coil 41, by disposing charging coil 41 at a hollow position (a hollow portion and a lower part of the hollow portion) of NFC coil 43, first magnetic sheet 44 can be utilized to improve the communication of NFC coil 43. That is, while achieving a reduction in size by modularization of first magnetic sheet 44, second magnetic sheet 45, charging coil 41, and NFC coil 43, first magnetic sheet 44 can also be utilized for a different purpose (improving the efficiency of NFC coil 43) than the original purpose thereof (improving the efficiency of charging coil 41), and thus first magnetic sheet 44 can be efficiently utilized. As a result, an induction voltage when a magnetic flux was received from the same NFC reader/writer changed as described below. For example, whereas the induction voltage was 1,573 mV in a case where NFC coil 43 was placed on a magnetic sheet having a through-hole in a region corresponding to a hollow portion of NFC coil 43, the induction voltage was 1,712 mV in the case of non-contact charging module 100 illustrated in FIG. 7A. The reason for this was that first magnetic sheet 44 improved the communication efficiency of NFC coil 43. Furthermore, as shown in FIG. 8A, distance dl between corner portions 441a to 441d at the four corners of the substantially square NFC coil 43 and corner portions 431a to 431d at the four corners of the substantially square charging coil 41 is wider than distance d2 between other portions (between the respective sides). That is, although distance d2 between a side portion of NFC coil 43 and a side portion of charging coil 41 that are adjacent is narrow, distance dl between corner portions 441a to 441d and corner portions 431a to 431d is large. The reason is that, in comparison to corner portions 441a to 441d of NFC coil 43, corner portions 431a to 431d of charging coil 41 curve gradually (have a large R) and thereby shift inward. Further, in the case of charging coil 41 and NFC coil 43 that have a substantially rectangular shape, magnetic flux concentrates at corner portions 431a to 431d and corner portions 441a to 441d thereof. Therefore, if distance dl between corner portions 431a to 431d and corner portions 441a to 441d is large, it is possible to suppress the occurrence of a situation in which the respective magnetic fluxes are taken by the other coil. That is, by causing the outermost edges of corner portions 431a to 431d of charging coil 41 to curve more gradually (by setting R to a large value) than the innermost edges of corner portions 441a to 441d of NFC coil 43, distance dl between corner portions 441a to 441d and corner portions 431a to 431d that are facing can be made larger than distance d2 between side portions that are facing. Consequently, non-contact charging module 100 can be reduced in size by bringing the side portions at which the magnetic flux does not concentrate close to each other, and the respective communication (power transmission) efficiencies of the charging coil 41 and NFC coil 43 can be improved by separating the respective corner portions thereof. Note that, R of corner portions 431a to 431d of charging coil 41 is approximately 2 mm with respect to the innermost edge (hollow portion) and is approximately 5 mm to 15 mm with respect to the outermost edge, and R of corner portions 441a to 441d of NFC coil 43 is approximately 0.1 mm with respect to the innermost edge (hollow portion) and is approximately 0.2 mm with respect to the outermost edge. Further, in the present embodiment, distance dl between corner portions 431a to 431d and corner portions 441a to 441d is 2 mm, and may be approximately 1.5 mm to 10 mm, and distance d2 between facing side portion is 1 mm, and may be approximately 0.5 mm to 3 mm. Further, preferably, by making dl a distance that is between three and seven times greater than d2, a favorable balance can be achieved between a reduction in size, improvement of power transmission efficiency, and improvement of communication efficiency. By forming charging coil 41 as a rectangle, although charging coil 41 comes close to NFC coil 43 at the side portions of the rectangular portion, a wide opening area can be secured. In contrast, if charging coil 41 is wound in a circular shape, the portions that come close to (portions closest to) NFC coil 43 are points, and not sides, and hence mutual interference therebetween can be mitigated. That is, a distance between the four corners of NFC coil 43 and the four corners of charging coil 41 increases. As a result, the distance between charging coil 41 and the four corners at which the magnetic flux concentrates most in NFC coil 43 increases, and thus the communication efficiency of NFC coil 43 can be improved. In addition, by forming charging coil 41 in a circular shape, regardless of what direction charging coil 41 and primary-side coil 210 of primary-side non-contact charging module 200 face each other, charging can be performed without being influenced by the direction. Further, since charging coil 41 is disposed in a hollow portion of NFC coil 43, leg portions 432a and 432b and NFC coil 43 are stacked, so that the thickness of secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 increases. In particular, since charging coil 41 is considerably thick in the thickness direction compared NFC coil 43, the thickness of secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 will become extremely thick if leg portion 432a and leg portion 432b of charging coil 41 are stacked on another portion of secondary-side non-contact charging module 20. Therefore, both of leg portions 32a and 32b are housed in slit 48 of first magnetic sheet 44. At least a part of leg portion 432a that connects to winding start (inner side) point 432aa of the winding portion (planar coil portion) of charging coil 41 is stacked with both the winding portion (planar coil portion) of charging coil 41 and NFC coil 43. Further, at least a part of leg portion 432b that connects to winding end (outer side) point 432bb of the winding portion (planar coil portion) of charging coil 41 is stacked with NFC coil 43. Therefore, slit 48 is extended from lower edge 414 shown in FIG. 8B to at least winding start (inner side) point 432bb of the winding portion (planar coil portion) of charging coil 41. A portion of leg portion 432a that is stacked with the winding portion (planar coil portion) of charging coil 41 and the NFC coil 43 is housed in slit 48. Further, a portion of leg portion 432b that is stacked with the NFC 43 coil is housed in slit 48. It is thereby possible to prevent a situation where the thickness increases at a portion at which conducting wires are stacked together by storing both of leg portions 432a and 432b in slit 48. Also, because NFC coil 43 and charging coil 31 are in rectangular shape, slit 48 is perpendicular to straight portions of NFC coil 43 and charging coil 41. Thus, slit 48 can be formed shortly, and the power transmission efficiency of charging coil 41 and the communication efficiency of NFC coil 43 are improved. As described above, slit 48 may be a penetrating slit or may be a slit formed as a recessed portion having a bottom. It is sufficient to at least form slit 48 to be deeper than the diameter of the conducting wire of charging coil 41. The lateral width (width in the short-side direction) of slit 48 is 5 mm, and a preferable lateral width is between 2 mm and 10 mm. In the present embodiment, a minimum necessary width for housing both of leg portions 32a and 32b is 2 mm. The lateral width of slit 48 is preferably an amount that is from two to five times greater than the amount of a diameter that corresponds to twice the diameter of the conducting wire of charging coil 41. That is, it is preferable that, even if the conducting wire is formed of a plurality of wires such as in the case of a litz wire, slit 48 has a width such that around four terminals of charging coil 41 can be housed therein. If the width of slit 48 is made larger than that, the power transmission efficiency of charging coil 41 will decrease. The reason the width is set to twice or more the minimum required width is to provide a gap between leg portions 432a and 432b. It is thereby possible to reduce stray capacitance between leg portion 432a and leg portion 432b. As a result, the efficiency of charging coil 41 can be improved. Further, it is easy to house leg portions 432a and 432b inside slit 48, and the strength of leg portions 32a and 32b can be improved. By housing both of leg portions 32a and 32b inside a single slit 48, it is possible to suppress to the minimum the area removed from first magnetic sheet 44 to form a slit. However, a plurality of slits 11 may also be provided depending on the direction in which leg portions 432a and 432b extend. That is, slit 48 that houses leg portion 432a that connects with winding start (inner side) point 432aa of the winding portion (planar coil portion) of charging coil 41 is extended from lower edge 414 to at least winding start (inner side) point 432aa of the winding portion (planar coil portion) of charging coil 41. The portion of leg portion 432a that is stacked with the winding portion (planar coil portion) of charging coil 41 and NFC coil 43 is housed in slit 48. On the other hand, a slit that houses leg portion 432b that connects with winding end (outer side) point 432bb of the winding portion (planar coil portion) of charging coil 41 is extended from lower edge 414 to at least winding end (outer side) point 432bb of the winding portion (planar coil portion) of charging coil 41. The portion of leg portion 432b that is stacked with NFC coil 43 is housed in slit 48. By providing two slits and housing leg portion 432a and leg portion 432b in one slit each in this manner, the generation of stray capacitance between leg portions 432a and 432b can be avoided. The direction in which to draw out leg portion 432a and leg portion 432b can be freely set. In the case of forming two slits that house only one conducting wire each, each slit is approximately 0.5 mm. A configuration may be adopted in which a first slit is formed at only a portion at which leg portion 432a is stacked with the winding portion (planar coil portion) of charging coil 41, and a second slit that houses leg portion 432a and leg portion 432b is formed at a portion at which leg portion 432a and leg portion 432b are stacked with NFC coil 43. That is, slit 48 may be formed in any shape, and the important point is that both of leg portion 432a and leg portion 432b are housed in slit 48. Slit 48 may also be formed in an L shape as shown in FIG. 9. FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram illustrating a first magnetic sheet having an L-shaped slit according to the present embodiment. In the L-shaped slit (hereunder, referred to as “slit 48a”) shown in FIG. 9, region x corresponds to slit 48 shown in FIG. 4D and houses leg portions 432a and 432b. The reason that slit 48a is enlarged as far as region y and region z is that, as described in the foregoing, the conducting wire shown in FIG. 4B is formed to curve more gradually and to a greater degree at winding end point 431bb than at winding start point 431aa. Because the conducting wire curves gradually at winding end point 432bb, slit 48a is enlarged as far as region y to house the curved portion. It is not necessary to enlarge slit 48a as far as region z. However, in the present embodiment, because first magnetic sheet 44 is constituted by a ferrite sheet (sintered body), if region z is left as a part of first magnetic sheet 44 and is not made a part of slit 48a, the portion of the sheet at region z will be damaged. Therefore, slit 48a is formed as far as region z to prevent damaging of first magnetic sheet 44 and stabilize the characteristics of first magnetic sheet 44. Note that, if first magnetic sheet 44 is damaged, the characteristics of first magnetic sheet 44 will change significantly, and the characteristics of charging coil 41 will also change significantly. For example, the L value will decrease and the power transmission efficiency of non-contact charging will decrease. FIG. 9 illustrates that the first magnetic sheet 44 has four edges 44a-44d that collectively define a rectangular profile of the magnetic sheet 44, wherein at most three pairs of adjacent edges respectively meet to form at most three corners 46a-46c. As illustrated, adjacent edges 44a and 44b meet to form a corner 46a, adjacent edges 44b and 44c meet to form a corner 46b, and adjacent edges 44c and 44d meet to form a corner 46c, while adjacent edges 44a and 44d do not meet each other and do not form a corner. Still referring to FIG. 9, the magnetic sheet 44 has a rectangular shape including four edges 44a-44d and four corner portions 46a-46d. Each pair of adjacent edges forms a virtual corner 46a′-46d′, and each corner portion (46a-46d) is receded inwardly from its corresponding virtual corner (46a′-46d′) by a receding distance. At least one of four receding distances (e.g., distance 46d′-46d) is greater than another one of the four receding distances (e.g., distance 46a′-46a). Still referring to FIG. 9, the magnetic sheet 44 includes four sides 44a-44d that collectively define a rectangular profile of the magnetic sheet 44. The four sides 44a-44d consist of a first side 44b and a second side 44d in parallel to each other, and a third side 44c and a fourth side 44a in parallel to each other. The third side 44c is interposed between the first side 44b and the second side 44d. The first side 44b is longer than the second side 44d, and the third side 44c is longer than the fourth side 44a. Next, the frequency characteristics of the first magnetic sheet and the second magnetic sheet will be described. The term “frequency” refers to the frequency of an antenna (for example, charging coil 41 or NFC coil 43) that includes the magnetic sheet. FIGS. 10A to 10C illustrate frequency characteristics of the first magnetic sheet and the second magnetic sheet according to the present embodiment. FIG. 10A illustrates a frequency characteristic of the magnetic permeability of first magnetic sheet 44 (Mn—Zn ferrite sintered body). FIG. 10B illustrates a frequency characteristic of the magnetic permeability of second magnetic sheet 45 (Ni—Zn ferrite sintered body). FIG. 10C illustrates a frequency characteristic of a Q value of second magnetic sheet 45. In the present embodiment, as shown in FIG. 8C, second magnetic sheet 45 is stacked on the upper face of first magnetic sheet 44. As shown in FIG. 10A to 10C, second magnetic sheet 45 has favorable characteristics (a high Q value and a magnetic permeability of around 125) at a high frequency (13.56 MHz) that is used for communication by NFC coil 43, whereas first magnetic sheet 44 has a favorable characteristic (magnetic permeability of around 1,700) at a low frequency (100 to 200 kHz) that is used for power transmission by charging coil 41. Therefore, normally, the communication efficiency of NFC coil 43 will be improved by forming only second magnetic sheet 45 in a thick manner directly below NFC coil 43. However, in the present embodiment, first magnetic sheet 44 is extended as far as the area directly below NFC coil 43 to improve the power transmission efficiency of charging coil 41. This is because of the frequency characteristics of the respective ferrite sheets. First, first magnetic sheet 44 that is used for non-contact charging of a large amount of transmitted power is generally a high-magnetic permeability material for ensuring sufficient power transmission efficiency. On the other hand, magnetic permeability of the level required for first magnetic sheet 44 is not necessary with respect to second magnetic sheet 45 for NFC communication that transmits a small amount of power. Therefore, first magnetic sheet 44 also has the magnetic permeability required for NFC communication in a communication frequency band for NFC communication. That is, the overall magnetic permeability of first magnetic sheet 44 that supports non-contact charging is high irrespective of the frequency in comparison to second magnetic sheet 45 that supports NFC communication. As shown in FIG. 10A, even when the frequency is around 13.56 MHz, magnetic permeability μ of first magnetic sheet 44 is about 500, and first magnetic sheet 44 can adequately function as a magnetic sheet. In particular, first magnetic sheet 44 in the present embodiment that is described above can adequately fulfill a role as a magnetic sheet. In contrast, as shown in FIG. 10B, when the frequency is between 100 kHz to 200 kHz, second magnetic sheet 45 does not have sufficient magnetic permeability for non-contact charging (magnetic permeability of around 125). Therefore, in order to improve and maintain the communication efficiency of both charging coil 41 and NFC coil 43, it is favorable to adopt a configuration in which the region directly below NFC coil 43 is a stacked structure that includes first magnetic sheet 44 and second magnetic sheet 45. It is thereby possible to improve the communication efficiency of both coils. That is, by making first magnetic sheet a large size, the power transmission efficiency of non-contact charging is improved and NFC communication is also adequately supported. The reason that second magnetic sheet for NFC communication is also provided, and not just first magnetic sheet 44, is to improve the Q value of NFC communication by NFC coil 43. As shown in FIG. 10C, because second magnetic sheet 45 has a favorable Q value, the communication distance of the NFC communication can be increased. Also, as shown in FIG. 8A to 8D, NFC coil 43 and the whole area of second magnetic sheet 45 are placed on first magnetic sheet 44. Thus, there is first magnetic sheet 44 is under the whole area of second magnetic sheet 45 and the communication efficiency of NEC coil 43 is improved. In this case, the outer shape of second magnetic sheet 45 is same size as or smaller size than first magnetic sheet 44. Further, parts of NFC coil 43 and second magnetic sheet 45 are placed on first magnetic sheet 44, and the rest of NFC coil 43 and second magnetic sheet 45 may protrude outside the first magnetic sheet 44. The outer shape of second magnetic sheet 45 is larger than first magnetic sheet 44, or the center of the first magnetic sheet 44 and the center of the second magnetic sheet 45 may be misaligned. However, larger area of NFC coil 43 and second magnetic sheet 45 are preferable to be stacked on first magnetic sheet 44. Also, the center of the first magnetic sheet 44 and the center of the second magnetic sheet 45 are preferable to be aligned. However, when NFC coil 43 and second magnetic sheet 45 are too large to be placed on first magnetic sheet 44, a part of NFC coil 43 and second magnetic sheet 45 may protrude outside first magnetic sheet 44. Thus, the opening area of NFC coil 43 does not depend on the area of first magnetic sheet 44 and is large. As a result, the communication efficiency of NFC coil 43 is improved, and secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 may be downsized despite of the size of NFC coil 43 because first magnetic sheet does not need to be formed largely. In addition, while the thickness of first magnetic sheet 44 is 0.43 mm, second magnetic sheet 45 is a relatively thin 0.1 mm, which is less than half the thickness of first magnetic sheet 44. The diameter of the conducting wire of second magnetic sheet 45 is thinner than that of charging coil 41 (about 0.2 mm to 1.0 mm). Furthermore, it is sufficient that at least a part of second magnetic sheet 45 and NFC coil 43 are mounted on first magnetic sheet 44, and it is not necessary to mount all of second magnetic sheet 45 and NFC coil 43 thereon. On the other hand, it is better for all of NFC coil 43 to be mounted on second magnetic sheet 45. It is thereby possible to improve the communication efficiency of NFC coil 43. However, it is favorable to make the opening area of NFC coil 43 large to improve the communication efficiency of NFC coil 43, and in such case an effect can be obtained by enlarging only second magnetic sheet 45 and NFC coil 43. Next, design of the inside of secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is described. As described in FIG. 2A and 2B, secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is arranged at position 11B in housing 11 and does not overlap with camera unit 16 in a plane normal to the thickness direction of housing 11 (the direction of arrow A). Further, secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is arranged within a dimension L1 of the camera unit 16 along the thickness direction of the housing Furthermore, secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is arranged at position 11B in housing 11 and does not overlap with battery pack 18 in a plane normal to the thickness direction of housing 11 (the direction of arrow A). And, secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is arranged within a dimension L2 of the battery pack 18 in a plane normal to the thickness direction of housing 11 (the direction of arrow A). Thus, secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is arranged at position 11B in housing 11 and does not overlap with camera unit 16 and battery pack 18. Also, secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is arranged within the dimension L1 of the camera unit 16 and the dimension L2 of the battery pack 18 in a plane normal to the thickness direction of housing 11 (the direction of arrow A). Thus, the mobile terminal 10 may be downsized. Further, secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 may be arranged closer to housing 11 because secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is arranged at position 11B where secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 does not overlap with camera unit 16 and battery pack 18. FIG. 3 describes a relation of mobile terminal 10 and charger 50 when mobile terminal 10 is brought close to charger 50 which includes primary-side non-contact charging module for power transmission. Secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is arranged so that at least a part of secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is within 2.5 mm from an outer wall surface adjacent to charger 50 of housing 11. Accordingly, as described in FIG. 12, primary-side non-contact charging module 52 of charger 50 and secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 of mobile terminal 10 may be arranged close to each other during power transmission. Thus, the power transmission efficiency between mobile terminal 10 and charger 50 may be improved. Further, the communication efficiency between mobile terminal 10 and charger 50 may be also improved. Furthermore, as described in FIG. 2, secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is arranged to overlap with a cross point 58 between a center line 55 extending in parallel to an interface between the first area 31 and the second area 32 and a center line 56, which extends orthogonal to the interface of the second area 32 and extends in a width direction of the housing 11. The direction of the interface between the first area 31 and the second area 32 is same as a direction of an arrow C. Also, the width direction, which is orthogonal to the direction of the interface of the second area 32, of housing is same as a direction of an arrow B. Battery pack 18 and secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 are arranged adjacent to each other by arranging battery pack 18 in the first area 31 of housing 11 and arranging secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 in the second area 32. Thus, connecting battery pack 18 to secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 may be easy. Furthermore, secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is arranged to overlap with the cross point 58 of a center line 55 extending in parallel to the interface between the first area 31 and the second area 32 (the direction of arrow C) and a center line 56 of the width direction (the direction of arrow B) of housing 11. This may avoid weight imbalance of secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 in housing 11 and avoid causing discomfort to a user. Also, the user may charge the mobile terminal by placing the side of the housing of the mobile terminal on the charger. As described in FIG. 3, heat dissipating sheet 22 is provided on first magnetic sheet 33 arranged on a side the secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 facing the circuit board 14. The heat dissipating sheet 22 is provided on first magnetic sheet 33 (i.e. secondary-side non-contact charging module 20) and is in contact with the shield case 36. Thus, the heat of secondary-side non-contact charging and base substrate 34 (circuit board 14) module 20 may be dissipated easily. Next explanation is about the second embodiment and the third embodiment according to FIGS. 13 and 14. In the second embodiment and the third embodiment, same parts as mobile terminal of the first embodiment are assigned same number as the first embodiment and not explained. The Second Embodiment As shown in FIG. 13, secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is arranged to overlap with a cross point 63 between the center line 55 of the second area 32 and a center line 62 (the direction of arrow B) which extends orthogonal to the interface and extends in a width direction of the battery pack 18. Other constitution of mobile terminal 60 is same as mobile terminal 10 of the first embodiment. Arranging secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 to overlap with the cross point 63 between the center line 55 of the second area 32 and the center line 62 which extends in the width direction of the battery pack 18 may avoid weight imbalance caused by secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 in housing 11. In particular, weight imbalance caused by secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 in the interface direction of battery pack 18 and causing discomfort to a user may be avoided. Also, the user may charge the mobile terminal by placing the side of the housing of the mobile terminal on the charger. The Third Embodiment As shown in FIG. 14, regarding mobile terminal 70 of the third embodiment, secondary-side non-contact charging module 72 is arranged on a side closer to the first area 31 relative to the center line 55 of the second area 32. Other constitution of mobile terminal 60 is same as mobile terminal 10 of the first embodiment. Arranging secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 on a side closer to the first area 31 relative to the center line 55 of the second area 32 may avoid weight imbalance of secondary-side non-contact charging module 20. In particular, weight of secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is not biased to an opposite side of the first area 31 relative to the center line of the second area 32. Thus, causing discomfort to a user may be avoided. Also, the user may charge the mobile terminal by placing the side of the housing of the mobile terminal on the charger. The Fourth Embodiment In FIG. 2A and 2B, secondary-side non-contact charging module 20 is arranged adjacent to camera unit 16. However, camera unit 16 may be arranged in a through hole which is formed in secondary-side non-contact charging module 20. Also, a part of NFC coil 43 may surround the though hole when the though hole is formed in secondary-side non-contact charging module 20. In the above structure, NFC coil 43 has the wound wire which is large in length by use of a space around camera unit 16 and an antenna characteristic may be improved. The mobile terminal of the present invention is not limited to the above embodiment and may be changed or improved appropriately. For example, shapes and structures of the mobile terminal, the housing, the communicating hole, the circuit board, the camera unit, the primary-side non-contact charging module, the secondary-side non-contact charging module, the charging coil, the NFC coil, the first magnetic sheet, the second magnetic sheet, and the like are not limited to what is described and may be changed. The present application claims priority from Japanese Patent Application No. 2012-145962 filed on JUN. 28, 2012, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The present invention is useful for various kinds of electronic devices such as a mobile terminal, in particular, portable devices such as a mobile phone, a portable audio device, a personal computer, a digital camera, and a video camera which include the non-contact charging module that includes a non-contact charging module and an NFC antenna. REFERENCE SIGNS LIST 10, 60, 70 mobile terminal 11 housing 12 communicating hole 14 circuit board 16 camera unit 20, 72 secondary-side non-contact charging module (non-contact charging module) 22 heat dissipating sheet 41 charging coil 42 wire 43 NFC coil 44 first magnetic sheet 45 second magnetic sheet

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>

<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY <EOH>

H02J5010

20180129

20180614

78305.0

H02J5010

THAPA, SAILESH

MOBILE TERMINAL INCLUDING WIRELESS CHARGING COIL AND MAGNETIC SHEET HAVING INWARDLY RECEDING PORTION

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H02J

PENDING

INTRAOSSEOUS INTRAMEDULLARY FIXATION ASSEMBLY AND METHOD OF USE

An intramedullary assembly for intraosseous bone fusion includes a lag screw member and a tapered screw member. The lag screw member includes a first elongated body, where the first elongated body includes a first threaded portion at a first end and a bulbous portion at a second end. The tapered screw member is coupled to the lag screw member, and the tapered screw member includes a second elongated body, where the second elongated body includes a second threaded portion at a third end, and an opening at a fourth end.

1. A method for fusing bones, comprising: providing a first screw member extending from a first end to a second terminal end and comprising a first threaded portion at the first end, a first aperture at the second terminal end, and a bore extending from the first aperture to a second aperture on an exterior surface of the first screw member; providing a second screw member extending from a first end to a second end and comprising a second threaded portion at the first end and a bulbous portion at the second end; forming a first bore hole in a first bone or bone fragment; inserting the first screw member into the first bore hole; forming a second bore hole in the second bone or bone fragment; inserting the second screw member into the first aperture, through the bore, and out of the second aperture of the first screw member until an exterior surface of the bulbous portion of the second screw member abuts the interior surface of the bore at the first aperture of the first screw member and the second threaded portion extends out of the second aperture to engage the second bore hole in the second bone or bone fragment; and applying torque to the second screw member to lock the second screw member to the first screw member, thereby compressing the first bone or bone fragment to the second bone or bone fragment.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of Non-Provisional Application Ser. No. 15/181,435, filed on Jun. 14, 2016, which is a continuation of Non-Provisional Application Ser. No. 14/599,671, filed on Jan. 19, 2015, which is a divisional of Non-Provisional Application Ser. No. 12/658,680, filed Feb. 11, 2010, which is a continuation-in-part application of Non-Provisional Application Ser. No. 12/456,808, filed Jun. 23, 2009, issued as U.S. Pat. No. 8,303,589 on Nov. 6, 2012, which claims the benefit of Provisional Application No. 61/132,932, filed Jun. 24, 2008, the entire contents of the entire chain of applications are herein incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to the field of orthopedic implant devices, and more particularly, to an intramedullary fixation assembly used for fusion of the angled joints, bones and deformity correction, such as the hand and foot bones. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Orthopedic implant devices, such as intramedullary nails, plates, rods and screws are often used to repair or reconstruct bones and joints affected by trauma, degeneration, deformity and disease, such as Charcot arthropathy caused by diabetes in some patients, Hallux Valgus deformities, failed Keller Bunionectomies, Rheumatoid Arthritis, and severe deformities. Moreover, infections and wound complications are a major concern in the aforementioned procedures. Wound closure is technically demanding for the surgeon, and devices that add surface prominence, such as plates or exposed screws, add to the difficulty by requiring greater tissue tension during incision reapproximation. This increases the risk of postoperative wound infections and dehiscence that may ultimately result in limb amputation. Various implants have been utilized for surgical treatment of these bones and joints, including bone screws. Implants have also been utilized to treat severe deformities in the metatarsal and phalangeal bones, including multiple screws and plates. These multiple screws and plate implants have been commonly used in a first metatarsal-phalangeal fusion procedure to fuse the first metatarsal to the first phalangeal bone in hallux valgus deformities, failed keller bunionectomies, rheumatoid arthritis, and other types of severe deformities in the metatarsal and phalange bones. While these devices allow fixation and promote fusion, they do not deliver restoration of the arch in a Charcot foot, they are not effective in metatarsal-phalangeal (MTP) fusion procedures, nor do they deliver uniform compression for various predetermined angles of compression.. Particularly, screw implants in MTP procedures are ineffective in delivering sufficient compression to the bones in the foot, preventing screw head break out, or delivering effective bending resistance. Moreover, hard to control dorsiflexion and valgus angles as well skin irritation from proximity to the skin prevents these screw implants from being readily utilized for surgical treatment. Yet further, plate implants used with bone screws too have the same drawbacks as fixed varus and valgus angles, lack of direct compression across the MTP joint, and skin irritations from proximity to the skin reduce the effectiveness of these implants. There is therefore a need for an intramedullary fixation assembly and method of use that overcomes some or all of the previously delineated drawbacks of prior fixation assemblies. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the invention is to overcome the drawbacks of previous inventions. Another object of the invention is to provide a novel and useful intramedullary fixation assembly that may be utilized to treat bones in a human body. Another object of the invention is to provide a system for compressing bones using an intramedullary fixation assembly. Another object of the invention is to fuse the bones in the human body through the use of an intraosseous intramedullary assembly. Another object of the invention is to provide a fixed acute angle intramedullary fixation assembly for bone fixation. Another object of the invention is to provide variable acute angles an intramedullary fixation assembly for bone fixation having variable acute angles of fixation. Another object of the invention is to provide at least three point of compression on bone fragments through a variable angle intramedullary fixation assembly. In a first non-limiting aspect of the invention, an intramedullary assembly for bone fusion is provided and includes a lag screw member and a tapered screw member. The lag screw member includes a first elongated body, where the first elongated body includes a first threaded portion at a first end and a bulbous portion at a second end. The tapered screw member is coupled to the lag screw member, and the tapered screw member includes a second elongated body, where the second elongated body includes a second threaded portion at a third end, and an opening at a fourth end. In a second non-limiting aspect of the invention, a method for bone fusion includes eight steps. In step one, an intramedullary assembly is provided, where the intramedullary assembly includes a lag screw member having a first elongated body. The first elongated body includes a first threaded portion at a first end and a bulbous portion at a second end. The intramedullary assembly also includes a tapered screw member coupled to the lag screw member, where the tapered screw member includes a second elongated body having a second threaded portion at a third end, a tubular portion at a fourth end, and an opening at the fourth end. Step two includes making an incision in the foot. Step three includes drilling a first medullary canal in a first bone. Step four includes inserting the tapered screw member into the first medullary canal. Step five includes aligning the tapered screw member in the first medullary canal. Step six includes drilling a second medullary canal in the first bone. Step seven includes slideably coupling the lag screw member to the tapered screw member. Step seven includes inserting the lag screw member into the second medullary canal. Step eight includes applying compression to the lag screw member to lock the tapered screw member to the lag screw member, thereby fusing the first bone to the second bone. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A further understanding of the invention can be obtained by reference to a preferred embodiment set forth in the illustrations of the accompanying drawings. Although the illustrated embodiment is merely exemplary of systems and methods for carrying out the invention, both the organization and method of operation of the invention, in general, together with further objectives and advantages thereof, may be more easily understood by reference to the drawings and the following description. The drawings are not intended to limit the scope of this invention, which is set forth with particularity in the claims as appended or as subsequently amended, but merely to clarify and exemplify the invention. For a more complete understanding of the invention, reference is now made to the following drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a fixation system according to a preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a proximal screw member used in the fixation system shown in FIG. 1 according to the preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3A is a perspective view of a distal member used in the fixation system shown in FIG. 1 according to the preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3B is a perspective cross-sectional view of the distal member shown in FIG. 3A according to the preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4 is a perspective view of the instrument member used in the fixation system shown in FIG. 1 according to the preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5 is a perspective view of the assembled intramedullary fixation assembly inserted into the bones of a patient's foot according to the preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 6 is a side view of the assembled intramedullary fixation assembly shown in FIG. 5 according to the preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 7 is a flow chart illustrating the method of coupling the intramedullary fixation assembly shown in FIGS. 1-6 to tarsal and metatarsal bones in a patient's foot according to the preferred embodiment of the invention. FIG. 8 is a perspective view of an assembled intramedullary fixation assembly inserted into the bones of a patient's foot according to an alternate embodiment of the invention. FIG. 9 is a perspective view of the intramedullary fixation assembly shown in FIG. 8 according to the alternate embodiment of the invention. FIG. 10 is a perspective view of the lag screw member used in the intramedullary fixation assembly shown in FIGS. 8-9 according to the alternate embodiment of the invention. FIG. 11 is a perspective view of the tapered screw member used in the intramedullary fixation assembly shown in FIGS. 8-9 according to the alternate embodiment of the invention. FIG. 12 is a flow chart illustrating the method of coupling the intramedullary fixation assembly shown in FIG. 8-9 to bones in a patient's foot according to the alternate embodiment of the invention. FIG. 13 is a perspective view of an assembled intramedullary fixation assembly inserted into the bones of a patient's hand according to an alternate embodiment of the invention. FIG. 14 is a perspective view of the intramedullary fixation assembly shown in FIG. 13 according to the alternate embodiment of the invention. FIG. 15 is a perspective view of the lag screw member used in the intramedullary fixation assembly shown in FIGS. 14 according to the alternate embodiment of the invention. FIG. 16 is a perspective view of the polyaxial screw member used in the intramedullary fixation assembly shown in FIG. 14 according to the alternate embodiment of the invention. FIG. 17 is a perspective view of an assembled intramedullary fixation assembly according to an alternate embodiment of the invention. FIG. 18 is a perspective view of an assembled intramedullary fixation assembly having a plurality of lag screw members according to an alternate embodiment of the invention. FIG. 19 is an exploded perspective view of a cover member for a lag screw according to an alternate embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The invention may be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description of preferred embodiment of the invention. However, techniques, systems, and operating structures in accordance with the invention may be embodied in a wide variety of forms and modes, some of which may be quite different from those in the disclosed embodiment. Consequently, the specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are merely representative, yet in that regard, they are deemed to afford the best embodiment for purposes of disclosure and to provide a basis for the claims herein, which define the scope of the invention. It must be noted that, as used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a”, “an”, and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. Referring now to FIG. 1, there is shown a fixation system 100 which is made in accordance with the teachings of the preferred embodiment of the invention. As shown, the fixation system 100 includes an intramedullary fixation assembly 110, comprising a proximal screw member 130 and a distal member 140. Proximal screw member 130 is provided on proximal end 135 of assembly 110 and is coupled to a distal member 140 that is provided on the distal end 145 of the fixation assembly 110. Also, proximal screw member 130 makes a fixed angle 150 with distal member 140 and this angle 150 determines the angle for arch restoration. Moreover, fixation system 100 includes instrument 120 that is utilized to couple intramedullary fixation assembly 110 to the bones in the mid-foot region (not shown). It should be appreciated that in one non-limiting embodiment, intramedullary fixation assembly 110 may be made from a Titanium material, although, in other non-limiting embodiments, intramedullary fixation assembly 110 may be made from SST, PEEK, NiTi, Cobalt chrome or other similar types of materials. As shown in FIG. 2, proximal screw member 130 is generally cylindrical in shape and extends from first bulbous portion 202 to second tapered end 204. End 204 has a diameter that is slightly smaller than diameter 226 of bulbous portion 202. Additionally, bulbous portion 202 has a taper, such as a Morse taper, with a width that decreases from end 211 to end 212. The taper allows for a locked interference fit with tapered aperture 316 when tapered bulbous portion 202 is combined with tapered aperture 316, shown and described below. Moreover, bulbous portion 202 is generally circular and has a generally hexagonal torque transmitting aperture 208 that traverses length 210 of bulbous portion 202. However, a star-shaped aperture, a square-shaped aperture, or any other shaped aperture may be utilized without departing from the scope of the invention. Torque transmitting aperture 208 is utilized to transmit a torque from bulbous portion 202 to tapered end 204 by rotating bulbous portion 202. Further, proximal screw member 130 has a first smooth exterior portion 206 extending from end 212 of bulbous portion 202. Portion 206 comprises an internal aperture 214 that longitudinally traverses portion 206 in direction 201. Portion 206 terminates into a second generally tubular portion 216. Portion 216 may comprise internal circular aperture 220 that longitudinally traverses inside portion 216. Internal circular aperture 220 is aligned with apertures 214 and 208 along axis 203 to form a continuous opening (i.e., a cannula) from bulbous portion 202 to end 204. The continuous opening or cannula is provided to interact with a guide wire (not shown) by receiving the guide wire within the continuous opening thereby positioning and locating the proximal member 130. In other non-limiting embodiments, the proximal member 130 may be provided without apertures 220 and 214 (i.e., the proximal member is solid). Furthermore, tubular portion 216 has a plurality of circular threads, such as threads 218, which are circumferentially disposed on the external surface of portion 216 and, with threads 218 having an external diameter 224. Portion 216 may also be provided with a self-tapping leading edge 222 to provide portion 216 with the ability to remove bone material during insertion of proximal screw member 130 into bone. It should be appreciated that the length of the proximal member 130 may be selected of varying lengths to allow a surgeon to fuse different joints in a foot (not shown). As shown in FIGS. 3A-3B, distal member 140 of the preferred embodiment is generally tubular in shape and tapers from a first end 302 to a second end 304 (i.e. end 302 has a diameter 306 that is slightly larger than diameter 308 of end 304). However, in another non-limiting embodiment, distal member 140 has a constant width from first end 302 to second end 304. Further, first end 302 is generally semi-spherical in shape and has an internal circular aperture 316, which traverses end 302 along direction 301 (i.e. end 302 is generally “donut” shaped). Additionally, circular aperture 316 emanates from surface 322, such that portion 310 has a generally tapered aperture 316 provided in portion 310. Circular aperture 316 comprises slope 320 from first end 302 to end 323 of portion 310. Further, aperture 316 is aligned along axis 303, which is offset from horizontal axis 305 of distal member 140. Axis 303 forms an angle 150 with horizontal axis 305 that determines the angle for arch restoration, as shown in FIG. 3A. Angle 150 may be any angle greater than 90 degrees and less than 180 degrees. Tapered aperture 316 when combined with tapered bulbous portion 202, shown in FIG. 2, creates a locked interference fit between proximal member 130 and distal member 140. First end 302 has a plurality of substantially similar grooves 326 and 328, which form an “L-shape” with surface 330 of end 302. Grooves 326 and 328 are provided to receive instrument 120 of fixation system 100, which is later described. In other non-limiting embodiments, other similar instruments may be provided to be received within grooves 326 and 328. Distal member 140 further comprises a generally smooth portion 310 coupled to end 302. Portion 310 has a generally hexagonal shaped aperture 312, which opens into aperture 316 and which longitudinally traverses through portion 310 in direction 301. In other non-limiting embodiments, a star-shaped aperture, a square-shaped aperture, or any other shaped aperture may be utilized. Circular aperture 316 has a diameter 314 that is slightly larger than external diameter 224 of portion 216 and 206 of proximal screw member 130, with portions 216 and 206 being slidably received within aperture 316 of portion 310. Aperture 316 has a diameter that is smaller than diameter 226 of bulbous portion 202. Portion 310 of distal member 140 terminates into a second generally cylindrical portion 318 which has a plurality of threads 324, which are circumferentially disposed on the external surface of portion 318. Portion 318 has an internal circular aperture 327 which is longitudinally coextensive with portion 318 in direction 301. Circular aperture 327 aligns with aperture 312 to form a continuous opening from end 302 to end 304. As shown in FIG. 4, instrument 120 is illustrated for coupling proximal screw member 130 to distal member 140. Particularly, instrument 120 includes a handle portion 402 coupled to a rod portion 404. Rod portion 404 emanates from handle portion 402 at end 406 and terminates into a rectangular planar portion 408 at end 410. Planar portion 408 is aligned along axis 401 and is fixably coupled to a generally cylindrical tubular portion 412 (i.e., an aiming device). Portion 412 traverses portion 408 from top surface 414 to bottom surface 416. Further, tubular portion 412 is aligned along dissimilar axis 403, forming an angle 405 with axis 401. Also, tubular portion 412 has a through aperture 420 that longitudinally traverses portion 412 along axis 403. Planar portion 408 is coupled to planar portion 422, with portion 422 having a width slightly smaller than width of portion 408. Portion 422 terminates into a generally “U-shaped” portion 424 with portion 424 being orthogonal to portion 422. Further, portion 424 has a plurality of substantially similar sides 426 and 428 which are provided to be slidably coupled to grooves 326 and 328 of distal member 140. In operation, sides 426 and 428 of instrument 120 are received in respective grooves 326 and 328 of distal member 140, of FIGS. 3A-3B, thereby slidably coupling distal member 140 to instrument 120. In this position, axis 303 of aperture 316 is aligned along substantially the same axis as axis 403 of instrument 120. Proximal screw member 130 is coupled to distal member 140 by slidably coupling portions 206 and 216 through aperture 420 of tubular portion 412. Tubular portion 412 guides proximal screw member 130 through internal aperture 420 and into aperture 316 on surface 322 and may also guide a Kirschner wire (K wire) or a drill. Proximal screw member 130, of FIG. 2, travels into bone as portions 216 and 206 travel further through aperture 316 at end 302 until bulbous portion 202 is restrained by surface 322 and end 302. Aperture 316, being tapered along axis 303, causes proximal screw member 130 to form an angle 150 with distal member 140, with proximal member 130 being aligned along an axis 303, which is substantially the same axis as axis 403 of tubular portion 412 of instrument 120. In operation, and as best shown in FIGS. 5, 6 and 7, the fixation system 100 utilizes the intramedullary fixation assembly 110 for treating and fixating the deteriorated and damaged or fractured bones in the human foot 500. This restores the arch in a human foot 500 by coupling the intramedullary fixation assembly 110 to the human foot 500 of a left leg. In one-non limiting example, and as shown in FIG. 5, the intramedullary assembly 110 is coupled to the medullary canals of the first metatarsal 502, medial cuneiform 504, navicular 506 and talus bone 508. Talus bone 508 makes up part of the ankle joint where the threaded portion 216 of the proximal screw member 130 of the intramedullary assembly 110 is threadably coupled. The medial cuneiform 504 and navicular 506 bones are most affected by Diabetic Charcot foot disorder that causes deterioration and collapse of the arch of the foot 500. It should be appreciated that the intramedullary assembly 110 may be used within each of the five rays, with a ray representing a line drawn from each metatarsal bone to the talus. The angulation in the smaller rays will be smaller than the two rays (i.e., a line from the first and second metatarsal bones to the talus bone). Also, the diameter of distal member 140 will decrease from the large ray to the small ray. In one non-limiting example, the angulation may be any angle greater than 90 degrees and less than 180 degrees. For example, the angle for the first ray may be 150-170 degrees and the angles for the other rays may be 160-175 degrees. As shown in FIGS. 6 and 7, the intramedullary fixation assembly 110 may be utilized to reconstruct an arch in a mid-foot region of a human foot 500. As shown, the method starts in step 700 and proceeds to step 702, whereby a Dorsal Lis Franc incision (i.e., mid-foot incision) (not shown) is made in foot 500 in order to gain access to the joint. In step 704, the joint capsule is separated by “Gunstocking” foot 500 in direction 601 (i.e., the foot 500 is bent mid-foot) to expose the articular surface 602 and the articulating cartilage is removed. Next, in step 706, the intramedullary canal is reamed and the distal member 140 is inserted into the intramedullary canal (not shown) of the metatarsal 502. In other non-limiting embodiments, the distal member 140 may be inserted by impaction, by press fit, by reaming a hole in the intramedullary canal (not shown) or substantially any other similar strategy or technique. Next, in step 708, the instrument 120 is coupled to the distal member 140 by coupling sides 426 and 428 of instrument 120 to respective grooves 326 and 328. In step 710, initial positioning of the proximal member 130 is assessed with the use of a guide wire through portion 412 (i.e., aiming device). Next, in step 712, a countersink drill is inserted through portion 412 and the proximal cortex is penetrated. In this step, a cannulated drill or guide wire is used to pre-drill the hole through the joints selected for fusion. In step 714, the proximal screw member 130 is inserted over the guide wire and into the distal member 140. Particularly, the proximal member 130 is inserted through tubular portion 412 (i.e., aiming device), causing proximal member 130 to travel through internal longitudinal aperture 420, into distal member 140 and further into bones 504, 506 and 508 until rigid connection with the tapered aperture 316 is made, thereby compressing the joint. In one non-limiting embodiment, a locking element (not shown) such as a plate or a washer is coupled to end 302 of the intramedullary fixation assembly 110 to further secure proximal threaded member 130 to distal member 140. Next, in step 716 the instrument 120 is removed and the dorsal Lis Franc (i.e., mid-foot) incision is closed. The method ends in step 718. It should be appreciated that a plurality of intramedullary fixation assemblies, such as intramedullary fixation assembly 110, may be inserted into any of the bones of a foot 500 such as, but not limited to the metatarsal, cuneiform, calcaneus, cuboid, talus and navicular bones, in order to restore the natural anatomical shape of the arch of the foot 500. Thus, the fixation system 100, in one non-limiting embodiment, is utilized to couple the intramedullary fixation assembly 110 to the foot 500, which causes the metatarsal 504, medial cuneiform 504, navicular 506 and talus 508 bones to be aligned to the proper anatomical shape of an arch when assembled within foot 500. It should be appreciated that the intramedullary fixation assembly 110 is delivered through a dorsal midfoot incision, thereby reducing the disruption to the plantar tissues and/or the metatarsal heads while at the same time minimizing the tension on the skin. This allows for improved wound closure, reduced operating room time, reduction in the number of incisions required and reduction in the total length of incisions. It should also be appreciated that in other non-limiting embodiments, the intramedullary assembly 110 may be utilized with graft material (i.e., autograft, allograft or other biologic agent). In an alternate embodiment, as shown in FIG. 8, an intramedullary fixation assembly 800 is provided in order to apply intraosseous compression to bones. Particularly, the intramedullary fixation assembly 800 comprises a tapered screw member 810 coupled to a lag screw member 815 at a fixed acute angle for the internal fusion of the bones of the human foot 805, such as, for example, the calcaneus bone 820, the talus bone 825, and the cuboid bone 830. In other non-limiting embodiments, the intramedullary fixation assembly 800 may be utilized for any other appropriate use for the internal fixation of the other bones. It should be appreciated that the intramedullary fixation assembly 800 may be provided at several lengths for the internal fixation of a variety of bone sizes in the human body. Also as shown in FIG. 9, the intramedullary fixation assembly 800 includes the tapered screw member 810 coupled to the lag screw member 815 at a fixed angle 905. The fixed angle 905 may be provided at various fixed angles depending on the bone segments that are being compressed. The fixed angle between the tapered screw member 810 and the lag screw member 815 causes the intramedullary fixation assembly 800 to “hook” into the bone segments and translates the compression applied to bone fragments across the members 810 and 815. It should be appreciated that in one non-limiting embodiment, the intramedullary fixation assembly 800 may be made from a Titanium material, although, in other non-limiting embodiments, the intramedullary fixation assembly 800 may be made from SST, PEEK, NiTi, Cobalt chrome or other similar types of materials. It should also be appreciated that the intramedullary fixation assembly 800 is locked at the fixed angle after insertion of the same into bone. The intramedullary fixation assembly 800 translates compression applied to bone fragments by the tapered screw member 810 and the lag screw member 815 into uniform compression through multi-point fixation. As shown in FIG. 10, lag screw member 815 is generally cylindrical in shape and has a first smooth exterior portion 1005 that extends from first bulbous portion 1010 to a second threaded portion 1015. Additionally, bulbous portion 1010 has a taper, such as a Morse taper, with a width that decreases from end 1030 in direction 1000. The Morse taper allows for a locked interference fit with tapered aperture 1130 (shown in FIG. 11) when tapered bulbous portion 1010 resides within tapered aperture 1130, which will be shown and described below. Moreover, tapered bulbous portion 1010 is generally cylindrical in shape and has a generally hexagonal-shaped aperture 1035 aligned along axis 1002 traversing the longitudinal length of bulbous portion 1010. However, a star-shaped aperture, a square-shaped aperture, or any other shaped aperture may be utilized without departing from the scope of the invention. Aperture 1035 is provided to transmit torque from bulbous portion 1010 to threaded portion 1015 as bulbous portion 1010 is rotated in a direction that causes a corresponding rotation of threaded portion 1015. Further, lag screw member 815 has a first smooth exterior portion 1005 that has a uniform diameter 1025 from first end 1040 to second end 1045. Portion 1005 includes an internal aperture 1050 aligned along axis 1002 that traverses the longitudinal length of portion 1005 in direction 1000. Further, portion 1005 terminates into a threaded portion 1015. Threaded portion 1015 includes an internal aperture 1055 aligned along axis 1002 that longitudinally traverses threaded portion 1015. Internal aperture 1055 being aligned on the same axis 1002 as apertures 1035 and 1055 cooperatively form a continuous opening (i.e., a cannula) from end 1030 of bulbous portion 1010 to end 1060 of threaded portion 1015. The continuous opening or cannula is provided to interact with a guide wire (not shown) by receiving the guide wire within the continuous opening to help guide and position the lag screw member 815 during insertion of the lag screw member 815. In other non-limiting embodiments, the lag screw member 815 may be provided without apertures 1050 and 1055 (i.e., the lag screw member 815 is solid). Furthermore, threaded portion 1015 has a plurality of circular threads, such as threads 1065, which are circumferentially disposed on the external surface of threaded portion 1015. Threaded portion 1015 has a diameter 1020 that is substantially the same as diameter 1025 of portion 1005. Threaded portion 1015 may also be provided with a self-tapping leading edge 1070 to provide portion 1015 with the ability to remove bone material during insertion of lag screw member 815 into bone. It should be appreciated that the length of the lag screw member 815 may be selected of varying lengths to allow a surgeon to fuse different joints in the human body. It should be appreciated that the lag screw member 815 may be positioned at one angle inside the tapered screw member 810. Also, lag screw member 815 may be coated with an osteoconductive material, such as, for example, plasma spray or other similar types of porous materials that is capable of supporting or encouraging bone ingrowth into this material. As shown in FIG. 11, tapered screw member 810 is generally cylindrical in shape and has a smooth exterior portion 1105 that extends from a tapered portion 1110 to a threaded portion 1115. Tapered screw member 810 is aligned along longitudinal axis 1104, which is longitudinally coextensive with length of tapered screw member 810. Further, tapered portion 1110 is generally tubular in shape and tapers from end 1120 to end 1125 (i.e. end 1120 has a diameter 1127 that decreases slightly in diameter from end 1120 in direction 1100). Further, first end 1120 has a tapered aperture 1130, which traverses tapered portion 1110 along axis 1102, which causes tapered aperture 1130 to emanate from surface 1135. Axis 1102 is offset from longitudinal axis 1104 at an angle 1140. Moreover, tapered portion 1110 has a generally hexagonal-shaped aperture contained within portion 1110, which is aligned along axis 1104 and is provided to receive an instrument (not shown) for applying torque to tapered screw member 810. In other non-limiting embodiments, a star-shaped aperture, a square-shaped aperture, or any other shaped aperture may be utilized without departing from the scope of the invention. With tapered aperture 1130 being aligned along axis 1102, tapered aperture 1130 forms a fixed angle 1140 with longitudinal axis 1145. Fixed angle 1140 determines the angle for fixation of tapered screw member 810 with respect to lag screw member 815(shown in FIG. 10). It should be appreciated that fixed angle 1140 may be any angle less than 90 degrees to allow a surgeon the flexibility of determining the angle for internal fixation of bones in the human body. It should also be appreciated that tapered aperture 1130 when combined with tapered bulbous portion 1010, shown in FIG. 10, creates a locked interference fit between tapered screw member 810 and lag screw member 815. Further, tapered screw member 810 has a smooth exterior portion 1105 that has a uniform diameter 1145 from end 1125 to end 1150. Tapered screw member 810 is generally solid, however, in other non-limiting embodiments, screw member 810 may be cannulated. Further, portion 1105 terminates into a threaded portion 1115. Threaded portion 1115 is generally solid and includes a plurality of circular threads, such as threads 1155, which are circumferentially disposed on the external surface of threaded portion 1115. Threaded portion 1115 has a diameter 1160 that is substantially the same as diameter 1145 of portion 1105. Threaded portion 1115 may also be provided with a self-tapping leading edge 1165 to provide portion 1115 with the ability to remove bone material during insertion of tapered screw member 810 into bone. It should be appreciated that the length of the tapered screw member 810 may be selected of varying lengths to allow a surgeon to fuse different joints in the human body. It should be appreciated that tapered screw member 810 may be coated with an osteoconductive material, such as, for example, plasma spray or other similar types of porous materials that is capable of supporting or encouraging bone ingrowth into this material. As shown in FIGS. 8 and 12, the intramedullary fixation assembly 800 may be utilized to apply compression, for example to the bones in a human foot through an acute angle fixation of the tapered screw member 810 to the lag screw member 815. As shown, the method starts in step 1200 and proceeds to step 1205, whereby a central incision is made in the hind-foot region of foot 805. Next, in step 1210, a pilot hole is drilled into the calcaneus 820 and the cuboid 830 bones. In this step, a countersink drill is inserted a cannulated drill or guide wire is used to pre-drill the hole through the joints selected for fusion. Next, in step 1215, tapered screw member 810 is inserted into the intraosseous intramedullary canal (not shown) of the calcaneus 820. In other non-limiting embodiments, the tapered screw member 810 may be inserted by impaction, by press fit, by reaming a hole in the intramedullary canal (not shown) or substantially any other similar strategy or technique. Next, in step 1220, the final position of the tapered screw member 810 is aligned so that the coupling of the lag screw member 815 forms a predetermined angle with the tapered screw member 810. In step 1225, align a guide through tapered aperture 1130 at surface 1135 and pre-drill a hole through the joint substantially along axis 1102. Next, in step 1230, insert a K-wire (not shown) into the pre-drilled hole and into the tapered screw member 810 so that the K-wire makes an acute angle with the tapered screw member 810. Next, in step 1235, the lag screw member 815 is rotated and inserted over the K-wire and into the calcaneus bone 820 so that the K-wire guides the lag screw member 815. The K-wire, in assisting the lag screw member 815, penetrates end 1060 and emanates from end 1030. In some non-limiting embodiments, the lag member 815 may be inserted by impaction, by press fit, or substantially any other similar strategy or technique. Next, in step 1240, the K-wire is removed and the incision is closed. The method ends in step 1245. In an alternate embodiment, as shown in FIG. 13, an intramedullary fixation assembly 1300 is provided for the internal fixation of bones in a human hand 1305. Particularly, the intramedullary fixation assembly 1300 is substantially the same as the intramedullary fixation assembly 800 of the embodiment shown and described in FIG. 8. The intramedullary fixation assembly 1300 includes a tapered screw member 1310 forming a fixed acute angle with the lag screw member 1315. The fixed acute angle is predetermined and the angle may be selected up to 90 degrees by, in one example, a surgeon to provide for the internal fixation of the bones in the human hand 1305, such as for example the radius 1320 and ulna 1325. In another alternate embodiment, as shown in FIG. 14, an intramedullary fixation assembly 1400 may be provided to vary the acute angle between 0 and 90 degrees after insertion of the intramedullary fixation assembly 1400. Particularly, the intramedullary fixation assembly 1400 comprises a polyaxial screw member 1410 coupled to a lag screw member 1415 and forming an angle 1405 between the two members 1410 and 1415. The angle 1405 between the polyaxial screw member 1410 and the lag screw member 1415 causes the intramedullary fixation assembly 1400 to “hook” into the bone segments and translates the compression applied to bone fragments across the members 1410 and 1415. It should be appreciated that the intramedullary fixation assembly 1400 may be provided at several lengths for the internal fixation of a variety of bone sizes in the human body. It should also be appreciated that in one non-limiting embodiment, the intramedullary fixation assembly 1400 may be made from a Titanium material, although, in other non-limiting embodiments, the intramedullary fixation assembly 1400 may be made from SST, PEEK, NiTi, Cobalt chrome or other similar types of materials. As shown in FIG. 15, lag screw member 1415 is generally cylindrical in shape and has a first smooth exterior portion 1505 that extends from first bulbous portion 1510 to a second threaded portion 1515. Bulbous portion 1510 is generally semispherical in shape and has a diameter 1500 that is slightly larger than the internal diameter of aperture 1630 (shown in FIG. 16), which is provided to receive bulbous portion 1510. The bulbous portion 1510 resides within the internal aperture 1630 (shown in FIG. 16) and provides for rotational movement of both the polyaxial screw member 1410 and the lag screw member 1415 at various angles between 0 and 90 degrees after insertion of the intramedullary fixation assembly 1400. Also, bulbous portion 1510 has a generally hexagonal-shaped aperture 1535 aligned along axis 1502 traversing the longitudinal length of bulbous portion 1510. In other non-limiting embodiments, a star-shaped aperture, a square-shaped aperture, or any other shaped aperture may be utilized without departing from the scope of the invention. Aperture 1535 is provided to transmit torque from bulbous portion 1510 to threaded portion 1515 as bulbous portion 1510 is rotated in a direction that causes a corresponding rotation of threaded portion 1515. It should also be appreciated that axis 1502 is longitudinally coextensive with the length of lag screw member 1415. Further, lag screw member 1415 has a first smooth exterior portion 1505 of a uniform diameter 1525 from first end 1540 to second end 1545. Portion 1505 includes an internal aperture 1550 aligned along axis 1502 that traverses the longitudinal length of portion 1505 along direction 1504. Further, portion 1505 terminates into the threaded portion 1515. Threaded portion 1515 also includes an internal aperture 1555 aligned along axis 1502 that longitudinally traverses threaded portion 1515. Internal aperture 1555 being aligned along the same axis 1502 as apertures 1535 and 1550 cooperatively form a continuous opening (i.e., a cannula) from bulbous portion 1510 to end 1560 of threaded portion 1515. The continuous opening or cannula is provided to interact with a guide wire (not shown) by receiving the guide wire within the continuous opening to help guide and position the lag screw member 1415 during insertion into bone. In other non-limiting embodiments, the lag screw member 1415 may be provided without apertures 1550 and 1555 (i.e., the lag screw member 1415 is non-cannulated or solid). Furthermore, threaded portion 1515 has a plurality of circular threads, such as threads 1565, which are circumferentially disposed on the external surface of threaded portion 1515. Threaded portion 1515 has a diameter 1520 that is substantially the same as diameter 1525 of portion 1505. Threaded portion 1515 may also be provided with a self-tapping leading edge (not shown) to provide portion 1515 with the ability to remove bone material during insertion of lag screw member 1415 into bone. It should be appreciated that the length of the lag screw member 1415 may be selected of varying lengths to allow a surgeon to fuse different joints in the human body. Also, lag screw member 1415 may be coated with an osteoconductive material, such as, for example, plasma spray or other similar types of porous materials that is capable of supporting or encouraging bone ingrowth into this material. As shown in FIG. 16, polyaxial screw member 1410 is generally cylindrical in shape and has a smooth exterior portion 1605 that extends from portion 1610 to a threaded portion 1615. Polyaxial screw member 1410 is aligned along longitudinal axis 1604, which is longitudinally coextensive with length of polyaxial screw member 1410. Further, portion 1610 is generally tubular in shape having a uniform diameter, which is slightly larger than diameter of aperture 1630 causing portion 1610 to abut the interior surface of portion 1610 at aperture 1630. However, in other non-limiting embodiments, portion 1610 may be tapered going from a larger diameter to a smaller diameter as we traverse portion 1610 along direction of axis 1600. Further, portion 1610 has a plurality of apertures 1620 and 1630 of dissimilar diameters. Aperture 1630 is a through aperture and is tapered along axis 1602, causing aperture 1630 to emanate from surface 1635. On the other hand, aperture 1620 is longitudinally disposed along axis 1604 and has a generally hexagonal shaped aperture, although in other non-limiting embodiments, a star-shaped aperture, a square-shaped aperture, or any other shapes aperture may be utilized. Aperture 1630 is offset from axis 1604 at an angle 1640. Angle 1640 determines the angle for rotation of lag screw member 1415 when bulbous portion 1510 (shown in FIG. 15) resides in aperture 1630 with lag screw member 1415 rotating angularly around axis 1602. It should be appreciated that angle 1640 may be any angle less than 90 degrees to allow a surgeon the flexibility of fixing the rotation of polyaxial screw member 1410 and lag screw member 1415. Further, polyaxial screw member 1410 has a smooth exterior portion 1605 having a uniform diameter from end 1625 to end 1650. The diameter of exterior portion 1605 is smaller than the diameter of aperture 1630. Polyaxial screw member 1410 is generally solid, however, in other non-limiting embodiments, polyaxial screw member 1410 may be cannulated. Further, portion 1605 terminates into a threaded portion 1615. Threaded portion 1615 is generally solid and includes a plurality of circular threads, such as threads 1655, circumferentially disposed on the external surface of threaded portion 1615. Threaded portion 1615 has a uniform diameter that is slightly larger than the diameter of portion 1605. However, in other non-limiting embodiments, the respective diameters of portions 1605 and 1615 may be substantially the same. Threaded portion 1615 may also be provided with a self-tapping leading edge (not shown) to provide portion 1615 with the ability to remove bone material during insertion of polyaxial screw member 1410 into bone. It should be appreciated that the length of the polyaxial screw member 1410 may be selected of varying lengths to allow a surgeon to fuse different joints in the human body. It should be appreciated that polyaxial screw member 1410 may be coated with an osteoconductive material, such as, for example, plasma spray or other similar types of porous materials that is capable of supporting or encouraging bone ingrowth into this material. In another alternate embodiment, as shown in FIG. 17, length of the polyaxial screw member 1710 may be varied in order to accommodate the intramedullary fixation assembly 1700 in bones of various sizes. Particularly, the polyaxial screw member 1710 includes a smooth end portion 1720 coupled directly to a threaded portion 1725, thereby varying the angle 1705 that is formed between the polyaxial screw member 1710 and the lag screw member 1715. In all other respects, the intramedullary fixation assembly 1700 is substantially similar to the intramedullary fixation assembly 1400 as was shown and described in FIG. 14. In another alternate embodiment, as shown in FIG. 18, an intramedullary fixation assembly 1800 having a plurality of lag screw members 1805 and 1810 coupled to a tapered screw member 1815 is provided in order to apply compression at multiple points on the bone fragment surface. Particularly, the lag screw members 1805 and 1810, and the tapered screw member 1815 are substantially similar to the lag screw member 815 and tapered screw member 810 respectively shown and described in the embodiment of FIGS. 8-11. Each of the lag screw members 1805 and 1810 forms an fixed acute angle with the tapered screw member 1815, with these angles being predetermined by, for example, a surgeon to fix the bones in a human body. As shown, tapered screw member 1815 is generally cylindrical in shape and has a smooth exterior portion 1820 that extends longitudinally along axis 1806 from end 1825 to a threaded portion 1830. Further, end 1825 has a tapered aperture 1835, which is aligned on axis 1802 and forms a fixed angle 1808 with axis 1806. Fixed angle 1808 determines the angle for fixation of tapered screw member 1810 with respect to lag screw member 1805. Also, tapered screw member 1815 has a second tapered aperture 1840, aligned along axis 1804 and forms a fixed angle 1812 with axis 1804. The fixed angle 1812 determines the angle for fixation of lag screw member 1810 with tapered screw member 1815. It should be appreciated that fixed angles 1808 and 1812 may be any angle less than 90 degrees to allow a surgeon the flexibility of determining the angle for internal fixation of bones in the human body. It should also be appreciated that tapered screw member 1815 creates a locked interference fit with each of the lag screw members 1805 and 1810. Further, tapered screw member 1815 has a smooth exterior portion 1820 having a uniform diameter from end 1825 to threaded portion 1830. Tapered screw member 1815 is generally solid, however, in other non-limiting embodiments, screw member 1815 may be cannulated. Further, threaded portion 1830 is generally solid and includes a plurality of circular threads circumferentially disposed on the external surface of threaded portion 1830. Threaded portion 1830 may also be provided with a self-tapping leading edge to provide portion 1830 with the ability to remove bone material during insertion of tapered screw member 1815 into bone. It should be appreciated that the length of the tapered screw member 1815 may be selected of varying lengths to allow a surgeon to fuse different joints in the human body. It should be appreciated that tapered screw member 1815 may be coated with an osteoconductive material, such as, for example, plasma spray or other similar types of porous materials that is capable of supporting or encouraging bone ingrowth into this material. Also as shown in FIG. 18, each of the respective lag screw members 1805 and 1810 are substantially similar to the lag screw member of the embodiment shown and described in FIG. 10. Particularly, lag screw member 1805 is generally cylindrical in shape and has a first smooth exterior portion 1845 that extends from bulbous portion 1850 to a threaded portion 1855, while lag screw member 1810 has a smooth exterior portion 1860 that extends from bulbous portion 1865 to threaded portion 1870. Additionally, each of the bulbous portions 1850 and 1865 have a taper, such as a Morse taper, that provides for a locked interference fit with tapered apertures 1835 and 1840 respectively. In an alternate embodiment, as shown in FIG. 19, a lag screw member 1900 may include a cover or plug member 1905. The cover member 1905 includes a first end portion 1910 having substantially the same diameter as end portion 1915. The cover member 1905 also includes a second end portion 1920, which is smaller than the internal diameter of end portion 1915 and which is provided to be received inside aperture 1925 of lag screw member 1900. It should be appreciated that any number of intramedullary fixation assemblies, such as intramedullary fixation assembly 800, may be inserted into the joints, for example, of the human foot in order to provide for compression of the bones of the foot. It should also be appreciated that the intramedullary fixation assembly 800 is delivered through an incision, thereby reducing the disruption to the plantar tissues while at the same time minimizing the tension on the skin. This allows for improved wound closure, reduced operating room time, reduction in the number of incisions required and reduction in the total length of incisions. It should also be appreciated that the intramedullary fixation assembly 800 may also be utilized to restore any of the other bones in the human body. It should also be appreciated that in other non-limiting embodiments, the intramedullary assembly 800 may be utilized with graft material (i.e., autograft, allograft or other biologic agent). It should also be understood that this invention is not limited to the disclosed features and other similar method and system may be utilized without departing from the spirit and the scope of the invention. While the invention has been described with reference to the preferred embodiment and alternative embodiments, which embodiments have been set forth in considerable detail for the purposes of making a complete disclosure of the invention, such embodiments are merely exemplary and are not intended to be limiting or represent an exhaustive enumeration of all aspects of the invention. The scope of the invention, therefore, shall be defined solely by the following claims. Further, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that numerous changes may be made in such details without departing from the spirit and the principles of the invention. It should be appreciated that the invention is capable of being embodied in other forms without departing from its essential characteristics.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Orthopedic implant devices, such as intramedullary nails, plates, rods and screws are often used to repair or reconstruct bones and joints affected by trauma, degeneration, deformity and disease, such as Charcot arthropathy caused by diabetes in some patients, Hallux Valgus deformities, failed Keller Bunionectomies, Rheumatoid Arthritis, and severe deformities. Moreover, infections and wound complications are a major concern in the aforementioned procedures. Wound closure is technically demanding for the surgeon, and devices that add surface prominence, such as plates or exposed screws, add to the difficulty by requiring greater tissue tension during incision reapproximation. This increases the risk of postoperative wound infections and dehiscence that may ultimately result in limb amputation. Various implants have been utilized for surgical treatment of these bones and joints, including bone screws. Implants have also been utilized to treat severe deformities in the metatarsal and phalangeal bones, including multiple screws and plates. These multiple screws and plate implants have been commonly used in a first metatarsal-phalangeal fusion procedure to fuse the first metatarsal to the first phalangeal bone in hallux valgus deformities, failed keller bunionectomies, rheumatoid arthritis, and other types of severe deformities in the metatarsal and phalange bones. While these devices allow fixation and promote fusion, they do not deliver restoration of the arch in a Charcot foot, they are not effective in metatarsal-phalangeal (MTP) fusion procedures, nor do they deliver uniform compression for various predetermined angles of compression.. Particularly, screw implants in MTP procedures are ineffective in delivering sufficient compression to the bones in the foot, preventing screw head break out, or delivering effective bending resistance. Moreover, hard to control dorsiflexion and valgus angles as well skin irritation from proximity to the skin prevents these screw implants from being readily utilized for surgical treatment. Yet further, plate implants used with bone screws too have the same drawbacks as fixed varus and valgus angles, lack of direct compression across the MTP joint, and skin irritations from proximity to the skin reduce the effectiveness of these implants. There is therefore a need for an intramedullary fixation assembly and method of use that overcomes some or all of the previously delineated drawbacks of prior fixation assemblies.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An object of the invention is to overcome the drawbacks of previous inventions. Another object of the invention is to provide a novel and useful intramedullary fixation assembly that may be utilized to treat bones in a human body. Another object of the invention is to provide a system for compressing bones using an intramedullary fixation assembly. Another object of the invention is to fuse the bones in the human body through the use of an intraosseous intramedullary assembly. Another object of the invention is to provide a fixed acute angle intramedullary fixation assembly for bone fixation. Another object of the invention is to provide variable acute angles an intramedullary fixation assembly for bone fixation having variable acute angles of fixation. Another object of the invention is to provide at least three point of compression on bone fragments through a variable angle intramedullary fixation assembly. In a first non-limiting aspect of the invention, an intramedullary assembly for bone fusion is provided and includes a lag screw member and a tapered screw member. The lag screw member includes a first elongated body, where the first elongated body includes a first threaded portion at a first end and a bulbous portion at a second end. The tapered screw member is coupled to the lag screw member, and the tapered screw member includes a second elongated body, where the second elongated body includes a second threaded portion at a third end, and an opening at a fourth end. In a second non-limiting aspect of the invention, a method for bone fusion includes eight steps. In step one, an intramedullary assembly is provided, where the intramedullary assembly includes a lag screw member having a first elongated body. The first elongated body includes a first threaded portion at a first end and a bulbous portion at a second end. The intramedullary assembly also includes a tapered screw member coupled to the lag screw member, where the tapered screw member includes a second elongated body having a second threaded portion at a third end, a tubular portion at a fourth end, and an opening at the fourth end. Step two includes making an incision in the foot. Step three includes drilling a first medullary canal in a first bone. Step four includes inserting the tapered screw member into the first medullary canal. Step five includes aligning the tapered screw member in the first medullary canal. Step six includes drilling a second medullary canal in the first bone. Step seven includes slideably coupling the lag screw member to the tapered screw member. Step seven includes inserting the lag screw member into the second medullary canal. Step eight includes applying compression to the lag screw member to lock the tapered screw member to the lag screw member, thereby fusing the first bone to the second bone.

A61B177291

20180130

20180614

96177.0

A61B1772

HARVEY, JULIANNA NANCY

INTRAOSSEOUS INTRAMEDULLARY FIXATION ASSEMBLY AND METHOD OF USE

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

A61B

PENDING

SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR PERFORMING HIGH-SPEED COMMUNICATIONS OVER FIBER OPTICAL NETWORKS

Processing a received optical signal in an optical communication network includes equalizing a received optical signal to provide an equalized signal, demodulating the equalized signal according to an m-ary modulation format to provide a demodulated signal, decoding the demodulated signal according to an inner code to provide an inner-decoded signal, and decoding the inner-decoded signal according to an outer code. Other aspects include other features such as equalizing an optical channel including storing channel characteristics for the optical channel associated with a client, loading the stored channel characteristics during a waiting period between bursts on the channel, and equalizing a received burst from the client using the loaded channel characteristics.

1. A pluggable optical transceiver module comprising of: an electrical system interface for receiving a first electrical data signal and for transmitting a second electrical data signal, and an encoder unit for coding the first electrical data signal according to an error correcting code to produce a first electrical encoded data signal, and an m-ary modulator for increasing the number of bits per symbol in the first electrical encoded data signal to produce a first m-ary modulation signal, and a digital to analog converter for converting the first m-ary modulation signal to a first electrical m-ary analog modulation signal, and a driver for amplifying the first electrical m-ary analog modulation signal to an amplified first electrical m-ary analog modulation signal to drive an optical transmitter, and the optical transmitter for emitting a first optical signal on a first wavelength responsive to and representative of the amplified first electrical m-ary analog modulation signal from the driver, and an optical detector for receiving a second optical signal on a second wavelength and producing an electrical analog signal, and an amplifier for amplifying the electrical analog signal to an amplified electrical analog signal, and a clock data recovery unit for recovering clock and data information to produce a second m-ary modulation signal from the amplified electrical analog signal, and an equalizer for performing equalization on the second m-ary modulation signal to remove noise, and an m-ary demodulator for decreasing the number of bits per symbol in the equalized second m-ary modulation signal to produce a second electrical encoded data signal, and a decoder unit for decoding the second electrical encoded data signal according to an error correcting code to produce the second electrical data signal. 2. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the form factor of the pluggable optical transceiver module is a pluggable form factor standard. 3. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 2, wherein the pluggable form factor standard of the pluggable optical transceiver module is a small form factor pluggable (SFP) or SFP+ form factor standard. 4. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 2, wherein the pluggable form factor standard of the pluggable optical transceiver module is an XFP form factor standard. 5. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the m-ary modulator and the m-ary demodulator perform m-ary pulse amplitude modulation and de-modulation, respectively, that uses two or more bits per symbol for communication. 6. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the m-ary modulator and the m-ary demodulator perform m-ary quadrature amplitude modulation and de-modulation, respectively, that uses two or more bits per symbol for communication. 7. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the m-ary modulator and the m-ary demodulator perform m-ary quadrature phase shift keying modulation and de-modulation, respectively, that uses two or more bits per symbol for communication. 8. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, whereby the m-ary modulator and the m-ary demodulator perform orthogonal frequency division multiplexing modulation and de-modulation, respectively, that uses two or more bits per symbol for communication. 9. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the electrical system interface includes parallel signals. 10. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the electrical system interface includes serial signals. 11. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the first electrical data signal and second electrical data signal includes parallel electrical data signals. 12. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the first optical signal on a first wavelength is configured to emit into a first optical fiber and the second optical signal on a second wavelength is configured to be received from the first optical fiber. 13. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the first optical signal on a first wavelength is configured to emit into a first optical fiber and the second optical signal on a second wavelength is configured to be received from a second optical fiber. 14. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the equalizer includes coefficients or weights adapted to remove noise from the second m-ary modulation signal. 15. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the noise removed by the equalizer includes intersymbol interference (ISI). 16. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the equalizer performs decision directed equalization on the second m-ary modulation signal to remove noise. 17. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the equalizer performs blind equalization on the second m-ary modulation signal to remove noise. 18. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the error correcting code includes a convolutional code. 19. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the error correcting code includes a forward error correcting (FEC) code. 20. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the error correcting code includes a Reed-Solomon code. 21. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 1, wherein the electrical system interface includes receiving a third electrical data signal and transmitting a forth electrical data signal and the pluggable optical transceiver module further includes: a second encoder unit for coding the third electrical data signal according to an error correcting code to produce a third electrical encoded data signal, and a second m-ary modulator for increasing the number of bits per symbol in the third electrical encoded data signal to produce a third m-ary modulation signal, and a second digital to analog converter for converting the third m-ary modulation signal to a second electrical m-ary analog modulation signal, and a second driver for amplifying the second electrical m-ary analog modulation signal to an amplified second electrical m-ary analog modulation signal to drive a second optical transmitter, and the second optical transmitter for emitting a third optical signal on a third wavelength responsive to and representative of the amplified second electrical m-ary analog modulation signal from the second driver, and a second optical detector for receiving a forth optical signal on a forth wavelength and producing a second electrical analog signal, and a second amplifier for amplifying the second electrical analog signal to an amplified second electrical analog signal, and a second clock data recovery unit for recovering clock and data information to produce a forth m-ary modulation signal from the amplified second electrical analog signal, and a second equalizer for performing equalization on the forth m-ary modulation signal to remove noise, and a second m-ary demodulator for decreasing the number of bits per symbol in the equalized forth m-ary modulation signal to produce a forth electrical encoded data signal, and a second decoder unit for decoding the forth electrical encoded data signal according to an error correcting code to produce the forth electrical data signal. 22. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 21, wherein the third optical signal on a third wavelength is configured to emit into a first optical fiber and the forth optical signal on a forth wavelength is configured to be received from the first optical fiber. 23. The pluggable optical transceiver module of claim 21, wherein the third optical signal on a third wavelength is configured to emit into a first optical fiber and the forth optical signal on a forth wavelength is configured to be received from a second optical fiber.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is filed as a 37 C.F.R. 1.53(b) as a continuation claiming the benefit under 35 U.S.C § 120 of the pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/512,968, “System and Method for Performing High-Speed Communications over Fiber Optical Networks”, which was filed by the same inventors on Jul. 30, 2009 claiming the benefit under 37 C.F.R. 1.53(b)(2) of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/772,187 filed on Jun. 30, 2007, which claims benefit of commonly-assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/865,547 filed on Jun. 10, 2004, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,242,868, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/477,845 filed Jun. 10, 2003, incorporated herein by reference, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/480,488 filed Jun. 21, 2003, incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to optical fiber communications generally, and more specifically to m-ary modulation in optical communication networks. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Line coding is a process by which a communication protocol arranges symbols that represent binary data in a particular pattern for transmission. Conventional line coding used in fiber optic communications includes non-return-to-zero (NRZ), return-to-zero (RZ), and biphase, or Manchester. The binary bit stream derived from these line codes can be directly modulated onto wavelengths of light generated by the resonating frequency of a laser. Traditionally direct binary modulation based transmission offers an advantage with regard to the acceptable signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the optical receiver, which is one of the reasons direct binary modulation methods are used in the Datacom Ethernet/IP, Storage Fiber-Channel/FC and Telecom SONET/SDH markets for transmission across nonmultiplexed unidirectional fiber links. The performance of a fiber optic network can be measured by the maximum data throughput rate (or information carrying capacity) and the maximum distance between source and destination achievable (or reach). For Passive Optical Networks (PONs) in particular, additional measures of performance are the maximum number of Optical Networking Units (ONUs) and/or Optical Networking Terminals (ONTs) possible on a network and the minimum and maximum distance between the Optical Line Terminator (OLT) and an ONU/ONT. These performance metrics are constrained by, among other things, amplitude degradation and temporal distortions as a result of light traveling through an optical fiber. Amplitude degradation is substantially a function of length or distance between two end points of an optical fiber. Temporal distortion mechanisms include intramodal (chromatic) dispersion and intermodal (modal) dispersion. Intramodal dispersion is the dominant temporal dispersion on Single-mode fiber (SMF), while intermodal dispersion is dominant on Multi-mode fiber (MMF). Both types of temporal distortions are measured as functions of frequency or rate of transmission (also referred as line rate of a communication protocol) over distance in MHz·km. Temporal distortions are greater, hence a constraint on network performance, with increasing frequency transmission. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In general, in one aspect, the invention includes a method for processing a received optical signal in an optical communication network, the method including: determining a first set of coefficients to equalize a portion of an optical signal received over a first optical link including using a blind equalization method that does not use a known training sequence to equalize the portion of the optical signal, equalizing the portion of the optical signal using the determined coefficients, and demodulating the equalized portion of the optical signal according to an m-ary modulation format. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The method includes determining a second set of coefficients to equalize a portion of an optical signal received over a second optical link. The method includes selecting one of the first or second set of coefficients based on a source of the portion of optical signal being equalized. The portion of the optical signal includes a burst within a time slot of the first optical link. The method includes storing the determined coefficients. The method includes retrieving the stored coefficients for equalizing a second portion of the optical signal corresponding to a portion received from a same source as generated the first portion of the optical signal. The coefficients are retrieved between signal bursts on the first optical link. The stored coefficients are retrieved for respective portions of the optical signals that correspond to respective signal sources. The first optical link includes a link in a point-to-multipoint passive optical network. The m-ary modulation format is selected from the group consisting of quadrature amplitude modulation, quadrature phase shift keying, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing and pulse amplitude modulation. The method includes demodulating a received first data stream and demodulating a second data stream received in the optical signal, and multiplexing the first and second data streams. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes optical communication system including: a first transceiver coupled by an optical network to a second transceiver and third transceiver, the first transceiver including an equalization block and a modulation block, the equalization block operable to determine a first set of coefficients to equalize a portion of an optical signal received over the optical network from the second transceiver and a second set of coefficients to equalize a portion of the optical signal received over the optical network from the third transceiver, the equalization block including a blind equalization routine that does not use a known training sequence to equalize the portions of the optical signal, the equalization block operable to equalize the portions of the optical signal using the determined coefficients, and the modulation block operable to demodulate equalized portions of the optical signal according to an m-ary modulation format. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The optical network includes a first optical link for coupling the first and second transceiver, and a second optical link for coupling the first and third transceivers and where the equalization block is operable to select one of the first or second set of coefficients based on a source of the portion of optical signal being equalized. The equalization block is operable to store the first and second sets of coefficients for later retrieval and use to equalize portions of the optical signal. The portion of the optical signal includes a burst within a time slot on the optical network. The equalization block is operable to retrieve the sets of coefficients between signal bursts on the optical network. The optical network includes a link in a point-to-multipoint passive optical network. The m-ary modulation format is selected from the group consisting of quadrature amplitude modulation, quadrature phase shift keying, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing and pulse amplitude modulation. The system includes a multiplexer, the modulation block operable to demodulating a received first data stream and a second data stream received in the optical signal, and the multiplexer operable to multiplex the first and second data streams. The system includes a transmission convergence layer block for processing data streams received by the first transceiver, the transmission convergence layer block operable to control the demultiplexing of data streams including control of the multiplexer. The optical network is an optical distribution network. The first transceiver is an optical line terminator. The second and third transceivers are optical network terminals or optical network units. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes a method for processing data for transmission in an optical communication network, the method including: demultiplexing a data stream into a first demultiplexed data stream and a second demultiplexed data stream, modulating each of the first and second data streams according to an m-ary modulation format, transmitting the first modulated data stream over a first optical link; and transmitting the second modulated data stream over a second optical link. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes an optical communication system including: a demultiplexer operable to demultiplex a data stream into a first demultiplexed data stream and a second demultiplexed data stream, a modulation block operable to modulate each of the first and second data streams according to an m-ary modulation format, transmitting means operable to transmit the first modulated data stream over a first optical link and the second modulated data stream over a second optical link. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes a method for processing a received optical signal in an optical communication network, the method including: equalizing a received optical signal to provide an equalized signal, demodulating the equalized signal according to an m-ary modulation format to provide a demodulated signal, decoding the demodulated signal according to an inner code to provide an inner-decoded signal, and decoding the inner-decoded signal according to an outer code. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The m-ary modulation format is selected from the group consisting of quadrature amplitude modulation, quadrature phase shift keying, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing and pulse amplitude modulation. Equalizing the received optical signal includes equalizing the received optical signal using a blind equalization routine that does not use a known training sequence. Equalizing the received optical signal includes equalizing the received optical signal using a known training sequence. The known training sequence is multiplexed in a frame within the received optical signal. The inner code includes a trellis code. The outer code includes an error correction code. The outer code includes a: Reed-Solomon code; trellis code; Low-density parity-check code, or a Turbo code. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes a transceiver including: an equalizer for equalizing a received optical signal to provide an equalized signal, a demodulator in communication with the equalizer for demodulating the equalized signal according to an m-ary modulation format to provide a demodulated signal, an inner-decoder in communication with the demodulator for decoding the demodulated signal according to an inner code to provide an inner-decoded signal, and an outer-decoder in communication with the inner-decoder for decoding the inner-decoded signal according to an outer code. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The transceiver includes an optical module including a first bi-directional optical fiber interface including a first detector and a first driver, and a second bi-directional optical fiber interface including a second detector and a second driver, and management means for managing data flow across the first bi-directional optical fiber interface and across the second bi-directional optical fiber interface. The transceiver includes an optical module including a first bi-directional optical fiber interface including a first detector and a first driver, and a second bi-directional optical fiber interface including a second detector and a second driver, and a multiplexer for multiplexing a first demultiplexed data stream received over the first bi-directional optical fiber interface and a second demultiplexed data stream received over the second bi-directional optical fiber interface into a multiplexed data stream for transmission. The transceiver includes an optical module including a first bi-directional optical fiber interface including a first detector and a first driver, and a second bi-directional optical fiber interface including a second detector and a second driver, and a queue manager for managing traffic for a first bi-directional link associated with the first bi-directional optical fiber interface independently from traffic for a second bi-directional link associated with the second bi-directional optical fiber interface. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes a transceiver including: an optical module including a first bi-directional optical fiber interface including a first detector and a first driver, and a second bi-directional optical fiber interface including a second detector and a second driver, and management means for managing data flow across the first bi-directional optical fiber interface and across the second bi-directional optical fiber interface. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The management means includes a multiplexer for multiplexing a first demultiplexed data stream received over the first bi-directional optical fiber interface and a second demultiplexed data stream received over the second bi-directional optical fiber interface into a multiplexed data stream for transmission. The management means is configured to demultiplex a data stream over a plurality of fiber links that excludes one or more failed fiber links. The management means includes a queue manager for managing traffic across the first bi-directional fiber interface independently from traffic for the second bi-directional fiber interface. The management means is configured to change the alignment of received data bits to adjust for an order of optical fiber connections to the first bi-directional optical fiber interface and the second bi-directional optical fiber interface. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes a method for equalizing an optical channel including: storing channel characteristics for the optical channel associated with a client, loading the stored channel characteristics during a waiting period between bursts on the channel, and equalizing a received burst from the client using the loaded channel characteristics. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The method includes determining that the waiting period occurs before a burst from the client based on a schedule. The method includes updating the stored channel characteristics. The method includes providing a grant window, transmitting an identification number to the client in response to receiving a serial number from the client after the grant window. The method includes determining a distance from an upstream device to the client. The method includes compensating for communication delays between the upstream device and the client based on the determined distance. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes a method for communicating data on a fiber optic network, the method including: modulating and demodulating data traffic on an optical link in the network in an m-ary modulation format; encoding and decoding data traffic on an optical link in the network according to an inner coding routine and an outer coding routine, demultiplexing data traffic from an optical link in the network and transmitting the data traffic across a plurality of optical fiber links in the network, multiplexing the data traffic from the plurality of optical fiber links, and equalizing a receive channel in the network to remove temporal distortions. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The method includes equalizing the receive channel according to a blind equalization routine. The method includes equalizing the receive channel according to a decision directed equalization routine. The method includes saving and loading coefficients for equalizing the receive channel for each of a plurality of transmitting sources. The method includes conveying a training sequence for a decision directed equalization routine as part of an in-use communication protocol. A training sequence for a decision directed equalization routine is conveyed as part of the activation process for an optical network terminal or optical network unit. An incorrect connection of an optical fiber link is corrected without having to physically change the connection. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes a method for communicating on a passive optical network between a central transmission point and a plurality of receiving client end points, the method including: preparing downstream data for transmission and transmitting an optical downstream continuous mode signal demultiplexed across a plurality of bi-directional fibers using a plurality of wavelengths of light, receiving an optical downstream continuous mode signal demultiplexed from the plurality of bi-directional fibers using the plurality of wavelengths of light and recovering a downstream data transmission, preparing upstream data for transmission and transmitting an optical upstream burst mode signal demultiplexed across the plurality of bi-directional fibers using the plurality of wavelengths of light, and receiving an optical burst mode signal demultiplexed from the plurality of bi-directional fibers using the plurality of wavelengths of light and recovering an upstream data transmission. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The central transmission point includes an optical line terminal, and the end points are operative as transceivers in a passive optical network. The upstream and downstream data for transmission are conveyed by respective different industry-standard services. Implementations of the invention may include one or more of the following advantages. A system is proposed that provides for high-speed communications over fiber optic networks. The system may include the use of the one or more of the following techniques either individually or in combination: m-ary modulation; channel equalization; demultiplexing across multiple fibers, coding and error correction. M-ary modulation allows for increased data throughput for a given line rate due to an increase in the number of bits per symbol transmitted. Channel equalization reduces the effects of temporal distortions allowing for increased reach. Demultiplexing across multiple fibers allows lower lines rates for a given data throughput rate due to the increased aggregate data throughput from the multiplexing. Coding and error correction allows for a greater selection of qualifying optical components that can be used in the network and complements m-ary modulation and channel equalization for overall system performance improvement as measured by transmit energy per bit. These methods when combined (in part or in total) increase the data throughput and reach for fiber optic networks. For PONs in particular, these methods may increase the number of ONU/ONTs and the distance between OLT and ONU/ONT by decreasing the line rate as compared to a conventional communication system of equivalent data throughput. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates a fiber optic data network. FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of a passive optical network. FIG. 3 illustrates a block diagram of a high-speed communication system for fiber optic networks. FIG. 4 illustrates a block diagram of an alternative high-speed communication system for fiber optic networks. FIG. 5 illustrates a block diagram of an alternative high-speed communication system for fiber optic networks. FIG. 6A illustrates a block diagram of an alternative high-speed communication system for fiber optic networks. FIG. 6B illustrates a block diagram of an alternative high-speed communication system for fiber optic networks. FIG. 7 illustrates a block diagram of an alternative high-speed communication system for fiber optic networks. FIG. 8A illustrates an exemplary flow diagram for upstream burst mode communication processing. FIG. 8B illustrates another exemplary flow diagram for upstream burst mode communication processing. FIG. 9 illustrates an exemplary flow diagram for a downstream continuous mode communication equalization process. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring to FIG. 1, wherein like reference numerals designate identical or corresponding parts throughout the several views and embodiments, a high-level fiber optic data network 50 includes a first transceiver 100 in communication with a second transceiver 101 via a fiber 108. The first transceiver 100 and the second transceiver 101 include transmitter circuitry (Tx) 134, 135 to convert electrical data input signals into modulated light signals for transmission over the fiber 108. In addition, the first transceiver 100 and the second transceiver 101 also include receiver circuitry (Rx) 133, 136 to convert optical signals received via the fiber 108 into electrical signals and to detect and recover encoded data and/or clock signals. First transceiver 100 and second transceiver 101 may contain a micro controller (not shown) and/or other communication logic and memory 131, 132 for network protocol operation. Although the illustrated and described implementations of the transceivers 100, 101 include communication logic and memory in a same package or device as the transmitter circuitry 134, 135 and receiver circuitry 133, 136, other transceiver configurations may also be used. First transceiver 100 transmits/receives data to/from the second transceiver 101 in the form of modulated optical light signals of known wavelength via the optical fiber 108. The transmission mode of the data sent over the optical fiber 108 may be continuous, burst or both burst and continuous modes. Both transceivers 100,101 may transmit a same wavelength (e.g., the light signals are polarized and the polarization of light transmitted from one of the transceivers is perpendicular to the polarization of the light transmitted by the other transceiver). Alternatively, a single wavelength can be used by both transceivers 100, 101 (e.g., the transmissions can be made in accordance with a time-division multiplexing scheme or similar protocol). In another implementation, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) may also be used. WDM is herein defined as any technique by which two optical signals having different wavelengths may be simultaneously transmitted bi-directionally with one wavelength used in each direction over a single fiber. In yet another implementation, coarse wavelength-division multiplexing (CWDM) or dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) may be used. CWDM and DWDM are herein defined as any technique by which two or more optical signals having different wavelengths are simultaneously transmitted in the same direction. The difference between CWDM and DWDM is CWDM wavelengths are typically spaced 20 nanometers (nm) apart, compared with 0.4 nm spacing for DWDM wavelengths. Both CWDM and DWDM may be used in bi-directional communications. In bi-directional communications, e.g. if wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is used, the first transceiver 100 may transmit data to the second transceiver 101 utilizing a first wavelength of modulated light conveyed via the fiber 108 and, similarly, the second transceiver 101 may transmit data via the same fiber 108 to the first transceiver 100 utilizing a second wavelength of modulated light conveyed via the same fiber 108. Because only a single fiber is used, this type of transmission system is commonly referred to as a bi-directional transmission system. Although the fiber optic network illustrated in FIG. 1 includes a first transceiver 100 in communication with a second transceiver 101 via a single fiber 108, other implementations of fiber optic networks, such as those having a first transceiver in communication with a plurality of transceivers via a plurality of fibers (e.g. shown in FIG. 2), may also be used. Electrical data input signals (Data IN 1) 115, as well as any optional clock signal (Data Clock IN 1) 116, are routed to the transceiver 100 from an external data source (not shown) for processing by the communication logic and memory 131. Communication logic and memory 131 process the data and clock signals in accordance with an in-use network protocol. Communication logic and memory 131,132 provides management functions for received and transmitted data including queue management (e.g., independent link control) for each respective link, demultiplexing/multiplexing and other functions as described further below. The processed signals are transmitted by the transmitter circuitry 134. The resulting modulated light signals produced from the first transceiver's 100 transmitter 134 are then conveyed to the second transceiver 101 via the fiber 108. The second transceiver 101, in turn, receives the modulated light signals via the receiver circuitry 136, converts the light signals to electrical signals, processes the electrical signals using the communication logic and memory 132 (in accordance with an in-use network protocol) and, optionally, outputs the electrical data output signals (Data Out 1) 119, as well as optional clock signals (Data Clock Out 1) 120. Similarly, the second transceiver 101 receives electrical data input signals (Data IN 1) 123, as well as any optional clock signals (Data Clock IN) 124, from an external data source (not shown) for processing by the communication logic and memory 132 and transmission by the transmitter circuitry 135. The resulting modulated light signals produced from the second transceiver's 101 transmitter 135 are then conveyed to the first transceiver 100 using the optical fiber 108. The first transceiver 100, in turn, receives the modulated light signals via the receiver circuitry 133, converts the light signals to electrical signals, processes the electrical signals using the communication logic and memory 131 (in accordance with an in-use network protocol), and, optionally, outputs the electrical data output signals (Data Out 1) 127, as well as any optional clock signals (Data Clock Out 1) 128. Fiber optic data network 50 may also include a plurality of electrical input and clock input signals, denoted herein as Data IN N 117/125 and Data Clock IN N 118/126, respectively, and a plurality of electrical output and clock output signals, denoted herein as Data Out N 129/121 and Data Clock Out N 130/122, respectively. The information provided by the plurality of electrical input signals may or may not be used by a given transceiver to transmit information via the fiber 108 and, likewise, the information received via the fiber 108 by a given transceiver may or may not be outputted by the plurality of electrical output signals. The plurality of electrical signals denoted above can be combined to form data plane or control plane bus(es) for input and output signals respectively. In some implementations, the plurality of electrical data input signals and electrical data output signals are used by logic devices or other devices located outside (not shown) a given transceiver to communicate with the transceiver's communication logic and memory 131, 132, transmit circuitry 134, 135, and/or receive circuitry 133,136. FIG. 2 illustrates an implementation of a passive optical network (PON) 52, where the functions described above associated with the first transceiver 100 and the second transceiver 101 of FIG. 1, are implemented in an optical line terminator (OLT) 150 and one ore more optical networking units (ONU) 155, and/or optical networking terminals (ONT) 160, respectively. PON(s) 52 may be configured in either a point-to-point network architecture, wherein one OLT 150 is connected to one ONT 160 or ONU 155, or a point-to-multipoint network architecture, wherein one OLT 150 is connected to a plurality of ONT(s) 160 and/or ONU(s) 155. In the implementation shown in FIG. 2, an OLT 150 is in communication with multiple ONTs/ONUs 160, 155 via a plurality of optical fibers 152. The fiber 152 coupling the OLT 150 to the PON 52 is also coupled to other fibers 152 connecting the ONTs/ONUs 160, 155 by one or more passive optical splitters 157. All of the optical elements between an OLT and ONTs/ONUs are often referred to as the Optical Distribution Network (ODN). Other alternate network configurations, including alternate implementations of point-to-multipoint networks are also possible. FIG. 3 shows a system block diagram for an implementation of transceiver 100. It will be appreciated that, while not always shown, one or more elements or blocks in the following embodiments may be sealed in one or more faraday cages or combined with blocks in faraday cages already shown. It will also be appreciated that, while not shown, one or more elements or blocks in the following embodiments may be combined onto one or more integrated circuits (IC) or surface mount photonic (SMP) devices. The following is a description of the functions and responsibilities that are part of an implementation of the Communication Logic & Memory 131 of transceiver 100. The Communication Logic & Memory 131 includes an asynchronous or synchronous system transmit (TX) interface 301 and receive (RX) interface 302 that is supported by the TX Path 303 and RX Path 304 blocks. System interfaces 301,302 and management or control interfaces can be selected from conventional interfaces including serial, serial XFI, parallel, GMII, XGMII, SGMII, RGMII or XAUI or some other interface may be used. TX Path 303 and RX Path 304 blocks manage the TX and RX interfaces 301,302 and feed data into and get data from the transmission convergence layer or media access control (TC-Layer/MAC) block 305. TX Path 303 and RX Path 304 blocks may perform line code adaptation functions (e.g., line coding used outside the transceiver can be terminated by a TX Path block 303 or sourced by a RX Path block 304 to allow a bit stream, cell, frame, and/or packet formatted data to be adapted for processing by a TC-Layer/MAC block 305). The TC-Layer/MAC 305 block creates the transport system that the data traffic, management and control agents will exploit. TC-Layer/MAC 305 block includes a TC-layer protocol stack such as specified in the ITU G.984 specification (incorporated herein by reference), IEEE 802.3ah MAC protocol stack specification (incorporated herein by reference) or a derivative thereof. A variety of other protocol stacks may also be used. The TC-Layer/MAC 305 block may perform the additional functions of equalizer, coding, queue and demultiplexing management. The TC-Layer/MAC 305 block sends transmit data to a DeMux 306 block, which splits the transmitting data into a plurality of data paths (two paths shown in FIG. 3) for demultiplexing data across multiple fibers. Some implementations need not include DeMux 306 block (and hence do not support demultiplexing data across multiple fibers). DeMux 306 block may demultiplex data across a subset of fibers to exclude fibers experiencing link failure to ensure data communications continue. The exclusion of fiber links experiencing failure is controlled by the TC-Layer/MAC 305 block as part of the demultiplexing management function. After DeMux 306 block, in one implementation, the transmit paths have analogous processing blocks. In an alternative implementation, independent signal processing can be supported in each path. FIG. 3 shows two transmit paths, though more can be included. In a transmit path, the transmit data is provided to the outer coder 307a, 307b block. In one implementation, outer coder 307a performs a reed-solomon coding. The outer coder 307a, 307b block provides data to the inner coder 308a, 308b block. In order to improve the energy per bit required to deliver the transmitting data, an inner coder 308a, 308b is used. Outer coder 307a, 307b may be used to support forward error correction (FEC) recovery of bit(s) errors. In one implementation, inner coder 308a, 308b implements a trellis coding method. Data from the inner coder 308a, 308b is provided to Modulation (MOD) 309a, 309b block. Alternatively, in some implementations, the outer coder 307a, 307b and inner coder 308a, 308b blocks are not used, and the output of the DeMux 306 block is provided directly to the MOD 309a, 309b block. Other outer coding methods that work on bit or symbol streams of arbitrary length can be used, for example linear block codes such as Low-density parity-check (LDPC) and convolutional codes such as Turbo code may be used. Other inner coding methods that are complementary to the outer code as well as inner coding methods that are designed to shape or control the relative intensity noise (RIN) of the optical transmitter to improve overall system performance may be used. For example, an inner coder that dynamically adapts to measured RIN or compensates for measured temperature or other artifacts of laser design may be used. To increase the number of bits per symbol transmitted, m-ary modulation is performed in the MOD 309a, 309b block. In one implementation, an m-ary modulation method such as Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM), QAM-32, QAM-256, Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), PAM-5, PAM-17, Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK), differential QPSK (DQPSK), return-to-zero QPSK (RZ-QPSK), dual-polarized QPSK (DP-QPSK), or Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is used. Other m-ary modulation communication methods can be used, in particular other coherent modulation techniques which are known in the art. After processing by the MOD 309a, 309b block, the transmit data is converted to an analog signal by a Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) 310a, 310b. In one implementation, DAC 310a, 310b is configured to shape, condition or emphasize the signal for improved transmission performance. The DAC 310a, 310b passes the transmit data via electrical signals 311a, 311b to the laser driver (Driver) 312a, 312b as part of an implementation of TX 134 in an Optical Module 326. The driver 312a, 312b drives an optical transmitter, such as the Laser Diode (LD) 313a, 313b, which transmits light in response to transmit data signals received from the driver 312a, 312b. The light emitted from LD 313a, 313b is directed into the fibers 314a, 314b with the aid of a fiber optic interface (not shown). The fiber optic interface may include the necessary components (e.g., filters) to implement WDM, CWDM or DWDM functions. On the receive side of the transceiver 100 as part of an implementation of RX 133 in an Optical Module 326, light propagated across an ODN (not shown in FIG. 3) travels over fibers 314a, 314b through a fiber optic interface (not shown) and is received by an optical detector, such as the photo diode (PD) 315a, 315b. In response, the PD 315a, 315b provides a photocurrent to the TransImpedance Amplifier (TIA) 316a, 316b that converts the photocurrent into an electrical voltage signal. The electrical voltage signal from the TIA 316a, 316b is then transmitted to a Linear Amplifier (LA) 317a, 317b as a differential signal or a single-ended signal 318a, 318b. The LA 317a, 317b performs signal conditioning on the received electrical voltage signal to provide increased resolution and system performance. The LA 317a, 317b provides an electrical signal 319a, 319b to a Clock Data Recovery (CDR) and Equalization (EQ) 320a, 320b block that recovers clock and data signals and performs equalization on the received data, which is then provided to a De-Mod & Inner Decoder 323a, 323b. The CDR & EQ 320a, 320b block may implement a blind equalization method or decision-directed equalization method. Blind equalization is discussed further below. Other equalization methods may be used, particularly those that aid the CDR. The De-Mod & Inner Decoder 323a, 323b block performs complementary de-modulation to the m-ary modulation performed in the MOD 309a, 309b block as well as a complementary decoding method to the coding method performed in the Inner Coder 308a, 308b block. In one implementation, De-Mod & Inner Decoder 323a, 323b includes a Viterbi decoder. Other decoding means may be used. Received data is then provided to the outer decoder 324a, 324b block, which performs a complementary decode to the error detection and/or recovery method chosen in the outer coder 307a, 307b block. After demodulation and decoding, the received data is then provided to the Mux 325 block that performs a complementary function to the DeMux 306 block. The combined received data is then provided to the TC-Layer/MAC 305. In implementations without Outer Coder 307a, 307b and Inner Coder 308a, 308b blocks, the output of the CDR & EQ 320a, 320b block is provided directly to the Mux 325 block. The RX 133,136 and TX 134,135 circuitry of transceivers 100,101, or portions thereof, for example, PD 315a, 315b and LA 317a, 317b, can be combined within industry standard optical modules. Common optical module standards are 300pin, XENPAK, X2, and XPAK transponders and XFP or SFP and SFP+ transceivers. These optical modules include unidirectional fiber links with one fiber link for transmit path and a second fiber link for the receive path. However, implementations of optical modules 326, 401, 501 incorporate a plurality of bi-directional fiber links for transmitting demultiplexed data on separate fiber links. Any of a variety of optical couplers may be used to separate and/or combine light propagating into or out of the fiber links. These optical modules 326, 401, 501 used herein can conform to a form factor of standard optical modules such as the 300pin, XENPAK, X2, XPAK, XFP or SFP and SFP+. Other form factors may also be used. Alternatively, in other implementations of transceiver 100, functions described above may be integrated into various different components. For example, in the implementation of transceiver 100 shown in FIG. 4, various functions may be incorporated into optical module 401 such as: digital to analog conversion 310a, 310b; analog to digital conversion 321a, 321b; clock data recovery and equalization 320a, 320b; m-ary modulation 309a, 309b; m-ary de-modulation 323a, 323b; inner coder 308a, 308b; inner de-coder 323a, 323b; outer coder 307a, 307b; outer de-coder 324a, 324b, and the De-Mux 306 and Mux 325 functions that enable demultiplexing across multiple fibers. The optical module 401 may have an interface that can connect to existing TC-Layer or MAC implementations currently produced. In another alternative implementation the digital to analog conversion 310a, 310b; analog to digital conversion 321a, 321b, and the clock data recovery 320a, 320b functions are incorporated into an optical module (not shown). In yet another alternative implementation of the transceiver 100 as shown in FIG. 5, an optical module 501 includes the De-Mux 306 and Mux 325 functions enabling demultiplexing across multiple fibers. The optical module 501 may have an interface that can connect to existing TC-Layer or MAC implementations currently produced. Alternative implementations of transceiver 100 utilizing a single fiber link 314a (without demultiplexing across multiple fibers) are illustrated in FIG. 6A-6B. Alternatively, an implementation of the transceiver 100 may utilize multiple fiber links 314a, 314b while not performing demultiplexing across multiple fibers, as illustrated in FIG. 7. In this implementation, the TC-Layer/MAC 701 block manages the fiber links as independent fiber links that all connect to the same end point(s) on the network. In one implementation, TC-Layer/MAC 701 block is a derivative of the Transmission Convergence Layer specified in ITU G.984 or MAC specified in IEEE 802.3ah, with the added functionality of queue management of the traffic across the plurality of independent fiber links. The TC-Layer/MAC 701 block may exclude use of one or more fiber links if the fiber link experiences a failure. This exclusion of failed fiber links enables the TC-Layer/MAC 701 block (i.e., queue management function) to continue providing service across a PON using the remaining active links. Each fiber can be deployed across physically different paths to provide optical fiber distribution path diversity and improved protection against failures. Failures may originate in the optical module or across elements of the ODN such as fiber or connector breaks. Channel Equalization An implementation for a channel equalization routine executed in the CDR & EQ 320a, 320b block includes determining coefficient settings or weights that are applied to the received data to remove undesired information (e.g. intersymbol interference (ISI)) or noise from the received data and thereby increase the sensitivity, dynamic range of detecting signals and accuracy of receiving signals. Channel equalization can include a training or convergence period in which characteristics of the channel are learned or accounted for and coefficients, filter variables, or weights are adapted before or while processing the received data. Decision-directed equalization is an equalization method in which a known training sequence is sent during the training period and the receiver/transceiver uses the knowledge of the training sequence to learn about the channel characteristics. The training sequence can be multiplexed within a PON's TC-Layer framing protocol. Blind equalization is a process during which an unknown input data sequence is recovered from the output signal of an unknown channel (i.e., current equalization data for a given channel is unknown or otherwise unavailable). Other equalization methods may be used, digital signal processing methods, or methods that improve the accuracy of processing received data signals or improve the efficiency of processing received data signals (e.g., reducing data acquisition time, reducing power consumed) by saving or storing a first set of settings generated by processing data from a first ONU/ONT and then load previously saved second set of settings previously generated by processing data from a second ONU/ONT before processing another set of data from the second ONU/ONT. One mode of communications used by a PON, e.g., for upstream data traffic (ONU/ONT to OLT direction), is “burst mode” communications. For example, upstream communications on a PON may include a link shared among multiple clients or ONUs/ONTs via time division multiplexing under control by an OLT. The upstream direction is divided into time slots; each time slot includes a defined number of bits. A given ONU/ONT is granted some number of time slots during which to transmit an upstream frame of data to an OLT. The upstream direction uses an orchestrated collection of bursts from the different ONU/ONTs, coordinated by the OLT that tries to maximize upstream traffic bandwidth efficiency by minimizing empty slots. A flow chart for an exemplary upstream burst mode communication equalization process is shown in FIG. 8A. To read or interpret the upstream data traffic from a client ONU/ONT, an OLT trains and/or equalizes the channel for that client ONU/ONT. Since the ONU/ONTs may be at different distances from the OLT and all do not share the same fiber, different channel characteristics result. Communication efficiencies may be obtained by determining 800 a set of equalization coefficients for a channel during a burst from a client, saving 801 the determined equalization coefficients, entering a wait period 802 (also known as a PON's silence period when no client ONU/ONTs are transmitting upstream), and loading 803 the stored equalization coefficients before a next burst from the client (during the wait period), to avoid re-training or re-equalizing on every burst communication. The OLT has prior knowledge of which ONU/ONT will be transmitting data during which time slots and can use this knowledge during the time between burst communications (during the wait period) to load 803 an appropriate set of coefficients pertaining to the particular ONU/ONT transmitting prior to receiving 804 its next upstream burst. This process continues for subsequent bursts. In one implementation, periodic (though not coincident with each communication burst) updates to the channel characteristics may be made (and stored). The OLT can save 801 coefficients that have converged or have been trained after receiving burst communications from the first ONU/ONT and load 803 a new set of coefficients during the wait period between bursts (i.e., before an incoming upstream burst from a second ONU/ONT). In another exemplary implementation, the OLT can save or store 801 coefficients or settings during the wait period 802 between burst as shown in FIG. 8B. In one implementation, in addition to or alternative to storage of coefficient data, the OLT may also save and load inner and/or outer coding states between bursts improving the efficiency of communication, similar to the equalization process of FIG. 8A-8B. Other methods that improve the accuracy and efficiency of processing burst mode data from specific ONUs/ONTs may be used following a similar process. Another mode of communications used by a PON, e.g., for downstream data traffic (OLT to ONU/ONT direction), is “continuous mode” communications. In one implementation, a receiver, such as an ONU/ONT, equalizes a received data channel using either one of a blind equalization or a decision directed equalization method. A flow chart for an exemplary PON activation process is shown in FIG. 9. In a PON in which a decision directed method is used for training an ONU/ONT receiver, a continuous mode transmitter, such as an OLT transmitter, sends a training sequence 900 multiplexed within a PON's TC-Layer downstream frame protocol. In a PON in which a blind equalization method is used, the OLT needed not send this training sequence 900. An ONU/ONT equalizes its received downstream channel 901 before it is able to receive and interpret PON network parameters 902. If the OLT has not been previously informed of the existence of the ONU/ONT then the ONU/ONT awaits an upstream grant window 903 available for new ONU/ONTs to respond to the OLT with its serial number 904. After the ONU/ONT has received an upstream grant window and processed PON system parameters, the ONU/ONT sends a training sequence 905 and then its serial number 904 to the OLT. In a PON in which blind equalization is used the ONU/ONT need not send a training sequence 905. After the OLT has received the ONU/ONT serial number the OLT will assign and send the ONU/ONT an identification number. If the ONU/ONT does not receive an identification number 906a, the ONU/ONT returns to waiting for an upstream grant window for new ONU/ONTs 903. Once the ONU/ONT receives an identification number 906b, the OLT performs ranging 907 to determine the distance between the OLT and ONU/ONT and then compensates for the communication timing delays. The ONU/ONT can perform updates continuously or periodically depending on the equalization method employed. After the downstream continuous mode channel and the upstream burst mode channel have been equalized, both ends of the PON transmission link are equalized and the ONU/ONT enters its normal operating state 908. Link Connection Errors A system has been proposed that includes demultiplexing across multiple fibers as is shown above with reference to FIGS. 3-6. In systems using demultiplexing across multiple fibers, fibers can be connected incorrectly at installation. For example, a first transceiver 100, such as is shown in FIG. 3, with fibers 314a and 314b can be connected to a second transceiver 101 with fiber 314b connected in place of fiber 314a, and fiber 314a connected in place of fiber 314b. The incorrect connection in this example may cause the first and second transceivers to not establish communications due to misalignment of bits during multiplexing of received data. Information in a frame is used to synchronize a receiver (e.g., transceiver 101) with the beginning of a frame (e.g., a “frame delimiter”). The process of discovering the beginning of a frame is called “frame synchronization.” In specific protocols such as G.984, the downstream frame delimiter is called Psync, the upstream frame delimiter is called Delimiter and the process of frame synchronization in the downstream is called the HUNT. In one implementation, TC-Layer/MAC 305 block performs frame synchronization. In one implementation, specific bit patterns or values for frame delimiters are used that are unique for each fiber to differentiate one fiber from another or the order of fiber connections to correctly multiplex received data. The use of unique frame delimiters allows the TC-Layer/MAC 305 block to change the alignment of received data bits during multiplexing to adjust for the order of the fiber connections, without having to physically change the connections. Management of the bit alignment in this implementation forms part of the TC-Layer/MAC's 305 block demultiplexing management responsibilities and functions. Alternatively, the TC-Layer/MAC 305 block may assume an order for the fiber connections to determine the alignment of bits for multiplexing the received data and attempt frame synchronization. After a period of time with no frame synchronization success, the TC-Layer/MAC 305 block may assume a different order for the fiber connections and change the alignment of bits during multiplexing and attempt frame synchronization again. The process may repeat, including changing the alignment of bits to reflect other configurations during the multiplexing, and frame synchronization attempts continue until frame synchronization succeeds. In yet another alternative implementation, the TC-Layer/MAC 305 block may assume and attempt frame synchronization on all possible combinations of bit alignments in parallel, one of which will succeed in achieving frame synchronization. Although the invention has been described in terms of particular implementations, one of ordinary skill in the art, in light of this teaching, can generate additional implementations and modifications without departing from the spirit of or exceeding the scope of the claimed invention. Accordingly, it is to be understood that the drawings and descriptions herein are proffered by way of example to facilitate comprehension of the invention and should not be construed to limit the scope thereof.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Line coding is a process by which a communication protocol arranges symbols that represent binary data in a particular pattern for transmission. Conventional line coding used in fiber optic communications includes non-return-to-zero (NRZ), return-to-zero (RZ), and biphase, or Manchester. The binary bit stream derived from these line codes can be directly modulated onto wavelengths of light generated by the resonating frequency of a laser. Traditionally direct binary modulation based transmission offers an advantage with regard to the acceptable signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the optical receiver, which is one of the reasons direct binary modulation methods are used in the Datacom Ethernet/IP, Storage Fiber-Channel/FC and Telecom SONET/SDH markets for transmission across nonmultiplexed unidirectional fiber links. The performance of a fiber optic network can be measured by the maximum data throughput rate (or information carrying capacity) and the maximum distance between source and destination achievable (or reach). For Passive Optical Networks (PONs) in particular, additional measures of performance are the maximum number of Optical Networking Units (ONUs) and/or Optical Networking Terminals (ONTs) possible on a network and the minimum and maximum distance between the Optical Line Terminator (OLT) and an ONU/ONT. These performance metrics are constrained by, among other things, amplitude degradation and temporal distortions as a result of light traveling through an optical fiber. Amplitude degradation is substantially a function of length or distance between two end points of an optical fiber. Temporal distortion mechanisms include intramodal (chromatic) dispersion and intermodal (modal) dispersion. Intramodal dispersion is the dominant temporal dispersion on Single-mode fiber (SMF), while intermodal dispersion is dominant on Multi-mode fiber (MMF). Both types of temporal distortions are measured as functions of frequency or rate of transmission (also referred as line rate of a communication protocol) over distance in MHz·km. Temporal distortions are greater, hence a constraint on network performance, with increasing frequency transmission.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In general, in one aspect, the invention includes a method for processing a received optical signal in an optical communication network, the method including: determining a first set of coefficients to equalize a portion of an optical signal received over a first optical link including using a blind equalization method that does not use a known training sequence to equalize the portion of the optical signal, equalizing the portion of the optical signal using the determined coefficients, and demodulating the equalized portion of the optical signal according to an m-ary modulation format. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The method includes determining a second set of coefficients to equalize a portion of an optical signal received over a second optical link. The method includes selecting one of the first or second set of coefficients based on a source of the portion of optical signal being equalized. The portion of the optical signal includes a burst within a time slot of the first optical link. The method includes storing the determined coefficients. The method includes retrieving the stored coefficients for equalizing a second portion of the optical signal corresponding to a portion received from a same source as generated the first portion of the optical signal. The coefficients are retrieved between signal bursts on the first optical link. The stored coefficients are retrieved for respective portions of the optical signals that correspond to respective signal sources. The first optical link includes a link in a point-to-multipoint passive optical network. The m-ary modulation format is selected from the group consisting of quadrature amplitude modulation, quadrature phase shift keying, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing and pulse amplitude modulation. The method includes demodulating a received first data stream and demodulating a second data stream received in the optical signal, and multiplexing the first and second data streams. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes optical communication system including: a first transceiver coupled by an optical network to a second transceiver and third transceiver, the first transceiver including an equalization block and a modulation block, the equalization block operable to determine a first set of coefficients to equalize a portion of an optical signal received over the optical network from the second transceiver and a second set of coefficients to equalize a portion of the optical signal received over the optical network from the third transceiver, the equalization block including a blind equalization routine that does not use a known training sequence to equalize the portions of the optical signal, the equalization block operable to equalize the portions of the optical signal using the determined coefficients, and the modulation block operable to demodulate equalized portions of the optical signal according to an m-ary modulation format. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The optical network includes a first optical link for coupling the first and second transceiver, and a second optical link for coupling the first and third transceivers and where the equalization block is operable to select one of the first or second set of coefficients based on a source of the portion of optical signal being equalized. The equalization block is operable to store the first and second sets of coefficients for later retrieval and use to equalize portions of the optical signal. The portion of the optical signal includes a burst within a time slot on the optical network. The equalization block is operable to retrieve the sets of coefficients between signal bursts on the optical network. The optical network includes a link in a point-to-multipoint passive optical network. The m-ary modulation format is selected from the group consisting of quadrature amplitude modulation, quadrature phase shift keying, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing and pulse amplitude modulation. The system includes a multiplexer, the modulation block operable to demodulating a received first data stream and a second data stream received in the optical signal, and the multiplexer operable to multiplex the first and second data streams. The system includes a transmission convergence layer block for processing data streams received by the first transceiver, the transmission convergence layer block operable to control the demultiplexing of data streams including control of the multiplexer. The optical network is an optical distribution network. The first transceiver is an optical line terminator. The second and third transceivers are optical network terminals or optical network units. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes a method for processing data for transmission in an optical communication network, the method including: demultiplexing a data stream into a first demultiplexed data stream and a second demultiplexed data stream, modulating each of the first and second data streams according to an m-ary modulation format, transmitting the first modulated data stream over a first optical link; and transmitting the second modulated data stream over a second optical link. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes an optical communication system including: a demultiplexer operable to demultiplex a data stream into a first demultiplexed data stream and a second demultiplexed data stream, a modulation block operable to modulate each of the first and second data streams according to an m-ary modulation format, transmitting means operable to transmit the first modulated data stream over a first optical link and the second modulated data stream over a second optical link. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes a method for processing a received optical signal in an optical communication network, the method including: equalizing a received optical signal to provide an equalized signal, demodulating the equalized signal according to an m-ary modulation format to provide a demodulated signal, decoding the demodulated signal according to an inner code to provide an inner-decoded signal, and decoding the inner-decoded signal according to an outer code. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The m-ary modulation format is selected from the group consisting of quadrature amplitude modulation, quadrature phase shift keying, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing and pulse amplitude modulation. Equalizing the received optical signal includes equalizing the received optical signal using a blind equalization routine that does not use a known training sequence. Equalizing the received optical signal includes equalizing the received optical signal using a known training sequence. The known training sequence is multiplexed in a frame within the received optical signal. The inner code includes a trellis code. The outer code includes an error correction code. The outer code includes a: Reed-Solomon code; trellis code; Low-density parity-check code, or a Turbo code. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes a transceiver including: an equalizer for equalizing a received optical signal to provide an equalized signal, a demodulator in communication with the equalizer for demodulating the equalized signal according to an m-ary modulation format to provide a demodulated signal, an inner-decoder in communication with the demodulator for decoding the demodulated signal according to an inner code to provide an inner-decoded signal, and an outer-decoder in communication with the inner-decoder for decoding the inner-decoded signal according to an outer code. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The transceiver includes an optical module including a first bi-directional optical fiber interface including a first detector and a first driver, and a second bi-directional optical fiber interface including a second detector and a second driver, and management means for managing data flow across the first bi-directional optical fiber interface and across the second bi-directional optical fiber interface. The transceiver includes an optical module including a first bi-directional optical fiber interface including a first detector and a first driver, and a second bi-directional optical fiber interface including a second detector and a second driver, and a multiplexer for multiplexing a first demultiplexed data stream received over the first bi-directional optical fiber interface and a second demultiplexed data stream received over the second bi-directional optical fiber interface into a multiplexed data stream for transmission. The transceiver includes an optical module including a first bi-directional optical fiber interface including a first detector and a first driver, and a second bi-directional optical fiber interface including a second detector and a second driver, and a queue manager for managing traffic for a first bi-directional link associated with the first bi-directional optical fiber interface independently from traffic for a second bi-directional link associated with the second bi-directional optical fiber interface. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes a transceiver including: an optical module including a first bi-directional optical fiber interface including a first detector and a first driver, and a second bi-directional optical fiber interface including a second detector and a second driver, and management means for managing data flow across the first bi-directional optical fiber interface and across the second bi-directional optical fiber interface. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The management means includes a multiplexer for multiplexing a first demultiplexed data stream received over the first bi-directional optical fiber interface and a second demultiplexed data stream received over the second bi-directional optical fiber interface into a multiplexed data stream for transmission. The management means is configured to demultiplex a data stream over a plurality of fiber links that excludes one or more failed fiber links. The management means includes a queue manager for managing traffic across the first bi-directional fiber interface independently from traffic for the second bi-directional fiber interface. The management means is configured to change the alignment of received data bits to adjust for an order of optical fiber connections to the first bi-directional optical fiber interface and the second bi-directional optical fiber interface. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes a method for equalizing an optical channel including: storing channel characteristics for the optical channel associated with a client, loading the stored channel characteristics during a waiting period between bursts on the channel, and equalizing a received burst from the client using the loaded channel characteristics. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The method includes determining that the waiting period occurs before a burst from the client based on a schedule. The method includes updating the stored channel characteristics. The method includes providing a grant window, transmitting an identification number to the client in response to receiving a serial number from the client after the grant window. The method includes determining a distance from an upstream device to the client. The method includes compensating for communication delays between the upstream device and the client based on the determined distance. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes a method for communicating data on a fiber optic network, the method including: modulating and demodulating data traffic on an optical link in the network in an m-ary modulation format; encoding and decoding data traffic on an optical link in the network according to an inner coding routine and an outer coding routine, demultiplexing data traffic from an optical link in the network and transmitting the data traffic across a plurality of optical fiber links in the network, multiplexing the data traffic from the plurality of optical fiber links, and equalizing a receive channel in the network to remove temporal distortions. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The method includes equalizing the receive channel according to a blind equalization routine. The method includes equalizing the receive channel according to a decision directed equalization routine. The method includes saving and loading coefficients for equalizing the receive channel for each of a plurality of transmitting sources. The method includes conveying a training sequence for a decision directed equalization routine as part of an in-use communication protocol. A training sequence for a decision directed equalization routine is conveyed as part of the activation process for an optical network terminal or optical network unit. An incorrect connection of an optical fiber link is corrected without having to physically change the connection. In general, in another aspect, the invention includes a method for communicating on a passive optical network between a central transmission point and a plurality of receiving client end points, the method including: preparing downstream data for transmission and transmitting an optical downstream continuous mode signal demultiplexed across a plurality of bi-directional fibers using a plurality of wavelengths of light, receiving an optical downstream continuous mode signal demultiplexed from the plurality of bi-directional fibers using the plurality of wavelengths of light and recovering a downstream data transmission, preparing upstream data for transmission and transmitting an optical upstream burst mode signal demultiplexed across the plurality of bi-directional fibers using the plurality of wavelengths of light, and receiving an optical burst mode signal demultiplexed from the plurality of bi-directional fibers using the plurality of wavelengths of light and recovering an upstream data transmission. Aspects of the invention may include one or more of the following features. The central transmission point includes an optical line terminal, and the end points are operative as transceivers in a passive optical network. The upstream and downstream data for transmission are conveyed by respective different industry-standard services. Implementations of the invention may include one or more of the following advantages. A system is proposed that provides for high-speed communications over fiber optic networks. The system may include the use of the one or more of the following techniques either individually or in combination: m-ary modulation; channel equalization; demultiplexing across multiple fibers, coding and error correction. M-ary modulation allows for increased data throughput for a given line rate due to an increase in the number of bits per symbol transmitted. Channel equalization reduces the effects of temporal distortions allowing for increased reach. Demultiplexing across multiple fibers allows lower lines rates for a given data throughput rate due to the increased aggregate data throughput from the multiplexing. Coding and error correction allows for a greater selection of qualifying optical components that can be used in the network and complements m-ary modulation and channel equalization for overall system performance improvement as measured by transmit energy per bit. These methods when combined (in part or in total) increase the data throughput and reach for fiber optic networks. For PONs in particular, these methods may increase the number of ONU/ONTs and the distance between OLT and ONU/ONT by decreasing the line rate as compared to a conventional communication system of equivalent data throughput.

H04J140221

20180130

20180621

H04J1402

BELLO, AGUSTIN

SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR PERFORMING HIGH-SPEED COMMUNICATIONS OVER FIBER OPTICAL NETWORKS

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04J

PENDING

Modular Display Panel

In one embodiment, modular light emitting diode (LED) display panel includes a plurality of LEDs is attached to a printed circuit board. A power supply is coupled to the plurality of LEDs and configured to receive direct current (DC) power. A scan controller is coupled to the plurality of LEDs, where the scan controller is configured to control operation of the plurality of LEDs in order to display received media. A housing is attached to the printed circuit board, and includes an outer major surface of the modular LED display panel and is configured to be exposed to an external environment without a protective cabinet. A waterproof integrated data and power connector is electrically coupled to the power supply, the scan controller, and to the plurality of LEDs. The modular LED display panel has an ingress protection rating of IP 65 or higher, and is cooled passively without fans.

1. A modular light emitting diode (LED) display panel comprising: a height extending from a first edge of the modular LED display panel to an opposite second edge of the modular LED display panel; a width extending from a third edge of the modular LED display panel to an opposite fourth edge of the modular LED display panel; a printed circuit board comprising a first side and an opposite second side; a plurality of LEDs arranged as pixels attached to the first side of the printed circuit board, wherein the pixels are arranged in a rectangular array comprising at least fifty pixels; power supply for distributing power supplied to the modular LED display panel, the power supply being coupled to the plurality of LEDs and configured to receive direct current (DC) power; a scan controller coupled to the plurality of LEDs, the scan controller being configured to control operation of the plurality of LEDs in order to display received media; a housing attached to the opposite second side of the printed circuit board, the housing comprising an outer major surface of the modular LED display panel, wherein the housing extends to each of the first edge, the opposite second edge, the third edge, and the opposite fourth edge, wherein the housing is configured to be exposed to an external environment without a protective waterproof enclosure; an integrated data and power connector electrically coupled to the power supply, wherein the integrated data and power connector is configured to be waterproof, wherein the integrated data and power connector comprises a set of power connectors and a set of data connectors, and wherein the integrated data and power connector is electrically coupled to the scan controller and to the plurality of LEDs; wherein the first side of the printed circuit board is sealed to be waterproof and the housing is sealed to be waterproof so that the modular LED display panel is sealed to be waterproof; wherein the modular LED display panel is configured to have an ingress protection rating of IP 65 or higher; and wherein the modular LED display panel is configured to be cooled passively without fans. 2. The modular LED display panel of claim 1, wherein the ingress protection rating of the modular LED display panel is IP 66. 3. The modular LED display panel of claim 1, wherein the ingress protection rating of the modular LED display panel is IP 67. 4. The modular LED display panel of claim 1, wherein the ingress protection rating of the modular LED display panel is IP 68. 5. The modular LED display panel of claim 1, wherein the housing comprises aluminum. 6. The modular LED display panel of claim 1, wherein the housing comprises plastic. 7. The modular LED display panel of claim 1, further comprising a circuit configured to monitor power consumption of the modular LED display panel and send a warning message upon detecting a lack of power. 8. The modular LED display panel of claim 1, further comprising a pixel health loop circuit configured to monitor power being consumed by each of the plurality of LEDs. 9. The modular LED display panel of claim 1, further comprising a flexible cable comprising a first end and a second end, wherein the first end is coupled directly to the modular LED display panel and the second end is coupled directly to the integrated data and power connector. 10. The modular LED display panel of claim 1, wherein: the plurality of LEDs is arranged in an array comprising a pitch; the printed circuit board extends to within an edge distance of each of the first edge, the opposite second edge, the third edge, and the opposite fourth edge; and the pitch is greater than the edge distance. 11. The modular LED display panel of claim 1, wherein the integrated data and power connector is substantially circular. 12. The modular LED display panel of claim 1, wherein the height is substantially half of the width. 13. The modular LED display panel of claim 1, wherein a surface of each of the plurality of LEDs is exposed to the external environment. 14. A modular light emitting diode (LED) display panel comprising: a printed circuit board comprising a first side and an opposite second side, wherein the first side of the printed circuit board is part of a display side of the modular LED display panel; a plurality of LEDs attached to the first side of the printed circuit board; a heat conducting structure attached to the opposite second side of the printed circuit board, wherein the heat conducting structure is in thermal contact with the printed circuit board; a scan controller coupled to the plurality of LEDs, the scan controller being configured to control operation of the plurality of LEDs in order to display received media; an integrated data and power connector electrically coupled to the scan controller and to the plurality of LEDs, wherein the integrated data and power connector comprises a set of power connectors and a set of data connectors and is configured to be waterproof; a power supply mounted over the heat conducting structure and coupled to the integrated data and power connector, the power supply comprising an alternating current/direct current (AC/DC) converter, wherein the power supply is configured to supply DC power to the plurality of LEDs; coupling structures for use in attachment as part of a multi-panel modular display; wherein the modular LED display panel is sealed to be waterproof; wherein the modular LED display panel is configured to have an ingress protection rating of IP 65 or higher; wherein the modular LED display panel is configured to be cooled passively without fans; and wherein the modular LED display panel is configured to be exposed to an external environment without a protective waterproof enclosure. 15. The modular LED display panel of claim 14, wherein the ingress protection rating of the modular LED display panel is IP 66. 16. The modular LED display panel of claim 14, wherein the ingress protection rating of the modular LED display panel is IP 67. 17. The modular LED display panel of claim 14, wherein the ingress protection rating of the modular LED display panel is IP 68. 18. The modular LED display panel of claim 14, wherein the heat conducting structure comprises aluminum. 19. The modular LED display panel of claim 14, wherein the heat conducting structure comprises plastic. 20. The modular LED display panel of claim 14, further comprising a circuit configured to monitor power consumption of the modular LED display panel and send a warning message upon detecting a lack of power. 21. The modular LED display panel of claim 14, further comprising a pixel health loop circuit configured to monitor power being consumed by each of the plurality of LEDs. 22. The modular LED display panel of claim 14, wherein the integrated data and power connector is further configured to directly connect to the power supply. 23. The modular LED display panel of claim 14, wherein the integrated data and power connector is substantially circular. 24. The modular LED display panel of claim 14, wherein a surface of each of the plurality of LEDs is exposed to the external environment. 25. A modular multi-panel display system comprising: a mechanical support structure comprising a plurality of beams; a plurality of light emitting diode (LED) display panels, wherein the plurality of LED display panels is arranged in an array and mounted to the mechanical support structure so as to form an integrated display; a box mounted to the mechanical support structure, the box housed in a housing that is separate from housings of each of the plurality of LED display panels, wherein the box comprises a power management unit for providing power to each of the plurality of LED display panels, wherein the box comprises a receiver card that is configured to receive data to be displayed and feed the data to be displayed and communication to each of the plurality of LED display panels; a plurality of electrical connections electrically connecting the box with each of the plurality of LED display panels, wherein each of the plurality of LED display panels comprises a printed circuit board comprising a first side and an opposite second side, wherein the first side of the printed circuit board is part of a display side of the LED display panel, a plurality of LEDs attached to the first side of the printed circuit board, a heat conducting structure attached to the opposite second side of the printed circuit board, wherein the heat conducting structure is in thermal contact with the printed circuit board, a scan controller coupled to the plurality of LEDs, the scan controller being configured to control operation of the plurality of LEDs in order to display received media, an integrated data and power connector electrically coupled to the scan controller and to the plurality of LEDs, wherein the integrated data and power connector comprises a set of power connectors and a set of data connectors and is configured to be waterproof, a power supply mounted over the heat conducting structure and coupled to the integrated data and power connector, the power supply comprising an alternating current/direct current (AC/DC) converter, wherein the power supply is configured to supply DC power to the plurality of LEDs, and coupling structures configured to be attached to an adjacent LED display panel; wherein each of the LED display panels is sealed to be waterproof; wherein the modular multi-panel display system is configured to have an ingress protection rating of IP 65 or higher; wherein each of the LED display panels is configured to be cooled passively without fans; and wherein each of the LED display panels is configured to be exposed to an external environment without a protective waterproof enclosure. 26. The modular multi-panel display system of claim 25, wherein each of the plurality of LED display panels is configured to be supported by both a first interior beam of the plurality of beams and a second interior beam of the of the plurality of beams, wherein the first interior beam is perpendicular to the second interior beam. 27. The modular multi-panel display system of claim 25, wherein the integrated data and power connector is further configured to directly connect to the power supply. 28. The modular multi-panel display system of claim 25, wherein a surface of each of the plurality of LEDs is exposed to the external environment. 29. The modular multi-panel display system of claim 25, wherein the heat conducting structure of each of the plurality of LED display panels comprises aluminum. 30. A modular light emitting diode (LED) display panel comprising: a height extending from a first edge of the modular LED display panel to an opposite second edge of the modular LED display panel; a width extending from a third edge of the modular LED display panel to an opposite fourth edge of the modular LED display panel; means for encasing components of the LED display panel, wherein the means for encasing extends to each of the first edge, the opposite second edge, the third edge, and the opposite fourth edge, and wherein the means for encasing is configured to be exposed to an external environment without a protective waterproof enclosure; means for emitting light from the modular LED display panel, the means for emitting light being attached to a first side of a means for supporting the means for emitting light, wherein the means for encasing is attached to an opposite second side of the means for supporting; means for controlling operation of the means for emitting light; means for distributing power to the means for emitting light, the means for distributing power being configured to receive direct current (DC) power; means for receiving data and power, the means for receiving data and power being electrically coupled to the means for distributing power; wherein the first side of the means for supporting is sealed to be waterproof and the means for encasing is sealed to be waterproof so that the modular LED display panel is sealed to be waterproof; wherein the modular LED display panel is configured to have an ingress protection rating of IP 65 or higher; and wherein the modular LED display panel is configured to be cooled passively without fans.

This application is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/866,294 filed on Jan. 9, 2018, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/369,304 filed on Dec. 5, 2016, which is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/162,439 filed on May 23, 2016, which is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/850,632 filed on Sep. 10, 2015, which is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/444,719 filed on Jul. 28, 2014. All of the above applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. U.S. application Ser. No. 14/444,719 claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/025,463, filed on Jul. 16, 2014 and also claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/922,631, filed on Dec. 31, 2013, which applications are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/328,624, filed Jul. 10, 2014, also claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/922,631 and is also incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The following patents and applications are related: U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/881,524, filed Jan. 26, 2018 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/881,394, filed Jan. 26, 2018 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/880,295, filed Jan. 25, 2018 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/866,294, filed Jan. 9, 2018 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/331,681, filed Oct. 21, 2016 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/341,678, filed Jul. 25, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,195,281) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/948,939, filed Nov. 23, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,535,650) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/396,102, filed Dec. 30, 2016 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,642,272) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/582,059, filed Apr. 28, 2017 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,832,897) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/802,241, filed Nov. 2, 2017 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/444,719, filed Jul. 28, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,134,773) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/850,632, filed Sep. 10, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,349,306) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/162,439, filed May 23, 2016 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,513,863) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/369,304, filed Dec. 5, 2016 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/444,775, filed Jul. 28, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,081,552) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/627,923, filed Feb. 20, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,131,600) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/829,469, filed Aug. 18, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,226,413) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/981,561, filed Dec. 28, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,372,659) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/444,747, filed Jul. 28, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,069,519) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/550,685, filed Nov. 21, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,582,237) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/641,130, filed Mar. 6, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,164,722) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/409,288, filed Jan. 18, 2017 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/582,908, filed Dec. 24, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,416,551) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/641,189, filed Mar. 6, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,528,283) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/390,277, filed Dec. 23, 2016 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/720,544, filed May 22, 2015 (co-pending) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/720,560, filed May 22, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,207,904) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/720,610, filed May 22, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,311,847) TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates generally to displays, and, in particular embodiments, to a system and method for a modular multi-panel display. BACKGROUND Large displays (e.g., billboards), such as those commonly used for advertising in cities and along roads, generally have one or more pictures and/or text that are to be displayed under various light and weather conditions. As technology has advanced and introduced new lighting devices such as the light emitting diode (LED), such advances have been applied to large displays. An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses an array of light-emitting diodes. A large display may be made of a single LED display or a panel of smaller LED panels. LED panels may be conventional panels made using discrete LEDs or surface-mounted device (SMD) panels. Most outdoor screens and some indoor screens are built around discrete LEDs, which are also known as individually mounted LEDs. A cluster of red, green, and blue diodes is driven together to form a full-color pixel, usually square in shape. These pixels are spaced evenly apart and are measured from center to center for absolute pixel resolution. SUMMARY Embodiments of the invention relate to lighting systems and, more particularly, to multi-panel lighting systems for providing interior or exterior displays. In one embodiment, a modular display panel comprises a casing having a recess. The casing comprises locking points for use in attachment to an adjacent casing of another modular display panel. A printed circuit board is disposed in the recess and a plurality of LEDs attached to the printed circuit board. A driver circuit is attached to the printed circuit board. A heat sink is disposed between a back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. A framework of louvers is disposed over the printed circuit board. The framework of louvers is disposed between rows of the plurality of LEDs. The framework of louvers is attached to the printed circuit board using an adhesive. In another embodiment, a modular multi-panel display system comprises a mechanical support structure, and a plurality of LED display panels mounted to the mechanical support structure so as to form an integrated display panel. Each LED display panel includes a casing having a recess. The casing comprises interlocking attachment points that are attached to an adjacent LED display panel. Each LED display panel also includes a printed circuit board disposed in the recess. A plurality of LED modules is attached to the printed circuit board. Each LED display panel also includes a heat sink disposed between a back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. Each LED display panel is hermetically sealed and exposed to the environment without use of any cabinets. The display system is cooled passively and includes no air conditioning, fans, or heating units. In yet another embodiment, a modular display panel comprises a plastic housing having a recess, and a printed circuit board disposed in the recess. A plurality of LEDs is attached to the printed circuit board. A transparent potting compound overlies the LEDs. A driver circuit is attached to the printed circuit board. A heat sink is disposed between a back side of the housing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the housing and the printed circuit board. A power supply is mounted outside the plastic housing. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding, reference is now made to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which: FIGS. 1A and 1B illustrate one embodiment of a display that may be provided according to the present disclosure; FIGS. 2A-2C illustrate one embodiment of a lighting panel that may be used with the display of FIGS. 1A and 1B; FIGS. 3A-3I illustrate one embodiment of a housing and an alignment plate that may be used with the panel of FIG. 2A; FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate a more detailed embodiment of the panel of FIG. 2A; FIG. 5 illustrates an alternative embodiment of the panel of FIG. 4A; FIGS. 6A and 6B illustrate a more detailed embodiment of the panel of FIG. 2A; FIG. 7 illustrates an alternative embodiment of the panel of FIG. 6A; FIGS. 8A-8M illustrate one embodiment of a frame that may be used with the display of FIGS. 1A and 1B; FIGS. 9A-9C illustrate one embodiment of a locking mechanism that may be used with the display of FIGS. 1A and 1B; FIGS. 10A-10D illustrate one embodiment of a display configuration; FIGS. 1A-11D illustrate another embodiment of a display configuration; FIGS. 12A-12D illustrate yet another embodiment of a display configuration; FIG. 13 illustrates a modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 illustrates a modular display panel attached to a supporting frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 15 illustrates a frame used to provide mechanical support to the modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 16A-16E illustrate an attachment plate used to attach one or more modular display panels to the frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 16A illustrates a projection view while FIG. 16B illustrates a top view and FIG. 16C illustrates a cross-sectional view of a first embodiment while FIG. 16D illustrates a bottom view and FIG. 16 E illustrates a bottom view of a second embodiment; FIG. 17 illustrates a magnified view of the attachment plate or a connecting plate, frame, and display panel after mounting in accordance with embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 18 illustrates one unit of the modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 19 illustrates a magnified view of two display panels next to each other and connected through the cables such that the output cable of the left display panel is connected with the input cable of the next display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 20 illustrates a modular multi-panel display system comprising a plurality of LED display panels connected together using the afore-mentioned cables in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 21A-21C illustrate an alternative embodiment of the modular display panel attached to a supporting frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIGS. 21B and 21C illustrate alternative structural embodiments of the supporting frame; FIG. 22 illustrates a method of assembling a modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 23 illustrates a method of maintaining a modular multi-panel display that includes a mechanical support structure and a plurality of LED display panels detachably coupled to the mechanical support structure without a cabinet in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 24A-24C illustrate a display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 24A illustrates a cross-sectional view of a display panel while FIG. 24B illustrates a schematic of the display panel, and wherein FIG. 24C illustrates a schematic of the LED array as controlled by the receiver circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 25A-25D illustrate a display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 25A illustrates a projection view of the back side of the display panel, FIG. 25B illustrates a planar back side of the display panel, and FIG. 25C illustrates a planar bottom view while FIG. 25D illustrates a side view; FIG. 26 illustrates a planar view of a portion of the front side of the display panel in according with an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 27A-27C illustrate cross-sectional views of the framework of louvers at the front side of the display panel in according with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 27 illustrates a cross-sectional along a direction perpendicular to the orientation of the plurality of ridges 1632 along the line 27-27 in FIG. 26; FIG. 28 illustrates a plurality of display panels arranged next to each other in accordance with embodiments of the present invention; FIGS. 29A-29D illustrates a schematic of a control system for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, wherein FIG. 29A illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wired network connection, wherein FIG. 29B illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wireless network connection, wherein FIGS. 29C and 29D illustrate the power transmission scheme used in powering the modular multi-panel display system; FIG. 30 illustrates a schematic of a sending card of the control system for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 31 illustrates a schematic of a data receiver box for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 32 illustrates a method of assembling a modular multi-panel display in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 33 illustrates a cross-sectional view of an integrated data and power cord in accordance with embodiments; FIGS. 34A and 34B illustrate cross-sectional views of connectors at the ends of the integrated data and power cable in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, wherein FIG. 34A illustrates a first connector that is configured to fit or lock into a second connector illustrated in FIG. 34B; FIGS. 35A and 35B illustrate cross-sectional views showing the first connector locked with the second connector in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, wherein FIG. 35A illustrates the first connector aligned to the second connector, while FIG. 35B illustrates the first connector securely locked to the second connector with the sealing cover sealing the connectors; FIGS. 36A and 36B illustrate one embodiment of the first connector previously illustrated in FIG. 34A and FIGS. 35A and 35B, wherein FIG. 36A illustrates a planar top view while FIG. 36B illustrates a projection view; FIGS. 37A and 37B illustrate one embodiment of the second connector previously illustrated in FIG. 34B and FIGS. 35A and 35B, wherein FIG. 37A illustrates a planar top view while FIG. 37B illustrates a projection view; FIGS. 38A-38D illustrate specific examples of an assembled display system; FIG. 38E illustrates a specific example of a frame that can be used with the system of FIGS. 38A-38D; FIG. 39 illustrates an assembled multi-panel display that is ready for shipment; and FIGS. 40A and 40B illustrate a lower cost panel that can be used with embodiments of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS In the following discussion, exterior displays are used herein for purposes of example. It is understood that the present disclosure may be applied to lighting for any type of interior and/or exterior display. Embodiments of the invention provide display panels, each of which provides a completely self-contained building block that is lightweight. These displays are designed to protect against weather, without a heavy cabinet. The panel can be constructed of aluminum or plastic so that it will about 50% lighter than typical panels that are commercially available. The lightweight design allows for easier installation and maintenance, thus lowering total cost of ownership. In certain embodiments, the display is IP 67 rated and therefore waterproof and corrosion resistant. Because weather is the number one culprit for damage to LED displays, and IP 67 rating provides weatherproofing with significant weather protection. These panels are completely waterproof against submersion in up to 3 feet of water. In other embodiments, the equipment can be designed with an IP 68 rating to operate completely underwater. In lower-cost embodiments where weatherproofing is not as significant, the panels can have an IP 65 or IP 66 rating. One aspect takes advantage of a no cabinet design-new technology that replaces cabinets, which are necessary in commercial embodiments. Older technology incorporates the use of cabinets in order to protect the LED display electronics from rain. This creates an innate problem in that the cabinet must not allow rain to get inside to the electronics, while at the same time the cabinet must allow for heat created by the electronics and ambient heat to escape. Embodiments that do not use this cabinet technology avoid a multitude of problems inherent to cabinet-designed displays. One of the problems that has been solved is the need to effectively cool the LED display. Most LED manufacturers must use air-conditioning (HVAC) to keep their displays cool. This technology greatly increases the cost of installation and performance. Displays of the present invention can be designed to be light weight and easy to handle. For example, the average total weight of a 20 mm, 14′×48′ panel can be 5,500 pounds or less while typical commercially available panels are at 10,000 to 12,000 pounds. These units are more maneuverable and easier to install saving time and money in the process. Embodiments of the invention provide building block panels that are configurable with future expandability. These displays can offer complete expandability to upgrade in the future without having to replace the entire display. Installation is fast and easy with very little down-time, which allows any electronic message to be presented more quickly. In some embodiments, the display panels are “hot swappable.” By removing one screw in each of the four corners of the panel, servicing the display is fast and easy. Since a highly-trained, highly-paid electrician or LED technician is not needed to correct a problem, cost benefits can be achieved. Various embodiments utilize enhanced pixel technology (EPT), which increases image capability. EPT allows image displays in the physical pitch spacing, but also has the ability to display the image in a resolution that is four-times greater. Images will be as sharp and crisp when viewed close as when viewed from a distance, and at angles. In some embodiments it is advantageous to build multipanel displays where each of the LEDs is provided by a single LED manufacturer, so that diodes of different origin in the manufacture are not mixed. It has been discovered that diode consistency can aid in the quality of the visual image. While this feature is not necessary, it is helpful because displays made from different diodes from different suppliers can create patchy inconsistent color, e.g., “pink” reds and pink looking casts to the overall image. Referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B, one embodiment of a multi-panel display 100 is illustrated. The display 100 includes a display surface 102 that is formed by multiple lighting panels 104a-104t. In the present embodiment, the panels 104a-104t use light emitting diodes (LEDs) for illumination, but it is understood that other light sources may be used in other embodiments. The panels 104a-104t typically operate together to form a single image, although multiple images may be simultaneously presented by the display 100. In the present example, the panels 104a-104t are individually attached to a frame 106, which enables each panel to be installed or removed from the frame 106 without affecting the other panels. Each panel 104a-104t is a self-contained unit that couples directly to the frame 106. By “directly,” it is understood that another component or components may be positioned between the panel 104a-104t and the frame 106, but the panel is not placed inside a cabinet that is coupled to the frame 106. For example, an alignment plate (described later but not shown in the present figure) may be coupled to a panel and/or the frame 106 to aid in aligning a panel with other panels. Further a corner plate could be used. The panel may then be coupled to the frame 106 or the alignment plate and/or corner plate, and either coupling approach would be “direct” according to the present disclosure. Two or more panels 104a-104t can be coupled for power and/or data purposes, with a panel 104a-104t receiving power and/or data from a central source or another panel and passing through at least some of the power and/or data to one or more other panels. This further improves the modular aspect of the display 100, as a single panel 104a-104t can be easily connected to the display 100 when being installed and easily disconnected when being removed by decoupling the power and data connections from neighboring panels. The power and data connections for the panels 104a-104t may be configured using one or more layouts, such as a ring, mesh, star, bus, tree, line, or fully-connected layout, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments the LED panels 104a-104t may be in a single network, while in other embodiments the LED panels 104a-104t may be divided into multiple networks. Power and data may be distributed using identical or different layouts. For example, power may be distributed in a line layout, while data may use a combination of line and star layouts. The frame 106 may be relatively light in weight compared to frames needed to support cabinet mounted LED assemblies. In the present example, the frame 106 includes only a top horizontal member 108, a bottom horizontal member 110, a left vertical member 112, a right vertical member 114, and intermediate vertical members 116. Power cables and data cables (not shown) for the panels 104a-104t may route around and/or through the frame 106. In one example, the display 100 includes 336 panels 104a-104t, e.g., to create a 14′×48′ display. As will be discussed below, because each panel is lighter than typical panels, the entire display could be built to weigh only 5500 pounds. This compares favorably to commercially available displays of the size, which generally weigh from 10,000 to 12,000 pounds. Referring to FIGS. 2A-2C, one embodiment of an LED panel 200 is illustrated that may be used as one of the LED panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B. FIG. 2A illustrates a front view of the panel 200 with LEDs aligned in a 16×32 configuration. FIG. 2B illustrates a diagram of internal components within the panel 200. FIG. 2C illustrates one possible configuration of a power supply positioned within the panel 200 relative to a back plate of the panel 200. Referring specifically to FIG. 2A, in the present example, the LED panel 200 includes a substrate 202 that forms a front surface of the panel 200. The substrate 202 in the present embodiment is rectangular in shape, with a top edge 204, a bottom edge 206, a right edge 208, and a left edge 210. A substrate surface 212 includes “pixels” 214 that are formed by one or more LEDs 216 on or within the substrate 202. In the present example, each pixel 214 includes four LEDs 216 arranged in a pattern (e.g., a square). For example, the four LEDs 216 that form a pixel 214 may include a red LED, a green LED, a blue LED, and one other LED (e.g., a white LED). In some embodiments, the other LED may be a sensor. It is understood that more or fewer LEDs 216 may be used to form a single pixel 214, and the use of four LEDs 216 and their relative positioning as a square is for purposes of illustration only. In some embodiments, the substrate 202 may form the entire front surface of the panel 200, with no other part of the panel 200 being visible from the front when the substrate 202 is in place. In other embodiments, a housing 220 (FIG. 2B) may be partially visible at one or more of the edges of the substrate 202. The substrate 202 may form the front surface of the panel 200, but may not be the outer surface in some embodiments. For example, a transparent or translucent material or coating may overlay the substrate 202 and the LEDs 216, thereby being positioned between the substrate 202/LEDs 216 and the environment. As one example, a potting material can be formed over the LEDs 216. This material can be applied as a liquid, e.g., while heated, and then harden over the surface, e.g., when cooled. This potting material is useful for environmental protection, e.g., to achieve an IP rating of IP 65 or higher. Louvers 218 may be positioned above each row of pixels 214 to block or minimize light from directly striking the LEDs 216 from certain angles. For example, the louvers 218 may be configured to extend from the substrate 202 to a particular distance and/or at a particular angle needed to completely shade each pixel 214 when a light source (e.g., the sun) is at a certain position (e.g., ten degrees off vertical). In the present example, the louvers 208 extend the entire length of the substrate 202, but it is understood that other louver configurations may be used. Referring specifically to FIG. 2B, one embodiment of the panel 200 illustrates a housing 220. The housing 220 contains circuitry 222 and a power supply 224. The circuitry 222 is coupled to the LEDs 216 and is used to control the LEDs. The power supply 224 provides power to the LEDs 216 and circuitry 222. As will be described later in greater detail with respect to two embodiments of the panel 200, data and/or power may be received for only the panel 200 or may be passed on to one or more other panels as well. Accordingly, the circuitry 222 and/or power supply 224 may be configured to pass data and/or power to other panels in some embodiments. In the present example, the housing 220 is sealed to prevent water from entering the housing. For example, the housing 220 may be sealed to have an ingress protection (IP) rating such as IP 67, which defines a level of protection against both solid particles and liquid. This ensures that the panel 200 can be mounted in inclement weather situations without being adversely affected. In such embodiments, the cooling is passive as there are no vent openings for air intakes or exhausts. In other embodiments, the housing may be sealed to have an IP rating of IP 65 or higher, e.g. IP 65, IP 66, IP 67, or IP 68. Referring specifically to FIG. 2C, one embodiment of the panel 200 illustrates how the power supply 224 may be thermally coupled to the housing 220 via a thermally conductive material 226 (e.g., aluminum). This configuration may be particularly relevant in embodiments where the panel 200 is sealed and cooling is passive. Referring to FIGS. 3A-3I, one embodiment of a housing 300 is illustrated that may be used with one of the LED panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B. For example, the housing 300 may be a more specific example of the housing 220 of FIG. 2B. In FIGS. 3B-3I, the housing 300 is shown with an alignment plate, which may be separate from the housing 300 or formed as part of the housing 300. In the present example, the housing 300 may be made of a thermally conductive material (e.g., aluminum) that is relatively light weight and rigid. In other embodiments, the housing 300 could be made out of industrial plastic, which is even lighter than aluminum. As shown in the orthogonal view of FIG. 3A, the housing 300 defines a cavity 302. Structural cross-members 304 and 306 may be used to provide support to a substrate (e.g., the substrate 202 of FIG. 2A) (not shown). The cross-members 304 and 306, as well as other areas of the housing 300, may include supports 308 against which the substrate can rest when placed into position. As shown, the supports 308 may include a relatively narrow tip section that can be inserted into a receiving hole in the back of the substrate and then a wider section against which the substrate can rest. The housing 300 may also include multiple extensions 310 (e.g., sleeves) that provide screw holes or locations for captive screws that can be used to couple the substrate to the housing 300. Other extensions 312 may be configured to receive pins or other protrusions from a locking plate and/or fasteners, which will be described later in greater detail. Some or all of the extensions 312 may be accessible only from the rear side of the housing 300 and so are not shown as openings in FIG. 3A. As shown in FIG. 3B, an alignment plate 314 may be used with the housing 300. The alignment plate is optional. The alignment plate 314, when used, aids in aligning multiple panels on the frame 106 to ensure that the resulting display surface has correctly aligned pixels both horizontally and vertically. To accomplish this, the alignment plate 314 includes tabs 316 and slots 318 (FIG. 3F). Each tab 316 fits into the slot 318 of an adjoining alignment plate (if present) and each slot 318 receives a tab from an adjoining alignment plate (if present). This provides an interlocking series of alignment plates. As each alignment plate 314 is coupled to or part of a housing 300, this results in correctly aligning the panels on the frame 106. It is understood that, in some embodiments, the alignment plate 314 may be formed as part of the panel or the alignment functionality provided by the alignment plate 314 may be achieved in other ways. In still other embodiments, a single alignment panel 314 may be formed to receive multiple panels, rather than a single panel as shown in FIG. 3B. In other embodiments, the alignment functionality is eliminated. The design choice of whether to use alignment mechanisms (e.g., slots and grooves) is based upon a tradeoff between the additional alignment capability and the ease of assembly. As shown in FIG. 3C, the housing 300 may include beveled or otherwise non-squared edges 320. This shaping of the edges enables panels to be positioned in a curved display without having large gaps appear as would occur if the edges were squared. Referring to FIGS. 4A and 4B, one embodiment of a panel 400 is illustrated that may be similar or identical to one of the LED panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B. The panel 400 may be based on a housing 401 that is similar or identical to the housing 300 of FIG. 3A. FIG. 4A illustrates a back view of the panel 400 and FIG. 4B illustrates a top view. The panel 400 has a width W and a height H. In the present example, the back includes a number of connection points that include a “power in” point 402, a “data in” point 404, a main “data out” point 406, multiple slave data points 408, and a “power out” point 410. As will be discussed below, one embodiment of the invention provides for an integrated data and power cable, which reduces the number of ports. The power in point 402 enables the panel 400 to receive power from a power source, which may be another panel. The data in point 404 enables the panel to receive data from a data source, which may be another panel. The main data out point 406 enables the panel 400 to send data to another main panel. The multiple slave data points 408, which are bi-directional in this example, enable the panel 400 to send data to one or more slave panels and to receive data from those slave panels. In some embodiments, the main data out point 406 and the slave data out points 408 may be combined. The power out point 410 enables the panel 400 to send power to another panel. The connection points may be provided in various ways. For example, in one embodiment, the connection points may be jacks configured to receive corresponding plugs. In another embodiment, a cable may extend from the back panel with a connector (e.g., a jack or plug) affixed to the external end of the cable to provide an interface for another connector. It is understood that the connection points may be positioned and organized in many different ways. Inside the panel, the power in point 402 and power out point 410 may be coupled to circuitry (not shown) as well as to a power supply. For example, the power in point 402 and power out point 410 may be coupled to the circuitry 222 of FIG. 2B, as well as to the power supply 224. In such embodiments, the circuitry 222 may aid in regulating the reception and transmission of power. In other embodiments, the power in point 402 and power out point 410 may by coupled only to the power supply 224 with a pass through power connection allowing some of the received power to be passed from the power in point 402 to the power out point 410. The data in point 404, main data out point 406, and slave data out points 408 may be coupled to the circuitry 222. The circuitry 222 may aid in regulating the reception and transmission of the data. In some embodiments, the circuitry 222 may identify data used for the panel 400 and also send all data on to other coupled main and slave panels via the main data out point 406 and slave data out points 408, respectively. In such embodiments, the other main and slave panels would then identify the information relevant to that particular panel from the data. In other embodiments, the circuitry 222 may remove the data needed for the panel 400 and selectively send data on to other coupled main and slave panels via the main data out point 406 and slave data out points 408, respectively. For example, the circuitry 222 may send only data corresponding to a particular slave panel to that slave panel rather than sending all data and letting the slave panel identify the corresponding data. The back panel also has coupling points 412 and 414. In the example where the housing is supplied by the housing 300 of FIG. 3A, the coupling points 412 and 414 may correspond to extensions 310 and 312, respectively. Referring specifically to FIG. 4B, a top view of the panel 400 illustrates three sections of the housing 401. The first section 416 includes the LEDs (not shown) and louvers 418. The second section 420 and third section 422 may be used to house the circuitry 222 and power supply 224. In the present example, the third section 422 is an extended section that may exist on main panels, but not slave panels, due to extra components needed by a main panel to distribute data. Depths D1, D2, and D3 correspond to sections 416, 420, and 422, respectively. Referring to FIG. 5, one embodiment of a panel 500 is illustrated that may be similar or identical to the panel 400 of FIG. 4A with the exception of a change in the slave data points 408. In the embodiment of FIG. 4A, the slave data points 408 are bi-directional connection points. In the present embodiment, separate slave “data in” points 502 and slave “data out” points 504 are provided. In other embodiments, the data points can be directional connection points. Referring to FIGS. 6A and 6B, one embodiment of a panel 600 is illustrated that may be similar or identical to the panel 400 of FIG. 4A except that the panel 600 is a slave panel. FIG. 6A illustrates a back view of the panel 600 and FIG. 6B illustrates a top view. The panel 600 has a width W and a height H. In the present embodiment, these are identical to the width W and height H of the panel 400 of FIG. 4A. In one example, the width W can be between 1 and 4 feet and the height H can be between 0.5 and 4 feet, for example 1 foot by 2 feet. Of course, the invention is not limited to these specific dimensions. In contrast to the main panel of FIG. 4A, the back of the slave panel 600 has a more limited number of connection points that include a “power in” point 602, a data point 604, and a “power out” point 606. The power in point 602 enables the panel 600 to receive power from a power source, which may be another panel. The data point 604 enables the panel to receive data from a data source, which may be another panel. The power out point 606 enables the panel 600 to send power to another main panel. In the present example, the data point 604 is bi-directional, which corresponds to the main panel configuration illustrated in FIG. 4A. The back panel also has coupling points 608 and 610, which correspond to coupling points 412 and 414, respectively, of FIG. 4A. As discussed above, other embodiments use directional data connections. Referring specifically to FIG. 6B, a top view of the panel 600 illustrates two sections of the housing 601. The first section 612 includes the LEDs (not shown) and louvers 614. The second section 616 may be used to house the circuitry 222 and power supply 224. In the present example, the extended section provided by the third section 422 of FIG. 4A is not needed as the panel 600 does not pass data on to other panels. Depths D1 and D2 correspond to sections 612 and 616, respectively. In the present embodiment, depths D1 and D2 are identical to depths D1 and D2 of the panel 400 of FIG. 4B. In one example, the depth D1 can be between 1 and 4 inches and the depths D2 can be between 1 and 4 inches. It is noted that the similarity in size of the panels 400 of FIG. 4A and the panel 600 of FIG. 6A enables the panels to be interchanged as needed. More specifically, as main panels and slave panels have an identical footprint in terms of height H, width W, and depth D1, their position on the frame 106 of FIGS. 1A and 1B does not matter from a size standpoint, but only from a functionality standpoint. Accordingly, the display 100 can be designed as desired using main panels and slave panels without the need to be concerned with how a particular panel will physically fit into a position on the frame. The design may then focus on issues such as the required functionality (e.g., whether a main panel is needed or a slave panel is sufficient) for a particular position and/or other issues such as weight and cost. In some embodiments, the main panel 400 of FIG. 4A may weigh more than the slave panel 600 due to the additional components present in the main panel 400. The additional components may also make the main panel 400 more expensive to produce than the slave panel 600. Therefore, a display that uses as many slave panels as possible while still meeting required criteria will generally cost less and weigh less than a display that uses more main panels. Referring to FIG. 7, one embodiment of a panel 700 is illustrated that may be similar or identical to the panel 600 of FIG. 6A with the exception of a change in the data point 604. In the embodiment of FIG. 6A, the data point 604 is a bi-directional connection. In the present embodiment, a separate “data out” point 702 and a “data in” point 704 are provided, which corresponds to the main panel configuration illustrated in FIG. 5. Referring to FIGS. 8A-8M, embodiments of a frame 800o are illustrated. For example, the frame 800o may provide a more detailed embodiment of the frame 106 of FIG. 1B. As described previously, LED panels, such as the panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B, may be mounted directly to the frame 800. Accordingly, the frame 800o does not need to be designed to support heavy cabinets, but need only be able to support the panels 104a-104t and associated cabling (e.g., power and data cables), and the frame 800o may be lighter than conventional frames that have to support cabinet based structures. For purposes of example, various references may be made to the panel 200 of FIG. 2A, the housing 300 of FIG. 3A, and the panel 400 of FIG. 4A. In the present example, the frame 800 is designed to support LED panels 802 in a configuration that is ten panels high and thirty-two panels wide. While the size of the panels 802 may vary, in the current embodiment this provides a display surface that is approximately fifty feet and four inches wide (50′ 4″) and fifteen feet and eight and three-quarters inches high (15′ 8.75″). It is understood that all measurements and materials described with respect to FIGS. 8A-8M are for purposes of example only and are not intended to be limiting. Accordingly, many different lengths, heights, thicknesses, and other dimensional and/or material changes may be made to the embodiments of FIGS. 8A-8M. Referring specifically to FIG. 8B, a back view of the frame 800 is illustrated. The frame 800 includes a top bar 804, a bottom bar 806, a left bar 808, a right bar 810, and multiple vertical bars 812 that connect the top bar 804 and bottom bar 806. In some embodiments, additional horizontal bars 814 may be present. The frame 800 may be constructed of various materials, including metals. For example, the top bar 804, the bottom bar 806, the left bar 808, and the right bar 810 (e.g., the perimeter bars) may be made using a four inch aluminum association standard channel capable of bearing 1.738 lb/ft. The vertical bars 812 may be made using 2″×4″×½″ aluminum tube capable of bearing a load of 3.23 lb/ft. it is understood that other embodiments will utilize other size components. It is understood that these sizes and load bearing capacities are for purposes of illustration and are not intended to be limiting. However, conventional steel display frames needed to support conventional cabinet-based displays are typically much heavier than the frame 800, which would likely not be strong enough to support a traditional cabinet-based display. For example, the frame 800 combined with the panels described herein may weigh at least fifty percent less than equivalent steel cabinet-based displays. Referring to FIG. 8C, a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8B taken along lines A1-A1 is illustrated. The horizontal bars 810 are more clearly visible. More detailed views of FIG. 8C are described below. Referring to FIG. 8D, a more detailed view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C at location B1 is illustrated. The cutaway view shows the top bar 804 and a vertical bar 812. A first flat bar 816 may be used with multiple fasteners 818 to couple the top bar 804 to the vertical bar 812 at the back of the frame 800. A second flat bar 820 may be used with fasteners 821 to couple the top bar 804 to the vertical bar 812 at the front of the frame 800. A front plate 902 belonging to a coupling mechanism 900 (described below with respect to FIG. 9A) is illustrated. The second flat bar 820 may replace a back plate of the coupling mechanism 900. In embodiments where the second flat bar 820 replaces the back plate, the second flat bar 820 may include one or more holes to provide accessibility to fasteners of the coupling mechanism 900. Referring to FIGS. 8E-8G, various more detailed views of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C are illustrated. FIG. 8E provides a more detailed view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C at location B2. FIG. 8F provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8E taken along lines C1-C1. FIG. 8G provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8E taken along lines C2-C2. A clip 822 may be coupled to a vertical bar 812 via one or more fasteners 824 and to the horizontal bar 814 via one or more fasteners 824. In the present example, the clip 822 is positioned above the horizontal bar 814, but it is understood that the clip 822 may be positioned below the horizontal bar 814 in other embodiments. In still other embodiments, the clip 822 may be placed partially inside the horizontal bar 814 (e.g., a portion of the clip 822 may be placed through a slot or other opening in the horizontal bar 814). Referring to FIGS. 8H and 8I, various more detailed views of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C are illustrated. FIG. 8H provides a more detailed view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8C at location B3. FIG. 8I provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8H taken along lines D1-D1. The cutaway view shows the bottom bar 806 and a vertical bar 812. A first flat bar 826 may be used with multiple fasteners 828 to couple the bottom bar 806 to the vertical bar 812 at the back of the frame 800. A second flat bar 830 may be used with fasteners 832 to couple the bottom bar 806 to the vertical bar 812 at the front of the frame 800. A front plate 902 belonging to a coupling mechanism 900 (described below with respect to FIG. 9A) is illustrated. The second flat bar 830 may replace a back plate of the coupling mechanism 900. In embodiments where the second flat bar 830 replaces the back plate, the second flat bar 830 may include one or more holes to provide accessibility to fasteners of the coupling mechanism 900. Referring to FIGS. 8J and 8K, various more detailed views of the frame 800 of FIG. 8A are illustrated. FIG. 8H provides a more detailed view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8B at location A2. FIG. 8K provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8J taken along lines E1-E1. The two views show the bottom bar 806 and the left bar 808. A clip 834 may be used with multiple fasteners 836 to couple the bottom bar 806 to the left bar 808 at the corner of the frame 800. Referring to FIGS. 8L and 8M, an alternative embodiment to FIG. 8E is illustrated. FIG. 8L provides a more detailed view of the frame 800 in the alternate embodiment. FIG. 8M provides a cutaway view of the frame 800 of FIG. 8L taken along lines F1-F1. In this embodiment, rather than using a horizontal bar 814, a vertical bar 812 is coupled directly to a beam 840 using a clip 838. Referring to FIGS. 9A-9C, one embodiment of a coupling mechanism 900 is illustrated that may be used to attach an LED panel (e.g., one of the panels 104a-104t of FIGS. 1A and 1B) to a frame (e.g., the frame 106 or the frame 800 of FIGS. 8A and 8B). For purposes of example, the coupling mechanism 900 is described as attaching the panel 200 of FIG. 2A to the frame 800 of FIG. 8B. In the present example, a single coupling mechanism 900 may attach up to four panels to the frame 800. To accomplish this, the coupling mechanism 900 is positioned where the corners of four panels meet. The coupling mechanism 900 includes a front plate 902 and a back plate 904. The front plate 902 has an outer surface 906 that faces the back of a panel and an inner surface 908 that faces the frame 106. The front plate 902 may include a center hole 910 and holes 912. The center hole 910 may be countersunk relative to the outer surface 906 to allow a bolt head to sit at or below the outer surface 906. Mounting pins 914 may extend from the outer surface 906. The back plate 904 has an outer surface 916 that faces away from the frame 106 and an inner surface 918 that faces the frame 106. The back plate 904 includes a center hole 920 and holes 922. In operation, the front plate 902 and back plate 904 are mounted on opposite sides of one of the vertical bars 808, 810, or 812 with the front plate 902 mounted on the panel side of the frame 800 and the back plate 904 mounted on the back side of the frame 800. For purposes of example, a vertical bar 812 will be used. When mounted in this manner, the inner surface 908 of the front plate 902 and the inner surface 918 of the back plate 904 face one another. A fastener (e.g., a bolt) may be placed through the center hole 910 of the front plate 902, through a hole in the vertical bar 812 of the frame 800, and through the center hole 920 of the back plate 904. This secures the front plate 902 and back plate 904 to the frame 800 with the mounting pins 914 extending away from the frame. Using the housing 300 of FIG. 3A as an example, a panel is aligned on the frame 800 by inserting the appropriate mounting pin 914 into one of the holes in the back of the housing 300 provided by an extension 310/312. It is understood that this occurs at each corner of the panel, so that the panel will be aligned with the frame 800 using four mounting pins 914 that correspond to four different coupling mechanisms 900. It is noted that the pins 914 illustrated in FIG. 9C are horizontally aligned with the holes 912, while the extensions illustrated in FIG. 3A are vertically aligned. As described previously, these are alternate embodiments and it is understood that the holes 912/pins 914 and extensions 310/312 should have a matching orientation and spacing. Once in position, a fastener is inserted through the hole 922 of the back plate 904, through the corresponding hole 912 of the front plate 902, and into a threaded hole provided by an extension 310/312 in the panel 300. This secures the panel to the frame 800. It is understood that this occurs at each corner of the panel, so that the panel will be secured to the frame 800 using four different coupling mechanisms 900. Accordingly, to attach or remove a panel, only four fasteners need be manipulated. The coupling mechanism 900 can remain in place to support up to three other panels. In other embodiments, the front plate 902 is not needed. For example, in displays that are lighter in weight the back of the panel can abut directly with the beam. In other embodiments, the center hole 920 and corresponding bolt are not necessary. In other words the entire connection is made by the screws through the plate 904 into the panel. The embodiment illustrated here shows a connection from the back of the display. In certain applications, access to the back of the panels is not available. For example, the display may be mounted directly on a building without a catwalk or other access. In this case, the holes in the panel can extend all the way through the panel with the bolts being applied through the panel and secured on the back. This is the opposite direction of what is shown in FIG. 9C. More precise alignment may be provided by using an alignment plate, such as the alignment plate 314 of FIG. 3B, with each panel. For example, while positioning the panel and prior to tightening the coupling mechanism 900, the tabs 316 of the alignment plate 314 for that panel may be inserted into slots 318 in surrounding alignment plates. The coupling mechanism 900 may then be tightened to secure the panel into place. It is understood that many different configurations may be used for the coupling mechanism 400. For example, the locations of holes and/or pins may be moved, more or fewer holes and/or pins may be provided, and other modifications may be made. It is further understood that many different coupling mechanisms may be used to attach a panel to the frame 106. Such coupling mechanisms may use bolts, screws, latches, clips, and/or any other fastener suitable for removably attaching a panel to the frame 800. FIG. 10A illustrates the power connections, FIG. 10B illustrates data connections, FIG. 10C illustrates power connections, and FIG. 10D illustrates data connections. Referring to FIGS. 10A and 10B, one embodiment of a 13×22 panel display 1000 is illustrated that includes two hundred and eighty-six panels arranged in thirteen rows and twenty-two columns. For purposes of example, the display 1000 uses the previously described main panel 400 of FIG. 4A (a ‘B’ panel) and the slave panel 600 of FIG. 6A (a ‘C’ panel). As described previously, these panels have a bi-directional input/output connection point for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels. The rows are divided into two sections with the top section having seven rows and the bottom section having six rows. The B panels form the fourth row of each section and the remaining rows are C panels. FIGS. 10C and 10D provide enlarged views of a portion of FIGS. 10A and 10B, respectively. As illustrated in FIG. 10A, power (e.g., 220V single phase) is provided to the top section via seven breakers (e.g., twenty amp breakers), with a breaker assigned to each of the seven rows. Power is provided to the bottom section via six breakers, with a breaker assigned to each of the six rows. In the present example, the power is provided in a serial manner along a row, with power provided to the first column panel via the power source, to the second column panel via the first panel, to the third column panel via the second panel, and so on for the entire row. Accordingly, if a panel is removed or the power for a panel is unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the row will lose power. As illustrated in FIG. 10B, data is sent from a data source 1002 (e.g., a computer) to the top section via one line and to the bottom section via another line. In some embodiments, as illustrated, the data lines may be connected to provide a loop. In the present example, the data is provided to the B panels that form the fourth row of each section. The B panels in the fourth row feed the data both vertically along the column and in a serial manner along the row. For example, the B panel at row four, column two (r4:c2), sends data to the C panels in rows one, two, three, five, six, and seven of column two (r1-3:c2 and r5-7:c2), as well as to the B panel at row four, column three (r4:c3). Accordingly, if a B panel in row four is removed or the data cables are unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the column fed by that panel will lose their data connection. The next columns will also lose their data connections unless the loop allows data to reach them in the opposite direction. It is understood that the data lines may be bi-directional. In some embodiments, an input line and an output line may be provided, rather than a single bi-directional line as illustrated in FIGS. 10A and 10B. In such embodiments, the panels may be configured with additional input and/or output connections. An example of this is provided below in FIGS. 11A and 11B. Referring to FIGS. 11A and 11B, one embodiment of a 16×18 panel display 1100 is illustrated that includes two hundred and eighty-eight panels arranged in sixteen rows and eighteen columns. Each power line connects to a single 110v 20 amp breaker. All external power cables are 14 AWG SOW UL while internal power cables must be 14 AWG UL. For purposes of example, the display 1100 uses the previously described main panel 500 of FIG. 5 (a ‘B’ panel) and the slave panel 700 of FIG. 7 (a ‘C’ panel). As described previously, these panels have separate input and output connection points for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels. FIGS. 11C and 11D provide enlarged views of a portion of FIGS. 1A and 11B, respectively. As illustrated in FIG. 1A, power is provided from a power source directly to the first column panel and the tenth column panel of each row via a power line connected to a single 110V, 20 A breaker. Those panels then feed the power along the rows in a serial manner. For example, the power is provided to the first column panel via the power source, to the second column panel via the first panel, to the third column panel via the second panel, and so on until the ninth column panel is reached for that row. The ninth column panel does not feed power to another panel because power is provided directly to the tenth column panel via the power source. Power is then provided to the eleventh column panel via the tenth panel, to the twelfth column panel via the eleventh panel, and so on until the end of the row is reached. Accordingly, if a panel is removed or the power for a panel is unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the row that rely on that panel for power will lose power. Although not shown in FIG. 11B, the panels of the display 1100 may be divided into two sections for data purposes as illustrated previously with respect to FIG. 10B. Accordingly, as illustrated in FIG. 10B, data may be sent from a data source (e.g., a computer) to a top section via one line and to a bottom section via another line. As the present example illustrates the use of separate input and output connection points for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels, data connections between B panels have been omitted for purposes of clarity. In the present example, the data is provided to the B panels that form the fourth row of each section. The B panels in the fourth row feed the data both vertically along the column and in a serial manner along the row (as shown in FIG. 10B). For example, the B panel at row four, column two (r4:c2), sends data to the C panels in rows one, two, three, five, six, seven, and eight of column two (r1-3:c2 and r5-8:c2), as well as to the B panel at row four, column three (r4:c3). Accordingly, if a B panel in row four is removed or the data cables are unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the column fed by that panel will lose their data connection. The next columns will also lose their data connections unless the loop allows data to reach them in the opposite direction. Referring to FIGS. 12A and 12B, one embodiment of a 19×10 panel two face display 1100 is illustrated that includes three hundred and eighty panels arranged in two displays of nineteen rows and ten columns. Each face requires 19 110 V 20 AMP circuit breakers. For purposes of example, the display 1100 uses the previously described main panel 500 of FIG. 5 (a ‘B’ panel) and the slave panel 700 of FIG. 7 (a ‘C’ panel). As described previously, these panels have separate input and output connection points for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels. FIGS. 12C and 12D provide enlarged views of a portion of FIGS. 12A and 12B, respectively. As illustrated in FIG. 12A, power is provided from a power source directly to the first column panel of each face via a power line connected to a single 110V, 20 A breaker. Those panels then feed the power along the rows in a serial manner. For example, the power is provided to the first column panel of the first face via the power source, to the second column panel via the first panel, to the third column panel via the second panel, and so on until the last panel is reached for that row of that face. The tenth column panel does not feed power to the next face because power is provided directly to the first column of the second face via the power source. Power is then provided to the second column panel via the first panel, to the third column panel via the second panel, and so on until the last panel is reached for that row of that face. Accordingly, if a panel is removed or the power for a panel is unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the row that rely on that panel for power will lose power. Although not shown in FIG. 12B, the panels of the display 1200 may be divided into three sections for data purposes as illustrated previously with respect to FIG. 10B. Accordingly, as illustrated in FIG. 10B, data may be sent from a data source (e.g., a computer) to the top section via one line, to a middle section via a second line, and to a bottom section via a third line. Each master control cabinet has six data cables and is configured to be in row 4. Two rows of cabinets use only 5 cables while the sixth cable is unused and tied back. As the present example illustrates the use of separate input and output connection points for data communications between the main panel and the slave panels, data connections between B panels have been omitted for purposes of clarity. However, a separate line may be run to the B panels in the first column of each face (which would require six lines in FIG. 12B), or the B panel in the last column of a row of one face may pass data to the B panel in the first column of a row of the next face (which would require three lines in FIG. 12B). In the present example, the data is provided to the B panels that form the fourth row of each section. The B panels in the fourth row feed the data both vertically along the column and in a serial manner along the row (as shown in FIG. 10B). For example, the B panel at row four, column two (r4:c2), sends data to the C panels in rows one, two, three, five, and six of column two (r1-3:c2 and r5-6:c2), as well as to the B panel at row four, column three (r4:c3). Accordingly, if a B panel in row four is removed or the data cables are unplugged, the remainder of the panels in the column fed by that panel will lose their data connection. The next columns will also lose their data connections unless the loop allows data to reach them in the opposite direction. FIG. 13 illustrates a modular display panel in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 14 illustrates a modular display panel attached to a supporting frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 15 illustrates a frame used to provide mechanical support to the modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The multi-panel modular display panel 1300 comprises a plurality of LED display panels 1350. In various embodiments describe herein, the light emitting diode (LED) display panels 1350 are attached to a frame 1310 or skeletal structure that provides the framework for supporting the LED display panels 1350. The LED display panels 1350 are stacked next to each other and securely attached to the frame 1310 using attachment plate 1450, which may be a corner plate in one embodiment. The attachment plate 1450 may comprise holes through which attachment features 1490 may be screwed in, for example. Referring to FIGS. 13 and 14, the LED display panels 1350 are arranged in an array of rows and columns. Each LED display panel 1350 of each row is electrically connected to an adjacent LED display panel 1350 within that row. Referring to FIG. 15, the frame 1310 provides mechanical support and electrical connectivity to each of the LED display panels 1350. The frame 1310 comprises a plurality of beams 1320 forming the mechanical structure. The frame 1310 comprises a top bar, a bottom bar, a left bar, a right bar, and a plurality of vertical bars extending from the top bar to the bottom bar, the vertical bars disposed between the left bar and the right bar. The top bar, the bottom bar, the left bar and the right bar comprise four inch aluminum bars, and the vertical bars comprise 2″×4″×½″ aluminum tubes. The top bar, the bottom bar, the left bar and the right bar are each capable of bearing a load of 1.738 lb/ft, and the vertical bars are each capable of bearing a load of 3.23 lb/ft. The frame 1310 may include support structures for the electrical cables, data cables, electrical power box powering the LED displays panels 1350, data receiver box controlling power, data, and communication to the LED displays panels 1350. However, the frame 1310 does not include any additional enclosures to protect the LED panels, data, power cables from the environment. Rather, the frame 1310 is exposed to the elements and further exposes the LED display panels 1350 to the environment. The frame 1310 also does not include air conditioning, fans, or heating units to maintain the temperature of the LED display panels 1350. Rather, the LED display panels 1350 are hermetically sealed themselves and are designed to be exposed to the outside ambient. Further, in various embodiments, there are not additional cabinets that are attached to the frame 1310 or used for housing the LED display panels 1350. Accordingly, in various embodiments, the multi-panel modular display panel 1300 is designed to be only passively cooled. FIGS. 38A-38E illustrate specific examples of an assembled display system 1300 and a frame 1310. As shown in FIG. 38A, the modular display system 1300 includes a number of LED display panels 1350 mounted to frame 1310. One of the display panels has been removed in the lower corner to illustrate the modular nature of the display. In this particular example, access is provided to the back of the modular display through a cage 1390 that includes an enclosed catwalk. Since the display system 1300 is generally highly elevated, a ladder (see FIG. 38C) provides access to the catwalk. A side view of the display system is shown in FIG. 38B and back views are shown in FIGS. 38C and 38D. FIG. 38D further illustrates the cables of the panels interlocked for safe transportation. FIG. 38E illustrates the frame 1310 without the display panels 1350. In this embodiment the beams 1320 that form that outer frame are bigger than the interior beams 1325. In this case, the interior beams 1325 are aligned in a plane outside those of the frame beams 1322. The plates 1315 are also shown in the figure. Upon installation, these plates will be rotated by 90 degrees and fasten to the display panels. FIG. 16, which includes FIGS. 16A-16C, illustrates an attachment plate used to attach one or more modular display panels to the frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 16A illustrates a projection view while FIG. 16B illustrates a top view and FIG. 16C illustrates a cross-sectional view. Referring to FIGS. 16A-16C, the attachment plate 1450 may comprise one or more through openings 1460 for enabling attachment features such as screws to go through. Referring to FIG. 16C, the attachment plate 1450 comprises a top surface 1451 and a bottom surface 1452. The height of the pillars 1480 may be adjusted to provide a good fit for the display panel. Advantageously, because the frame 1310 is not screw mounted to the display panel 1350, the display panel 1350 may be moved during mounting. This allows for improved alignment of the display panels resulting in improved picture output. An alignment plate could also be used as described above. Accordingly, in various embodiments, the height of the pillars 1480 is about the same as the thickness of the beams 1320 of the frame 1310. In one or more embodiments, the height of the pillars 1480 is slightly more than the thickness of the beams 1320 of the frame 1310. FIGS. 16D and 16E illustrate another embodiment of the attachment plate 1450. In this example, the plate is rectangular shaped and not a square. For example, the length can be two to four times longer than the width. In one example, the length is about 9 inches while the width is about 3 inches. The holes in the center of the plate are optional. Conversely, these types of holes could be added to the embodiment of FIGS. 16A and 16B. In other embodiments, other shaped plates 1450 can be used. FIG. 17 illustrates a magnified view of the attachment plate or a connecting plate, frame, and display panel after mounting in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 17, one or more attachment features 1490 may be used to connect the attachment plate 1450 to the display panel 1350. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 17, the attachment plate 1450 is a corner plate. Each corner plate is mechanically connected to corners of four of the LED display panels 1350 to secure the LED display panels 1350 to the respective beams 1320 of the frame 1310. FIG. 17 illustrates that the attachment features 1490 is attached using the through openings 1460 in the attachment plate 1450. The frame is between the attachment plate 1450 and the display panel 1350. In the embodiment of FIG. 17, the beam 1320 physically contacts the display panel 1350. In another embodiment, a second plate (not shown here) could be included between the beam 1320 and the display panel 1350. The plate could be a solid material such as a metal plate or could be a conforming material such as a rubber material embedded with metal particles. In either case, it is desirable that the plate be thermally conductive. FIG. 18 illustrates one unit of the modular display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 18 illustrates one LED display panel 1350 of the multi-panel modular display panel 1300 comprising an input cable 1360 and an output cable 1365. The LED display panels 1350 are electrically connected together for data and for power using the input cable 1360 and the output cable 1365. Each modular LED display panel 1350 is capable of receiving input using an integrated data and power cable from a preceding modular LED display panel and providing an output using another integrated data and power cable to a succeeding modular LED display panel. Each cable ends with an endpoint device or connector, which is a socket or alternatively a plug. Referring to FIG. 18, in accordance with an embodiment, a LED display panel 1350 comprises an attached input cable 1360 and an output cable 1365, a first connector 1370, a second connector 1375, a sealing cover 1380. The sealing cover 1380 is configured to go over the second connector 1375 thereby hermetically sealing both ends (first connector 1370 and the second connector 1375). The sealing cover 1380, which also includes a locking feature, locks the two cables together securely. As will be described further, the input cable 1360 and the output cable 1365 comprise integrated data and power wires with appropriate insulation separating them. FIG. 19 illustrates two display panels next to each other and connected through the cables such that the output cable 1365 of the left display panel 1350 is connected with the input cable 1360 of the next display panel 1350. The sealing cover 1380 locks the two cables together as described above. FIG. 20 illustrates a modular multi-panel display system comprising a plurality of LED display panels connected together using the afore-mentioned cables. Referring to FIG. 20, for each row, a LED display panel 1350 at a first end receives an input data connection from a data source and has an output data connection to a next LED display panel in the row. Each further LED display panel 1350 provides data to a next adjacent LED display panel until a LED display panel 1350 at a second end of the row is reached. The power line is run across each row to power the LED display panels 1350 in that row. In one embodiment, the plurality of LED display panels 1350 includes 320 LED display panels 1350 arranged in ten rows and thirty-two columns so that the integrated display panel 1300 has a display surface that is approximately fifty feet and four inches wide and fifteen feet and eight and three-quarters inches high. In various embodiments, as illustrated in FIGS. 14 and 20, a data receiver box 1400 is mounted to the mechanical support structure or frame 1310. The data receiver box 1400 is configured to provide power, data, and communication to the LED display panels 1350. With a shared receiver box 1400, the panels themselves do not need their own receiver card. This configuration saves cost and weight. FIG. 21, which includes FIGS. 21A-21C, illustrates an alternative embodiment of the modular display panel attached to a supporting frame in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 21B and 21C illustrate alternative structural embodiments of the supporting frame. This embodiment differs from embodiment described in FIG. 14 in that the horizontal beams 1320A may be used to support the display panels 1350. In one embodiment, both horizontal beams 1320A and vertical beams 1320B may be used to support the display panels 1350. In another embodiment, horizontal beams 1320A but not the vertical beams 1320B may be used to support the display panels 1350. FIG. 21B illustrates an alternative embodiment including additional beams 1320C, which may be narrower than the other beams of the frame. One or more of the thinner beams 1320C may be placed between the regular sized vertical beams 1320B. FIG. 21C illustrates a further embodiment illustrating both a top view, bottom view and side view of a frame. The frame 1310 may be attached to a wall or other structure using plates 1315. The frame 1310 may comprise a plurality of vertical beams and horizontal beams. In one embodiment, the frame 1310 comprises an outer frame having a top bar, a bottom bar, a left bar and a right bar. A display panel 1350 may be supported between two adjacent beams 1320 marked as L3 beams, which may be thinner (smaller diameter) and lighter than the thicker and heavier load bearing beams 1321 marked as L2 beams used for forming the outer frame. As an illustration, the L2 beams may be 4″ while the L3 beams may be 3″ in one example. FIG. 22 illustrates a method of assembling a modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 22 illustrates a method of assembling the multi-panel display system discussed in various embodiments, for example, FIG. 14. A mechanical support structure such as the frame 1310 described above is assembled taking into account various parameters such as the size and weight of the multi-panel display, location and zoning requirements, and others (box 1501). For example, as previously described, the mechanical support structure includes a plurality of vertical bars and horizontal bars. The mechanical support structure may be fabricated from a corrosion resistant material in one or more embodiments. For example, the mechanical support structure may be coated with a weather-proofing coating that prevents the underlying substrate from corroding. A plurality of LED display panels are mounted on to the mechanical support structure so as to form an integrated display panel that includes an array of rows and columns of LED display panels as described in various embodiments (box 1503). Each of the LED display panels is hermetically sealed. Mounting the LED display panels may comprise mounting each LED display panel to a respective vertical beam using an attachment plate. Each of the LED display panels is electrically connected to a data source and to a power source (box 1505). For example, a first LED display panel in each row is electrically coupled to the display source. The other LED display panels in each row may be daisy-chain coupled to an adjacent LED display panel (e.g., as illustrated in FIG. 20). Since the assembled display structure is light weight, significant assembly advantages can be achieved. For example, the panels can be assembled within a warehouse that is remote from the final location where the display will be utilized. In other words, the panels can be assembled at a first location, shipped to a second location and finalized at the second location. An illustration of two assembled displays that are ready for shipment is provided in FIG. 39. These displays can be quite large, for example much larger than a 14×48 panel display. In some cases, a single display system is shipped as a series of sub-assemblies, e.g., as shown in the figure, and then assembled into a full display on location. In various embodiments, the assembled multi-panel display system includes no cabinets. The assembled multi-panel display system is cooled passively and includes no air conditioning or fans. FIG. 23 illustrates a method of maintaining a modular multi-panel display that includes a mechanical support structure and a plurality of LED display panels detachably coupled to the mechanical support structure without a cabinet. Each LED display panel is mechanically coupled to the mechanical support structure and three other lighting panels by a corner plate. Referring to FIG. 23, a defect is identified in one of the LED display panels so as to identify a defective LED display panel (box 1511). The identification of the defective LED display panel may be performed manually or automatically. For example, a control loop monitoring the display system may provide a warning or error signal identifying the location of the defect. In one embodiment, the health of a panel and/or the health of individual pixels can be determined. To determine the health of the panel, the power supply for each of the panels is monitored. If a lack of power is detected at any of the supplies a warning message is sent. For example, it can be determined that one of the power supplies has ceased to supply power. In the illustrated example, the message is sent from the power supply to the communication chip within the panel and then back to the receiving card. From the receiving card a message can be sent to the sending card or otherwise. For example, the message could generate a text to be provided to a repair station or person. In one example, a wireless transmitter is provided in the receiving card so that the warning message can be sent via a wireless network, e.g., a cellular data network. Upon receipt of the warning message, a maintenance provider can view the display, e.g., using a camera directed at the display. In another embodiment, the health of individual pixels is determined, for example, by having each panel include circuitry to monitor the power being consumed by each pixel. If any pixel is determined to be failing, a warning message can be generated as discussed above. The pixel level health check can be used separately from or in combination with the panel level health check. These embodiments would use bi-directional data communication between the panels and the receiver box. Image data will be transferred from the receiver box to the panels, e.g., along each row, and health and other monitoring data can be transferred from the panels back to the receiver. In addition to, or instead of, the health data discussed other data such as temperature, power consumption or mechanical data (e.g., sensing whether the panel has moved) can be provided from the panel. If a decision is made to replace the defective LED display panel, the defective LED display panel is electrically disconnected from the multi-panel display (box 1512). The attachment plate securely holding the LED display panel to the frame is removed from the defective LED display panel (box 1513). In one or more embodiments, four attachment plates are removed so as to remove a single LED display panel. This is because one attachment plate has to be removed from a respective corner of the defective LED display panel. The defective LED display panel is next removed from the multi-panel display (box 1514). A replacement LED display panel is placed in a location formerly taken by the defective LED display panel (box 1515). The attachment plate is reattached to the replacement LED display panel securely mounting the replacement LED display panel back to the display system (box 1516). Similarly, four attachment plates have to be reattached in the above example. The replacement LED display panel is electrically reconnected to the multi-panel display (box 1517). FIG. 24, which includes FIGS. 24A and 24B, illustrates a display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 24A illustrates a cross-sectional view of a display panel while FIG. 24B illustrates a schematic of the display panel. FIG. 24C illustrates a schematic of the LED array as controlled by the receiver circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 24A, the modular LED display panel comprises a plurality of LEDs 1610 mounted on one or more printed circuit boards (PCBs) 1620, which are housed within a hermetically sealed enclosure or casing. A framework of louvers 1630 is attached to the PCB 1620 using an adhesive 1640, which prevents moisture from reaching the PCB. However, the LEDs 1610 are directly exposed to the ambient in the direction of light emission. The LEDs 1610 themselves are water repellent and therefore are not damaged even if exposed to water. The louvers 1630 rise above the surface of the LEDs and help to minimize reflection and scattering of external light, which can otherwise degrade the quality of light output from the LEDs 1610. The PCB is mounted within a cavity of an enclosure, which may be a plastic casing 1650. A heat sink 1660 is attached between the PCB 1620 and the casing 1650 and contacts both the PCB 1620 and the casing 1650 to maximize heat extraction. A thermal grease may be used between the back side of the casing 1650 and the PCB 1620 to improve thermal conduction. In one example embodiment, the thermal grease is between the heat sink 1660 and the back side of the casing 1650. In a further example embodiment, the thermal grease is between the PCB 1620 and the heat sink 1660. A receiver circuit 1625 is mounted on the PCB 1620. The receiver circuit 1625 may be a single chip in one embodiment. Alternatively, multiple components may be mounted on the PCB 1620. The receiver circuit 1625 may be configured to process the received media and control the operation of the LEDs 1610 individually. For example, the receiver circuit 1625 may determine the color of the LED to be displayed at each location (pixel). Similarly, the receiver circuit 1625 may determine the brightness at each pixel location, for example, by controlling the current supplied to the LED. The air gap within the cavity is minimized so that heat is conducted out more efficiently. Thermally conductive standoffs 1626 may be introduced between the PCB 1620 to minimize the air gap, for example, between the receiver circuit 1625 and the heat sink 1660. The PCB 1620 is designed to maximize heat extraction from the LEDs 1610 to the heat sink 1660. As described previously, the casing 1650 of the display panel 1350 has openings through which an input cable 1360 and output cable 1365 may be attached. The cables may have connectors or plugs for connecting to an adjacent panel or alternatively the casing 1650 may simply have input and output sockets. A power supply unit 1670 may be mounted over the casing 1650 for powering the LEDs 1610. The power supply unit 1670 may comprise a LED driver in various embodiments. The LED driver may include a power converter for converting ac to dc, which is supplied to the LEDs 1610. Alternatively, the LED driver may comprise a down converter that down converts the voltage suitable for driving the LEDs 1610. For example, the down converter may down convert a de voltage at a first level to a de voltage at a second level that is lower than the first level. This is done so that large de currents are not carried on the power cables. The LED driver is configured to provide a constant de current to the LEDs 1610. Examples of down converters (dc to de converters) include linear regulators and switched mode converters such as buck converters. In further embodiments, the output from the power supply unit 1670 is isolated from the input power. Accordingly, in various embodiments, the power supply unit 1670 may comprise a transformer. As a further example, in one or more embodiments, the power supply unit 1670 may comprise forward, half-bridge, full-bridge, or push-pull topologies. The power supply unit 1670 may be placed inside a faraday cage to minimize RF interference to other components. The LED driver of the power supply unit 1670 may also include a control loop for controlling the output current. In various embodiments, the display panel 1350 is sealed to an IP 67 standard. As discussed herein, other ratings are possible. FIG. 24B illustrates a system diagram schematic of the display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 24B, a data and power signal received at the input cable 1360 is processed at an interface circuit 1651. The incoming power is provided to the LED driver 1653. Another output from the incoming power is provided to the output cable 1365. This provides redundancy so that even if a component in the display panel 1350 is not working, the output power is not disturbed. Similarly, the output cable 1365 includes all the data packets being received in the input cable 1360. The interface circuit 1651 provides the received data packets to the graphics processor 1657 through a receiver bus 1654. In some embodiments, the interface circuit 1651 provides only the data packets intended for the display panel 1350. In other embodiment, the interface circuit 1651 provides all incoming data packets to the graphics processor 1657. For example, the graphics processor 1657 may perform any decoding of the received media. The graphics processor 1657 may use the buffer memory 1655 or frame buffer as needed to store media packets during processing. A scan controller 1659, which may include an address decoder, receives the media to be displayed and identifies individual LEDs in the LEDs 1610 that need to be controlled. The scan controller 1659 may determine an individual LED's color, brightness, refresh time, and other parameters associated to generate the display. In one embodiment, the scan controller 1659 may provide this information to the LED driver 1653, which selects the appropriate current for the particular LED. Alternatively, the scan controller 1659 may interface directly with the LEDs 1610 in one embodiment. For example, the LED driver 1653 provides a constant current to the LEDs 1610 while the scan controller 1659 controls the select line needed to turn ON or OFF a particular LED. Further, in various embodiments, the scan controller 1659 may be integrated into the LED driver 1653. FIG. 24C illustrates a schematic of the LED array as controlled by the receiver circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 24C, the row selector 1661 and column selector 1662, which may be part of the circuitry of the scan controller 1659 described previously, may be used to control individual pixels in the array of the LEDs 1610. For example, at each pixel location, the color of the pixel is selected by powering one or more combinations of red, blue, green, and white LEDs. The row selector 1661 and column selector 1662 include control circuitry for performing this operation as an example. FIG. 25, which includes FIGS. 25A-25D, illustrates a display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 25A illustrates a projection view of the back side of the display panel, FIG. 25B illustrates a planar back side of the display panel, and FIG. 25C illustrates a planar bottom view while FIG. 25D illustrates a side view. Referring to FIG. 25A, the display panel 1350 comprises a casing 1650, which includes casing holes 1710 for attaching the attachment features 1490 (e.g., FIG. 14) and openings for the input cable 1360 and the output cable 1365. A power supply unit 1670 is mounted over the casing 1650 and protrudes away from the back side. The casing 1650 may also include stacking features 1730 that may be used to stack the display panels 1350 correctly. For example, the stacking features 1730 may indicate the path in which data cables are moving and which end of the casing 1650, if any, has to placed pointing up. The casing 1650 may further include a handle 1720 for lifting the display panel 1350. The housing of the power supply unit 1670, which may be made of plastic, may include fins 1671 for maximizing heat extraction from the power supply unit 1670. The power supply unit 1670 may be screwed into the casing 1650. FIG. 26 illustrates a planar view of a portion of the front side of the display panel in according with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 26, a plurality of LEDs 1610 is exposed between the framework of louvers 1630 comprising a plurality of support strips 1631 and a plurality of ridges 1632. The plurality of support strips 1631 and the plurality of ridges 1632 are attached to the PCB below using an adhesive as described previously. The framework of louvers 1630 may also be screwed at the corners or spaced apart distances to provide improved mechanical support and mitigate issues related to adhesive peeling. The display panel discussed thus far has the advantage of being self-cooling, waterproof and light-weight. A plastic material, e.g., an industrial plastic, can be used for the housing. Within the housing, the LED board (or boards) are enclosed without any significant air gaps (or no air gaps at all). In some embodiments, a heat conductive material can be attached to both the back of the LED board and the inner surface of the housing to facilitate heat transfer. This material can be a thermally conductive sheet of material such as a metal (e.g., an aluminum plate) and/or a thermal grease. The power supply is mounted outside the LED board housing and can also be passively cooled. As discussed herein, a thermally conductive material can be included between the power supply and the LED board, e.g., between the power supply housing and the LED panel enclosure. A thermally conductive material could also line some or all of the surfaces of the power supply housing. While the discussion thus far has related to the self-cooling panel, it is understood that many of the embodiments discussed herein also applied to fan-cooled assemblies. Two views of a fan cooled display panel are shown in FIGS. 40A and 40B. As an example, these panels can be mounted as disclosed with regard to FIG. 14 as well as the other embodiments. Other features described herein could also be used with this type of a display panel. FIG. 27, which includes FIGS. 27A-27C, illustrates cross-sectional views of the framework of louvers at the front side of the display panel in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 27 illustrates a cross-sectional view along a direction perpendicular to the orientation of the plurality of ridges 1632 along the line 27-27 in FIG. 26. In various embodiments, the plurality of ridges 1632 have a higher height than the plurality of support strips 1631. Horizontally oriented plurality of ridges 1632 may be advantageous to remove or block water droplets from over the LEDs 1610. The relative height differences between the plurality of support strips 1631 and the plurality of ridges 1632 may be adjusted depending on the particular mounting location in one embodiment. Alternatively in other embodiments, these may be independent of the mounting location. The sidewalls and structure of the plurality of ridges 1632 may be adjusted depending on various lighting conditions and need to prevent water from accumulating or streaking over the LEDs 1610. FIG. 27A illustrates a first embodiment in which the sidewalls of the plurality of ridges 1632 are perpendicular. FIG. 27B illustrates a second embodiment in which the sidewalls of the plurality of ridges 1632 are perpendicular but the inside of the plurality of ridges 1632 is partially hollow enabling ease of fabrication. FIG. 27C illustrates a different embodiment in which the sidewalls of the plurality of ridges 1632 are angled, for example, to prevent from other sources scattering of the LEDs 1610 and generating a diffuse light output. FIG. 28 illustrates a plurality of display panels arranged next to each other in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. In addition to the features described previously, in one or more embodiments, the display panels may include locking features 1760 such as tabs and other marks that may be used to correctly align the display panels precisely. For example, the locking features 1760 may comprise interlocking attachment points that are attached to an adjacent LED display panel. FIGS. 29A-29D illustrate a schematic of a control system for a modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 29A illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wired network connection. FIG. 29B illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wireless network connection. FIGS. 29C and 29D illustrate the power transmission scheme used in powering the modular multi-panel display system. Data to be displayed at the multi-panel display system may be first received from a computer 1850, which may be a media server, at a controller 1800. The controller 1800, which may also be part of the media server, may transmit the data to be displayed to one or more data receiver boxes 1400. A very large display may include more than one receiver box 1400. The data receiver boxes 1400 receive the data to be displayed from the controller 1800, and distribute it across to the multiple display panels. As described previously, a data receiver box 1400 is mounted to the mechanical support structure or frame 1310. The data receiver box 1400 is configured to receive data from a controller 1800 and to provide power, data, and communication to the LED display panels 1350 through integrated power and data cables 1860. The input cable 1360 and the output cable 1365 in FIG. 18 are specific applications of the integrated power and data cables 1860 illustrated in FIGS. 29A and 29B. The data receive box 1400 can eliminate the need for a receiver card in each panel. In other words, the panels of certain embodiments include no receiver card. The controller 1800 may be a remotely located or located on-site in various embodiments. The controller 1800 is configured to provide data to display to the data receiver box 1400. The output of the controller 1800 may be coupled through a network cable 1840 to the data receiver box 1400. The data receiver box 1400 is housed in a housing that is separate from housings of each of the LED display panels 1300 (for example, FIG. 14). Alternatively, the output of the controller 1800 may be coupled to an ingress router of the internet and the data receiver box 1400 may be coupled to an egress router if the controller 1800 is located remotely. Referring to FIG. 29A, the controller 1800 comprises a sending card 1810 and a power management unit (PMU) 1820. The PMU 1820 receives power and provides operating voltage to the sending card 1810. The sending card 1810 receives data through data cables and provides it to the output. The sending card 1810 may comprise receiver and transmitter circuitry in various embodiments for processing the received video, up-converting, and down converting. In one or more embodiments, the sending card 1810 may be configured to receive data from the respective data receiver box 1400. The sending card 1810 may communicate with the data receiver box 1400 using an internet communication protocol such as Transmission Control Protocol and/or the Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol in one embodiment. Alternatively, other suitable protocols may be used. In some embodiments, the communication between the sending card 1810 and the data receiver box 1400 may be performed using a secure protocol such as SSH or may be encrypted in other embodiments. FIG. 29B illustrates a controller connected to the receiver box through a wireless network connection in which the data to be displayed is transmitted and received using antennas 1831 at the controller 1800 and the data receiver box 1400. The data input 1830 may be coupled to a computer 1850, for example, to a USB or DVI output. The computer 1850 may provide data to the sending card 1810, for example, through the USB and/or DVI output. The data receiver box 1400 connects the LED display panels with data to be displayed on the integrated display and with power to power each of the LED display panels 1350. The data receiver box 1400 may transmit the media or data to be displayed in a suitable encoded format. In one or more embodiments, the data receiver box 1400 transmits analog video. For example, in one embodiment, composite video may be outputted by the data receiver box 1400. Alternatively, in one embodiment, YPbPr analog component video may be outputted by the data receiver box 1400. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the data receiver box 1400 transmits digital video. The output video comprises video to be displayed encoded in a digital video format by each of the display panels under the data receiver box 1400. In one or more embodiments, the data receiver box 1400 creates multiple outputs, where each output is configured for each panel under its control. Alternatively, the display panels 1350 may be configured to decode the received data and select and display only the appropriate data intended to be displayed by that particular display panel 1350. FIGS. 29C and 29D illustrate the power transmission scheme used in powering the modular multi-panel display system. FIG. 29C illustrates the power conversion at the data receiver box 1400 produces a plurality of AC outputs that is transmitted to all the display panels. All the display panels 1350 on the same row receive output from the same AC output whereas display panels 1350 on a different row receive output from the different AC output. The power supply unit 1670 converts the received AC power to a DC current and supplies it to the LEDs 1610. FIG. 29D is an alternative embodiment in which the AC to DC conversion is performed at the data receiver box 1400. The power supply unit 1670 down converts the received voltage from a higher voltage to a lower voltage. In either of the power transmission embodiments, the power line can be configured so that power is run across all of the row (or any other group of panels). In this manner, if the power supply of any one of the panels fails, the other panels will continue to operate. One way to assist in the maintenance of the display system is to monitor the power at each panel to determine if any of the panels has failed. FIG. 30 illustrates a schematic of a sending card of the control system for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The sending card 1810 may include an inbound network interface controller, a processor for processing, an outbound network interface controller for communicating with the data receiver boxes 1400 using a specific physical layer and data link layer standards. Display packets (media packaged as data packets intended for display) received at the inbound network interface controller may be processed at the processor and routed to the outbound network interface controller. The display packets may be buffered in a memory within the sending card 1810 if necessary. As an illustration, the processor in the sending card 1810 may perform functions such as routing table maintenance, path computations, and reachability propagation. The inbound network interface controller and the outbound network interface controller include adapters that perform inbound and outbound packet forwarding. As an illustration, the sending card 1810 may include a route processor 1811, which is used for computing the routing table, maintenance using routing protocols, and routing table lookup for a particular destination. The sending card 1810 further may include multiple interface network controllers as described above. As an example, the inbound network interface controller may include an inbound packet forwarder 1812 to receive the display packet at an interface unit while the outbound network interface controller may include an outbound packet forwarder 1813 to forward the display packet out of another interface unit. The circuitry for the inbound packet forwarder 1812 and the outbound packet forwarder 1813 may be implemented separately in different chips or on the same chip in one or more embodiments. The sending card 1810 also includes an optional packet processor 1814 for performing non-routing functions relating to the processing of the packet and a memory 1815, for example, for route caching. For example, the packet processor 1814 may also perform media encoding in some embodiments. Additionally, in some embodiments, the sending card 1810 may include a high performance switch that enables them to exchange data and control messages between the inbound and the outbound network interface controllers. The communication between the various components of the sending card 1810 may be through a bus 1816. FIG. 31 illustrates a schematic of a data receiver box for modular multi-panel display system in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 31, a large multi-panel display modular system 1300 may include multiple data receiver boxes 1400 for displaying portions of the multi-panel modular display system 1300. The data receiver box 1400 receives the output of the controller 1800 through a network cable 1840. The data receiver box 1400 is configured to provide power, data, and communication to the LED display panels 1350 through integrated power and data cables 1860. The data receiver box 1400 comprises an interface unit 1910 that receives the network data according to the internet protocol, e.g., TCP/IP. The data receiver box 1400 may include a designated IP address and therefore receives the output of the controller 1800 that is specifically sent to it. In case the controller 1800 and the data receiver box 1400 are part of the same local area network (LAN), the data receiver box 1400 may also receive data designated towards other similar data receiver boxes in the network. However, the interface unit 1910 is configured to select data based on the IP address and ignore data destined to other boxes. The interface unit 1910 includes necessary interface controllers, and may include circuitry for up-converting and down-converting signals. The power management unit 1920 receives an ac input power for powering the data receiver box 1400 as well as the corresponding display panels 1350 that are controlled by the data receiver box 1400. In one embodiment, the power management unit 1920 comprises a switched mode power supply unit for providing power to the display panels 1350. The power management unit 1920 may be placed inside a faraday cage to minimize RF interference to other components. In various embodiments, the output from the power management unit 1920 is isolated from the input, which is connected to the AC mains. Accordingly, in various embodiments, the power management unit 1920 comprises a transformer. The primary side of the transformer is coupled to the AC mains whereas the secondary side of the transformer is coupled to the components of the data receiver box 1400. The power management unit 1920 may also include a control loop for controlling the output voltage. Depending on the output current and/or voltage, the primary side may be regulated. As examples, in one or more embodiments, the power management unit 1920 may comprise flyback, half-bridge, full-bridge, or push-pull topologies. The signal processing unit 1930 receives the media packets from the interface unit 1910. The signal processing unit 1930 may be configured to process media packets so as to distribute the media packets through parallel paths. In one or more embodiments, the signal processing unit 1930 may be configured to decode the media packets and encode them into another format, for example. The system management unit 1940 receives the parallel paths of the media packets and combines with the power from the power management unit 1920. For example, the media packets destined for different rows of the display panels may be forwarded through different output paths using different integrated power and data cables 1860. The power for powering the display panels from the power management unit 1920 is also combined with the media packets and transmitted through the integrated power and data cables 1860. FIG. 32 illustrates a method of assembling a modular multi-panel display in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 32, a mechanical support structure such as a frame is assembled as described above in various embodiments (box 1921). A plurality of LED display panels is attached directly to the mechanical support structure using a plurality of coupling mechanisms (box 1922). A receiver box is attached to the mechanical support structure (box 1923). The receiver box includes power circuitry with an ac power input and an ac power output. The receiver box further includes digital circuitry configured to process media data to be displayed by the LED display panels. AC power from the receiver box is electrically connected to each of the LED display panels (box 1924). Media data from the receiver box is electrically connected to each of the LED display panels (box 1925). For example, a plurality of integrated data and power cables are interconnected. FIGS. 33-37 illustrate particular embodiments relating to an integrated data and power cord for use with modular display panels. FIG. 33 illustrates a cross-sectional view of an integrated data and power cord in accordance with embodiments. For example, the integrated data and power cord may be used as the integrated power and data cable 1860 in FIGS. 29A and 29B and/or the input cable 1360 or the output cable 1365 in FIG. 18. Referring to FIG. 33, the integrated power and data cable 1860 includes a first plurality of wires 2011 for carrying data and a second plurality of wires 2012 for carrying power. The power may be a/c or dc. The first plurality of wires 2011 may include twisted pair. The length of the first plurality of wires 2011 and the second plurality of wires 2012 may be controlled to prevent the signal propagation delay within each LED display panel within a specific time. The first plurality of wires 2011 may be configured to transport data at a high bit rate, e.g., at least 1 Mbit/s and may be 100-1000 Mbit/s. To minimize noise, the cable 2010 as a whole may be shielded or the first plurality of wires 2011 may be shielded separately. The shielding may be accomplished by a conductive outer layer formed around the first and the second plurality of wires 2011 and 2012. FIG. 34, which includes FIGS. 34A and 34B, illustrates cross-sectional views of connectors at the ends of the integrated data and power cable in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 34A illustrates a first connector that is configured to fit or lock into a second connector illustrated in FIG. 34B. For example, the first connector 1370 and the second connector 1375 may be attached to corresponding input cable 1360 and output cable 1365 of the display panel 1350 as illustrated in FIG. 18. In various embodiments, the endpoints of the input cable 1360 is opposite to the endpoints of the output cable 1365 so that they may be interlocked together or interlocked with an adjacent panel. For example, the endpoint of the integrated data and power input cable 1360 is interlocked with an endpoint of an integrated data and power output cable 1365 of an adjacent panel, for example, as illustrated in FIG. 19 and FIG. 20. In one embodiment, a subset of the endpoints of the input cable 1360 is a male type pin while a remaining subset of the endpoints of the input cable 1360 is a female type pin. This advantageously allows the electrical connection to be made securely. Referring to FIG. 34A, the first connector 1370 includes a plurality of first openings 2020 configured to receive a plurality of pins from another connector. The plurality of first openings 2020 comprises a conductive internal surface, which is a female pin, that is configured to establish an electrical contact with an incoming male pin. The first connector 1370 further includes a plurality of second openings 2030 configured to receive power male pins from another connector. Thus, the connector is designed to integrated power and data. The pins 2031 protrude out of the plurality of second openings 2030 and are configured to fit into corresponding openings (i.e., female pins) of another connector. The diameters of the plurality of first openings 2020 and the plurality of second openings 2030 may be different to account for the different currents being carried through each. The plurality of first openings 2020 and the plurality of second openings 2030 are formed inside a first protruding section 2070 that is configured to lock inside a second protruding section 2170 of another connector. The enclosing material 2040 provide insulation and protection against external elements such as water. A sealing cover 1380 is configured to lock with the another connector and configured to prevent moisture from reaching inside the connector As further illustrated in FIG. 34B, the second connector 1375 is configured to receive a connector similar to the first connector 1370. Thus, the pins 2121 of the second connector 1375 are configured to fit into the corresponding first openings 2020 of the first connector 1370. The plurality of first openings 2120 may be optional and may not be used in some embodiments. Similarly, the plurality of second openings 2130 of the second connector 1375 comprises a conductive internal surface, which is a female pin, that is configured to establish an electrical contact with an incoming male pin. Similar to FIG. 34A, the plurality of first openings 2020 and the plurality of second openings 2030 of the second connector 1375 in FIG. 34B are formed inside a second protruding section 2170 that is configured to lock with the first protruding section 2070 of another connector. FIG. 35, which includes FIGS. 35A and 35B, illustrates cross-sectional views showing the first connector locked with the second connector in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 35A illustrates the first connector aligned to the second connector, while FIG. 35B illustrates the first connector securely locked to the second connector with the sealing cover sealing the connectors. Referring to FIG. 35A, the plurality of first openings 2020, pins 2031 are connected to corresponding to first and the second plurality of wires 2011 and 2012 respectively. As illustrated, the electrical pins/openings of the first connector 1370 are configured to be lock with the electrical pins/openings of the second connector 1375. Further, there may be additional mechanical locking points to secure the two connectors. In one embodiment, the first connector 1370 comprises a concentric opening 2041 configured to fit in a locking position with the concentric ring 2042 on the second connector 1375. As illustrated in FIG. 35B, the first protruding section 2070 is disposed inside the second protruding section 2170 when locked. The sealing cover 1380 is moveable seals over the first and the second protruding sections 2070 and 2170 thereby preventing any moisture from entering into the connectors. The sealing cover 1380 may be able to screw over a portion of the second connector 1375 in the direction indicated by the arrow in FIG. 35B in one embodiment. FIG. 36, which includes FIGS. 36A and 36B, illustrates one embodiment of the first connector previously illustrated in FIG. 34A and FIGS. 35A and 35B. FIG. 36A illustrates a planar top view while FIG. 36B illustrates a projection view. FIG. 37, which includes FIGS. 37A and 37B, illustrates one embodiment of the second connector previously illustrated in FIG. 34B and FIGS. 35A and 35B. FIG. 37A illustrates a planar top view while FIG. 37B illustrates a projection view. Referring to FIGS. 36 and 37, besides the features previously discussed, embodiments of the present invention may also radial alignment features for radially aligning the first connector 1370 with the second connector 1375. FIG. 36A illustrates a first type of radial alignment features 2080 while FIG. 37A illustrates a second type of radial alignment features 2180. The first type of radial alignment features 2080 is configured to correctly align with the second type of radial alignment features 2180. Although the preferred embodiment has been described in detail, it should be understood that various changes, substitutions and alterations can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Large displays (e.g., billboards), such as those commonly used for advertising in cities and along roads, generally have one or more pictures and/or text that are to be displayed under various light and weather conditions. As technology has advanced and introduced new lighting devices such as the light emitting diode (LED), such advances have been applied to large displays. An LED display is a flat panel display, which uses an array of light-emitting diodes. A large display may be made of a single LED display or a panel of smaller LED panels. LED panels may be conventional panels made using discrete LEDs or surface-mounted device (SMD) panels. Most outdoor screens and some indoor screens are built around discrete LEDs, which are also known as individually mounted LEDs. A cluster of red, green, and blue diodes is driven together to form a full-color pixel, usually square in shape. These pixels are spaced evenly apart and are measured from center to center for absolute pixel resolution.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Embodiments of the invention relate to lighting systems and, more particularly, to multi-panel lighting systems for providing interior or exterior displays. In one embodiment, a modular display panel comprises a casing having a recess. The casing comprises locking points for use in attachment to an adjacent casing of another modular display panel. A printed circuit board is disposed in the recess and a plurality of LEDs attached to the printed circuit board. A driver circuit is attached to the printed circuit board. A heat sink is disposed between a back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. A framework of louvers is disposed over the printed circuit board. The framework of louvers is disposed between rows of the plurality of LEDs. The framework of louvers is attached to the printed circuit board using an adhesive. In another embodiment, a modular multi-panel display system comprises a mechanical support structure, and a plurality of LED display panels mounted to the mechanical support structure so as to form an integrated display panel. Each LED display panel includes a casing having a recess. The casing comprises interlocking attachment points that are attached to an adjacent LED display panel. Each LED display panel also includes a printed circuit board disposed in the recess. A plurality of LED modules is attached to the printed circuit board. Each LED display panel also includes a heat sink disposed between a back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the casing and the printed circuit board. Each LED display panel is hermetically sealed and exposed to the environment without use of any cabinets. The display system is cooled passively and includes no air conditioning, fans, or heating units. In yet another embodiment, a modular display panel comprises a plastic housing having a recess, and a printed circuit board disposed in the recess. A plurality of LEDs is attached to the printed circuit board. A transparent potting compound overlies the LEDs. A driver circuit is attached to the printed circuit board. A heat sink is disposed between a back side of the housing and the printed circuit board. The heat sink thermally contacts the back side of the housing and the printed circuit board. A power supply is mounted outside the plastic housing.

G09F1322

20180131

20180621

66503.0

G09F1322

JUNGE, KRISTINA N S

MODULAR DISPLAY PANEL

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

G09F

PENDING

Versatile Protective Outerwear

A shoulder strap device and method provides a movable and/or swiveling attachment arrangement which spreads the load to the wearer's specific shape. Embodiments of the device include a set of strap ring components, each strap ring component having a substantially linearly extending base portion and a substantially curvilinearly extending retention portion, first and second connector items or straps secured to respective subsets of the strap ring components, and a body garment secured to the strap ring components.

1. An apparatus, comprising: at least two strap ring components having a base portion and a retention portion, with the base portion having first and second ends and extending substantially linearly from the first end to the second end, with the retention portion having first and second ends and extending substantially curvilinearly from the first end to the second end, with the first end of the retention portion being integrally formed with the first end of the base portion, and with the second end of the retention portion being integrally formed with the second end of the base portion, such that the base of the strap ring and retention portions form a substantially D-shape; a two-piece body garment comprising first and second sides, wherein the first side of the two-piece body garment is secured to the base portion of the at least two strap ring components; a first connector item secured to the retention portion of a first of the at least two strap ring components; and a second connector item secured to the retention portion of a second of the at least two strap ring components. 2. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a first shoulder harness secured around the first connector item, and a second shoulder harness secured around the second connector item. 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the body garment further comprises a first padded cuff for receiving the first of the at least two strap ring components, and a second padded cuff for receiving the second of the at least two strap ring components. 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first connector item is movably secured to the retention portion of the first of the at least two strap ring components, and wherein the second connector item is movably secured to the retention portion of the second of the at least two strap ring components. 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein at least the first connector item comprises a belt. 6. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein at least the first connector item comprises a clip. 7. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first connector item comprises a strap element formed back upon itself to create a loop having an interior surface, and wherein the interior surface of the first connector item slidingly engages the retention portion of the first of the at least two strap ring components, and further wherein the second connector item comprises a strap element formed back upon itself to create a loop having an interior surface, and wherein the interior surface of the second connector item slidingly engages the retention portion of the second of the at least two strap ring components. 8. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a first shoulder harness secured around the first connector item and a second shoulder harness secured around the second connector item. 9. An apparatus, comprising: at least two strap ring components having a base portion and a retention portion, with the base portion having first and second ends and extending substantially linearly from the first end to the second end, with the retention portion having first and second ends and extending substantially curvilinearly from the first end to the second end, with the first end of the retention portion being integrally formed with the first end of the base portion, and with the second end of the retention portion being integrally formed with the second end of the base portion, such that the base of the strap ring and retention portions form a substantially D-shape; a two-piece body garment comprising first and second sides, wherein the first side of the two-piece body garment is secured to a first of the at least two strap ring components, and wherein the second side of the two-piece body garment is secured to a second one of the at least two strap ring components; a first connector item secured to the retention portion of the first of the at least two strap ring components, wherein the first connector item comprises a strap element formed back upon itself to create a loop having an interior surface, and wherein the interior surface of the first connector item slidingly engages the retention portion of the first of the at least two strap ring components; and a second connector item secured to the retention portion of the second of the at least two strap ring components, wherein the second connector item comprises a strap element formed back upon itself to create a loop having an interior surface, and wherein the interior surface of the second connector item slidingly engages the retention portion of the second of the at least two strap ring components. 10. The apparatus of claim 9, further comprising a first shoulder harness secured around the first connector item, and a second shoulder harness secured around the second connector item. 11. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein the body garment further comprises a first padded cuff for receiving the first of the at least two strap ring components, and a second padded cuff for receiving the second of the at least two strap ring components. 12. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein the first connector item is movably secured to the retention portion of the first of the at least two strap ring components, and wherein the second connector item is movably secured to the retention portion of the second of the at least two strap ring components. 13. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein at least the first connector item further comprises a belt. 14. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein at least the first connector item further comprises a clip. 15. The apparatus of claim 9, further comprising a first shoulder harness secured around the first connector item and a second shoulder harness secured around the second connector item.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/594,734, filed on Jan. 12, 2015, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/925,812, filed on Jan. 10, 2014, the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention pertains to armor-enhanceable, personal, wearable devices, and more particularly to a versatile strap apparatus for use with such devices. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Military and law enforcement personnel have employed armor-enhanced clothing in order to protect their bodies from gunfire, shrapnel, explosive devices and other harmful ballistic objects. For example, vests, plate carriers, backpack carriers and other upper torso outerwear devices can be enhanced with armor and can come in all shapes and sizes with a variety of optional accessories. In many instances, such devices including multiple plies of material that can be joined along edges to create openings or pockets therein. Such personal wearable devices can also include attachment subsystems such as molle panels and the like, which allow the wearer to attach equipment, gear and even other equipment holders to the device. Examples of such upper torso outerwear devices can be seen, for example, in U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. 20120174280 to Strum et al., and 20120017347 to Strum et al., the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. However, even when such clothing is sized according to individual specifications (for example, small, medium and large), the armor-enhanced clothing does not generally fit well, gets bunched up, prohibits smooth movement, results in undesirable gaps between body and clothing, has limited contact points with the body, does not wick sweat and water away, becomes uncomfortable and even hinders the withdrawal and operation of firearms. In specific environments where a user needs to lean in one direction or another, such upper torso outerwear can become inflexible and can restrict or even prevent proper body posturing to carry out desired tasks. For example, when personnel need to lean towards a trigger-firing arm when preparing to discharge a weapon, a rigid upper torso outerwear element might lift up or “post” above the user's shoulder and towards the user's head as the user leans to one side. Such lifting may make it awkward for the user to attain a comfortable and familiar firing position, and may require the user to push down on the outerwear with his or her head to try to counter the lifting force. Further, shoulder strap systems in the past have been sewn in a fixed and generic angle that may or may not lay on the wearer's shoulders properly. When the shoulder straps are not laying flat and distributing load over the entire surface of the strap, only a leading edge of the strap is taking the hanging load. When the edge takes the load, the wearer can experience pain and discomfort, particularly with armor-enhanced clothing. Such disadvantages often result in poor performance and can encourage mis-use or even non-use of these protective devices. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention helps to overcome the current shortcomings and more. The present invention provides, in part, a shoulder strap apparatus and method that allows for extreme comfort due to a movable and/or swiveling attachment arrangement which spreads the load to the wearer's specific shape. Embodiments of the device include a set of strap ring components, each strap ring component having a substantially linearly extending base portion and a substantially curvilinearly extending retention portion, first and second connector items or straps secured to respective subsets of the strap ring components, and a body garment secured to the strap ring components. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a photograph of a front side of a past attachment fixed element and one embodiment of the swivel element of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a photograph of a front side of a past attachment fixed element. FIG. 3 is a photograph of a back side of a past attachment fixed element. FIG. 4 is a photograph showing a past sewn and fixed loop element. FIGS. 5 through 7 are photographs showing a swivel strap arrangement in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 8 is a photograph of a strap ring component according to embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 9 is a photograph of a connector item slidingly secured to a strap ring component in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 10 is a depiction of a form of clip for use in embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS OF THE PRESENT INVENTION As shown in FIGS. 1 through 4, past systems have generally employed sewn 12 and fixed loop 15 elements on shoulder strap systems 18 that may or may not lay on the wearer's shoulders properly. When the shoulder straps 20 are not laying flat and distributing load over the entire surface of the strap, only a leading edge of the strap (e.g., 22 or 24) is taking the hanging load. When the edge takes the load, the wearer can experience pain and discomfort, particularly with armor-enhanced clothing. By contrast, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 5 through 9, embodiments of the present invention provide an apparatus 30 and strap ring component 32 that allows for extreme comfort to the wearer. The ring component 32 can have a solid metal or heavy plastic construction, and includes a base portion 34 and a substantially C-shaped retention portion 36, giving the full ring 32 a substantially D-shaped, closed loop construction. As shown in FIGS. 8 and 9, for example, the base portion 34 of each strap ring component has first 54 and second 56 ends and extends substantially linearly from the first end 54 to the second end 56. The retention portion 36 has first 58 and second 60 ends and extends substantially curvilinearly from the first end 58 to the second end 60, with the first end 58 of the retention portion 36 being integrally formed with the first end 54 of the base portion 34, and with the second end 60 of the retention portion 36 being integrally formed with the second end 56 of the base portion 34, such that the strap ring base 34 and retention 36 portions form a substantially D-shape, as shown in FIG. 8. By being integrally formed, or monolithic, the strap ring component 32 provides a strong a durable device that prevents connector items from coming loose during operation. In various embodiments of the present invention, the strap ring component 32 can be provided with a connection that is capable of opening, such as to allow a strap member or other connector item to be inserted and released. Such an embodiment of the strap ring component 32 can include, for example, a clip, threaded ring element, hinged first end 54 or other arrangement. As shown in FIGS. 6 through 9, the base portion 34 can securely attach to a body garment 40 (or element 41 thereof), while the retention portion 36 can retain a connector item 42 such as a shoulder strap, for example, and allow the shoulder strap 42 to move along the entire body of the retention portion 36, as illustrated by the dual-ended arrows in FIG. 1. The connector items 42 can be maintained within a covering shoulder harness 45 in embodiments of the present invention, as shown in FIGS. 6 and 7. The device can comprise the ring component 32, alone, or in conjunction with connector item 42 and/or garment 40. In one aspect of the present invention, a method of providing the device of the present invention comprises forming the ring component 32, providing a connector item 42 such as a strap, providing a body garment, securing the garment to the base portion 34 of the ring 32, and securing the strap 42 to the retention portion 36 of the ring 32. It will be appreciated that embodiments of the present invention the apparatus can comprise four strap ring components 32, two connector items 42 and a garment body portion 40, where the first and second connector items 42 are secured to respective subsets of the strap ring components 32. As shown in FIG. 7, for example, connector item 70 has a first end 71 and a second end 72, connector item 74 has a first end 75 and a second end 76, with the first end 71 of the first connector item 70 being secured to the retention portion of a first one of the strap ring components, with the second end 72 of the first connector item 70 being secured to the retention portion of a second one of the strap ring components, with the first end 75 of the second connector item 74 being secured to the retention portion of a third one of the strap ring components, and with the second end 76 of the second connector item 74 being secured to the retention portion of a fourth one of the strap ring components. The body garment 40 can be secured to the strap ring components, such that the front side 80 of the body garment is secured to the base portion of the first and third strap ring components, and with the back side 82 of the body garment is secured to the base portion of the second and fourth strap ring components. It will be appreciated that the strap ring components in FIG. 7 are secured at the ends 71, 72, 75, 76 of the respective connector items 70, 74, despite not all being shown in FIG. 7. It will be appreciated that different connector items can be employed other than full straps, such as clips, belts and/or belt systems or other types of connectors. In various embodiments as shown in FIG. 9, for example, the connector item 42 can comprise a strap body portion 85 with an intermediate hitch element 86 at or near its first end 87 and second end (not shown). As shown in FIG. 9, the hitch element 86 is a sewn seam, but it will be appreciated that the hitch element can be embodied in other forms, such as a clip, fixed loop or other connector. At the ends, such as end 87, a retention portion engaging element 89 is provided. This element 89 can be a strap that is folded back upon itself so as to form a loop with an interior surface 90 that engages the retention portion 36 of the strap ring component 32. It will be appreciated that the retention portion engaging element 89 can be embodied in versions other than a strap-like material, such as a clip 100 with a base 102 and a biased, hinged latch 104 as shown in FIG. 10, so long as it forms a loop having an internal surface that slidingly and/or movingly engages the retention portion 36 of the strap ring component 32. As shown in FIG. 7, a first shoulder harness 45A is secured around the first connector item 42A, and a second shoulder harness 45B is secured around the second connector item 42B. FIG. 6 shows the shoulder harnesses 45 completely covering the connector items. In various embodiments of the present invention, as shown in FIG. 5, for example, a protective or padded cuff element 41 can be provided as part of the body garment, and this element 41 can receive a strap ring component 32 to protect it from wear and tear, while also protecting the user and the user's remaining outer covering. It should be understood that the foregoing description and examples are only illustrative of the present invention; the optimum dimensional relationships for the parts of the invention, including variations in size, materials, shape, form, function and the manner of operation, assembly and use, are deemed readily apparent to one skilled in the art, and all equivalent relationships to those illustrated in the drawings and described in the specification are intended to be encompassed by the present invention. Thus, various alternatives and modifications can be devised by those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. Accordingly, the present invention is intended to embrace all such alternatives, modifications, and variances that fall within the scope described above.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Military and law enforcement personnel have employed armor-enhanced clothing in order to protect their bodies from gunfire, shrapnel, explosive devices and other harmful ballistic objects. For example, vests, plate carriers, backpack carriers and other upper torso outerwear devices can be enhanced with armor and can come in all shapes and sizes with a variety of optional accessories. In many instances, such devices including multiple plies of material that can be joined along edges to create openings or pockets therein. Such personal wearable devices can also include attachment subsystems such as molle panels and the like, which allow the wearer to attach equipment, gear and even other equipment holders to the device. Examples of such upper torso outerwear devices can be seen, for example, in U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. 20120174280 to Strum et al., and 20120017347 to Strum et al., the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. However, even when such clothing is sized according to individual specifications (for example, small, medium and large), the armor-enhanced clothing does not generally fit well, gets bunched up, prohibits smooth movement, results in undesirable gaps between body and clothing, has limited contact points with the body, does not wick sweat and water away, becomes uncomfortable and even hinders the withdrawal and operation of firearms. In specific environments where a user needs to lean in one direction or another, such upper torso outerwear can become inflexible and can restrict or even prevent proper body posturing to carry out desired tasks. For example, when personnel need to lean towards a trigger-firing arm when preparing to discharge a weapon, a rigid upper torso outerwear element might lift up or “post” above the user's shoulder and towards the user's head as the user leans to one side. Such lifting may make it awkward for the user to attain a comfortable and familiar firing position, and may require the user to push down on the outerwear with his or her head to try to counter the lifting force. Further, shoulder strap systems in the past have been sewn in a fixed and generic angle that may or may not lay on the wearer's shoulders properly. When the shoulder straps are not laying flat and distributing load over the entire surface of the strap, only a leading edge of the strap is taking the hanging load. When the edge takes the load, the wearer can experience pain and discomfort, particularly with armor-enhanced clothing. Such disadvantages often result in poor performance and can encourage mis-use or even non-use of these protective devices.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention helps to overcome the current shortcomings and more. The present invention provides, in part, a shoulder strap apparatus and method that allows for extreme comfort due to a movable and/or swiveling attachment arrangement which spreads the load to the wearer's specific shape. Embodiments of the device include a set of strap ring components, each strap ring component having a substantially linearly extending base portion and a substantially curvilinearly extending retention portion, first and second connector items or straps secured to respective subsets of the strap ring components, and a body garment secured to the strap ring components.

A44B11006

20180201

20180621

76339.0

A44B1100

MERCADO, LOUIS A

Versatile Protective Outerwear

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

A44B

ACCEPTED

ELECTRONIC DEVICE INCLUDING NON-CONTACT CHARGING MODULE AND BATTERY

A mobile terminal is provided, which includes a wireless charging module, a battery pack, and a circuit board substrate. The wireless charging module includes a charging coil formed of a wound conducting wire and a communication coil placed adjacent to the charging coil. The wireless charging module has a substantially planar shape. The battery pack has a substantially planar shape and is configured to store power from the wireless charging module. The circuit board substrate is configured to control operation of the mobile terminal. The wireless charging module overlaps with each of the circuit board substrate and the battery pack.

1. An electronic device having a communication capability, the electronic device comprising: a housing having a generally rectangular shape in a plan view of the housing; a non-contact charging module included in the housing and including: (i) a wireless charging coil having a substantially planar shape and formed of a wound electrical wire, and (ii) a magnetic sheet that overlaps with the wireless charging coil in the plan view of the housing; a display arranged closer to the magnetic sheet than to the wireless charging coil of the non-contact charging module; a battery included in the housing and having a substantially planar shape that overlaps with the wireless charging coil of the non-contact charging module in the plan view of the housing, the battery being configured to receive power from the wireless charging coil of the non-contact charging module; a circuit board included in the housing and arranged to not overlap with the battery in the plan view of the housing; and a Near Field Communication (NFC) antenna included in the housing and including an NFC coil formed of a wound electrical wire, wherein a first axis of the wireless charging coil is different from a second axis of the NFC coil. 2. The electronic device according to claim 1, wherein the first axis is orthogonal to the second axis. 3. The electronic device according to claim 2, wherein the generally rectangular shape of the housing includes short edges extending in X direction and long edges extending in Y direction, Z direction extending orthogonal to both the X and Y directions, wherein the first axis of the wireless charging coil extends in the Z direction and the second axis of the NFC coil extends in the X direction. 4. The electronic device according to claim 1, wherein the wireless charging coil is formed in an oval shape or a circular shape. 5. The electronic device according to claim 1, wherein the wireless charging coil is formed to define a hollow portion surrounded by the wound electrical wire. 6. The electronic device according to claim 5, wherein the hollow portion has an oval shape or a circular shape. 7. The electronic device according to claim 5, wherein the largest span of the hollow portion is greater than 15.5 mm. 8. The electronic device according to claim 7, wherein the hollow portion has a circular shape and a diameter of the circular-shape hollow portion is greater than 15.5 mm. 9. The electronic device according to claim 1, wherein a combined thickness of the wireless charging coil and the magnetic sheet is between 0.6 mm and 1.0 mm. 10. The electronic device according to claim 1, further comprising a second magnetic sheet for the NFC coil.

TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to a wireless charging module including a wireless charging module and an NFC antenna, as well as a portable terminal that includes the wireless charging module. BACKGROUND ART In recent years, NFC (Near Field Communication) antennas that utilize RFID (Radio Frequency IDentification) technology and use radio waves in the 13.56 MHz band and the like are being used as antennas that are mounted in communication apparatuses such as portable terminal devices. To improve the communication efficiency, an NFC antenna is provided with a magnetic sheet that improves the communication efficiency in the 13.56 MHz band and thus configured as an NFC antenna module. Technology has also been proposed in which a wireless charging module is mounted in a communication apparatus, and the communication apparatus is charged by wireless charging. According to this technology, a power transmission coil is disposed on the charger side and a power reception coil is provided on the communication apparatus side, electromagnetic induction is generated between the two coils at a frequency in a band between approximately 100 kHz and 200 kHz to thereby transfer electric power from the charger to the communication apparatus side. To improve the communication efficiency, the wireless charging module is also provided with a magnetic sheet that improves the efficiency of communication in the band between approximately 100 kHz and 200 kHz. Portable terminals that include such NFC modules and wireless charging modules have also been proposed (for example, see PTL 1). CITATION LIST Patent Literature PTL 1 Japanese Patent No. 4669560 SUMMARY OF INVENTION A mobile terminal is provided, which includes a wireless charging module, a battery pack, and a circuit board substrate. The wireless charging module includes a charging coil formed of a wound conducting wire and a communication coil placed adjacent to the charging coil. The wireless charging module has a substantially planar shape. The battery pack has a substantially planar shape and is configured to store power from the wireless charging module. The circuit board substrate is configured to control operation of the mobile terminal. The wireless charging module overlaps with each of the circuit board substrate and the battery pack. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIGS. 1A and 1B are schematic diagrams illustrating a wireless charging module according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 2A and 2B are schematic diagrams illustrating a charging coil and a magnetic sheet according to the embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3A to 3D illustrate relations between a primary-side wireless charging module that includes a magnet, and a charging coil according to the embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 illustrates a relation between the size of an inner diameter of a hollow portion of a charging coil and an L value of the charging coil when an outer diameter of the hollow portion of the charging coil is kept constant with respect to a case where a magnet is provided in a primary-side wireless charging module and a case where a magnet is not provided therein; FIG. 5 illustrates a relation between an L value of a charging coil and a percentage of hollowing of a center portion with respect to a case where a magnet is provided in a primary-side wireless charging module and a case where a magnet is not provided therein; FIG. 6 is a perspective view when the NFC coil and the magnetic body according to the present embodiment have been assembled; FIG. 7 is an exploded view illustrating the arrangement of the NFC coil and the magnetic body according to the present embodiment; FIGS. 8A and 8B illustrate the wiring of the NFC coil according to the present embodiment; FIG. 9 is a conceptual diagram showing an antenna apparatus formed by an electronic circuit board and an NFC coil that are mounted in a portable terminal according to the present embodiment, and lines of magnetic force generated from the antenna apparatus; FIGS. 10A and 10B are schematic diagrams of lines of magnetic force that a charging coil and NFC coils generate according to the present embodiment; FIGS. 11A and 11B are perspective views illustrating a portable terminal equipped with the wireless charging module according to the present embodiment, and a portable terminal equipped with a wireless charging module that includes a loop-shaped NFC antenna for comparison; FIG. 12 illustrates a frequency characteristic of an induced voltage for each of the two wireless charging modules illustrated in FIGS. 11A and 11B; FIGS. 13A and 13B each illustrate a magnetic field on a YZ plane of a corresponding one of the two wireless charging modules illustrated in FIGS. 11A and 11B; FIGS. 14A and 14B each illustrate a magnetic field on a ZX plane of a corresponding one of the two wireless charging modules illustrated in FIGS. 11A and 11B; and FIGS. 15A to 15E are sectional views that schematically illustrate a portable terminal including the wireless charging module according to the present embodiment. DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENT The invention of the present disclosure can obtain a wireless charging module that includes a charging coil formed of a wound conducting wire, and an NFC coil that is placed around the charging coil, in which an axis of the charging coil and a winding axis of the NFC coil intersect with each other. The wireless charging module achieves a reduction in size by making a wireless charging coil and an NFC antenna into a single module, and enables communication and power transmission in the same direction while also making coil axis directions of antennas different from each other to prevent mutual interference. In the wireless charging module of the present disclosure, the axis of the charging coil and the axis of the NFC coil are substantially orthogonal to each other. Thus, mutual interference can be prevented the most. In the wireless charging module of the present disclosure, the wireless charging module comprises a plurality of the NFC coils, in which the plurality of NFC modules are placed so as to sandwich the wireless charging module between the plurality of NFC modules. Thus, mutual interference can be prevented while a reduction in size is achieved. Further, in the wireless charging module of the present disclosure: the charging coil is wound in a substantially rectangular shape; and at least two of the NFC coils are placed along two facing sides of the charging coil of the rectangular shape. Thus, a region in which NFC communication is possible can be widened with favorable balance around the wireless charging module. The wireless charging module of the present disclosure further includes a magnetic sheet including a face on which the charging coil is to be entirely mounted, in which the NFC coil is placed outside the magnetic sheet. Thus, communication of the NFC coil can be performed efficiently. The wireless charging module of the present disclosure further includes a magnetic sheet including a face on which the charging coil is to be entirely mounted, wherein the NFC coil is wound around a magnetic core. Thus, the thickness and size of the entire wireless charging module can be reduced while a large opening portion of the charging coil that transmits a large amount of power over a short range can be secured. Further, in the wireless charging module of the present disclosure, the magnetic sheet and the magnetic core are formed of different materials from each other. Thus, objective effects can be improved by using a magnetic material that is suitable for the charging coil that transmits a large amount of power over a short range and a magnetic material that is suitable for the NFC coil that communicates by transmitting a small amount of power over a long range, respectively. In the wireless charging module of the present disclosure, the magnetic sheet and the magnetic core are formed of different kinds of ferrite from each other. Thus, objective effects can be dramatically improved by using a ferrite material that is suitable for the charging coil that transmits a large amount of power over a short range and a ferrite material that is suitable for the NFC coil that communicates by transmitting a small amount of power over a long range. In the wireless charging module of the present disclosure, the overall thickness in a stacking direction of the charging coil and the magnetic sheet is greater than a thickness of the NFC coil in a direction identical to the stacking direction. Thus, an overall reduction in size and in thickness can be effectively realized by forming the NFC coil that is placed on the outside with a reduced thickness. Further, in the wireless charging module of the present disclosure, a length in a longitudinal direction of the two facing sides of the rectangular charging coil is shorter than a length of the NFC coil in a direction identical to the longitudinal direction. Thus, it is difficult for a situation to arise in which the charging coil interferes with a magnetic field that the NFC coil generates. In the wireless charging module of the present disclosure, a number of turns of the charging coil is greater than a number of turns of the NFC coil. Thus, an inductance value of the charging coil that transmits a larger amount of power can be increased. In the wireless charging module of the present disclosure, an opening area of the charging coil is larger than an opening area of the NFC coil. Thus, an inductance value of the charging coil that transmits a larger amount of power can be increased. In the wireless charging module of the present disclosure, the numbers of turns of the plurality of NFC coils are equal to each other. Thus, a magnetic field is generated with favorable balance from the plurality of NFC coils, and hence NFC communication can be stably performed. Further, in the wireless charging module of the present disclosure, the plurality of NFC coils are an identical shape. Thus, a magnetic field is generated with favorable balance from the plurality of NFC coils, and hence NFC communication can be stably performed. In addition, a portable terminal of the present disclosure includes the wireless charging module of the present disclosure inside a casing. Thus, it is possible to obtain a wireless charging module that achieves a reduction in size by making a wireless charging coil and an NFC antenna into a single module and enables communication and power transmission in the same direction while also making coil axis directions of antennas different from each other to prevent mutual interference. In the portable terminal of the present disclosure, a metal body is provided inside the casing and the NFC coil is placed at an edge of the metal body. Thus, a magnetic field that the NFC antenna generates can be caused to incline and NFC communication can be performed more efficiently. Further, in the portable terminal of the present disclosure, an opening portion of the NFC coil is substantially perpendicular to the metal body. Thus, an eddy current with respect to the NFC antenna that arises inside the metal body can be suppressed, and NFC communication can be performed more efficiently. Embodiment [Regarding Wireless Charging Module] Hereunder, an overview of a wireless charging module according to an embodiment of the present invention will be described using FIGS. 1A and 1B. FIGS. 1A and 1B are schematic diagrams illustrating a wireless charging module according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 1A is a top view of the wireless charging module, and FIG. 1B is a perspective view of the wireless charging module. Wireless charging module 100 of the present embodiment includes: charging coil 30 that includes a conducting wire wound in a planar shape; two NFC coils 40 that are placed around charging coil 30; and magnetic sheet 10 that supports charging coil 30. The number of NFC coils 40 provided in wireless charging module 100 may also be one, three, four or more. Wireless charging module 100 includes sheet-like magnetic sheet 10 that includes an upper face and a lower face in an opposite direction. Charging coil 30 is mounted (adhered) on the upper face of magnetic sheet 10. At least one NFC coil 40, and preferably a plurality of NFC coils 40 are placed around magnetic sheet 10 and charging coil 30. In the present embodiment, two NFC coils 40 are provided that face each other with magnetic sheet 10 and charging coil 30 sandwiched therebetween. NFC coils 40 may also be mounted on the upper face of magnetic sheet 10. The coil axes of the two NFC coils 40 are substantially parallel to each other (the coil axes may also intersect at an angle between around −10 to +10 degrees), and the coil axes may be in a relation in which the coil axes are substantially perpendicular or inclined with respect to each other. It is favorable to wind NFC coil 40 around magnetic body 20, since the communication efficiency of NFC coil 40 is improved thereby. The area of an upper face of single magnetic body 20 is smaller than the area of the upper face of magnetic sheet 10. Coil axis A of charging coil 30 and coil axis B of NFC coil 40 intersect with each other in a substantially orthogonal manner (at an angle between approximately 75 and 105 degrees). Although in the present embodiment magnetic sheet 10 and magnetic body 20 come in contact through a protective tape or the like, magnetic sheet 10 and magnetic body 20 may be separated from each other. By making magnetic sheet 10 and magnetic body 20 contact, magnetic sheet 10 and magnetic body 20 can be configured to the maximum size inside wireless charging module 100 that is reduced in size. [Regarding Charging Coil] The charging coil will be described in detail using FIGS. 2A and 2B. FIGS. 2A and 2B are schematic diagrams of a charging coil and a magnetic sheet according to the embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2A is an exploded view illustrating the arrangement relationship between the charging coil and the magnetic sheet. FIG. 2B is a top view of the charging coil and the magnetic sheet. In the present embodiment, charging coil 30 is wound in a substantially square shape, but may be wound in any shape such as a substantially rectangular shape including a substantially oblong shape, a circular shape, an elliptical shape, and a polygonal shape. Charging coil 30 has two leg portions (terminals) 32a and 32b as a starting end and a terminating end thereof, and includes a litz wire constituted by around 8 to 15 conducting wires having a diameter of approximately 0.1 mm or a plurality of wires (preferably, around 2 to 15 conducting wires having a diameter of 0.08 mm to 0.3 mm) that is wound around a hollow portion as though to draw a swirl on the surface. For example, in the case of a coil including a wound litz wire made of 12 conducting wires having a diameter of 0.1 mm, in comparison to a coil including a single wound conducting wire having the same cross-sectional area, the alternating-current resistance decreases considerably due to the skin effect. If the alternating-current resistance decreases while the coil is operating, heat generation by the coil decreases and thus charging coil 30 that has favorable thermal properties can be realized. At this time, if a litz wire that includes 8 to 15 conducting wires having a diameter of 0.08 mm to 1.5 mm is used, favorable power transfer efficiency can be achieved. If a single wire is used, it is advantageous to use a conducting wire having a diameter between 0.2 mm and 1 mm. Further, for example, a configuration may also be adopted, in which, similarly to a litz wire, a single conducting wire is formed of three conducting wires having a diameter of 0.2 mm and two conducting wires having a diameter of 0.3 mm. Leg portions 32a and 32b as a current supply section supply a current from a commercial power source that is an external power source to charging coil 30. Note that an amount of current that flows through charging coil 30 is between approximately 0.4 A and 2 A. In the present embodiment the amount of current is 0.7 A. In charging coil 30 of the present embodiment, a distance between facing sides (a length of one side) of the hollow portion having a substantially square shape is 20 mm (between 15 mm and 25 mm is preferable), and a distance between facing sides (a length of one side) at an outer edge of the substantially square shape is 30 mm (between 25 mm and 45 mm is preferable). Charging coil 30 is wound in a donut shape. In a case where charging coil 30 is wound in a substantially oblong shape, with respect to facing sides of the hollow portion of the substantially oblong shape, a distance between short sides (a length of one side) is 15 mm (between 10 mm and 20 mm is preferable) and a distance between long sides (a length of one side) is 23 mm (between 15 mm and 30 mm is preferable). Further, with respect to facing sides at an outer edge of a substantially square shape, a distance between short sides (a length of one side) is 28 mm (between 15 mm and 35 mm is preferable) and a distance between long sides (a length of one side) is 36 mm (between 20 mm and 45 mm is preferable). In a case where charging coil 30 is wound in a circular shape, the diameter of the hollow portion is 20 mm (between 10 mm and 25 mm is preferable) and the diameter of an outer edge of the circular shape is 35 mm (between 25 mm and 45 mm is preferable). Note that, the combined thickness of charging coil 30 and magnetic sheet 10 in a state in which charging coil 30 is stacked on magnetic sheet 10 is 0.8 mm. To achieve a reduction in the thickness of the module, it is preferable that the combined thickness of charging coil 30 and magnetic sheet 10 is between 0.6 mm and 1 mm. In some cases charging coil 30 is the secondary side (power reception side), and utilizes a magnet for alignment with a coil of a primary-side wireless charging module inside a charger that supplies power to charging coil 30 as a counterpart for power transmission. A magnet in such a case is defined by the standard (WPC) as a circular (coin shaped) neodymium magnet having a diameter of approximately 15.5 mm (approximately 10 mm to 20 mm) and a thickness of approximately 1.5 mm to 2 mm or the like. A favorable strength of the magnet is approximately 75 mT to 150 mT. Since an interval between a coil of the primary-side wireless charging module and charging coil 30 is around 2 to 5 mm, it is possible to adequately perform alignment using such a magnet. The magnet is disposed in a hollow portion of the wireless charging module coil on the primary side or secondary side. In the present embodiment, the magnet is disposed in the hollow portion of charging coil 30. That is, for example, the following methods may be mentioned as an aligning method. For example, a method is available in which a protruding portion is formed in a charging surface of a charger, a recessed portion is formed in an electronic device on the secondary side, and the protruding portion is fitted into the recessed portion to thereby physically (geometrically) perform compulsory aligning. A method is also available in which a magnet is mounted on at least one of the primary side and secondary side, and alignment is performed by attraction between the respective magnets or between a magnet on one side and a magnetic sheet on the other side. According to another method, the primary side detects the position of a coil of the secondary side and automatically moves a coil on the primary side to the position of the coil on the secondary side. Other available methods include a method in which a large number of coils are provided in a charger so that a portable device can be charged at every place on the charging surface of the charger. Thus, various methods can be mentioned as common methods for aligning the coils of the primary-side (charging-side) wireless charging module and the secondary-side (charged-side) wireless charging module, and the methods are divided into methods that use a magnet and methods that do not use a magnet. By configuring wireless charging module 100 to be adaptable to both a primary-side (charging-side) wireless charging module that uses a magnet and a primary-side wireless charging module that does not use a magnet, charging can be performed regardless of the type of primary-side wireless charging module, which in turn improves the convenience of the module. The influence that a magnet has on the power transmission efficiency of wireless charging module 100 will be described. When magnetic flux for electromagnetic induction is generated between the primary-side wireless charging module and wireless charging module 100 to transmit power, the presence of a magnet between or around the primary-side wireless charging module and wireless charging module 100 leads extension of the magnetic flux to avoid the magnet. Otherwise, the magnetic flux that passes through the magnet becomes an eddy current or generates heat in the magnet and is lost. Furthermore, if the magnet is disposed in the vicinity of magnetic sheet 10, magnetic sheet 10 that is in the vicinity of the magnet saturates and the magnetic permeability thereof decreases. Therefore, the magnet that is included in the primary-side wireless charging module may decrease an L value of charging coil 30. As a result, transmission efficiency between the wireless charging modules will decrease. To prevent this, in the present embodiment the hollow portion of charging coil 30 is made larger than the magnet. That is, the area of the hollow portion is made larger than the area of a circular face of the coin-shaped magnet, and an inside edge (portion surrounding the hollow portion) of charging coil 30 is configured to be located at a position that is on the outer side relative to the outer edge of the magnet. Further, because the diameter of the magnet is 15.5 mm or less, it is sufficient to make the hollow portion larger than a circle having a diameter of 15.5 mm. As another method, charging coil 30 may be wound in a substantially oblong shape (including a square shape), and a diagonal of the hollow portion having a substantially oblong shape may be made longer than the diameter (maximum 15.5 mm) of the magnet. As a result, since the corner portions (four corners) at which the magnetic flux concentrates of charging coil 30 that is wound in a substantially oblong shape are positioned on the outer side relative to the magnet, the influence of the magnet can be suppressed. Effects obtained by employing the above described configuration are described hereunder. FIGS. 3A to 3D illustrate relations between the primary-side wireless charging module including the magnet, and the charging coil according to the embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3A illustrates a case where the aligning magnet is used when the inner width of the wound charging coil is small. FIG. 3B illustrates a case where the aligning magnet is used when the inner width of the wound charging coil is large. FIG. 3C illustrates a case where the aligning magnet is not used when the inner width of the wound charging coil is small. FIG. 3D illustrates a case where the aligning magnet is not used when the inner width of the wound charging coil is large. Primary-side wireless charging module 200 that is disposed inside the charger includes primary-side coil 210, magnet 220, and a magnetic sheet (not illustrated in the drawings). In FIGS. 3A to 3D, magnetic sheet 10, charging coil 30, and NFC coil 40 inside wireless charging module 100 are schematically illustrated. Wireless charging module 100 and primary-side wireless charging module 200 are aligned so that primary-side coil 210 and charging coil 30 face each other. A magnetic field is generated between inner portion 211 of primary-side coil 210 and inner portion 33 of charging coil 30 and power is transmitted. Inner portion 211 and inner portion 33 face each other. Inner portion 211 and inner portion 33 are close to magnet 220 and are liable to be adversely affected by magnet 220. In addition, because magnet 220 is disposed in the vicinity of magnetic sheet 10 and magnetic body 20, the magnetic permeability of magnetic sheet 10 in the vicinity of magnet 220 decreases. Naturally, magnetic sheet 10 is closer than magnetic body 20 to magnet 220, and is more liable to be affected by magnet 220. Therefore, magnet 220 included in primary-side wireless charging module 200 weakens the magnetic flux of primary-side coil 210 and charging coil 30, particularly, at inner portion 211 and inner portion 33, and exerts an adverse effect. As a result, the transmission efficiency of the wireless charging decreases. Accordingly, in the case illustrated in FIG. 3A, inner portion 33 that is liable to be adversely affected by magnet 220 is large. In contrast, in the case illustrated in FIG. 3C in which a magnet is not used, the L value increases because the number of turns of charging coil 30 is large. As a result, since there is a significant decrease in the numerical value from the L value in FIG. 3C to the L value in FIG. 3A, when using a wound coil having a small inner width, the L-value decrease rate with respect to an L value in a case where magnet 220 is included for alignment and an L value in a case where magnet 220 is not included is extremely large. Further, if the inner width of charging coil 30 is smaller than the diameter of magnet 220 as illustrated in FIG. 3A, charging coil 30 is directly adversely affected by magnet 220 to a degree that corresponds to the area of charging coil 30 that faces magnet 220. Accordingly, it is better for the inner width of charging coil 30 to be larger than the diameter of magnet 220. In contrast, when the inner width of charging coil 30 is large as illustrated in FIG. 3B, inner portion 33 that is liable to be adversely affected by magnet 220 is extremely small. In the case illustrated in FIG. 3D in which magnet 220 is not used, the L value is smaller than in FIG. 3C because the number of turns of charging coil 30 is less. Thus, because a decrease in the numerical value from the L value in the case illustrated in FIG. 3D to the L value in the case illustrated in FIG. 3B is small, the L-value decrease rate can be suppressed to a small amount in the case of coils that have a large inner width. Further, as the inner width of charging coil 30 increases, the influence of magnet 220 can be suppressed because the distance from magnet 220 to the edge of the hollow portion of charging coil 30 increases. On the other hand, since wireless charging module 100 is mounted in an electronic device or the like, charging coil 30 cannot be made larger than a certain size. Accordingly, if the inner width of charging coil 30 is enlarged to reduce the adverse effects from magnet 220, the number of turns will decrease and the L value itself will decrease regardless of the presence or absence of magnet 220. Therefore, since magnet 220 can be made the maximum size in a case where the area of magnet 220 and the area of the hollow portion of charging coil 30 are substantially the same (the outer diameter of magnet 220 is about 0 to 2 mm smaller than the inner width of charging coil 30, or the area of magnet 220 is a proportion of about 75% to 95% relative to the area of the hollow portion of charging coil 30), the alignment accuracy between the primary-side wireless charging module and the secondary-side wireless charging module can be improved. Further, if the area of magnet 220 is less than the area of the hollow portion of charging coil 30 (the outer diameter of magnet 220 is about 2 to 8 mm smaller than the inner width of charging coil 30, or the area of magnet 220 is a proportion of about 45% to 75% relative to the area of the hollow portion of charging coil 30), even if there are variations in the alignment accuracy, it is possible to ensure that magnet 220 is not present at a portion at which inner portion 211 and inner portion 33 face each other. In addition, as charging coil 30 that is mounted in wireless charging module 100 having the same lateral width and vertical width, the influence of magnet 220 can be suppressed more by winding the coil in a substantially rectangular shape rather than in a circular shape. That is, comparing a circular coil in which the diameter of a hollow portion is represented by “x” and a substantially square coil in which a distance between facing sides of the hollow portion (a length of one side) is represented by “x,” if conducting wires having the same diameter as each other are wound with the same number of turns, the respective conducting wires will be housed in respective wireless charging modules 100 that have the same width. In such case, length y of a diagonal of the hollow portion of the substantially square-shaped coil will be such that y>x. Accordingly, if the diameter of magnet 220 is taken as “m,” a distance (x−m) between the innermost edge of the circular coil and magnet 220 is always constant (x>m). On the other hand, a distance between the innermost edge of a substantially rectangular coil and magnet 220 is a minimum of (x−m), and is a maximum of (y−m) at corner portions 31a to 31d. When charging coil 30 includes corners such as corner portions 31a to 31d, magnetic flux concentrates at the corners during power transmission. That is, corner portions 31a to 31d at which the most magnetic flux concentrates are furthest from magnet 220, and moreover, the width (size) of wireless charging module 100 does not change. Accordingly, the power transmission efficiency of charging coil 30 can be improved without making wireless charging module 100 a large size. The size of charging coil 30 can be reduced further if charging coil 30 is wound in a substantially oblong shape. That is, even if a short side of a hollow portion that is a substantially oblong shape is smaller than m, as long as a long side thereof is larger than m it is possible to dispose four corner portions outside of the outer circumference of magnet 220. Accordingly, when charging coil 30 is wound in a substantially oblong shape around a hollow portion having a substantially oblong shape, charging coil 30 can be wound in a favorable manner as long as at least the long side of the hollow portion is larger than m. Note that, the foregoing description of a configuration in which the innermost edge of charging coil 30 is on the outer side of magnet 220 that is provided in primary-side wireless charging module 200 and in which four corners of the substantially rectangular hollow portion of charging coil 30 that is wound in a substantially rectangular shape are on the outside of magnet 220 refers to a configuration as shown in FIG. 3B. That is, the foregoing describes a fact that when an edge of the circular face of magnet 220 is extended in the stacking direction and caused to extend as far as wireless charging module 100, a region surrounded by the extension line is contained within the hollow portion of charging coil 30. FIG. 4 illustrates a relation between the size of the inner diameter of the wound charging coil and the L value of the charging coil when the outer diameter of the wound charging coil is kept constant, with respect to a case where a magnet is provided in the primary-side wireless charging module and a case where the magnet is not provided therein. As shown in FIG. 4, when the size of magnet 220 and the outer diameter of charging coil 30 are kept constant, the influence of magnet 220 on charging coil 30 decreases as the number of turns of charging coil 30 decreases and the inner diameter of charging coil 30 increases. That is, the L value of charging coil 30 in a case where magnet 220 is utilized for alignment between primary-side wireless charging module 200 and (secondary-side) wireless charging module 100 and the L value of charging coil 30 in a case where magnet 220 is not utilized for alignment approach each other. Accordingly, a resonance frequency when magnet 220 is used and a resonance frequency when magnet 220 is not used become extremely similar values. At such time, the outer diameter of the wound coil is uniformly set to 30 mm. Further, by making the distance between the edge of the hollow portion of charging coil 30 (innermost edge of charging coil 30) and the outer edge of magnet 220 greater than 0 mm and less than 6 mm, the L values in the case of utilizing magnet 220 and the case of not utilizing magnet 220 can be made similar to each other while maintaining the L values at 15 pH or more. The conducting wire of charging coil 30 may be a single conducting wire that is stacked in a plurality of stages, and the stacking direction in this case is the same as the stacking direction in which magnetic sheet 10 and charging coil 30 are stacked. At such time, by stacking the layers of conducting wire that are arranged in the vertical direction with a space interposed in between, stray capacitance between conducting wire on an upper stage and conducting wire on a lower stage decreases, and the alternating-current resistance of charging coil 30 can be suppressed to a small amount. Further, the thickness of charging coil 30 can be minimized by winding the conducting wire densely. By stacking the conducting wire in this manner, the number of turns of charging coil 30 can be increased to thereby improve the L value. However, in comparison to winding of charging coil 30 in a plurality of stages in the stacking direction, winding of charging coil 30 in one stage can lower the alternating-current resistance of charging coil 30 and raise the transmission efficiency. If charging coil 30 is wound in a polygonal shape, corner portions (corners) 31a to 31d are provided as described below. Charging coil 30 that is wound in a substantially square shape refers to a coil in which R (radius of a curve at the four corners) of corner portions 31a to 31d that are four corners of the hollow portion is equal to or less than 30% of the edge width of the hollow portion. That is, in FIG. 2B, in the substantially square hollow portion, the four corners have a curved shape. In comparison to right angled corners, the strength of the conducting wire at the four corners can be improved when the corners are curved to some extent. However, if R is too large, there is almost no difference from a circular coil and it will not be possible to obtain effects that are only obtained with a substantially square charging coil 30. It has been found that when the edge width of the hollow portion is, for example, 20 mm, and radius R of a curve at each of the four corners is 6 mm or less, the influence of magnet 220 can be effectively suppressed. Further, when taking into account the strength of the four corners as described above, the greatest effect of the rectangular coil described above can be obtained by making radius R of a curve at each of the four corners an amount that corresponds to a proportion of 5 to 30% relative to the edge width of the substantially square hollow portion. Note that, even in the case of charging coil 30 wound in a substantially oblong shape, the effect of the substantially oblong coil described above can be obtained by making radius R of a curve at each of the four corners an amount that corresponds to a proportion of 5 to 30% relative to the edge width (either one of a short side and a long side) of the substantially oblong hollow portion. Note that, in the present embodiment, with respect to the four corners at the innermost end (hollow portion) of charging coil 30, R is 2 mm, and a preferable value for R is between 0.5 mm and 4 mm. Further, when winding charging coil 30 in a rectangular shape, preferably, leg portions 32a and 32b are provided in the vicinity of corner portions 31a to 31d. When charging coil 30 is wound in a circular shape, irrespective of where leg portions 32a and 32b are provided, leg portions 32a and 32b can be provided at a portion at which a planar coil portion is wound in a curve. When the conducting wire is wound in a curved shape, a force acts that tries to maintain the curved shape thereof, and it is difficult for the overall shape to be broken even if leg portions 32a and 32b are formed. In contrast, in the case of a coil in which the conducting wire is wound in a rectangular shape, there is a difference in the force with which the coil tries to maintain the shape of the coil itself with respect to side portions (linear portions) and corner portions. That is, at corner portions 31a to 31d in FIG. 2B, a large force acts to try to maintain the shape of charging coil 30. However, at each side portion, a force that acts to try to maintain the shape of charging coil 30 is small, and the conducting wire is liable to become uncoiled from charging coil 30 in a manner in which the conducting wire pivots around the curves at corner portions 31a to 31d. As a result, the number of turns of charging coil 30 fluctuates by, for example, about 1/8 turn, and the L value of charging coil 30 fluctuates. That is, the L value of charging coil 30 varies. Accordingly, it is favorable for a winding start point on leg portion 32a side of the conducting wire to be adjacent to corner portion 31a, and for the conducting wire to bend at corner portion 31a immediately after the winding start point. The winding start point and corner portion 31a may also be adjacent. Subsequently, the conducting wire is wound a plurality of times until a winding end point is formed before bending at corner portion 31a, and the conducting wire then forms leg portion 32b and is bent to the outer side of charging coil 30. At this time, the conducting wire is bent to a larger degree in a gradual manner at the winding end point compared to the winding start point. This is done to enhance a force that tries to maintain the shape of leg portion 32b. If the conducting wire is a litz wire, a force that tries to maintain the shape of charging coil 30 is further enhanced. In the case of a litz wire, since the surface area per wire is large, if an adhesive or the like is used to fix the shape of charging coil 30, it is easy to fix the shape thereof. In contrast, if the conducting wire is a single wire, because the surface area per conducting wire decreases, the surface area to be adhered decreases and the shape of charging coil 30 is liable to become uncoiled. According to the present embodiment charging coil 30 is formed using a conducting wire having a circular sectional shape, but a conducting wire having a square sectional shape may be used as well. In the case of using a conducting wire having a circular sectional shape, since gaps arise between adjacent conducting wires, stray capacitance between the conducting wires decreases and the alternating-current resistance of charging coil 30 can be suppressed to a small amount. [Regarding Magnetic Sheet] Magnetic sheet 10 includes flat portion 12 on which charging coil 30 is mounted, center portion 13 that is substantially the center portion of flat portion 12 and that corresponds to (faces) the inside of the hollow region of charging coil 30, and slit 11 into which at least a part of two leg portions 32a and 32b of charging coil 30 is inserted. Slit 11 need not be formed as shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B, and is also not limited to a slit shape that penetrates through magnetic sheet 10, and may be formed in the shape of a non-penetrating recessed portion as shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B. Forming slit 11 in a slit shape facilitates manufacture and makes it possible to securely house the conducting wire. On the other hand, forming slit 11 in the shape of a recessed portion makes it possible to increase the volume of magnetic sheet 10, and it is thereby possible to improve the L value of charging coil 30 and the transmission efficiency. Center portion 13 may be formed in a shape that, with respect to flat portion 12, is any one of a protruding portion shape, a flat shape, a recessed portion shape, and the shape of a through-hole. If center portion 13 is formed as a protruding portion, the magnetic flux of charging coil 30 can be strengthened. If center portion 13 is flat, manufacturing is facilitated and charging coil 30 can be easily mounted thereon, and furthermore, a balance can be achieved between the influence of aligning magnet 220 and the L value of charging coil 30 that is described later. A detailed description with respect to a recessed portion shape and a through-hole is described later. A Ni—Zn ferrite sheet (sintered body), a Mn—Zn ferrite sheet (sintered body), or a Mg—Zn ferrite sheet (sintered body) or the like can be used as magnetic sheet 10. Magnetic sheet 10 may be configured as a single layer, may be configured by stacking a plurality of sheets made of the same material in the thickness direction, or may be configured by stacking a plurality of different magnetic sheets 10 in the thickness direction. It is preferable that, at least, the magnetic permeability of magnetic sheet 10 is 250 or more and the saturation magnetic flux density thereof is 350 mT or more. An amorphous metal can also be used as magnetic sheet 10. The use of ferrite sheet as magnetic sheet 10 is advantageous in that the alternating-current resistance of charging coil 30 can be reduced, while the use of amorphous metal as magnetic sheet 10 is advantageous in that the thickness of charging coil 30 can be reduced. Magnetic sheet 10 is substantially square with a size of approximately 40×40 mm (from 35 mm to 50 mm). In a case where magnetic sheet 10 is a substantially oblong shape, a short side thereof is 35 mm (from 25 mm to 45 mm) and a long side is 45 mm (from 35 mm to 55 mm). The thickness thereof is 0.43 mm (in practice, between 0.4 mm and 0.55 mm, and a thickness between approximately 0.3 mm and 0.7 mm is adequate). It is desirable to form magnetic sheet 10 in a size that is equal to or greater than the size of the outer circumferential edge of magnetic body 20. Magnetic sheet 10 may be a circular shape, a rectangular shape, a polygonal shape, or a rectangular and polygonal shape having large curves at four corners. Slit 11 houses the conducting wire of leg portion 32a that extend from winding start point 32aa (innermost portion of coil) charging coil 30 to the lower end portion of magnetic sheet 10. Thus, slit 11 prevents the conducting wire from winding start point 32aa of charging coil 30 to leg portion 32a overlapping in the stacking direction at a planar winding portion of charging coil 30. Slit 11 is formed so that one end thereof is substantially perpendicular to an end (edge) of magnetic sheet 10 that intersects therewith, and so as to contact center portion 13 of magnetic sheet 10. In a case where charging coil 30 is circular, by forming slit 11 so as to overlap with a tangent of center portion 13 (circular), leg portions 32a and 32b can be formed without bending winding start point 32aa of the conducting wire. In a case where charging coil 30 is a substantially rectangular shape, by forming slit 11 so as to overlap with an extension line of a side of center portion 13 (having a substantially rectangular shape), leg portions 32a and 32b can be formed without bending the winding start portion of the conducting wire. The length of slit 11 depends on the inner diameter of charging coil 30 and the size of magnetic sheet 10. In the present embodiment, the length of slit 11 is between approximately 15 mm and 30 mm. Slit 11 may also be formed at a portion at which an end (edge) of magnetic sheet 10 and center portion 13 are closest to each other. That is, when charging coil 30 is circular, slit 11 is formed to be perpendicular to the end (edge) of magnetic sheet 10 and a tangent of center portion 13 (circular), and is formed as a short slit. Further, when charging coil 30 is substantially rectangular, slit 11 is formed to be perpendicular to an end (edge) of magnetic sheet 10 and a side of center portion 13 (substantially rectangular), and is formed as a short slit. It is thereby possible to minimize the area in which slit 11 is formed and to improve the transmission efficiency of a wireless power transmission device. Note that, in this case, the length of slit 11 is approximately 5 mm to 20 mm. In both of these configurations, the inner side end of slit 11 (slit) is connected to center portion 13. Next, adverse effects on the magnetic sheet produced by the magnet for alignment described in the foregoing are described. As described above, when the magnet is provided in primary-side wireless charging module 200 for alignment, due to the influence of magnet 220, the magnetic permeability of magnetic sheet 10 decreases at a portion that is close to magnet 220 in particular. Accordingly, the L value of charging coil 30 varies significantly between a case where magnet 220 for alignment is provided in primary-side wireless charging module 200 and a case where magnet 220 is not provided. It is therefore necessary to provide magnetic sheet 10 such that the L value of charging coil 30 changes as little as possible between a case where magnet 220 is close thereto and a case where magnet 220 is not close thereto. When the electronic device in which wireless charging module 100 is mounted is a mobile phone, in many cases wireless charging module 100 is disposed between the case constituting the exterior package of the mobile phone and a battery pack located inside the mobile phone, or between the case and a substrate located inside the case. In general, since the battery pack is a casing made of aluminum, the battery pack adversely affects power transmission. This is because an eddy current is generated in the aluminum in a direction that weakens the magnetic flux generated by the coil, and therefore the magnetic flux of the coil is weakened. For this reason, it is necessary to alleviate the influence with respect to the aluminum by providing magnetic sheet 10 between the aluminum which is the exterior package of the battery pack and charging coil 30 disposed on the exterior package thereof. Further, there is a possibility that an electronic component mounted on the substrate will interfere with power transmission of charging coil 30, and the electronic component and charging coil 30 will exert adverse effects on each other. Consequently, it is necessary to provide magnetic sheet 10 or a metal film between the substrate and charging coil 30, and suppress the mutual influences of the substrate and charging coil 30. In consideration of the above described points, it is important that magnetic sheet 10 that is used in wireless charging module 100 have a high level of magnetic permeability and a high saturation magnetic flux density so that the L value of charging coil 30 is made as large as possible. It is sufficient if the magnetic permeability of magnetic sheet 10 is 250 or more and the saturation magnetic flux density thereof is 350 mT or more. In the present embodiment, magnetic sheet 10 is a Mn—Zn ferrite sintered body having a magnetic permeability between 1,500 and 2,500, a saturation magnetic flux density between 400 and 500, and a thickness between approximately 400 μm and 700 μm. However, magnetic sheet 10 may be made of Ni—Zn ferrite, and favorable power transmission can be performed with primary-side wireless charging module 200 as long as the magnetic permeability thereof is 250 or more and the saturation magnetic flux density is 350 or more. Charging coil 30 forms an LC resonance circuit through the use of a resonant capacitor. At such time, if the L value of charging coil 30 varies significantly between a case where magnet 220 provided in primary-side wireless charging module 200 is utilized for alignment and a case where magnet 220 is not utilized, a resonance frequency with the resonant capacitor will also vary significantly. Since the resonance frequency is used for power transmission (charging) between primary-side wireless charging module 200 and wireless charging module 100, if the resonance frequency varies significantly depending on the presence/absence of magnet 220, it will not be possible to perform power transmission correctly. However, by adopting the above described configuration, variations in the resonance frequency that are caused by the presence/absence of magnet 220 are suppressed, and highly efficient power transmission is performed in all situations. A further reduction in thickness is enabled in a case where magnetic sheet 10 is a ferrite sheet composed of Mn—Zn ferrite. That is, the frequency of electromagnetic induction is defined by the standard (WPC) as a frequency between approximately 100 kHz and 200 kHz (for example, 120 kHz). A Mn—Zn ferrite sheet provides a high level of efficiency in this low frequency band. Note that a Ni—Zn ferrite sheet provides a high level of efficiency at a high frequency. Accordingly, in the present embodiment, magnetic sheet 10 that is used for wireless charging for performing power transmission at a frequency between approximately 100 kHz and 200 kHz is constituted by a Mn—Zn ferrite sheet, and magnetic body 20 that is used for NFC communication in which communication is performed at a frequency of approximately 13.56 MHz is constituted by a Ni—Zn ferrite sheet. By using respectively different kinds of ferrite to form magnetic sheet 10 and magnetic body 20 in this manner, magnetic sheet 10 and magnetic body 20 can efficiently perform power transmission and communication, respectively. Further, even when magnetic sheet 10 and magnetic body 20 are reduced in thickness and reduced in size, sufficient efficiency can be obtained by magnetic sheet 10 and magnetic body 20, respectively. A hole may be formed at the center of center portion 13 of magnetic sheet 10. Note that, the term “hole” may refer to either of a through-hole and a recessed portion. The hole may be larger or smaller than center portion 13, and it is favorable to form a hole that is smaller than center portion 13. That is, when charging coil 30 is mounted on magnetic sheet 10, the hole may be larger or smaller than the hollow portion of charging coil 30. If the hole is smaller than the hollow portion of charging coil 30, all of charging coil 30 will be mounted on magnetic sheet 10. As described in the foregoing, by configuring wireless charging module 100 to be adaptable to both a primary-side (charging-side) wireless charging module that uses a magnet and primary-side wireless charging module 200 that does not use a magnet, charging can be performed regardless of the type of primary-side wireless charging module 200, which improves the convenience of the module. There is a demand to make the L value of charging coil 30 in a case where magnet 220 is provided in primary-side wireless charging module 200 and the L value of charging coil 30 in a case where magnet 220 is not provided therein close to each other, and to also improve both L values. In addition, when magnet 220 is disposed in the vicinity of magnetic sheet 10, the magnetic permeability of center portion 13 of magnetic sheet 10 that is in the vicinity of magnet 220 decreases. Therefore, a decrease in the magnetic permeability can be suppressed by providing the hole in center portion 13. FIG. 5 illustrates a relation between an L value of a charging coil in a case where a magnet is provided in the primary-side wireless charging module and a case where a magnet is not provided, and the percentage of hollowing of the center portion. Note that a percentage of hollowing of 100%means that the hole in center portion 13 is a through-hole, and a percentage of hollowing of 0% means that a hole is not provided. Further, a percentage of hollowing of 50%means that, for example, a hole (recessed portion) of a depth of 0.3 mm is provided with respect to a magnetic sheet having a thickness of 0.6 mm. As shown in FIG. 5, in the case where magnet 220 is not provided in primary-side wireless charging module 200, the L value decreases as the percentage of hollowing increases. At such time, although the L value decreases very little when the percentage of hollowing is from 0% to 75%, the L value decreases significantly when the percentage of hollowing is between 75% and 100%. In contrast, when magnet 220 is provided in primary-side wireless charging module 200, the L value rises as the percentage of hollowing increases. This is because the charging coil is less liable to be adversely affected by the magnet. At such time, the L value gradually rises when the percentage of hollowing is between 0% and 75%, and rises significantly when the percentage of hollowing is between 75% and 100%. Accordingly, when the percentage of hollowing is between 0% and 75%, while maintaining the L value in a case where magnet 220 is not provided in primary-side wireless charging module 200, the L value in a case where magnet 220 is provided in primary-side wireless charging module 200 can be increased. Further, when the percentage of hollowing is between 75% and 100%, the L value in a case where magnet 220 is not provided in primary-side wireless charging module 200 and the L value in a case where magnet 220 is provided in primary-side wireless charging module 200 can be brought significantly close to each other. The greatest effect is achieved when the percentage of hollowing is between 40 and 60%. Magnet 220 and the magnetic sheet can adequately attract each other when magnet 220 is provided and the L value of a case where magnet 220 is provided in primary-side wireless charging module 200 is increased to 1 μH or more while the L value of a case where no magnet 220 is provided in primary-side wireless charging module 200 is maintained. [Regarding NFC Coil and Magnetic Body] The NFC coil will now be described in detail using FIG. 6 to FIGS. 8A and 8B. FIG. 6 is a perspective view when the NFC coil and the magnetic body according to the present embodiment have been assembled. FIG. 7 is an exploded view illustrating the arrangement of the NFC coil and the magnetic body according to the present embodiment. NFC coil 40 according to the present embodiment that is illustrated in FIG. 6 is an antenna that carries out short-range wireless communication which performs communication by electromagnetic induction using the 13.56 MHz frequency, and a sheet antenna is generally used therefor. As shown in FIG. 6, NFC coil 40 of the present embodiment includes flexible substrate 41 as a conductor arrangement section that is placed so as to envelop the circumference of magnetic body 20 formed of ferrite or the like and which is a coil pattern formed on a support medium mainly constituted by resin. NFC coil 40 is a component that generates lines of magnetic force for NFC communication for performing communication with radio communication media such as an unillustrated IC card or IC tag. While the specific shape of the coil pattern is not illustrated in FIG. 6 and FIG. 7, a coil pattern is formed in which straight line with an arrow S is taken as the coil axis. Normally, the coil pattern and an adjustment pattern that is described later are formed, for example, by copper foil that is formed between two resin layers, namely, a polyimide film and a cover lay or resist, of flexible substrate 41. In practice, as shown in FIG. 7, flexible substrate 41 has a shape that is divided into two parts that sandwich magnetic body 20. In the present embodiment, for convenience, among the parts of flexible substrate 41 that is divided in two, a side that has external connection terminals 42a and 42b is taken as lower-side flexible substrate (first arrangement section) 41a, and the side without external connection terminals 42a and 42b is taken as upper-side flexible substrate (second arrangement section) 41b. Lower-side flexible substrate 41a and upper-side flexible substrate 41b are joined by soldering. In the present embodiment, lower-side flexible substrate 41a and upper-side flexible substrate 41b are joined at two sides of flexible substrate 41 that are substantially parallel with coil axis S. The terms “lower-side” and “upper-side” are assigned to facilitate understanding in FIG. 7, and the upper and lower sides may be reversed at a time of mounting in a device as NFC coil 40. In the present embodiment, the width of upper-side flexible substrate 41b in the direction of coil axis S is set so that magnetic body 20 does not protrude. The width is set in this manner so that, particularly in a case in which magnetic body 20 is constituted by ferrite that is easily broken, broken pieces or residue of magnetic body 20 are prevented from scattering inside a communication apparatus in which NFC coil 40 is mounted (for example, portable terminal 1 in FIGS. 1A and 1B) and adversely affecting the communication apparatus. The size of magnetic body 20 is 5 mm×36 mm×0.21 mm. A suitable width in the longitudinal direction is between 25 mm and 50 mm. As illustrated in FIGS. 1A and 1B, it is preferable to form magnetic body 20 with a larger width than the width of magnetic sheet 10 in the same direction. Since portions (both ends) that are less susceptible to the influence of (not liable to couple with) charging coil 30 when performing NFC communication can thereby be created, the efficiency of NFC communication can be improved. Further, a width between 3 and 10 mm in the short-side direction is sufficient. The width depends on the number of turns of NFC coil 40. The thickness of magnetic body 20 is preferably thinner than the thickness when magnetic sheet 10 and charging coil 30 are stacked, and a thickness between around 0.15 to 1 mm is preferable. FIGS. 8A and 8B illustrate wiring of the NFC coil in the present embodiment. FIG. 8A shows lower-side flexible substrate 41a as seen from a contact surface with magnetic body 20, and FIG. 8B shows upper-side flexible substrate 41b as seen from a contact surfaces with magnetic body 20. In FIGS. 8A and 8B, the arrow direction of coil axis S is the near side in the perspective views of flexible substrate 41 shown in FIG. 6 and FIG. 7. Further, in addition to divided pattern 43a, lower-side flexible substrate 41a includes external connection terminals 42a and 42b, and in the present embodiment the copper foil of the external connection terminals 42a and 42b are also so-called “exposed” and a solder plating process is executed thereon. A plurality of divided patterns 43a that serve as a part of NFC coil 40 are formed on lower-side flexible substrate 41a so as to be parallel with each other and to intersect with coil axis S. Further, on upper-side flexible substrate 41b, a plurality of divided patterns 43b that serve as a part of a coil pattern are also formed so as to be parallel with each other and to intersect with coil axis S. The respective two ends of the plurality of divided patterns 43a and 43b are in a state in which copper foil is “exposed” by respective pattern exposing sections 44a and 44b and pattern exposing sections 45a and 45b thereof. By repeating soldering of the plurality of conductive patterns 43a and 43b that are divided in a manner that sandwiches magnetic body 20 therebetween, a conductive pattern that starts from external connection terminal 42a on lower-side flexible substrate 41a is connected to external connection terminal 42b after going around magnetic body 20. Further, a helical conductive pattern is formed around coil axis S of magnetic body 20. The helical conductive pattern is a so-called “coil” pattern, and is capable of generating lines of magnetic force for performing communication with radio communication media such as IC cards and IC tags. In this connection, conductive patterns formed on flexible substrate 41 of the present embodiment are not only helical coil patterns. As shown in FIG. 8A, adjustment pattern u that is described in more detail hereunder is provided that is connected to divided pattern t that is positioned on one side of an outermost edge portion. Adjustment pattern u has a plurality of lead-out patterns v in which end parts on one side are connected to divided pattern t. Adjustment pattern u also has connection pattern w that links and is connected with respective end parts on another side that is not connected to divided pattern t of lead-out patterns v, and a protrusion-side end part (end part positioned on the outside of the exterior of magnetic body 20 that is shown by a dotted line) of protrusion section lead-out pattern z constituting part of protrusion section y of divided pattern t. Note that, in the present embodiment, adjustment pattern u is provided only on the lower-side flexible substrate 41a side. On the other hand, the plurality of divided patterns 43a and 43b forming the coil patterns shown in FIG. 8A and FIG. 8B are provided in a divided manner on both lower-side flexible substrate 41a and upper-side flexible substrate 41b. In addition to adjustment pattern u, external connection terminals 42a and 42b are also provided on lower-side flexible substrate 41a, and lower-side flexible substrate 41a has a larger exterior than upper-side flexible substrate 41b. These parts of adjustment pattern u (that is, all of connection pattern w and part of lead-out patterns v), part of protrusion section y of divided pattern t, and external connection terminals 42a and 42b are arranged at positions that are further to the outer side than the exterior of magnetic body 20 that is shown by a dotted line and upper-side flexible substrate 41b. In other words, it can be said that these parts of adjustment pattern u are arranged at positions that are apart from the outer circumference of magnetic body 20 and upper-side flexible substrate 41b. Thus, since external connection terminals 42a and 42b are not covered over by magnetic body 20 and upper-side flexible substrate 41b when assembly of NFC coil 40 is completed as shown in FIG. 6, as shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B, NFC coil 40 can be connected to an electronic circuit board that is placed on a surface facing NFC coil 40, and an antenna apparatus can be constructed as a result of such connection. Further, an adjustment pattern that is not covered by magnetic body 20 and upper-side flexible substrate 41b has at least connection pattern w. The inductance of NFC coil 40 shown in FIG. 6 can be adjusted when assembly of NFC coil 40 is completed by disconnecting either the plurality of lead-out patterns v constituting the adjustment pattern or protrusion section lead-out pattern z constituting part of protrusion section y of divided pattern t by trimming or the like. The inductance of NFC coil 40 is one factor that determines the resonance frequency of the antenna apparatus that is formed when NFC coil 40 shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B is connected to an electronic circuit board on which an antenna control section such as a matching circuit is mounted. The inductance of NFC coil 40 having the structure of the present embodiment is significantly influenced by variations in the size of magnetic body 20. This is because if the size of magnetic body 20 varies, the apparent magnetic permeability will also vary. Thus, since there are individual differences in the inductance of NFC coil 40 due to variations in the size of magnetic body 20, variations also arise in the resonance frequency of an antenna apparatus in which NFC coil 40 is mounted. By adjusting the resonance frequency within a predetermined range from a center frequency (for example, 13.56 MHz in the case of RF-ID) defined by communication standards, radio communication can be performed with a high probability and quality. At such time, if variations in the inductance of NFC coil 40 alone are decreased (for example, suppressed to within ±2%), an adjustment range required for adjustment of the resonance frequency of the antenna apparatus in which the relevant NFC coil 40 is mounted can be decreased. Accordingly, the line length of the coil pattern is adjusted in order to suppress variations in the inductance of NFC coil 40 that are attributable to variations in the size of magnetic body 20. Trimming of the coil pattern for adjusting the inductance of NFC coil 40 is performed at a portion that is further on an outer side than the exterior of magnetic body 20 that is shown by a dotted line among lead-out patterns v and protrusion section lead-out pattern z in FIG. 8A. Since these portions are not covered over by magnetic body 20 and upper-side flexible substrate 41, trimming work can be performed with ease. For example, a difference between the number of turns of a coil pattern that is wound around magnetic body 20 with respect to a case where only protrusion section lead-out pattern z in FIG. 8A is left and lead-out patterns v are all cut off and a case where only lead-out pattern v adjacent to protrusion section lead-out pattern z is left and the other portions are all cut off is “c.” The inductance of NFC coil 40 varies by an amount that corresponds to that difference. Note that, in FIG. 8A, protrusion section y that is positioned further on the outer side than the exterior of magnetic body 20 need not necessarily be provided in divided pattern t constituting the coil pattern. However, if protrusion section y is provided, as described above, protrusion section lead-out pattern z that constitutes part of protrusion section y also contributes to adjustment of the inductance of the coil pattern. When divided pattern t that constitutes the coil pattern has protrusion section y that is positioned further on the outer side than the exterior of magnetic body 20, even when NFC coil 40 shown in FIG. 6 is small, it is possible to adequately secure an adjustment margin with respect to the inductance of the coil pattern. Further, since protrusion section y in FIG. 8A is a portion that contributes to adjustment of the inductance of the coil pattern together with adjustment pattern u, protrusion section y must be on the flexible substrate that is on the same side as adjustment pattern u is provided on. FIG. 9 is a conceptual diagram showing an antenna apparatus formed by an electronic circuit board and an NFC coil that are mounted in a portable terminal according to the present embodiment, and lines of magnetic force generated from the antenna apparatus. As shown in FIG. 9, the antenna apparatus of the present embodiment includes magnetic body 20 and NFC coil 40, and an electronic circuit board that is placed adjacent to NFC coil 40. As is generally known, a wiring pattern that connects together terminals of each circuit component mounted on the electronic circuit board is provided on a surface of or inside the electronic circuit board. As a result of miniaturization achieved by modern circuit integration, in most cases the electronic circuit board has a plurality of wiring layers. Accordingly, in many cases power supply lines for supplying power to each circuit component and GND (ground) lines are provided as a separate wiring layer from the aforementioned wiring pattern. Naturally, these wiring patterns, power supply lines and GND lines are conductors made of copper or the like. That is, the electronic circuit board (metal body 50) can be regarded as a metal body. When power supply lines and GND lines are provided as a separate wiring layer as mentioned above, since these lines are formed across almost the entire area of the allocated wiring layer, the electronic circuit board becomes a metal body of particularly good quality. Thus, in the antenna apparatus having NFC coil 40 and the electronic circuit board that can be regarded as practically a metal body, an opening portion of the coil section of NFC coil 40 is perpendicular to the electronic circuit board, and NFC coil 40 is placed at an end part of the electronic circuit board. Note that the term “end part of the electronic circuit board” includes both a case where an end part of NFC coil 40 projects beyond an outermost edge of the electronic circuit board and a case where the end part of NFC coil 40 is positioned further on the inner side than the outermost edge of the electronic circuit board. It is good for NFC coil 40 to be disposed so that the opening portion of NFC coil 40 is perpendicular to the electronic circuit board and the longitudinal direction of NFC coil 40 is substantially parallel to an endmost part of the electronic circuit board (NFC coil 40 is disposed along the endmost part of the electronic circuit board). Therefore, even when, for example, a wireless type IC card is positioned in not only region P but also in region Q, favorable communication can be performed. That is, since the opening portion of NFC coil 40 is perpendicular to the electronic circuit board, when a signal is input to NFC coil 40 and a current flows, all of lines of magnetic force M in region Q that are generated from NFC coil 40 are in a direction away from NFC coil 40, and lines of magnetic force M pass in only one direction. As a result, a current flows through, for example, a wireless type IC card positioned in region Q, and the portable terminal in which the antenna apparatus of the present embodiment that includes the electronic circuit board and NFC coil 40 is mounted and the wireless type IC card can conduct communication. In addition, in region P also, when a signal is input to NFC coil 40 and a current flows, the direction of lines of magnetic force M in region P is either one of a direction away from NFC coil 40 and a direction toward NFC coil 40. This is because lines of magnetic force M generated from NFC coil 40 attenuate in the vicinity of the electronic circuit board, and therefore axis C of lines of magnetic force M is not perpendicular to the electronic circuit board and is inclined relative thereto. As a result, a current flows through, for example, a wireless type IC card positioned in region P, and the portable terminal on which the antenna apparatus of the present embodiment that includes the electronic circuit board and NFC coil 40 is mounted and the wireless type IC card can conduct communication. Note that, in lines of magnetic force M shown in FIG. 9, axis C exists that connects boundaries of the lines of magnetic force in the direction away from NFC coil 40 and the lines of magnetic force in the direction toward NFC coil 40. When a wireless type IC card, for example, is placed in the vicinity of axis C of lines of magnetic force M, the lines of magnetic force in both the direction away from the antenna and the direction toward the antenna act on the wireless type IC card and cancel each other out. As a result, a current does not flow through the wireless type IC card, and communication is not conducted between the portable terminal in which the antenna apparatus of the present embodiment is mounted and the wireless type IC card. Next, the reason that axis C of lines of magnetic force M inclines with respect to the electronic circuit board is described. An eddy current that is induced on a surface facing NFC coil 40 of the electronic circuit board by the lines of magnetic force generated by NFC coil 40 produces lines of magnetic force in a perpendicular direction to the surface that faces NFC coil 40 of the electronic circuit board. Therefore, lines of magnetic force M generated by NFC coil 40 and lines of magnetic force generated from the eddy current induced on the surface that faces NFC coil 40 of the electronic circuit board are combined, and lines of magnetic force M generated from NFC coil 40 change in a perpendicular direction in the vicinity of the electronic circuit board. As a result, axis C of lines of magnetic force M inclines to the side that is away from the electronic circuit board. In addition, since NFC coil 40 is placed at an end part of the electronic circuit board, lines of magnetic force M on the electronic circuit board side (the right side in FIG. 6) of NFC coil 40 attenuate and lines of magnetic force M on the side away from the electronic circuit board (the left side in FIG. 6) of NFC coil 40 are strengthened relatively. As a result, axis C of lines of magnetic force M is inclined with respect to the electronic circuit board. In the configuration of the present embodiment, angle a of axis C of lines of magnetic force M inclines at about 40 to 85 degrees with respect to the electronic circuit board. If NFC coil 40 were not placed at the end part of the electronic circuit board, the lines of magnetic force in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the electronic circuit board generated by an eddy current on the surface of the electronic circuit board would decrease, and axis C of lines of magnetic force M would remain substantially perpendicular to the electronic circuit board. In that case, even if communication can be performed in region Q, communication cannot be conducted in region P. The end part of NFC coil 40 may be aligned with an end part of the electronic circuit board, or the end part of NFC coil 40 may project beyond the end part of the electronic circuit board. Furthermore, the end part of NFC coil 40 may be placed at a position that is further to the inner side than the end part of the electronic circuit board. Thus, a current flowing through the electronic circuit board can be utilized to the maximum by positioning NFC coil 40 at an end part of the electronic circuit board. Further, the effect of the present invention is obtained if angle a is approximately 85 degrees, and it is preferable for angle a to be 80 degrees or less. [Regarding Configuration of Wireless Charging Module] Next, the configuration of the wireless charging module will be described. FIGS. 10A and 10B are schematic diagrams of lines of magnetic force generated by the charging coil and the NFC coil of the present embodiment. As shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B, the opening portion of NFC coil 40 according to the present embodiment is perpendicular to metal body 50, and is placed at an end part of metal body 50. Note that in some cases NFC coil 40 projects beyond an outermost edge of metal body 50 and in some cases NFC coil 40 is located further on the inner side than the outermost edge of metal body 50, and preferably, as described later, a distance between the outer edge of NFC coil 40 and the outermost edge of metal body 50 is approximately −5 mm to +5 mm. Note that, a negative value of “d” indicates that the outer edge of NFC coil 40 is located on the inner side relative to the outermost edge of metal body 50, and in this case indicates that the outer edge of NFC coil 40 is located 2 cm on the inner side relative to the outermost edge of metal body 50. Conversely, a positive value of “d” indicates that the outer edge of NFC coil 40 projects further to the outside than the outermost edge of metal body 50. Note that, the range from −5 mm to +5 mm is due to the width in the short-side direction of magnetic body 20. That is, when the width in the short-side direction of magnetic body 20 is taken as “d”, a distance between the outer edge of NFC coil 40 and the outermost edge of metal body 50 is between approximately −d mm and +d mm, which provides the above described NFC communication favorably. Next, a case where the NFC coil is a sheet antenna is described for comparison. Even when a charging coil for wireless charging and an NFC sheet antenna for NFC communication are in opposite directions, the opening areas face in the same direction. The reason is that a coil is wound in a planar condition in both the charging coil and the NFC sheet antenna, and furthermore it is necessary to make the respective opening portions thereof large to improve communication efficiency and charging efficiency, and hence the above described configuration is adopted by necessity in an electronic device for which a reduction in size and reduction in thickness are desired. That is, the reason is that since both the wireless charging module and the NFC sheet antenna that are mounted on the casing of an electronic device that has been reduced in size conduct communication (power transmission) utilizing electromagnetic induction, the L values are increased by enlarging the opening area of the charging coil and the NFC sheet antenna. When the directions of communication (axes of the opening portions) are substantially the same as described above, both the charging coil and the NFC sheet antenna may be liable to be influenced by each other. That is, magnetic flux for power transmission between the wireless charging module of a charger for wireless charging and a charging coil on a charged-side may be taken by the NFC sheet antenna. Further, the NFC sheet antenna may also receive magnetic flux that the charging coil generates when the charging coil receives power. Accordingly, the power transmission efficiency of the NFC sheet antenna may decrease and the charging time period may increase. Further, when performing short-range communication with the NFC sheet antenna also, an eddy current may arise in the charging coil in a direction that weakens the magnetic flux generated by the NFC sheet antenna. That is, the thickness of a conducting wire in the charging coil that feeds a large current may be large in comparison to the NFC sheet antenna that conducts communication by feeding a small current. Therefore, from the viewpoint of the NFC sheet antenna, the charging coil may be a large metal object, and as far as the NFC sheet antenna is concerned, the eddy current generated in the charging coil may be of a degree that cannot be ignored. Consequently, the eddy current may adversely affect the efficiency and communication distance of short-range communication conducted by the NFC sheet antenna. In addition, unless the charging coil and the NFC sheet antenna are stacked completely with the respective centers thereof aligned, two large planar coils are present on a face of the casing, and from the viewpoint of the wireless charging module on the charger side, it may be difficult to determine which coil is the charging coil for the side to be charged. When the alignment accuracy decreases, the power transmission efficiency may decrease by a corresponding amount. For example, when performing alignment, a method is available in which the wireless charger (primary side) detects the position of the charging coil, and a planar coil of the wireless charger (primary side) is automatically moved to the position of the charging coil. While detection methods which utilize the resonance frequency of the charging coil at such time are available, in such a case there is a possibility that the resonance frequency of the NFC sheet antenna will be detected and the planar coil of the wireless charger will be aligned with the NFC sheet antenna. Further, a method is available in which a large number of coils are arranged in a line in the wireless charger (primary side) to thereby enable charging of a portable terminal device at every place on the charging surface of the wireless charger (primary side). In this case, the coil (primary side) that is near the NFC sheet antenna may transmit a large amount of unnecessary magnetic flux to the NFC sheet antenna. As a result, there is a risk that wasteful energy consumption or a malfunction will occur. In addition, in some cases a magnet that is provided on a wireless charger (primary side) performs alignment by attracting a magnetic sheet or a magnet that is provided in a hollow portion of a charging coil. In this case, since there is a possibility that a magnetic sheet that is used for an NFC sheet antenna will be saturated by the magnet and the magnetic permeability will decrease, the L value of the NFC sheet antenna may sometimes decrease. In such a case there is a risk that the communication distance or communication efficiency of the NFC sheet antenna will be reduced. Therefore, because an opening area of an NFC sheet antenna faces in substantially the same direction as that of a charging coil and generates magnetic flux in substantially the same direction, adverse effects may be exerted on the communication performance of the NFC sheet antenna and the power transmission performance of the charging coil, irrespective of the alignment method. In contrast, as shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B, when using NFC coil 40 of the present embodiment, since the directions of the opening areas of charging coil 30 and NFC coil 40 and the directions of axes A and B of the windings of the coils can be made to differ from each other, the above described problems do not arise, and it is difficult for the coils to become coupled with each other, and each coil can perform favorable communication (power transmission). That is, as illustrated in FIG. 10B, coil axis A of charging coil 30 is in the vertical direction in the drawing. In contrast, coil axis B of NFC coil 40 is in the horizontal direction in the drawing. Thus, the coil axes A and B are in a substantially perpendicular relationship with respect to each other. As a result, it is difficult for the coils to become coupled with each other. Note that it is sufficient if the coil axes intersect with each other at an angle within a range of around 80 to 100 degrees. In addition, when wireless charging module 100 of the present embodiment is used, it is possible for charging coil 30 and NFC coil 40 to perform communication in substantially the same direction. This is because NFC coil 40 behaves in the manner described above using FIG. 9. Note that, in a case where a plurality of NFC coils 40 are provided for that purpose, it is good to wind NFC coils 40 so that the magnetic flux of all NFC coils 40 extend in the same direction (for example, the upward direction in FIG. 10B). That is, the two NFC coils 40 in FIG. 10A are each wound in the clockwise direction as seen from the outside. Note that since it is preferable for NFC coil 40 to be placed at a position that is further on the edge side than the center portion side of metal body 50, it is good to arrange NFC coil 40 on the outer side of charging coil 30. As illustrated in FIGS. 10A and 10B, while it is not necessarily the case that NFC coil 40 must be placed at two places around charging coil 30, because axis C of the magnetic flux is caused to incline by metal body 50, it is preferable to arrange NFC coil 40 on both sides. Further, in FIGS. 10A and 10B, the two NFC coils 40 are connected in a loop shape so as to surround the circumference of charging coil 30. For example, if charging coil 30 is wound in a substantially oblong shape, and NFC coil 40 is placed along a long side thereof, wireless charging module 100 can be reduced in size. Further, if the width in the longitudinal direction of NFC coil 40 is substantially the same as the width in the same direction of charging coil 30, wireless charging module 100 can be reduced in size. In addition, in order to allow axis C of magnetic flux of NFC coil 40 to incline sufficiently, it is preferable not to arrange magnetic sheet 10 underneath NFC coil 40. Next, communication characteristics of the NFC coil in the wireless charging module of the present embodiment are described using FIGS. 11A and 11B to FIGS. 14A and 14B. FIGS. 11A and 11B are perspective views illustrating a portable terminal including the wireless charging module of the present embodiment and, for comparison, a portable terminal including a wireless charging module including a loop-shaped NFC coil. FIG. 12 illustrates the respective frequency characteristics of induced voltages of the two wireless charging modules shown in FIGS. 11A and 11B. FIGS. 13A and 13B each illustrate a magnetic field on a YZ plane of a corresponding one of the two wireless charging modules illustrated in FIGS. 11A and 11B. FIGS. 14A and 14B each illustrate a magnetic field on a ZX plane of a corresponding one of the two wireless charging modules illustrated in FIGS. 11A and 11B. Note that, for comparison, FIG. 11A, FIG. 13A and FIG. 14A illustrate the case of a wireless charging module that includes a loop-shaped NFC antenna, while FIG. 11B, FIG. 13B and FIG. 14B illustrate the case of the wireless charging module of the present embodiment. In FIG. 11A and FIG. 11B, wireless charging module 100 of the present embodiment and wireless charging module 400 including a loop-shaped NFC antenna are mounted so as to be stacked on battery pack 303. The power transmission direction of charging coil 30 and the communication direction of NFC coil 40 of wireless charging modules 100 and 400, respectively, are the direction of the rear surface of the portable terminal (a side on which a display section such as a liquid crystal display is disposed is assumed to be the front surface). At such time, as shown in FIG. 12, an induced electromotive force of NFC coil 40 of wireless charging module 100 is larger than an induced electromotive force of the loop-shaped NFC coil of wireless charging module 400. Consequently, the communication efficiency of NFC coil 40 of wireless charging module 100 is higher than that of loop-shaped NFC coil of wireless charging module 400. Further, as is apparent from FIGS. 13A and 13B and FIGS. 14A and 14B, a region in which communication can be performed is wider in the case of NFC coil 40 of wireless charging module 100 than in the case of the loop-shaped NFC coil of wireless charging module 400. At such time, the area of wireless charging module 400 shown in FIG. 11A and the area of the wireless charging module shown in FIG. 11B are substantially the same size (40 mm×40 mm×0.4 mm). Note that, when the same magnetic sheet 10 and charging coil 30 are used in wireless charging module 100 and wireless charging module 400, the power transmission efficiency of charging coil 30 does not change significantly. The reason is that charging coil 30 is sufficiently large in comparison to the antenna for NFC communication. Charging coil 30 is a component for transmitting power during wireless charging, and transmits stepped power over an extended time period. In contrast, communication by NFC coil 40 is performed for a short time period and the amount of power at the time of communication is also small in comparison to charging coil 30. Consequently, a conducting wire constituting charging coil 30 is thicker than a conducting wire constituting NFC coil 40, and the number of turns thereof is also more than the conducting wire constituting NFC coil 40. Consequently, from the viewpoint of NFC coil 40, charging coil 30 is a large metal body, and charging coil 30 exerts a large influence on NFC coil 40. In contrast, from the viewpoint of charging coil 30, NFC coil 40 is small, and NFC coil 40 has little influence on charging coil 30. Therefore, when the same magnetic sheet 10 and charging coil 30 are used in wireless charging module 100 and wireless charging module 400, respectively, the power transmission efficiency of charging coil 30 does not change significantly, irrespective of the shape of the coil (antenna) for NFC communication. As described above, by adopting a configuration in which axis A of charging coil 30 and axis B of NFC coil 40 intersect with each other, charging coil 30 and the NFC coil can be prevented from interfering with each other. In particular, mutual interference can be prevented the most by adopting a configuration in which axis A of charging coil 30 and axis B of NFC coil 40 are substantially orthogonal to each other. By adopting a configuration in which charging coil 30 is wound in a rectangular shape and at least two NFC coils 40 are placed along two facing sides of rectangular charging coil 30, a region in which NFC communication is possible can be extended in a well-balanced manner around wireless charging module 100. In particular, when mounted in a portable terminal, even if the center of charging coil 30 is placed at the center side of the portable terminal, the overall center of the plurality of NFC coils 40 can also be located at the center side of the portable terminal. Consequently, it is possible to prevent a situation from arising in which a region in which charging is possible and a region in which NFC communication is possible around the portable terminal are significantly biased toward a particular direction. Further, arranging NFC coil 40 on the outer side of magnetic sheet 10 makes it possible to efficiently perform the communication of NFC coil 40. Furthermore, by adopting a configuration in which magnetic sheet 10 and magnetic body 20 are constituted by respectively different kinds of ferrite, wireless charging and NFC communication can each be performed efficiently. [Regarding Portable Terminal] FIGS. 15A to 15E are sectional views that schematically illustrate a portable terminal including the wireless charging module of the present embodiment. In FIGS. 15A to 15E, the portable terminal includes a display section on an upper face side, and a lower face side thereof serves as a communication face. In portable terminal 300 illustrated in FIGS. 15A to 15E, components other than casing 301, substrate 302, battery pack 303, and wireless charging module 100 are not shown, and FIGS. 15A to 15E schematically illustrate arrangement relationships between casing 301, substrate 302, battery pack 303, and wireless charging module 100. Portable terminal 300 includes, within casing 301, substrate 302 that performs control of at least a part of portable terminal 300, battery pack (power holding section) 303 that temporarily stores received power, and wireless charging module 100 that is described above. The display section may sometimes include a touch panel function. In such a case, a user operates the portable terminal by performing a touch operation on the display section. With respect to the orientation of wireless charging module 100, naturally magnetic sheet 10 is disposed on the display section side (upper side in FIGS. 15A to 15E), and charging coil 30 and NFC coil 40 are disposed so as to face the rear surface side of casing 301 (lower side in FIGS. 15A to 15E). It is thereby possible to make the transmitting direction for wireless charging and also the communication direction of the NFC coil the direction of the rear surface side of casing 301 (lower side in FIGS. 15A to 15E). In FIG. 15A, among substrate 302, battery pack 303, and wireless charging module 100, substrate 302 is disposed furthest on the display section side (upper side in FIGS. 15A to 15E), battery pack 303 is disposed on the rear side of substrate 302, and wireless charging module 100 is nearest to the rear surface side of casing 301. At least a part of substrate 302 and a part of battery pack 303 are stacked, and at least a part of battery pack 303 and wireless charging module 100 are stacked. It is thereby possible to prevent wireless charging module 100 and substrate 302 as well as electronic components mounted on substrate 302 from exerting adverse effects (for example, interference) on each other. Further, since battery pack 303 and wireless charging module 100 are disposed adjacent to each other, the components can be connected easily. In addition, an area for substrate 302, battery pack 303, and wireless charging module 100, in particular, can be adequately secured, and there is a high degree of design freedom. The L values of charging coil 30 and NFC coil 40 can be adequately secured. In FIG. 15B, among substrate 302, battery pack 303, and wireless charging module 100, substrate 302 is disposed furthest on the display section side (upper side in FIGS. 15A to 15E), and battery pack 303 and wireless charging module 100 are disposed in parallel on the rear side of substrate 302. That is, battery pack 303 and wireless charging module 100 are not stacked, and are disposed in parallel in the transverse direction in FIGS. 15A to 15E. At least a part of substrate 302 and battery pack 303 are stacked, and at least a part of substrate 302 and wireless charging module 100 are stacked. Thus, since battery pack 303 and wireless charging module 100 are not stacked, casing 301 can be made thinner. In addition, an area for substrate 302, battery pack 303, and wireless charging module 100, in particular, can be adequately secured, and there is a high degree of design freedom. The L values of charging coil 30 and NFC coil 40 can be adequately secured. In FIG. 15C, among substrate 302, battery pack 303, and wireless charging module 100, substrate 302 and battery pack 303 are disposed furthest on the display section side (upper side in FIGS. 15A to 15E), and wireless charging module 100 is disposed on the rear side of battery pack 303. That is, battery pack 303 and substrate 302 are not stacked, and are disposed in parallel in the transverse direction in FIGS. 15A to 15E. At least a part of battery pack 303 and a part of wireless charging module 100 are stacked. Thus, since battery pack 303 and substrate 302 are not stacked, casing 301 can be made thinner. Further, since battery pack 303 and wireless charging module 100 are stacked and thus battery pack 303 and wireless charging module 100 are disposed adjacent to each other, these components can be connected easily. In addition, an area for substrate 302, battery pack 303, and wireless charging module 100 can be adequately secured, and the L values of charging coil 30 and NFC coil 40 can be adequately secured. In FIG. 15D, among substrate 302, battery pack 303, and wireless charging module 100, substrate 302 and battery pack 303 are disposed furthest on the display section side (upper side in FIGS. 15A to 15E), and wireless charging module 100 is disposed on the rear side of substrate 302. That is, battery pack 303 and substrate 302 are not stacked, and are disposed in parallel in the transverse direction in FIGS. 15A to 15E. At least a part of substrate 302 and a part of wireless charging module 100 are stacked. Thus, since battery pack 303 and substrate 302 are not stacked, casing 301 can be made thinner. In general, battery pack 303 is the thickest among substrate 302, battery pack 303, and wireless charging module 100. Therefore, rather than stacking the battery pack and another component, casing 301 can be made thin by stacking substrate 302 and wireless charging module 100. Further, an area for substrate 302, battery pack 303, and wireless charging module 100 can be adequately secured, and the L values of charging coil 30 and NFC coil 40 can be adequately secured. In FIG. 15E, substrate 302, battery pack 303, and wireless charging module 100 are disposed on the display section side (upper side in FIGS. 15A to 15E). That is, substrate 302, battery pack 303, and wireless charging module 100 are not stacked with respect to each other at all, and are disposed in parallel in the transverse direction in FIGS. 15A to 15E. Thus casing 301 can be made with the smallest thickness among the configurations illustrated in FIGS. 15A to 15E. The disclosure of the specification, drawings, and abstract included in Japanese Patent Application No. 2012-032317 filed on Feb. 17, 2012 is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The present invention is useful for various kinds of electronic devices such as a portable terminal including the wireless charging module that includes a wireless charging module and an NFC antenna, in particular, portable devices such as a mobile phone, a portable audio device, a personal computer, a digital camera, and a video camera. Reference Signs List 100 Wireless charging module 10 Magnetic sheet 11 Slit 12 Flat portion 13 Center portion 20 Magnetic body 30 Charging coil 31a, 31b, 31c, 31d Corner portion 32a, 32b Leg portion 33 Inner portion 40 NFC coil 50 Metal body 200 Primary-side wireless charging module 210 Primary-side coil 220 Magnet 300 Portable terminal 301 Casing 302 Substrate 303 Battery pack

<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>In recent years, NFC (Near Field Communication) antennas that utilize RFID (Radio Frequency IDentification) technology and use radio waves in the 13.56 MHz band and the like are being used as antennas that are mounted in communication apparatuses such as portable terminal devices. To improve the communication efficiency, an NFC antenna is provided with a magnetic sheet that improves the communication efficiency in the 13.56 MHz band and thus configured as an NFC antenna module. Technology has also been proposed in which a wireless charging module is mounted in a communication apparatus, and the communication apparatus is charged by wireless charging. According to this technology, a power transmission coil is disposed on the charger side and a power reception coil is provided on the communication apparatus side, electromagnetic induction is generated between the two coils at a frequency in a band between approximately 100 kHz and 200 kHz to thereby transfer electric power from the charger to the communication apparatus side. To improve the communication efficiency, the wireless charging module is also provided with a magnetic sheet that improves the efficiency of communication in the band between approximately 100 kHz and 200 kHz. Portable terminals that include such NFC modules and wireless charging modules have also been proposed (for example, see PTL 1).

<SOH> SUMMARY OF INVENTION <EOH>A mobile terminal is provided, which includes a wireless charging module, a battery pack, and a circuit board substrate. The wireless charging module includes a charging coil formed of a wound conducting wire and a communication coil placed adjacent to the charging coil. The wireless charging module has a substantially planar shape. The battery pack has a substantially planar shape and is configured to store power from the wireless charging module. The circuit board substrate is configured to control operation of the mobile terminal. The wireless charging module overlaps with each of the circuit board substrate and the battery pack.

H02J7025

20180201

20180605

20180607

92423.0

H02J702

WHITMORE, STACY

ELECTRONIC DEVICE INCLUDING NON-CONTACT CHARGING MODULE AND BATTERY

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H02J

PENDING

PASSIVE MULTI-PORT ENTRY ADAPTER AND METHOD FOR PRESERVING DOWNSTREAM CATV SIGNAL STRENGTH WITHIN IN-HOME NETWORK

A cable television (CATV) entry adapter interfaces to a CATV network and serves as a hub in an in-home network for passively communicating multimedia content or information from the CATV network and between subscriber devices connected to the ports of the CATV entry adapter, using CATV signals in a CATV frequency band and network signals in a different in-home network band.

1. Passive CATV/MoCA signal distribution apparatus, comprising: an input port for receiving CATV input signals; an RE output port for outputting CATV signals; a Gateway port for connection to a Gateway device, for bidirectionally outputting and receiving CATV and MoCA signals; a plurality of MoCA signal ports for connection to a plurality of MoCA devices, respectively, each for bidirectionally receiving and outputting MoCA signals; a first splitter configured as a two-way splitter having an input connected to said input port, for providing first and second CATV output signals, said second CATV output being connected to said RE output port; a diplex filter including a lowpass filter section receptive of said first CATV output signal, and a highpass filter section for bidirectionally receiving MoCA signals, while isolating said MoCA signals from both said first CATV output signal, and said input port, thereby also preventing the aforesaid signals from being combined at said input port; and a second splitter including a first bidirectional MoCA signal line connected to the highpass filter section of said diplex filter, and a plurality of other bidirectional signal lines connected individually to said plurality of MoCA signal ports, respectively. 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the apparatus permits a plurality of MoCA clients the ability to independently communicate with said Gateway device. 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the Gateway port comprises a principle port and wherein the Gateway device comprises a network interface device. 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the RE output port comprises an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA) port. 5. A passive CATV/MoCA signal distribution system comprising: an input port for receiving a CATV input signal; an RF/CATV output terminal; a Gateway port for connection to a Gateway device receptive of CATV and MoCA signals; first splitter means having an input connected to said input port for splitting said CATV signal into first, second, and third CATV signal outputs, said third CATV output signal being directly connected to said IF/CATV output terminal; diplex filter means individually receptive of said first and second CATV signal outputs, and individually bidirectionally receptive of MoCA signals, for both electrically isolating said first and second CATV signal outputs from said MoCA signals to prevent MoCA signals being connected to said input port, and for bidirectionally connecting CATV and MoCA signals to said Gateway port; second splitter means for individually bidirectionally receiving MoCA signals from a plurality of individual MoCA devices associated with a plurality of MoCA clients, respectively, for providing said MoCA signals to said diplex filter means for connection to said Gateway port, the latter connection providing each of said plurality of MoCA clients the ability to independently communicate with said Gateway, whereby said system prevents said CATV signals and MoCA signals from being combined at said input port; said diplex filter means includes: a first diplex filter including a lowpass filter section for receiving said first CATV signal output, and a highpass filter section for bidirectionally receiving MoCA signals from said second splitter means, while electrically isolating said MoCA signals both from said first splitter means, and said input port; and a second diplex filter including a lowpass filter section for receiving said first CATV output signal, and a highpass filter section for bidirectionally receiving MoCA signals from said second splitter means, for connecting said CATV and MoCA signals to said Gateway port, while electrically isolating said MoCA signals both from said first splitter means, and said input port. 6. The system of claim 5, wherein a common terminal of the second diplex filter receives the MoCA signals from the second splitter, and wherein the highpass filter section of the second diplex filter receives the MoCA signals from the common terminal of the second diplex filter. 7. The system of claim 5, wherein the Gateway port comprises a principle port, and the Gateway device comprises a network interface device. 8. The system of claim 5, wherein the CATV/RF output terminal comprises an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA) port. 9. A passive Gateway splitter device comprising: an input port for receiving a CATV input signal; a Gateway port for connection to a Gateway device; a MoCA splitter comprising a plurality of ports configured for being connected to a plurality of MoCA devices associated with a plurality of MoCA clients, the plurality of ports further configured for passing MoCA signals, each of the plurality of ports configured for passing one of the MoCA signals from or to a connected one of the plurality of MoCA devices associated with a respective one of the plurality of MoCA clients; a first splitter comprising an input connected to said input port, the first splitter further comprising a first output and a second output, the first splitter configured for receiving the CATV input signal via the input of the first splitter and splitting the CATV input signal into a first CATV signal output via the first output and a second CATV signal output via the second output; a first diplex filter comprising an input connected to the first output of the first splitter for receiving the first CATV signal via the first output of the first splitter, the first diplex filter further comprising a first output and a second output that is connected to the MoCA splitter, the first diplex filter configured for electrically isolating said first CATV signal from said MoCA signals to prevent the MoCA signals from being connected to said input port of the first diplex filter; and a second diplex filter comprising a first output connected to the Gateway port and a second output connected to MoCA splitter, the second diplex filter configured to prevent the MoCA signals from being connected to said input port of the second diplex filter, and for individually bidirectionally connecting the MoCA signals to said Gateway port. 10. The device of claim 9, wherein the Gateway port comprises a principle port and the Gateway device comprises a network interface device. 11. The device of claim 9, wherein the input of the first diplex filter comprises a low frequency terminal, the first output of the first diplex filter comprises a high frequency terminal of the first diplex filter, and the second output of the first diplex filter comprises a common terminal of the first diplex filter. 12. The device of claim 9, wherein the first output of the second diplexer comprises a common terminal of the second diplexer, the second output comprises a high frequency terminal of the second diplexer, the second output being coupled to the MoCA splitter via the first diplex filter, and wherein an input of the second diplex filter comprises a low frequency terminal of the second diplex filter, the input being connected to the second CATV signal output of the first splitter.

This invention relates to cable television (CATV) and to in-home entertainment networks which share existing coaxial cables within the premises for CATV signal distribution and in-home network communication signals. More particularly, the present invention relates to a new and improved passive entry adapter between a CATV network and the in-home network which minimizes the CATV signal strength reduction even when distributed among multiple subscriber or multimedia devices within the subscriber's premises or home. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION CATV networks use an infrastructure of interconnected coaxial cables, signal splitters and combiners, repeating amplifiers, filters, trunk lines, cable taps, drop lines and other signal-conducting devices to supply and distribute high frequency “downstream” signals from a main signal distribution facility, known as a “headend,” to the premises (homes and offices' of subscribers to the CATV services. The downstream signals transfer multimedia content to subscriber equipment, such as television sets, telephone sets and computers. In addition, most CATV networks also transmit “upstream” signals from the subscriber equipment back to the headend of the CATV network. For example, the subscriber uses a set top box to select programs for display on the television set. As another example, two-way communication is essential when using a personal computer connected through the CATV infrastructure to the public Internet. As a further example, voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone sets use the CATV infrastructure and the public Internet as the communication medium for transmitting two-way telephone conversations. To permit simultaneous communication of upstream and downstream CATV signals and the interoperability of the subscriber equipment and the equipment associated with the CATV network infrastructure outside of subscriber premises, the downstream and upstream CATV signals are confined to two different frequency bands. The downstream frequency band is within the range of 54-1002 megahertz (MHz) and the upstream frequency band is within the range of 5-42 MHz, in most CATV networks. The entire CATV frequency band is therefore 5-1002 MHz. The downstream signals are delivered from the CATV network infrastructure to the subscriber premises at a CATV entry adapter, which is also commonly referred to as an entry device, terminal adapter or a drop amplifier. The CATV entry adapter is usually a multi-port device which provides a multiplicity of ports or connectors for connecting coaxial cables. A separate coaxial cable is connected to each of the ports and extends within the subscriber premises to the location of the subscriber equipment. Some homes have coaxial cables extending to cable outlets in almost every room, because of the many different types of subscriber equipment used in different rooms. For example, television sets are commonplace throughout the home. The multiple ports of the CATV entry adapter deliver downstream CATV at each cable outlet and conduct upstream CATV signals back through the premises coaxial cables to the CATV entry adapter, which delivers the upstream CATV signals to the CATV network. In addition to television sets, computers and telephones, a relatively large number of other entertainment and multimedia devices are available for use in homes. For example, a digital video recorder (DVR) is used to store broadcast programming, still photography and moving pictures in a memory medium so that the content can be replayed on a display or television set at a later time selected by the user. As another example, computer games are also played at displays or on television sets. Such computer games may be obtained or played over the Internet from the CATV network or from media played on play-back devices or game consoles connected to displays or television sets. As a further example, receivers which receive satellite-broadcast signals may be distributed for viewing or listening throughout the home. These types of devices, including the more-conventional television sets, telephone sets and devices connected to the Internet by the CATV network, are generically referred to as multimedia devices. The desire to use multimedia devices at multiple different locations within the home or subscriber premises has led to the creation of the Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA). MoCA has developed specifications for products to create an in-home entertainment network for interconnecting presently-known and future multimedia devices. The MoCA in-home network uses the subscriber premise or in-home coaxial cable infrastructure originally established for distribution of CATV signals within the subscriber premises, principally because that cable infrastructure already exists in most homes and is capable of carrying much more information than is carried in the CATV frequency band. A MoCA network is established by connecting MoCA interface devices at the cable outlets in the rooms of the subscriber premises. The MoCA network is used to transmit multimedia content from one MoCA interface device to another. The MoCA interface devices implement a MoCA communication protocol which encapsulates the multimedia content normally sent and received by the multimedia devices within MoCA packets and then communicates these MoCA packets between selected ones of the other MoCA interfaces devices connected at other cable outlets. The receiving MoCA interface device removes the encapsulated multimedia content, and delivers it to the connected computer, digital television or set-top box or other multimedia device from which then presents that multimedia content. Each MoCA interface device is capable of communicating with every other MoCA interface device in the MoCA network to deliver the multimedia content throughout the home or subscriber premises. The entertainment or multimedia content that is available from one multimedia device can be displayed, played or otherwise used at a different location within the home, without having to physically relocate the multimedia device from one location to another within the home. The in-home network communication of multimedia content is considered beneficial in more fully utilizing the multimedia devices present in modern homes. The MoCA interface devices also pass the upstream and downstream CATV signals between the CATV entry adapter and the subscriber devices. Since the MoCA network may function simultaneously with the normal operation of the CATV services, the MoCA signals communicated between MoCA interface devices utilize a frequency range of 1125-1525 MHz, which is outside of the frequency band of CATV signals. This so-called band of MoCA signals is divided into eight different frequency ranges, D1-D8, and these eight different D frequency ranges are used to assure communication between the selected MoCA interface devices. For example, the D-1 band at 1125-1175 MHz may be used to communicate CATV television programming content between a MoCA interface device connected to a set-top box in a main room of the house and another MoCA interface device connected to a television set in bedroom of the house, while a MoCA interface device connected to a computer gaming multimedia device in a basement room of the house simultaneously communicates computer game content over the D-6 band at 1375-1425 MHz to a computer located in a recreation room of the house. The MoCA frequency band also includes other frequency ranges outside of the CATV frequency band, but the D band is used to establish connections and communicate content between the MoCA interface devices. Using the in-home coaxial cable as the principal communication medium substantially simplifies the implementation of the MoCA network, but there are certain disadvantages in doing so. The D band MoCA frequencies have the capability of passing through the CATV entry adapter and entering the CATV network where they may then enter a nearby subscriber's premises. The presence of the MoCA signals at the nearby subscriber's premises compromises the privacy and security of the information originally intended to be confined within the original subscriber premises. The MoCA signals from the original subscriber premises which enter through the CATV network to the nearby subscriber premises also have the potential to adversely affect the performance of a MoCA network in nearby subscriber's premises. The conflict of the MoCA signals from the original and nearby subscriber premises may cause the MoCA interface devices to malfunction or not operate properly on a consistent basis. Another undesirable aspect of using a MoCA for communication between the various multimedia devices is that a relatively large MoCA network with many cable outlet ports has the effect of deteriorating the strength of the downstream CATV signal. Because in-home multimedia devices frequently require access to the CATV network in order to send upstream CATV signals as well is to receive downstream CATV signals, the in-home coaxial cable infrastructure must commonly connect all of the CATV cables and CATV ports within the home to a common connection with the drop cable that supplies the CATV signal and services to the home. The common connection is usually achieved in the CATV entry adapter, which provides output ports that connect to the coaxial cables extending within the home to each separate location or room. A splitter within the CATV entry adapter divides the CATV downstream signals into two or more reduced-power copies of the input signal, and supplies each copy to a separate outlet port. Similarly, upstream signals from the subscriber equipment connected to each of the coaxial cables are combined in the splitter and then passed upstream through the CATV entry adapter into the CATV network. The typical splitter is passive, which means that the power of the input signal is divided among the copies of the output signals split from the input signal. Each copy of the signal therefore has diminished power or strength, and the lower strength copies will not have the same quality as the input signal. In general terms, the quality is the strength of the signal relative to the strength of the inherent ambient noise. Since the inherent ambient noise generally cannot be diminished and is usually a constant, lowering the strength of the signal relative to the noise reduces the signal-to-noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio is a recognized measure of the quality of a signal. A lower signal-to-noise ratio represents a lesser quality signal. Because many homes require a relatively large number of cable outlet ports, for example six or more, the downstream CATV signal must be split into a comparable relatively large number of copies. The greater number of signal splitters required to generate the requisite number of separate copies of the downstream CATV signal diminishes the strength of the downstream signal copies. The quality of CATV service available in an in-home network with a relatively large number of cable output ports therefore suffers, because the strength of the CATV signal available at each of these ports is substantially diminished due to the extent of signal splitting required. On the other hand, Upstream CATV signals from the subscriber equipment do not occur as frequently as downstream CATV signals. Furthermore, upstream signals are generally of a higher power because they are generated immediately by the subscriber equipment within the home. Consequently, the reduction in CATV signal strength applies principally to downstream CATV signals, which of course provide the multimedia content to the subscriber. It is the quality of the multimedia content observed by the subscriber that forms the basis for the subscriber's opinion of quality of service. To compensate for downstream CATV signal strength reduction caused by splitting, some entry adapters include amplifiers to increase the strength of the copies of the downstream CATV signals. Of course, including an amplifier along with the signal splitter makes the signal transmission dependent upon the presence of adequate electrical power to operate the amplifier. The power for the amplifier is derived from commercial sources within the household. If the commercial power supply is temporarily interrupted, or if the power supply equipment within the home ceases operating properly, the customer perceives a CATV problem and reports the problem to the CATV service provider. The CATV service provider must thereafter send a service or repair person to the home of the subscriber in order to identify and remedy the problem. Such service calls are a significant expense for a CATV service provider. CATV service providers therefore attempt to eliminate as many of the potential points of failure as possible in the equipment supplied by the CATV service provider, to reduce service calls and repair costs. Including an amplifier in a CATV entry adapter creates a potential point of failure, and for that reason most CATV service providers wish to avoid using CATV entry adapters with amplifiers. However, in those relatively large in-home networks with multiple outlets for connecting multiple multimedia devices, there has been little previous choice but to use amplifiers in conjunction with splitters in order to obtain the desired downstream CATV signal strength that represents a high quality of service. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a cable television (CATV) entry adapter which beneficially provides a high quality and strength downstream CATV signal to multiple subscriber devices while simultaneously contributing to and promoting the establishment of a multimedia in-home network. The CATV entry adapter is preferably passive without an amplifier, and passes the in-home network communication signals between the multiple subscriber devices, and passes the downstream and upstream CATV signals to the subscriber equipment and the CATV network. The in-home network communication signals are effectively communicated in the in-home network and the multimedia content from the upstream and downstream CATV signals is effectively made available to all of the subscriber equipment and to the CATV network without diminishing the quality or strength of the CATV signals to the point where the quality of service is compromised. As a passive device, the CATV entry adapter of the present invention requires no external power source, which eliminates unnecessary service calls. In addition, critical communications over the CATV network, such as “life-line” phone service, are preserved during transmission over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. In accordance with these and other features, one aspect of the invention involves a cable television (CATV) entry adapter for conducting downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at subscriber premises and for conducting in-home network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The CATV signals occupy a CATV frequency band which is different from an in-home network frequency band occupied by the in-home network signals. The in-home network includes a network interface connected to each subscriber device by which to generate and communicate the network signals between the subscriber devices in the in-home network. The CATV entry adapter comprises a CATV entry port for connection to the CATV network, and a plurality of network ports each for connection to the network interface to which each subscriber device is connected. The CATV entry adapter also includes a signal splitter which has an input terminal and two output terminals. The signal splitter operatively splits a signal received at its input terminal into reduced-power copies of the input signal supplied at each of its output terminals. The signal splitter also communicates signals received at each output terminal to the input terminal and to the other output terminal. The CATV entry adapter also includes an in-home network frequency band rejection device connected between the CATV entry port and the input port of the signal splitter. The in-home network frequency band rejection device substantially blocks transmission of the in-home network signals therethrough to the CATV entry port and the CATV network. Another aspect of the invention involves an in-home network for distributing multimedia content to subscriber devices. The multimedia content is obtained from CATV signals communicated over a CATV network and from a subscriber device connected to the in-home network. The in-home network comprises a CATV entry adapter having a CATV entry port and a plurality of network ports. The CATV entry port is connected to the CATV network for receiving multimedia content from CATV signals communicated over the CATV network. The in-home network also comprises a plurality of in-home network interfaces, each of which is connected to a different one of the plurality of network ports. Each of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content to the subscriber devices to which each network interface is connected. All of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content between one another in network signals communicated between the network interfaces. At least one of the network interfaces sends and receives CATV signals and communicates the multimedia content contained in the CATV signals to the subscriber device to which the one network interface is connected, and communicates the multimedia content obtained from the CATV signals in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. Each of the network interfaces communicates multimedia content obtained from a subscriber device connected to that network interface in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. The network signals are located within a network frequency band which is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are located. A further aspect of the invention involves a method of conducting information contained in downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at a subscriber premises and of conducting information contained in network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The method comprises connecting the CATV entry adapter to receive and transmit CATV signals from and to the CATV network, respectively; connecting in-home network interfaces to each subscriber device to form the in-home network among the subscriber devices to which network interfaces are attached; connecting the CATV entry adapter as a hub in the in-home network to pass network signals between network interfaces; confining the network signals to an end-home network frequency band that is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are confined; connecting the CATV adapter to at least one network interface to receive and transmit CATV signals supplied from and to the CATV entry adapter; and preventing transmission of the network signals within the CATV entry adapter onto the CATV network. One subsidiary aspect of the invention which relates to blocking or preventing the transmission of network signals onto the CATV network, involves a frequency rejection device which comprises only passive electronic components, or which functions without a power source separate from the CATV signals and the in-home network signals. The frequency rejection device may take the form of a frequency rejection filter, or the frequency rejection device may take the form of at least one diplexer which divides frequencies into separate frequency bands, and is connected to conduct the network signals in the network frequency band between network interfaces and to conduct the CATV signals in the CATV frequency band to and from the CATV network. Another subsidiary aspect of the invention involves a server network interface and at least one client network interface. The server network interface sends and receives downstream and upstream CATV signals and network signals to communicate information contained in the CATV and network signals to the subscriber device to which the server network interface is connected. Each client network interface sends and receives network signals to communicate information contained in the network signals to the subscriber device to which each client network interface is connected. The server network interface also has a capability for storing information obtained from downstream CATV signals and subsequently supplying network signals to a client network interface which contain the information stored from the downstream CATV signals. An additional subsidiary aspect of the invention involves connecting an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA)-compatible subscriber device including a modem and telephone set to the CATV entry adapter, and splitting downstream CATV signals into reduced-power copies and supplying one of the copies to the eMTA-compatible device. A more complete appreciation of the present invention, as well as the manner in which the present invention achieves the above and other improvements, can be obtained by reference to the following detailed description of presently preferred embodiments taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are briefly summarized below, and by reference to the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a typical CATV network infrastructure, including a plurality of CATV entry adapters which incorporate the present invention, and also illustrating an in-home network using a CATV entry adapter for connecting multimedia devices or other subscriber equipment within the subscriber premises. FIG. 2 is a more detailed illustration of the in-home network in one subscriber premises shown in FIG. 1, with more details of network interfaces and subscriber equipment shown in block diagram form. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of components of one embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 5 is a block diagram of components of another embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, constituting an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 3, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is a block diagram of components of another embodiment of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, constituting an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapters shown in FIGS. 3 and 5, also showing subscriber and network interfaces in block diagram form. FIG. 8 is a block diagram of components of an alternative embodiment of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 7. DETAILED DESCRIPTION A CATV entry adapter 10 which incorporates the present invention is shown generally in FIG. 1. The CATV entry adapter 10 is located at subscriber premises 12 and forms a part of a conventional in-home network 14, such as a conventional Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA) in-home entertainment network. The in-home network 14 interconnects subscriber equipment or multimedia devices 16 within the subscriber premises 12, and allows the multimedia devices 16 to communicate multimedia content or in-home signals between other multimedia devices 16. The connection medium of the in-home network 14 is formed in significant part by a preexisting CATV coaxial cable infrastructure (represented generally by coaxial cables 18) present in the subscriber premises 12 and originally intended to communicate CATV signals between the multimedia or subscriber devices 16. However the connection medium of the in-home network 14 may be intentionally created using newly-installed coaxial cables 18. Examples of multimedia devices 16 are digital video recorders, computers, data modems, computer game playing devices, television sets, television set-top boxes, and other audio and visual entertainment devices. The CATV entry adapter 10 is also a part of a conventional CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10 delivers CATV multimedia content or signals from the CATV network 20 to subscriber equipment at the subscriber premises 12. The subscriber equipment includes the multimedia devices 16, but may also include other devices which may or may not operate as a part of the in-home network 14 but which are intended to function as a result of connection to the CATV network 20. Examples of subscriber equipment which may not be part of the in-home network 14 are a modem 56 and a connected voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone set 58 and certain other embedded multimedia terminal adapter- (eMTA) compatible devices (not shown). The CATV entry adapter 10 has beneficial characteristics which allow it to function simultaneously in both the in-home network 14 and in the CATV network 20, thereby benefiting both the in-home network 14 and the CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10 functions as a hub in the in-home network 14, to effectively transfer in-home network signals between the multimedia and subscriber devices 16. The CATV entry adapter 10 also functions in a conventional role as an CATV interface between the CATV network 20 and the subscriber equipment 16 located at the subscriber premises 12, thereby providing CATV service to the subscriber. In addition, the CATV entry adapter 10 securely confines in-home network communications within each subscriber premise and prevents the network signals from entering the CATV network 20 and degrading the strength of the CATV signals conducted by the CATV network 20 four possible recognition by a nearby subscriber. The CATV network 20 has a typical topology. Downstream signals 22 originate from programming sources at a headend 24 of the CATV network 20, and are conducted to the CATV entry adapter 10 in a sequential path through a main trunk cable 26, a signal splitter/combiner 28, secondary trunk cables 30, another signal splitter/combiner 32, distribution cable branches 34, cable taps 36, and drop cables 38. Upstream signals 40 originating from the subscriber equipment 16 and 56/58 are delivered from the CATV entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20, and are conducted to the headend 24 in the same path but in reverse sequence. Interspersed at appropriate locations within the topology of the CATV network 20 are conventional repeater amplifiers 42, which amplify both the downstream CATV signals 22 and the upstream CATV signals 40. Conventional repeater amplifiers may also be included in the cable taps 36. The cable taps 36 and signal splitter/combiners 28 and 32 divide a single downstream signal into multiple separate downstream signals, and combine multiple upstream signals into a single upstream signal. More details concerning the CATV entry adapter 10 are shown in FIG. 2. The CATV entry adapter 10 includes a housing 44 which encloses internal electronic circuit components (shown in FIGS. 3-8). A mounting flange 46 surrounds the housing 44, and holes 48 in the flange 46 allow attachment of the CATV entry adapter 10 to a support structure at a subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1). The CATV entry adapter 10 connects to the CATV network 20 through a CATV connection or entry port 50. The CATV entry adapter 10 receives the downstream signals 22 from, and sends the upstream signals 40 to, the CATV network 20 through the connection port 50. The downstream and upstream signals 22 and 40 are communicated to and from the subscriber equipment through an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA) port 52 and through in-home network ports 54. A conventional modem 56 is connected between a conventional voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone set 58 and the eMTA port 52. The modem 56 converts downstream CATV signals 22 containing data for the telephone set 58 into signals 60 usable by the telephone set 58 in accordance with the VoIP protocol. Similarly, the modem 56 converts the VoIP protocol signals 60 from the telephone set 58 into Upstream CATV signals 40 which are sent through the eMTA port 52 and the CATV entry port 50 to the CATV network 20. Coaxial cables 18 within the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) connect the in-home network ports 54 to coaxial outlets 62. The in-home network 14 uses a new or existing coaxial cable infrastructure in the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) to locate the coaxial outlets 62 in different rooms or locations within the subscriber premises 12 (FIG. 1) and to establish the communication medium for the in-home network 14. In-home network interface devices 64 and 66 are connected to or made a part of the coaxial outlets 62. The devices 64 and 66 send in-home network signals 78 between one another through the coaxial outlets 62, coaxial cables 18, the network ports 54 and the CATV entry adapter 10. The CATV entry adapter 10 internally connects the network ports 54 to transfer the network signals 78 between the ports 54, as shown and discussed below in connection with FIGS. 3-8. Subscriber or multimedia devices 16 are connected to the in-home network interfaces 64 and 66. In-home network signals 78 originating from a subscriber devices 16 connected to one of the network interfaces 64 or 66 are delivered through the in-home network 14 to the interface 64 or 66 of the recipient subscriber device 16. The network interfaces 64 and 66 perform the typical functions of buffering information, typically in digital form as packets, and delivering and receiving the packets over the in-home network 14 in accordance with the communication protocol used by the in-home network, for example the MoCA protocol. Although the information is typically in digital form, it is communication over the in-home network 14 is typically as analog signals in predetermined frequency bands, such as the D-band frequencies used in the MoCA communication protocol. The combination of one of the in-home network interfaces 64 or 66 and the connected subscriber device 16 constitutes one node of the in-home network 14. The present invention takes advantage of typical server-client technology and incorporates it within the in-home network interfaces 64 and 66. The in-home network interface 64 is a server network interface, while the in-home network interfaces 66 are client network interfaces. Only one server network interface 64 is present in the in-home network 14, while multiple client network interfaces 66 are typically present in the in-home network 14. The server network interface 64 receives downstream CATV signals 22 and in-home network signals 68 originating from other client network interfaces 66 connected to subscriber devices 16, extracts the information content carried by the downstream CATV signals 22 and the network signals 78, and stores the information content in digital form on a memory device (not shown) included within the server network interface 64. With respect to downstream CATV signals 22, the server network interface 64 communicates the extracted and stored information to the subscriber device 16 to which that information is destined. Thus the server interface 64 delivers the information derived from the downstream CATV signal 22 to the subscriber device connected to it, or over the in-home network 14 to the client interface 66 connected to the subscriber device 16 to which the downstream CATV signal 22 is destined. The recipient client network interface 66 extracts the information and delivers it to the destined subscriber device connected to that client network interface 66. For network signals 78 originating in one network interface 64 or 66 and destined to another network interlace 64 or 66, those signals are sent directly between the originating and recipient network interfaces 64 or 66, utilizing the communication protocol of the in-home network. For those signals originating in one of the subscriber devices 16 intended as an upstream CATV signal 40 within the CATV network 20, for example a programming content selection signal originating from a set-top box of a television set, the upstream CATV signal is communicated into the CATV network 20 by the in-home server network interface 64, or is alternatively communicated by the network interface 64 or 66 which is connected to the particular subscriber device 16. In some implementations of the present invention, if the upstream CATV signal originates from a subscriber device 16 connected to a client network interface 66, that client network interface 66 encodes the upstream CATV signal, and sends the encoded signal over the in-home network 14 to the server network interface 64; thereafter, the server network interface 64 communicates the upstream CATV signal through the CATV entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20. If the upstream signal originates from the subscriber device connected to the server network interface 64, that interface 64 directly communicates the upstream signal through the entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20. The advantage of using the server network interface 64 to receive the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signals 22 and then distribute that content in network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 for use by the destination subscriber devices 16, is that there is not a substantial degradation in the signal strength of the downstream CATV signal, as would be the case if the downstream CATV signal was split into multiple reduced-power copies and each copy delivered to each subscriber device 16. By splitting downstream CATV signals 22 only a few times, as compared to a relatively large number of times as would be required in a typical in-home network, good CATV signal strength is achieved at the server network interface 64. Multimedia content or other information in downstream CATV signals 22 that are destined for subscriber devices 16 connected to client network interfaces 66 is supplied by the server network interface 64 in network signals 78 which have sufficient strength to ensure good quality of service. Upstream CATV signals generated by the server and client interfaces 64 and 66 are of adequate signal strength since the originating interfaces are capable of delivering signals of adequate signal strength for transmission to the CATV network 20. Different embodiments 10a, 10b, 10c, 10d, 10e and 10f of the CATV entry adapter 10 (FIGS. 1 and 2) are described below in conjunction with FIGS. 3-8, respectively. The CATV entry adapters 10a, 10c and 10e shown respectively in FIGS. 3, 5 and 7 are similar to the corresponding CATV entry adapters 10b, 10d and 10f shown respectively in FIGS. 4, 6 and 8, except for the lack of a dedicated eMTA port 52 and supporting components. In some cases, the eMTA port 52 will not be required or desired. In the CATV entry adapter 10a shown in FIG. 3, the entry port 50 is connected to the CATV network 20. An in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70 is connected between the entry port 50 and an input terminal 72 of a conventional four-way splitter 74. Four output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the in-home network ports 54. Downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 pass through the filter 70, because the filter 70 only rejects signals with frequencies which are in the in-home network frequency band. The frequency band specific to the in-home network 14 is different from the frequency band of the CATV signals 22 and 40. Downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 also pass in both directions through the four-way splitter 74, because the splitter 74 carries signals of all frequencies. The four-way splitter 74, although providing a large degree of isolation between the signals at the output terminals 76, still permits in-home network signals 78 to pass between those output terminals 76. Thus, the four-way splitter 74 splits downstream CATV signals 22 into four copies and delivers the copies to the output terminals 76 connected to the network ports 54, conducts upstream CATV signals 40 from the ports 54 and output terminals 76 to the input terminal 72. The four-way splitter 74 also conducts in-home network signals 78 from one of the output terminals 76 to the other output terminals 76, thereby assuring that all of the network interfaces 64 and 66 are able to communicate with one another using the in-home network communication protocol. One server network interface 64 is connected to one of the ports 54, while one or more client network interfaces 66 is connected to one or more of the remaining ports 54. Subscriber or multimedia devices 16 are connected to each of the network interfaces 64 and 66. The upstream and downstream CATV signals 40 and 22 pass through the splitter 74 to the interface devices 64 and 66 without modification. Those CATV signals are delivered from the interface devices 64 and 66 to the subscriber equipment 16. The network signals 78 pass to and from the interface devices 64 and 66 through the output terminals 76 of the splitter 74. The network signals 78 are received and sent by the interface devices 64 and 66 in accordance with the communication protocol used by the in-home network 14. The rejection filter 70 blocks the in-home network signals 78 from reaching the CATV network 20, and thereby confines the network signals 78 to the subscriber equipment 16 within the subscribers premises. Preventing the network signals 78 from entering the CATV network 20 ensures the privacy of the information contained with the network signals 78 and keeps the network signals 78 from creating any adverse affect on the CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10a allows each of the subscriber devices 16 to directly receive CATV information and signals from the CATV network 20 (FIG. 1). Because the server network interface 64 may store multimedia content received from the CATV network 20, the subscriber devices 16 connected to the client network interfaces 66 may also request the server network interface 64 to store and supply that stored content at a later time. The client network interfaces 66 and the attached subscriber devices 16 request and receive the stored multimedia content from the server network interface 64 over the in-home network 14. In this fashion, the subscriber may choose when to view the stored CATV-obtained multimedia content without having to view that content at the specific time when it was available from the CATV network 20. The in-home network 14 at the subscriber premises 12 permits this flexibility. The CATV entry adapter 10b shown in FIG. 4 contains the same components described above for the adapter 10a (FIG. 3), and additionally includes an eMTA port 52 and a conventional two-way splitter 80. The modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 are connected to the eMTA port 52, for example. An input terminal 82 of the two-way splitter 80 connects to the in-home network rejection filter 70. Output terminals 84 and 85 of the two-way splitter 80 connect to the eMTA port 52 and to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74, respectively. The downstream CATV signals 22 entering the two-way splitter are split into two reduced-power copies and delivered to the output ports 84 and 85. The split copies of the downstream CATV signals 22 are approximately half of the signal strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 delivered from the CATV network 20 to the entry port 50. Consequently, the copy of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied to the eMTA port 52 has a relatively high signal strength, which assures good operation of the modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58. Adequate operation of the modem 56 in the telephone set 58 is particularly important in those circumstances where “life-line” telephone services are provided to the subscriber, because a good quality signal assures continued adequate operation of those services. In the situation where the downstream CATV signal 22 is split multiple times before being delivered to a modem or VoIP telephone set, the multiple split may so substantially reduce the power of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied to the modem and VoIP telephone set that the ability to communicate is substantially compromised. A benefit of the adapter 10b over the adapter 10a (FIG. 3) is the single, two-way split of the downstream CATV signal 22 and the delivery of one of those copies at a relatively high or good signal strength to the dedicated eMTA port 52. A disadvantage of the adapter 10b over the adapter 10a (FIG. 4) is that the downstream CATV signals 22 pass through an extra splitter (the two-way splitter 80) prior to reaching the subscriber devices 16, thereby diminishing the quality of the downstream signal 22 applied from the network ports 54 to the subscriber devices 16. The downstream CATV signals 22 utilized by the subscriber devices 16 are diminished in strength, because the four-way split from the splitter 74 substantially reduces the already-reduced power, thus reducing the amount of signal strength received by the subscriber devices 16. However, the functionality of the subscriber devices 16 is not as critical or important as the functionality of the modem 56 and telephone 58 or other subscriber equipment connected to the eMTA port 52. Upstream CATV signals 40 from the subscriber devices 16 and the voice modem 56 are combined by the splitters 74 and 80 and then sent to the CATV network 20 through the in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70, without substantial reduction in signal strength due to the relatively high strength of those upstream CATV signals 40 supplied by the network interfaces 64 and 66 and the modem 56 or other subscriber equipment 16. The embodiment of the CATV entry adapter 10c shown in FIG. 5 eliminates the need for the in-home network frequency band rejection filter 70 (FIGS. 3 and 4), while preserving the ability to block the in-home network frequency band signals 78 from entering the CATV network 20 and while assuring that a relatively high strength downstream CATV signal 22 will be present for delivery to subscriber equipment at one or more network ports. To do so, the CATV entry adapter 10c uses two conventional diplexers 92 and 94 in conjunction with the splitter 74 and 80. In general, the function of a conventional diplexer is to separate signals received at a common terminal into signals within a high frequency range and within a low frequency range, and to deliver signals in the high and low frequency ranges separately from high and low pass terminals. Conversely, the conventional diplexer will combine separate high frequency and low frequency signals received separately at the high and low frequency terminals into a single signal which has both high frequency and low frequency content and supply that single signal of combined frequency content at the common terminal. In the following discussion of the CATV entry adapters which utilize diplexers, the predetermined low frequency range is the CATV signal frequency range which encompasses both the upstream and downstream CATV signals 22 and 40 (i.e., 5-1002 MHz), and the predetermined high frequency range is the frequency of the in-home network signals 78. When in-home network 14 is implemented by use of MoCA devices and protocol, the in-home frequency band is greater than the frequency band employed for CATV signals (i.e., 1125-1525 MHz). If the in-home network 14 is implemented using other networking technology, the network signals 78 must be in a frequency band which is separate from the frequency band of the upstream and downstream CATV signals. In such a circumstance, the high and low frequency ranges of the diplexers used in the herein-described CATV entry adapters must be selected to separate the CATV signal frequency band from the in-home network signal frequency band. The entry port 50 connects the adapter 10c to the CATV network 20. A two-way splitter 80 has an input terminal 82 which is connected directly to the entry port 50. The two-way splitter 80 splits the downstream CATV signals 22 at the input terminal 82 into two identical copies of reduced signal strength and conducts those copies through the two output terminals 84 and 85. The split copy of the downstream CATV signal 22 supplied by the output terminal 84 is conducted to a principal network port 54p of the entry adapter 10c. The network port 54p is regarded as a principal network port because the server network interface 64 is connected to that port 54p. A subscriber devices 16 may or may not be connected to the server network interface 64. The two output terminals 84 and 85 of the splitter 80 are respectively connected to low-pass terminals 88 and 90 of conventional diplexers 92 and 94. The low pass terminals 88 and 90 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals which have a predetermined low frequency range. High pass terminals 104 and 106 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals which have a predetermined high frequency range. Common terminals 96 and 98 of the diplexers 92 and 94 receive and deliver signals that have both predetermined high and predetermined low frequency ranges. The common terminal 98 of the diplexer 94 is connected to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. The output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the in-home network ports 54 (FIG. 2) which are designated as secondary ports 54s. Client network interfaces 66 are connected to the secondary ports 54s. Subscriber devices 16 are connected to the client interfaces 66. The network ports 54s to which the client network interfaces 66 are connected are designated as secondary network ports because the server network interface 64 is connected to the principal network port 54p. The high-pass terminals 104 and 106 of the diplexers 92 and 94 are connected to each other. As a consequence, the higher frequency band of the network signals 78 are conducted by the diplexers 92 and 94 through their high pass terminals 104 and 106 and between their common terminals 96 and 98. In this manner, the network signals 78 are confined for transmission only between the network interfaces 64 and 66, through the diplexers 92 and 94 and the four-way splitter 74. The diplexers 92 and 94 also conduct the lower frequency band CATV signals 22 and 40 from their common terminals 96 and 98 through their low-pass terminals 88 and 90 to the principal port 54p and to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. The four-way splitter 74 conducts the lower frequency band CATV signals 22 and 40 to the secondary ports 54s. The CATV signals 22 and 40 are available to all of the network interfaces 64 and 66 and to the subscriber equipment 16 connected to those network interfaces 64 and 66. In this manner, the CATV signals 22 and 40 and the network signals 78 are both made available to each of the network interfaces 64 and 66 so that each of the subscriber devices 16 has the capability of interacting with both the CATV signals and the network signals. The frequency band separation characteristics of the diplexers 92 and 94 perform the function of preventing the high frequency network signals 78 from reaching the CATV network 20. Another advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10c is that the downstream CATV signals 22 are applied to the server network interface 64 and its attached subscriber device 16 with only the relatively small reduction in signal strength caused by splitting the downstream CATV signal 22 in the two-way splitter 80. This contrasts with the substantially greater reduction in signal strength created by passing the downstream CATV signal 22 through the four-way splitter 74 in the entry adapters 10a and 10b (FIGS. 3 and 4) to reach the subscriber devices 16. Minimizing the amount of signal power reduction experienced by the downstream CATV signal 22 received by the server network interface 64 preserves a high quality of the multimedia content contained in the downstream CATV signal 22. Consequently, the server network interface 64 receives high quality, good strength downstream CATV signals, which the server network interface 64 uses to supply high quality of service by sending that content in network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 connected to other subscriber devices. In this manner, the CATV entry adapter 10c may be used to replace the downstream CATV signals directly applied to the client network interfaces with the network signals containing the same content. Another advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10c is that the server network interface 64 can store the multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signal supplied to it. A subscriber may wish to access and view or otherwise use that stored multimedia content at a later time. The stored multimedia content is delivered in high quality network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66 over the in-home network 14. Because of the capability of the server network interface 64 to supply high quality network signals, the reduction in signal strength created by the four-way splitter 74 does not significantly impact the quality of the network signals received by the client network interfaces 66. Thus, the CATV entry adapter 10c offers a subscriber the opportunity to utilize directly those CATV signal copies which pass through the four-way splitter 74, or to achieve a higher quality signal when the server network interface 64 converts the content from the downstream CATV signal into network signals 78 which are then made available as high-quality network signals for the client network interfaces 66. Storing the multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signals 22 in the storage medium of the server network interface 64 provides an opportunity for one or more of the client network interfaces 66 to access that stored content and request its transmission over the in-home network 14 to the subscriber devices 16 connected to the requesting client network interface 66. Because the multimedia content has been stored by the server network interface 64, the client network interfaces 66 may request and receive that multimedia content at any subsequent time while that content remains stored on the server network interface 64. The CATV entry adapter 10d shown in FIG. 6 is similar to the CATV entry adapter 10c (FIG. 5) except that the adapter 10d allows a modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 to be connected in a dedicated manner that does not involve use of the in-home network 14. If a modem and VoIP telephone set are connected to the CATV entry adapter 10c (FIG. 5), the modem and VoIP telephone set would be connected as subscriber equipment to the server network interface 64 in that entry adapter 10c. In this circumstance, the proper functionality of the modem and VoIP telephone set depends on proper functionality of the server network interface 64, and that functionality is susceptible to failure due to power outages and the like. In the CATV entry adapter 10d shown in FIG. 6, a three-way splitter 110 is used to divide the downstream CATV signal 22 into three reduced-power identical copies. The three-way splitter has a single input terminal 112 and three output terminals 114, 116 and 118. The input terminal 112 is connected to the entry port 50, and two of the output terminals 114 and 116 are connected to the low pass terminals 88 and 90 of the diplexers 92 and 94. A third output terminal 118 is connected to the eMTA port 52. Although the signal strength of the CATV signal 22 is diminished as a result of the three-way split in the splitter 110, there will be sufficient strength in the copy supplied to the EMTA port 52 from the output terminal 118 to permit the modem 56 and VoIP telephone set 58 to operate reliably. Upstream signals from the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58 pass through the three-way splitter 110 into the CATV network 20. The advantage to the CATV entry adapter 10d is that the functionality of the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58 does not depend on the functionality of the network interfaces 64 and 66. Thus any adversity which occurs within the in-home network 14 does not adversely influence the capability of the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone to provide continuous telephone service to the subscriber. Continuous telephone service is important when the service is “life-line” telephone service. Other communication with respect to downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 and network signals 78 occur in the manner discussed above in conjunction with the adapter 10c (FIG. 5). The CATV entry adapter 10e, shown in FIG. 7, is distinguished from the previously discussed CATV entry adapters 10a, 10b, 10c and 10d (FIGS. 3-6) by conducting only the CATV signals 22 and 40 between the entry port 50 and the principal port 54p to which the server network interface 64 is connected. In the CATV entry adapter 10e, the entry port 50 is connected to the low pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The common terminal 96 of the diplexer 92 is connected to the principal port 54p. The high pass terminal 104 of the diplexer 92 is connected to the input terminal 72 of the four-way splitter 74. Output terminals 76 of the four-way splitter 74 are connected to the secondary ports 54s. The principal and secondary ports 54p and 54s are connected to the server and client network interfaces 64 and 66. In the CATV entry adapter 10e, the downstream CATV signals 22 are not conducted to the client network interfaces 66. Similarly, the upstream CATV signals 22 are not conducted from the client network interfaces 66 to the entry port 50. Instead, all CATV signals 22 and 40 are conducted through the low pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The server network interface 64 converts the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signals 22 into network signals 78 to the client network interfaces 66, and all of the information constituting upstream CATV signals 40 is communicated as network signals 78 from the client network interfaces 66 to the server network interface 64. The server network interface 64 converts the information into upstream CATV signals 40 and delivers them to the common terminal 96 of the diplexer 92. A subscriber device connected to a client network interface 66 that wishes to request content from the CATV network 20 sends a signal over the in-home network 14 to the server network interface 64, and the server network interface 64 sends the appropriate upstream CATV signal 40 to the CATV network 20. The CATV network 20 responds by sending downstream CATV signals 22, which are directed through the diplexer 92 only to the server network interface 64. Multimedia content obtained from the downstream CATV signals 22 is received and stored by the server network interface 64. The storage of the multimedia content on the server network interface 64 may be for a prolonged amount of time, or the storage may be only momentary. The server network interface 64 processes the content of the downstream CATV signals 22 into network signals 78 and delivers those signals over the in-home network 14 to the requesting client network interface 66 for use by its attached subscriber device 16. Even though the network signals 78 sent by the server network interface 64 pass through the four-way splitter 74, the strength of the signals supplied by the server network interface 64 is sufficient to maintain good signal strength of the network signals 78 when received by the client network interfaces 66. The advantage of the CATV entry adapter 10e over the other adapters 10a, 10b, 10c and 10d (FIGS. 3-6) is that the downstream CATV signal 22 reaches the server network interface 64 with substantially no reduction in signal strength. The downstream CATV signal 22 is conducted between the entry port 50 and the principal port 54p without being split. The high strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 is therefore available for use in obtaining the multimedia content from the downstream CATV signal 22. The multimedia content is also maintained at a high quality when transferred from the server network interface 64 to the client network interfaces 66, since the server network interface 64 delivers a high quality network signal 78 to the client network interfaces 66 over the in-home network 14, even when the network signals 78 are passed through the four-way splitter 74. The CATV entry adapter 10e therefore achieves the highest possible signal strength and quality for a passive CATV entry adapter, and enables multimedia content received from the downstream CATV signals 22 to be shared to multiple subscriber devices 16 over the in-home network. The passive nature of the CATV entry adapter 10e improves its reliability. The relatively small number of internal components, i.e. one diplexer 92 and one four-way splitter 74, also reduces the cost of the adapter 10e. A CATV entry adapter 10f shown in FIG. 8 uses an additional two-way splitter 80 and has a eMTA port 52 for connecting the modem 56 and the VoIP telephone set 58, compared to the components of the entry adapter 10e (FIG. 7). The input terminal 82 of the two-way splitter 80 connects to the entry port 50. The output terminal 84 of the splitter 80 connects to the eMTA port 52, and the other output terminal 85 of the splitter 80 connects to the low-pass terminal 88 of the diplexer 92. The downstream and upstream CATV signals 22 and 40 are conducted between the entry port 50 and both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p. Copies of the downstream CATV signal 22 reach both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p after having been split only once by the two-way splitter 80. The downstream CATV signals 22 reaching both the eMTA port 52 and the principal port 54p have a relatively high signal strength, since only one split of the downstream CATV signal 22 has occurred. Consequently, the entry adapter 10f delivers high quality downstream CATV signals 22 to both the modem 56 and connected VOIP telephone set 58 and to the server network interface 64. The advantage to the CATV entry adapter 10f is that it provides reliable telephone service through the eMTA port 52, which is not dependent upon the functionality of the network interfaces 64 and 66. Accordingly, reliable telephone service is available. In addition, the entry adapter 10f reliably communicates the content of the downstream CATV signals 22, because the single signal split from the splitter 80 does not diminish the quality of the downstream CATV signal 22 sufficiently to adversely affect the performance of the server network interface 64 in obtaining the CATV content. That high-quality content is preserved when it is communicated as network signals 78 from the server network interface 64 to the client interface devices 66 which are connected to the subscriber devices 16. Other than a slight reduction in signal strength created by the splitter 80, the communication of the downstream CATV signals 22 containing multimedia content for the subscriber devices 16 is essentially the same as that described in connection with the CATV entry adapter 10e (FIG. 7). The CATV entry adapters described within offer numerous advantages over other presently-known CATV entry adapters. Each of the CATV entry adapters is capable of supplying multimedia content from the CATV network to any of the subscriber devices connected to the adapter, either through direct communication of the downstream CATV signal 22 or by use of the network signals 78. Each of the CATV entry adapters also functions as a hub for the in-home network 14. Each of the CATV entry adapters is constructed with passive components and therefore do not require an external power supply beyond the CATV signals 22 and 40 and the network signals 78, thus both improving the reliability of the adapters themselves and reducing service calls. Each CATV entry adapter achieves a substantial strength of the downstream CATV signal 22 by limiting the number of times that the downstream signal 22 is split, compared to conventional CATV entry adapters which require a signal split for each subscriber device in the premises. Critical communications over the CATV network, such as life-line phone service, is preserved by CATV signals communicated over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely affected by multiple splits of the CATV signal. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. These and other benefits and advantages will become more apparent upon gaining a complete appreciation for the improvements of the present invention. Preferred embodiments of the invention and many of its improvements have been described with a degree of particularity. The description is of preferred examples for implementing the invention, and these preferred descriptions are not intended necessarily to limit the scope of the invention. The scope of the invention is defined by the following claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>CATV networks use an infrastructure of interconnected coaxial cables, signal splitters and combiners, repeating amplifiers, filters, trunk lines, cable taps, drop lines and other signal-conducting devices to supply and distribute high frequency “downstream” signals from a main signal distribution facility, known as a “headend,” to the premises (homes and offices' of subscribers to the CATV services. The downstream signals transfer multimedia content to subscriber equipment, such as television sets, telephone sets and computers. In addition, most CATV networks also transmit “upstream” signals from the subscriber equipment back to the headend of the CATV network. For example, the subscriber uses a set top box to select programs for display on the television set. As another example, two-way communication is essential when using a personal computer connected through the CATV infrastructure to the public Internet. As a further example, voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) telephone sets use the CATV infrastructure and the public Internet as the communication medium for transmitting two-way telephone conversations. To permit simultaneous communication of upstream and downstream CATV signals and the interoperability of the subscriber equipment and the equipment associated with the CATV network infrastructure outside of subscriber premises, the downstream and upstream CATV signals are confined to two different frequency bands. The downstream frequency band is within the range of 54-1002 megahertz (MHz) and the upstream frequency band is within the range of 5-42 MHz, in most CATV networks. The entire CATV frequency band is therefore 5-1002 MHz. The downstream signals are delivered from the CATV network infrastructure to the subscriber premises at a CATV entry adapter, which is also commonly referred to as an entry device, terminal adapter or a drop amplifier. The CATV entry adapter is usually a multi-port device which provides a multiplicity of ports or connectors for connecting coaxial cables. A separate coaxial cable is connected to each of the ports and extends within the subscriber premises to the location of the subscriber equipment. Some homes have coaxial cables extending to cable outlets in almost every room, because of the many different types of subscriber equipment used in different rooms. For example, television sets are commonplace throughout the home. The multiple ports of the CATV entry adapter deliver downstream CATV at each cable outlet and conduct upstream CATV signals back through the premises coaxial cables to the CATV entry adapter, which delivers the upstream CATV signals to the CATV network. In addition to television sets, computers and telephones, a relatively large number of other entertainment and multimedia devices are available for use in homes. For example, a digital video recorder (DVR) is used to store broadcast programming, still photography and moving pictures in a memory medium so that the content can be replayed on a display or television set at a later time selected by the user. As another example, computer games are also played at displays or on television sets. Such computer games may be obtained or played over the Internet from the CATV network or from media played on play-back devices or game consoles connected to displays or television sets. As a further example, receivers which receive satellite-broadcast signals may be distributed for viewing or listening throughout the home. These types of devices, including the more-conventional television sets, telephone sets and devices connected to the Internet by the CATV network, are generically referred to as multimedia devices. The desire to use multimedia devices at multiple different locations within the home or subscriber premises has led to the creation of the Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA). MoCA has developed specifications for products to create an in-home entertainment network for interconnecting presently-known and future multimedia devices. The MoCA in-home network uses the subscriber premise or in-home coaxial cable infrastructure originally established for distribution of CATV signals within the subscriber premises, principally because that cable infrastructure already exists in most homes and is capable of carrying much more information than is carried in the CATV frequency band. A MoCA network is established by connecting MoCA interface devices at the cable outlets in the rooms of the subscriber premises. The MoCA network is used to transmit multimedia content from one MoCA interface device to another. The MoCA interface devices implement a MoCA communication protocol which encapsulates the multimedia content normally sent and received by the multimedia devices within MoCA packets and then communicates these MoCA packets between selected ones of the other MoCA interfaces devices connected at other cable outlets. The receiving MoCA interface device removes the encapsulated multimedia content, and delivers it to the connected computer, digital television or set-top box or other multimedia device from which then presents that multimedia content. Each MoCA interface device is capable of communicating with every other MoCA interface device in the MoCA network to deliver the multimedia content throughout the home or subscriber premises. The entertainment or multimedia content that is available from one multimedia device can be displayed, played or otherwise used at a different location within the home, without having to physically relocate the multimedia device from one location to another within the home. The in-home network communication of multimedia content is considered beneficial in more fully utilizing the multimedia devices present in modern homes. The MoCA interface devices also pass the upstream and downstream CATV signals between the CATV entry adapter and the subscriber devices. Since the MoCA network may function simultaneously with the normal operation of the CATV services, the MoCA signals communicated between MoCA interface devices utilize a frequency range of 1125-1525 MHz, which is outside of the frequency band of CATV signals. This so-called band of MoCA signals is divided into eight different frequency ranges, D1-D8, and these eight different D frequency ranges are used to assure communication between the selected MoCA interface devices. For example, the D-1 band at 1125-1175 MHz may be used to communicate CATV television programming content between a MoCA interface device connected to a set-top box in a main room of the house and another MoCA interface device connected to a television set in bedroom of the house, while a MoCA interface device connected to a computer gaming multimedia device in a basement room of the house simultaneously communicates computer game content over the D-6 band at 1375-1425 MHz to a computer located in a recreation room of the house. The MoCA frequency band also includes other frequency ranges outside of the CATV frequency band, but the D band is used to establish connections and communicate content between the MoCA interface devices. Using the in-home coaxial cable as the principal communication medium substantially simplifies the implementation of the MoCA network, but there are certain disadvantages in doing so. The D band MoCA frequencies have the capability of passing through the CATV entry adapter and entering the CATV network where they may then enter a nearby subscriber's premises. The presence of the MoCA signals at the nearby subscriber's premises compromises the privacy and security of the information originally intended to be confined within the original subscriber premises. The MoCA signals from the original subscriber premises which enter through the CATV network to the nearby subscriber premises also have the potential to adversely affect the performance of a MoCA network in nearby subscriber's premises. The conflict of the MoCA signals from the original and nearby subscriber premises may cause the MoCA interface devices to malfunction or not operate properly on a consistent basis. Another undesirable aspect of using a MoCA for communication between the various multimedia devices is that a relatively large MoCA network with many cable outlet ports has the effect of deteriorating the strength of the downstream CATV signal. Because in-home multimedia devices frequently require access to the CATV network in order to send upstream CATV signals as well is to receive downstream CATV signals, the in-home coaxial cable infrastructure must commonly connect all of the CATV cables and CATV ports within the home to a common connection with the drop cable that supplies the CATV signal and services to the home. The common connection is usually achieved in the CATV entry adapter, which provides output ports that connect to the coaxial cables extending within the home to each separate location or room. A splitter within the CATV entry adapter divides the CATV downstream signals into two or more reduced-power copies of the input signal, and supplies each copy to a separate outlet port. Similarly, upstream signals from the subscriber equipment connected to each of the coaxial cables are combined in the splitter and then passed upstream through the CATV entry adapter into the CATV network. The typical splitter is passive, which means that the power of the input signal is divided among the copies of the output signals split from the input signal. Each copy of the signal therefore has diminished power or strength, and the lower strength copies will not have the same quality as the input signal. In general terms, the quality is the strength of the signal relative to the strength of the inherent ambient noise. Since the inherent ambient noise generally cannot be diminished and is usually a constant, lowering the strength of the signal relative to the noise reduces the signal-to-noise ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio is a recognized measure of the quality of a signal. A lower signal-to-noise ratio represents a lesser quality signal. Because many homes require a relatively large number of cable outlet ports, for example six or more, the downstream CATV signal must be split into a comparable relatively large number of copies. The greater number of signal splitters required to generate the requisite number of separate copies of the downstream CATV signal diminishes the strength of the downstream signal copies. The quality of CATV service available in an in-home network with a relatively large number of cable output ports therefore suffers, because the strength of the CATV signal available at each of these ports is substantially diminished due to the extent of signal splitting required. On the other hand, Upstream CATV signals from the subscriber equipment do not occur as frequently as downstream CATV signals. Furthermore, upstream signals are generally of a higher power because they are generated immediately by the subscriber equipment within the home. Consequently, the reduction in CATV signal strength applies principally to downstream CATV signals, which of course provide the multimedia content to the subscriber. It is the quality of the multimedia content observed by the subscriber that forms the basis for the subscriber's opinion of quality of service. To compensate for downstream CATV signal strength reduction caused by splitting, some entry adapters include amplifiers to increase the strength of the copies of the downstream CATV signals. Of course, including an amplifier along with the signal splitter makes the signal transmission dependent upon the presence of adequate electrical power to operate the amplifier. The power for the amplifier is derived from commercial sources within the household. If the commercial power supply is temporarily interrupted, or if the power supply equipment within the home ceases operating properly, the customer perceives a CATV problem and reports the problem to the CATV service provider. The CATV service provider must thereafter send a service or repair person to the home of the subscriber in order to identify and remedy the problem. Such service calls are a significant expense for a CATV service provider. CATV service providers therefore attempt to eliminate as many of the potential points of failure as possible in the equipment supplied by the CATV service provider, to reduce service calls and repair costs. Including an amplifier in a CATV entry adapter creates a potential point of failure, and for that reason most CATV service providers wish to avoid using CATV entry adapters with amplifiers. However, in those relatively large in-home networks with multiple outlets for connecting multiple multimedia devices, there has been little previous choice but to use amplifiers in conjunction with splitters in order to obtain the desired downstream CATV signal strength that represents a high quality of service.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to a cable television (CATV) entry adapter which beneficially provides a high quality and strength downstream CATV signal to multiple subscriber devices while simultaneously contributing to and promoting the establishment of a multimedia in-home network. The CATV entry adapter is preferably passive without an amplifier, and passes the in-home network communication signals between the multiple subscriber devices, and passes the downstream and upstream CATV signals to the subscriber equipment and the CATV network. The in-home network communication signals are effectively communicated in the in-home network and the multimedia content from the upstream and downstream CATV signals is effectively made available to all of the subscriber equipment and to the CATV network without diminishing the quality or strength of the CATV signals to the point where the quality of service is compromised. As a passive device, the CATV entry adapter of the present invention requires no external power source, which eliminates unnecessary service calls. In addition, critical communications over the CATV network, such as “life-line” phone service, are preserved during transmission over the CATV network to ensure such critical communications are not adversely. The CATV entry adapter also minimizes the risks of malfunction or failure for which the CATV service provider is responsible. In accordance with these and other features, one aspect of the invention involves a cable television (CATV) entry adapter for conducting downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at subscriber premises and for conducting in-home network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The CATV signals occupy a CATV frequency band which is different from an in-home network frequency band occupied by the in-home network signals. The in-home network includes a network interface connected to each subscriber device by which to generate and communicate the network signals between the subscriber devices in the in-home network. The CATV entry adapter comprises a CATV entry port for connection to the CATV network, and a plurality of network ports each for connection to the network interface to which each subscriber device is connected. The CATV entry adapter also includes a signal splitter which has an input terminal and two output terminals. The signal splitter operatively splits a signal received at its input terminal into reduced-power copies of the input signal supplied at each of its output terminals. The signal splitter also communicates signals received at each output terminal to the input terminal and to the other output terminal. The CATV entry adapter also includes an in-home network frequency band rejection device connected between the CATV entry port and the input port of the signal splitter. The in-home network frequency band rejection device substantially blocks transmission of the in-home network signals therethrough to the CATV entry port and the CATV network. Another aspect of the invention involves an in-home network for distributing multimedia content to subscriber devices. The multimedia content is obtained from CATV signals communicated over a CATV network and from a subscriber device connected to the in-home network. The in-home network comprises a CATV entry adapter having a CATV entry port and a plurality of network ports. The CATV entry port is connected to the CATV network for receiving multimedia content from CATV signals communicated over the CATV network. The in-home network also comprises a plurality of in-home network interfaces, each of which is connected to a different one of the plurality of network ports. Each of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content to the subscriber devices to which each network interface is connected. All of the network interfaces communicate multimedia content between one another in network signals communicated between the network interfaces. At least one of the network interfaces sends and receives CATV signals and communicates the multimedia content contained in the CATV signals to the subscriber device to which the one network interface is connected, and communicates the multimedia content obtained from the CATV signals in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. Each of the network interfaces communicates multimedia content obtained from a subscriber device connected to that network interface in network signals communicated through the CATV entry adapter to another network interface. The network signals are located within a network frequency band which is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are located. A further aspect of the invention involves a method of conducting information contained in downstream and upstream CATV signals between a CATV network and at a least one subscriber device at a subscriber premises and of conducting information contained in network signals between multiple subscriber devices at the subscriber premises connected in an in-home network. The method comprises connecting the CATV entry adapter to receive and transmit CATV signals from and to the CATV network, respectively; connecting in-home network interfaces to each subscriber device to form the in-home network among the subscriber devices to which network interfaces are attached; connecting the CATV entry adapter as a hub in the in-home network to pass network signals between network interfaces; confining the network signals to an end-home network frequency band that is different from a CATV frequency band within which the CATV signals are confined; connecting the CATV adapter to at least one network interface to receive and transmit CATV signals supplied from and to the CATV entry adapter; and preventing transmission of the network signals within the CATV entry adapter onto the CATV network. One subsidiary aspect of the invention which relates to blocking or preventing the transmission of network signals onto the CATV network, involves a frequency rejection device which comprises only passive electronic components, or which functions without a power source separate from the CATV signals and the in-home network signals. The frequency rejection device may take the form of a frequency rejection filter, or the frequency rejection device may take the form of at least one diplexer which divides frequencies into separate frequency bands, and is connected to conduct the network signals in the network frequency band between network interfaces and to conduct the CATV signals in the CATV frequency band to and from the CATV network. Another subsidiary aspect of the invention involves a server network interface and at least one client network interface. The server network interface sends and receives downstream and upstream CATV signals and network signals to communicate information contained in the CATV and network signals to the subscriber device to which the server network interface is connected. Each client network interface sends and receives network signals to communicate information contained in the network signals to the subscriber device to which each client network interface is connected. The server network interface also has a capability for storing information obtained from downstream CATV signals and subsequently supplying network signals to a client network interface which contain the information stored from the downstream CATV signals. An additional subsidiary aspect of the invention involves connecting an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA)-compatible subscriber device including a modem and telephone set to the CATV entry adapter, and splitting downstream CATV signals into reduced-power copies and supplying one of the copies to the eMTA-compatible device. A more complete appreciation of the present invention, as well as the manner in which the present invention achieves the above and other improvements, can be obtained by reference to the following detailed description of presently preferred embodiments taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are briefly summarized below, and by reference to the appended claims.

H04N2143615

20180201

20180607

88957.0

H04N21436

DUBASKY, GIGI L

PASSIVE MULTI-PORT ENTRY ADAPTER AND METHOD FOR PRESERVING DOWNSTREAM CATV SIGNAL STRENGTH WITHIN IN-HOME NETWORK

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04N

ACCEPTED

Integrated Distillation Chamber and Discharge Unit with Integrated Key

A distillation unit multiple rejection areas at each of a top of a flask and a top of a lower distillation tube in embodiments. A middle distillation tube is narrower than the lower tube and extends into the lower distillation tube as well as a fraction collector. A distillation key with rings extends downwards through the fraction collector, middle distillation tube, and lower distillation tube, a portion of the distillation key and the lower distillation tube extending into a flask where product to be purified is placed. In this manner, the flask itself acts as a heat jacket in addition to having a heat jacket around all the afore-described parts.

1. A distillation unit comprising: a jacket; a crimped glassware lower distillation tube partially surrounded by said jacket; a middle distillation tube extending into a region circumscribed by said lower distillation tube; a fraction collector which circumscribes said middle distillation tube. 2. The distillation unit of claim 1, further comprising: a distillation key with a plurality of circumferential rings extending transverse to a length of said distillation key; wherein said distillation key extends entirely through a vertical extent of said fraction collector and said middle distillation tube while being entirely spaced apart from said middle distillation tube. 3. The distillation unit of claim 2, wherein said distillation key is further entirely spaced apart from said lower distillation tube. 4. The distillation unit of claim 3, wherein said distillation key forms a unitary structure with said jacket. 5. The distillation unit of claim 1, wherein a portion of said lower distillation tube is unprotected by any insulative region including said jacket. 6. The distillation unit of claim 5, wherein said portion of said lower distillation tube unprotected by any said insultative region is held within a flask and a heat source is applied to said flask. 7. The distillation unit of claim 6, wherein a bellowed region of said jacket abuts said flask while a portion of said lower distillation tube is surrounded by said flask. 8. The distillation unit of claim 1, wherein a first rejection area for vapors is between upper walls of said lower distillation tube and outer walls of said middle distillation tube. 9. The distillation unit of claim 8, wherein a second rejection area for vapors is created between walls of said lower distillation tube and upper walls of said flask. 10. The distillation unit of claim 1, wherein said fraction collector has a bulbous shape with a rounded upper side and flat lower side. 11. The distillation unit of claim 10, wherein said fraction collector comprises a bottom side which is perpendicular to a longest vertical length of said jacket and said middle distillation tube. 12. The distillation unit of claim 11, wherein a connecting region between said fraction collector and a condenser comprises an exit portal there-between and said bottom side of said fraction collector and at least a portion of said connecting region are coplanar. 13. The distillation unit of claim 1, comprising a continuous internal pathway extending through, in order: an interior of said lower distillation tube; said middle distillation tube; said fractional collector; a side exit portal passing through said jacket and normal to said middle distillation tube; and a condenser. 14. The distillation unit of claim 13, wherein at least some vapors extending upwards through said pathway are rejected at a top of said interior of said lower distillation tube; and at least some said vapors are rejected by at least some rings of a distillation key, said distillation key extending through without contacting said middle distillation tube and at least a majority of said lower distillation tube. 15. The distillation unit of claim 15, wherein said crimped glassware further comprises at least two inner crimps having a smaller cross sectional area than a widest extent of said lower distillation tube. 16. The distillation unit of claim 15, wherein said at least two inner crimps create turbulent flow of said at least some vapors. 17. A distillation unit comprising: a distillation key attached to a top side of said distillation unit; a fraction collector through which said distillation key extends through from end to end entirely; a middle distillation tube narrower than said fraction collector through which said distillation key extends through from end to end entirely; a lower distillation tube wider than said middle distillation tube through which said distillation key extends at least partially there-through. 18. The distillation unit of claim 17, wherein said middle distillation tube extends into both said fractional collector and said lower distillation tube. 19. The distillation unit of claim 18, wherein where said middle distillation tube extends into said lower distillation tube, an area between said lower distillation tube and said middle distillation tube terminates an upward pathway from a lower opening of said lower distillation tube. 20. The distillation unit of claim 19, wherein said lower distillation tube comprises a plurality of alternatively wider and narrower regions. 21. The distillation unit of claim 20, wherein said distillation key comprises alternating areas with greater cross sections only at a portion of said distillation key within said middle distillation tube and said lower distillation tube.

FIELD OF THE DISCLOSED TECHNOLOGY The disclosed technology relates generally to distillation and, more specifically, to a distillation chamber with an integrated distillation key and multiple vapor rejection areas. BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSED TECHNOLOGY Distillation or fractional distillation is carried out by heating a solid or liquid and removing gaseous vapors that are expelled therefrom. This can be done while raising the temperature, as each compound boils at a different temperature. However, when working with small amounts of starting raw material or items which have close boiling points, this can be difficult, as multiple compounds get removed simultaneously. Further, a problem can arise when the temperature throughout the distillation equipment is not constant, and some of the vapor re-condenses before being evacuated from a distillation chamber. The inventor's prior patented technologies involved the development and use of a distillation key to more accurately distill fractions of distillate products. While this was and is a great improvement over the prior art, the ultimate goal is be able to distill accurately and quickly fractions within as minute of a temperature difference as possible. A standard distillation head tends to have a temperature gradient extending from a bottom to the a top thereof, as the heat source is beneath the distillation head and the distillate is a gas rising up from the bottom. Using an infrared camera, differences in heat were measured on a single jacket (single gas insulated layer) distillation head. A noticeable distance along the side the surface was dispersing heat. A very hot section was found in the middle (substantially or exactly 40% to 60% of the distance from the bottom port to the top port) of a main vertical elongated channel of the head. Both the top and bottom had an extended head gradient away from the center, each being cooler than the center. As such, one can summarize that during (fractional) distillation, the lowest section has the bulk of temperature loss to the surroundings. This would be expected to be the hottest region as it is most near the heat source, but in practice, condensate sits in the lower area (defined as “lowest ⅓ or ¼″ of the vertical elongated chamber”) causing vapors that pass through this section and become more cooled. Based on the above tests, and Newton's law of cooling, it has been found that a maximum amount of heat is reached, compared to the input temperature, in any distillation head. The head is exposed to the atmosphere creating a thermal conductive effect from the glass to the air, and even more so if the air is flowing at high speeds such as when using a ventilated fume hood. The core, a central hollow region where vapors pass through, thus also has a maximum temperature with little change based on the input temperature. Thus, there is a need to find a way to distill with greater efficiency and separation of compounds, while preventing vapors from re-condensing back into the product being distilled. SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSED TECHNOLOGY A distillation unit of embodiments of the disclosed technology has a jacket (a region of glass which surrounds other area but is designed to lack a pathway for vapors to flow through) and various tubes which function as a pathway for vapor flow. These tubes for vapor flow include a lower distillation tube partially surrounded by the jacket, the lower tube being crimped (having alternating larger and smaller cross sections at an interior thereof where vapors are designed to flow) in embodiments of the disclosed technology. A middle distillation tube extends into a region circumscribed by the lower distillation tube. “Circumscribed” is defined as “surrounding by, in at least one plane.” A fraction collector circumscribes, on an opposite side/other end of the middle distillation tube. The distillation unit, in embodiments of the disclosed technology, further has a distillation key which, in turn, has a plurality of circumferential rings extending transverse to a length of the distillation key. The distillation key can extend entirely through a vertical extent of the fraction collector and the middle distillation tube while being entirely spaced apart from the middle distillation tube. The distillation key can further extend into a lower distillation tube without touching the tube itself because it is entirely spaced apart therefrom. The distillation key can form a unitary structure with the jacket, such as by being attached to and/or connecting to and/or touching the jacket or interior side thereof. In embodiments, the sole point of connection of the distillation key to the rest of the distillation unit is at a top of the distillation key where it is attached to the distillation unit. A portion of the lower distillation tube is unprotected by any insulative region, in embodiments of the disclosed technology. Thus, a jacket or other protective region is lacking around a portion of what can be a single layer of glass of the lower distillation tube. This portion which is unprotected by the rest of the distillation head be placed into a flask or other exterior device to which heat is applied and a product (solid and/or liquid) is to be distilled. In this manner, the walls of the flask (or other device beneath the distillation unit and surrounding the uninsulated region of the distillation head/lower distillation tube) serve to “insulate” this portion of the lower distillation tube. A bellowed region of the jacket (defined as a portion which has a greater cross sectional area than rest of the jacket/a region which gradually increases in width) abuts the flask while a portion of the lower distillation tube is surrounded by the flask, in some embodiments. Where “longitudinal” is used in the disclosure, this should be understood to be defined as horizontal or extending perpendicular to a vertical length of the distillation unit. A first rejection area for vapors is between upper walls of the lower distillation tube and outer walls of the middle distillation tube, in some embodiments of the disclosed technology. (The “detailed description” comprises the definition and explanation of “rejection” for purposes of this disclosure.) A second rejection area for vapors is created between walls of the lower distillation tube and upper walls of the flask in some embodiments of the disclosed technology. A “flask” is a separate device for holding a solid or liquid which is abutted against or attached below the distillation head in embodiments of the disclosed technology. The fraction collector has a bulbous shape with a rounded upper side and flat lower side in some embodiments of the disclosed technology. The fraction collector can have a bottom (lower) side which is perpendicular to a longest vertical length of the jacket and/or the middle distillation tube. A connecting region between the fraction collector and a condenser can include an exit portal there-between. The bottom side of the fraction collector can be continuous and remain horizontal with at least a portion of the connecting region, e.g. they are coplanar in embodiments of the disclosed technology. Thus, in embodiments, a continuous internal pathway extends through, in order: an interior of the lower distillation tube, the middle distillation tube. the fractional collector, a side exit portal, and a condenser. The condenser can form a unitary piece with the distillation unit as a whole. In some cases, at least some vapors extend upwards through the pathway and are rejected at a top of the interior of the lower distillation tube in a method of using the distillation unit. Further, in some cases at least some of these or other vapors are rejected by at least some rings of a distillation key. The distillation key can extend through without contacting the middle distillation tube and extend through at least a majority of the lower distillation tube without touching this tube either. The crimped glassware of the lower distillation tube can have many inner crimps and outer crimps, the inner crimps having smaller cross sectional areas than the outer crimps but the inner and outer respectively being equal to each other in cross sections in some embodiments. The inner crimps cause turbulent flow of vapors moving upwards, helping to reject some of the vapors in embodiments of the disclosed technology. The distillation unit, described slightly differently, can have a distillation key attached to a top side of the distillation unit. A fraction collector is found with the distillation key extending through from end to end entirely (top to bottom). A middle distillation tube, narrower (in width) than the fraction collector, has extending there-through the same distillation key form end to end (top to bottom). A lower distillation tube, wider than the middle distillation tube, has the distillation key extends at least partially there-through. The distillation key, in embodiments, is spaced apart from and/or does not contact the middle distillation tube or lower distillation tube in embodiments of the disclosed technology. The middle distillation tube can extend into both the fractional collector and the lower distillation tube. The middle distillation tube extends into the lower distillation tube, creating an area between the lower distillation tube and the middle distillation tube (e.g. around the outside of the middle distillation tube) which terminates an upward pathway from a lower opening of the lower distillation tube. The lower distillation tube, in turn, can itself have a variety of wider and narrower regions. Any device or step to a method described in this disclosure can comprise, or consist of, that which it is a part of, or the parts which make up the device or step. The term “and/or” is inclusive of the items which it joins linguistically and each item by itself. Any element or described portion of the devices shown can be “substantially” as such, if used in the claims in this manner. Where used, “substantially” is defined as “within a 5% tolerance level thereof.” BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows an a side elevation view of distillation unit with stopper used in embodiments of the disclosed technology. FIG. 2 shows a top perspective view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 3 shows a bottom perspective view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 4 shows a front elevation view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 5 shows a back elevation view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 6 shows a top plan view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 7 shows a bottom plan view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 8 shows a cutaway side elevation view of the distillation head of FIG. 4 cut along section line 8-8. FIG. 9 shows a side elevation view of the distillation head of FIG. 8. FIG. 10 shows a top perspective view of the distillation unit of FIG. 8. FIG. 11 shows a bottom perspective view of the distillation unit of FIG. 8. FIG. 12 shows a front elevation view of the distillation unit of FIG. 8. FIG. 13 shows a back elevation view of the distillation unit of FIG. 8. FIG. 14 shows a top plan view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 15 shows a bottom plan view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 16 shows a cutaway side elevation view of the distillation head of FIG. 12 cut along section line 12-12. FIG. 17 shows a perspective view of a shorter version of the distillation head in another embodiment of the disclosed technology. FIG. 18 shows a side elevation view of the shorter version of the distillation head of FIG. 17. FIG. 19 shows a side cutaway view of a distillation unit within a flask in an embodiment of the disclosed technology. FIG. 20 shows a top and side perspective view of a distillation unit within a flask in an embodiment of the disclosed technology. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS OF THE DISCLOSED TECHNOLOGY A distillation unit multiple rejection areas at each of a top of a flask and a top of a lower distillation tube in embodiments. A middle distillation tube is narrower than the lower tube and extends into the lower distillation tube as well as a fraction collector. A distillation key with rings extends downwards through the fraction collector, middle distillation tube, and lower distillation tube, a portion of the distillation key and the lower distillation tube extending into a flask where product to be purified is placed. In this manner, the flask itself acts as a heat jacket in addition to having a heat jacket around all the afore-described parts. The distillation head or unit of the disclosed technology is used for first pass and subsequent pass of a material being refined. Prior art heads are thermally connected with solid glass having the connection portal at the joint itself. This means that temperatures can “wick/absorb” into surrounding glass very easily. In the devices of the disclosed technology, the head (inner lower section 10, the part thereof which is below the outer tube 22) is into a flask which is over the fire and/or has product to be distilled. (The numbers refer to the labels in the Figures which are described in more detail below.) This allows hot vapor to surround the inner bore glass pathway, and initially utilize the surrounding area to keep the central area hotter at the connection region than without. The internal heat pathway 2, in this manner, is kept separate from the side walls (e.g. exterior of jacket 42 and the sidewalls of a flask between a heat source and the distillation head) at all areas of the head, especially the lower connection region 20 where the head interfaces with a flask there-below. The pathway is suspended and isolated within a flask and jackets 40 and 42 at all regions including at the lowest extremities of the device. Further, an upper region of the pathway 4 has a bulbous fraction collector 50 which isolates upper vapor molecules and diverts them from the system and flow path of the exit/condensation tube preventing rejection of some vapors. Further, commonly distillation heads use Vigoreux indents or even perforated plates with drain tubes. This, however, reduces throughput of distillation. Liquid collects in this area and can be counterproductive to distillation even though this has been common practice for the last hundred years. Instead, the present technology uses a series of crimped areas of glass 12/14 (alternating areas with a small and larger cross sectional area) which is made with current technology and previously unable to produce on a mass scale or with the strength needed for vigorous distillation at high temperatures. The inner regions 12 with smaller cross sectional areas are between multiple wider regions 14 with larger cross sectional areas. In the present technology, there are further two stages of refinement in one monolithic pathway. The first section of the pathway 2 is in a wider piece of glass tube 10, with the crimped sections 14. This forces the distillate being collected on the surface to forcefully climb up the curved internal glass on the walls. This effect replaces Vigoreux usage or plates of the prior art. However, this approach only works because there is a distillation key 30 in the center. Without the key 30, the vapors simply pass upwards through a path of least resistance without being rejected all returning downwards, causing a much greater temperature gradient. A smallest possible temperature gradient is desired in order to more accurately remove fractions at various temperatures, especially when the fractions have extremely close boiling points which can be less than 1 degree Celsius. There is an added pathway placed over the main pathway with a extended piece of glass 45 that protrudes downwards into the first pathway. All the distillate climbing the surface will enter this uniquely shaped and constructed area of the lower rejection area 17 having rounded upper side walls 16 joining with the tubular glass 45 of the second region. This causes rejected distillate to fall back down. The remainder vapor will now enter the second pathway 3 and travel up utilizing, in embodiments of the disclosed technology, the upper section of the key for further refinement. All of this can be carried out with the pathway otherwise in a vacuum. Typical heads manufactured have one pathway. There may be theoretical plates but the vapor travels in a laminar fashion and moves upwards. Even though there can be obstructions to offer more surface area during distillation, prior art pathways allow a lot of impurities that easily travel along the side of the glass and move upwards with the condensation effect on the glass. In the present technology, the length of vertical pathway is increased in some embodiments and a dual pathway where one pathway has a cuffed section is dedicated to a specific distillation reaction. Then the top where it enters the first section has a transition area (lower collector) that rejects material downwards. The lower rejection area 16 prevents anything from the the lower section moving upward except vapors which have been sufficiently purified. The purified vapors now enter the upper distillation path 3 of the vertical region to be further refined before entering the upper fractional collector 40 in the pathway region 4. To test the system, in one test two pumping systems were used. A freshly extracted oleoresin was prepared with ethanol at temperatures below 0 Celsius. This was placed through ultra cold containment to crash out the precipitated wax formation and unwanted large contaminated bodies of material mass left behind as well as dissolved heavy mass particulates that coagulate at lower temperatures. Now the solution is heated and placed on a sealed vessel with carbon to saturate and mix. The solution is then filtered over a bed of silica material to remove carbon. Removal of the solvent, in this case ethanol, was used. The solvent is to be removed via evaporation. The product is now nearly dried as a resin in evaporator and now hexane/cyclohexane can be applied. At a 1:1 solution was added into the evaporator to dissolve the resin into a suspended solution. This solution was applied in a small reactor/separatory device. It was noted very carefully that the use of highly saturated salt water was used to remove as many water soluble compounds as possible, the use of this hardened and carried the salt water PH over to the prepared material after around 15-20 separations were performed. The PH was around 10, and was increasingly hardened after each wash so a solution of deionized water was prepared at a PH of 5.0. This solution was rinsed over and over again (at least five times) until the prepared hexane solution met 6.5-7 PH. The prepared and washed solution was returned to a neutral PH of around 6.5 and then placed inside of a Summit Industrial Supply SPD®-3 20 liter distillation apparatus. A volatile head adapter from summit industrial supply was also used to remove the hexane in a rapid fashion. The same head was used concurrent through the stages of solvent removal to increased solution temperatures in the SPD®-3 system up to 160 c. With the use of a 4 c vario diaphragm pump to remove both the volatiles solvents as well as water, and anything else left behind right before the use of dual stage oil vane (edwawrds 80) where waters, solvents and volatile compounds contaminate and deplete the vacuum rating. Once the solution is dried and applied under vacuum under high temperatures the edwards 80 is switched over, and a higher vacuum rating is gradually applied until all lower boiling point reactivity subsides. The spd® 3 fractional distillation head was installed prior and now initial vacuum pressures are being increased and more distillate is being produced as temperatures go up—the evacuation of mass of the selected fraction is being collected. The average temperature seen on this high speed refinement was 220 Celsius or below with a average rate of 3-4 liters per hour on the first pass when the main body of selected is being collected. It was noted the SPD®-3 produced approx half of that speed on a second pass and further, where this test compared the SPD® 3 to the present technology. The first pass was done in a rapid form to remove the compounds being selected as fast as possible. A cold trap was used, when the trap filled up initially, it was later dumped and a dry glass cap was installed to create a dry vacuum environment and prevent micro planing of molecules from the cold trap. This first pass distillation product that was collected was now put in either pentane or dcm (dichloramethane) and reduced into a 1:1 ratio again with a different polarity. a second salt water wash is preformed, removing further compounds unwanted. The first salt water wash was only able to remove as much material from the intial wash as possible, noted the time was 30-50× longer to separate due to the material carrying over a highly “gummy effect” where the separation isn't as smooth. The first pass process now reduced the bandwidth of the collected molecules; allowing this next salt water separation to effectively eliminate the greater portions of compounds that are water soluble, leaving only selected and preferred compounds in the solvent layers void from the unwanted water soluble compounds. The solution separates very fast in the wash, however also hardens the solution. The resulting process from the first wash is now repeated with de-ionized water placed at a 5.0 PH and washed until the solvent layer is reduced to a range of 6.6-7 PH. The reason the PH needs to be adjusted is because as a distillation occurs, if the PH is too high it actually defeats the efficiency and hardens the product coming out which also deflates the %-potency purity. This is because the PH becomes harder and even darkens the output of the wanted material to be collected. The PH must be reduced to its near natural state so when the distillation occurs and the mass to be distilled is removed-the PH will end in the range of 90, and does not enter the harder PH range. The nest steps are highly complex in nature. The reason is because on this second distillation and further diffusion pumps are being used and during the initial removal or solvent evaporates off at high temperatures, the diffusion pumps can never see any of those molecules down stream. A notable advance with the dual pathway was the added fraction collector at top that directed vapor and discharge away from the reaction. Further, it should be noted that the vertical length of the device and distillation pathways 2, 3, and 4 can be varied. For example, FIGS. 17 and 18, as will be discussed below, show a shorter vertical length device which decreases the length of the pathway 2 and 3 but otherwise has the same regions. Under the high refinement process with the present technology, distillation speeds of 4 or more liters per hour were realized with an end potency/separation of fractions at above 95% purity. In a second pass of the distillate fractions through the distillation heads, the procedure went as follows. The end fractions were collected, these fractions being very small separations that had to be immediately evaporated and solvent removed or the mixed solvent may react. Once enough of each fraction was collected by an automated chromatography flash machine, these fractions having all solvents evaporated were individually placed in the distillation head of the present technology. The resulting output distillation was single compound resolution post digital chromatography. That is, the output was greater than 99% per distillate with the test machinery unable to detect more than one fraction of distillate product. For practical purposes, the distillate is completely pure refined solution at a rate of speed which is increased 15% beyond the known rates generated from the initial test. Now referring specifically to the Figures, embodiments of the disclosed technology should become clearer in view of the following description thereof. FIGS. 1 through 8 show a “tall” embodiment with a stopper region. FIGS. 9 through 16 show the “tall” embodiment without the stopper region. FIGS. 17 and 18 show a “short” embodiment without the stopper region. The labels used to describe parts of the figures include: Pathways 2 lower vertical pathway 3 middle vertical pathway 4 upper vertical pathway 5 exit port pathway 6 corner condensation pathway 7 main condensation pathway Vertical Distillation Chamber 10 lower distillation tube 11 lower portal 12 outer crimps of the lower distillation tube 14 inner crimps of the lower distillation tube 16 upper extremity of the lower distillation tube and a lower rejection area 17 lower rejection area 20 flask abutment region of the outer tube and/or bellowed region of the outer tube (in some embodiments) 22 outer tube comprising a flask abutment region 20 30 distillation key 32 rings of the distillation key 40 inner jacket 42 outer jacket 50 fraction collector Exit/Condensation Regions 210 exit port 220 connecting region between the exit port and condensation tube (in some embodiments) 230 vertical connecting region between the connecting region 220 and condensation tube (in some embodiments) 250 condensation tube 258 condensation tube jacket 252 chiller port input/output 254 chiller port output/input 260 condensation exit portal Stopper 300 stopper (in some embodiments) 310 body of stopper (in some embodiments) Flask 400 body of flask 410 clamp holding flask to distillation head/unit 420 opening into flask 430 neck of flask Referring first to FIGS. 1 through 8 concurrently, FIG. 1 shows an a side elevation view of distillation unit with stopper used in embodiments of the disclosed technology. FIG. 2 shows a top perspective view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 3 shows a bottom perspective view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 4 shows a front elevation view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 5 shows a back elevation view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 6 shows a top plan view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 7 shows a bottom plan view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 8 shows a cutaway side elevation view of the distillation head of FIG. 4 cut along section line 8-8. FIG. 9 shows a side elevation view of the distillation head of FIG. 8. The “bottom” of the device is where the lower distillation tube 10 and port 11 are located. The “top” is in the direction of the label 1 of the distillation device itself. A flask is placed below the distillation unit 1 and vapors rise upwards following the pathway in numerical order from 2 to 3 to 4, and the in some embodiments, through 5 and 6, and finally through the condensation tube 7 where the vapors are re-condensed. A lower region 20 of the outer tube 22 surrounds some of the lower distillation tube 10 and in embodiments, all of a middle distillation tube 45. In this manner, a portion of the lower distillation tube 10 is “exposed” or unprotected from the outer tube 22. This “exposed” region is placed within a flask such that a pathway for heating of a liquid or solid being distilled is protected from the outside environment as the flask itself creates a heat jacket around the distillation path and a distillate product can be rejected into the flask itself before even passing into the distillation unit 1. For purposes of this disclosure, “rejection” of a vapor refers to a process why which vapors are heated and move upwards, but then cool and pass back downwards rather than continue on an upwards path to a next section of a device or next device used in the distillation process. An accepted vapor is one which is heated and continues on an upwards path into another section or device. A “section” is defined as one which is generally enclosed in a recognizable separate region of a device based on a change in width of the path or the like. In the device shown in FIG. 1, the interior of element 10 is one section (corresponding to a lower vertical pathway 2), the interior of element 45 is another pathway (corresponding to a middle vertical pathway 3), the interior of the fraction collector 5 is one section (corresponding to an upper vertical pathway 4), and so forth. The distillation key 30 has spaced apart rings 32 which extend outwards from a linear spine in embodiments of the disclosed technology. The rings, and the entirety of the device 1 can be made of glass and form a single unitary structure. The distillation key 10 is, in embodiments, connected to a top side of the device and extends downwards through the upper pathway 4 entirety, middle pathway 3 entirely, and at least partially or mostly through the lower pathway 2. In this manner, the distillation key serves to reject or help reject vapors at each ring (each ring being a “section” for this purpose which divides a vertical path by way of the ring spaced there-between). So too, the crimps with outer regions 14 and inner region 12 serve to help reject at each crimp. That is, as rising vapors contact each ring 32 and each crimp 14, turbulent flow is created and the slower moving/less excited particles drop out and fall lower (are rejected) while the faster moving/more excited particles (those with comparatively lower boiling points) continue upwards. By increasing the length of the entire device, one can purify more and more in this manner but must also be able to maintain as constant of a temperature as possible throughout the vertical rise of the device. At the top of the lower distillation tube 10 is a lower rejection area 17 with an upper most extremity or wall 17. Here the vapors pass upwards through a path of least resistance, in some embodiments, as the opening into this section has a greater circumference than into the middle vertical pathway 3/middle distillation tube 45. Then, vapors which continue to rise extend into the middle distillation tube 45 which is narrower than the lower distillation tube 10 and has far more turbulent flow due to the small distance between the walls of the tube 45 and the rings 32 of the distillation key 30. At this point, the fractions have been rejected at least twice (once in the flask and once at rejection area 17) so the more fine tuned or exacting rejection is warranted in the middle distillation tube 45 than previously accomplished. After passing through the middle distillation tube 45 from bottom to top, the vapors enter the fraction collector 50. A purified fraction is now swirling (in some embodiments) through the pathway 4 and condensate falls to the bottom of the fraction collector 50 which is purposefully lower than the middle tube 45 so that the fractions are separated therefrom. Thus, one sees that at each end of the middle tube 45 it passes into the adjacent section, e.g. the fraction collector 50 and the lower tube 10. The lower tube 10 passes into the flask as well. In this manner, rejected vapors or condensed fluids pass downwards rather than continuing on an upwards path and the temperature gradient is kept to a minimum by maximum layers of external protection around each section by other sections. That is, some or all of the vertical pathways described are surrounded by another vertical pathway in part such as at their entrance or exit to decrease heat loss and increase accuracy of rejections. Further, the distillation key 30 is a constant throughout most of the vertical rise of the vapors further helping maintain a constantly in turbulent flow and temperature gradient. A jacket 40, and in embodiments, a second outer jacket 42 surround a majority of the vertical length of the distillation head while a separate jacket 258 surrounds the condenser and condenser pathway 250. The jackets can be single, double, or triple layered and can have airtight cavities holding air or an inert gas (e.g. argon). The jackets 40 and 42, in embodiments of the disclosed technology, are terminated at a lower end by a lower region 22 which be defined by it's bellowing outwards (having a greater cross-sectional area than the rest of/the upper section of the jacket(s)). The jackets 40 and/or 42 thus surround all of the fraction collector 50, the middle distillation tube 45, and some or a majority of the lower distillation tube 10. In this manner, a portion of the lower distillation tube, such as 5% or greater thereof, and in embodiments, 20%, or 30% or greater thereof is unprotected by a jacket. This portion can go into a mouth of a flask or unit where heat is being applied, the flask itself acting as a sort of jacket and preventing heat loss. The shape of the bellowed region 20 may terminate with a cross-sectional area sized to fit an opening of a flask or over an opening of a flask. An exit port 210 allows the condensed fractions to exit into a condensation tube 220 where it exits into a condensation tube 250 and out an exit port 260 where the fraction is collected. The condenser can be chilled by way of passing colder fluid (e.g. between 0 and 10 degrees Celsius) through chiller portals 252 and 254 which open into a jacket 268 around the condensation tube 250. A stopper 300 is used in embodiments of the disclosed technology to close the distillation exit port pathway 5 before the vertical drop to the corner condensation portion 6 of the pathway can be used. This can be done, for example, between each fraction to let one fraction fully exit the portal 260 and clear the condenser 250 before letting the next fraction exit in order to the fraction separated. FIGS. 9 through 16 show a variation without the stopper 300, connecting region between the exit port and condensation tube 220, and the vertical connecting region 230 between the connecting region condensation tube. FIG. 9 shows a side elevation view of the distillation head of FIG. 8. FIG. 10 shows a top perspective view of the distillation unit of FIG. 8. FIG. 11 shows a bottom perspective view of the distillation unit of FIG. 8. FIG. 12 shows a front elevation view of the distillation unit of FIG. 8. FIG. 13 shows a back elevation view of the distillation unit of FIG. 8. FIG. 14 shows a top plan view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 15 shows a bottom plan view of the distillation unit of FIG. 1. FIG. 16 shows a cutaway side elevation view of the distillation head of FIG. 12 cut along section line 12-12. In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 9 through 16, the vertical portion of the distillation unit (parts numbered between 10 and 50, inclusive) are identical to those of the embodiment of FIGS. 1 through 8. The condensation chamber 250 is also identical or substantially identical, but the there is no stopper (300). In this embodiment the condenser 250 is connected at an acute angle to the vertical length (most elongated vertical side) of the distillation head. Thus, condensate from the fraction collector 50 exits therefrom at a horizontal angle and/or acutely down angle in an unencumbered path. FIG. 17 shows a perspective view of a shorter version of the distillation head in another embodiment of the disclosed technology. FIG. 18 shows a side elevation view of the shorter version of the distillation head of FIG. 17. Here the length of the middle distillation tube 45 has been shortened compared to the prior embodiments. The length of the lower distillation tube 10 has also been shortened comparatively. However, the top and bottom extremities of each tube 10 and 45 remain identical to the prior embodiments and function as described with respect to such prior embodiments. It should be understood that “length” refers to a vertical direction (from top to bottom) in this disclosure. FIG. 19 shows a side cutaway view of a distillation unit within a flask in an embodiment of the disclosed technology. FIG. 20 shows a top and side perspective view of a distillation unit within a flask in an embodiment of the disclosed technology. Here, the lower connection region 20 of the distillation head unit 1 is abutted against the opening 420 into the flask forming seal. The lower distillation tube 10 extends into the neck 430 of the flask and can extend into the body of the flask. The “neck” is defined as a narrower region connecting to a bulbous or wider body. In embodiments, the “neck” has a width which is no wider than 40% of the widest width of the flask and the body of the flask is defined as a portion which is at least as wide as 40% of the widest width of the flask. In other embodiments, such as shown in FIGS. 19 and 20, the neck 430 has substantially vertical and/or planar side walls and the body has rounded side walls and/or a change in slope of the continuous walls of greater than 25%. A clamp 410 clamps the bottom region 20 of the distillation head to the flask opening 420. Thus, the bottom opening 11 into the distillation head is in-line with the top opening 420 of the flask in embodiments of the disclosed technology and is held together by a clamp 410. An interior space in the neck 430 creates a rejection region for vapors between the walls of the neck and the lower distillation tube 10. Further, the lower distillation tube 10 is surrounded by the interior space of the flask which creates a sort of jacket around the lower tube to maintain heat flow, with the distillation key 30 extending into the flask itself. While the disclosed technology has been taught with specific reference to the above embodiments, a person having ordinary skill in the art will recognize that changes can be made in form and detail without departing from the spirit and the scope of the disclosed technology. The described embodiments are to be considered in all respects only as illustrative and not restrictive. All changes that come within the meaning and range of equivalence of the claims are to be embraced within their scope. Combinations of any of the methods, systems, and devices described herein-above are also contemplated and within the scope of the disclosed technology.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSED TECHNOLOGY <EOH>Distillation or fractional distillation is carried out by heating a solid or liquid and removing gaseous vapors that are expelled therefrom. This can be done while raising the temperature, as each compound boils at a different temperature. However, when working with small amounts of starting raw material or items which have close boiling points, this can be difficult, as multiple compounds get removed simultaneously. Further, a problem can arise when the temperature throughout the distillation equipment is not constant, and some of the vapor re-condenses before being evacuated from a distillation chamber. The inventor's prior patented technologies involved the development and use of a distillation key to more accurately distill fractions of distillate products. While this was and is a great improvement over the prior art, the ultimate goal is be able to distill accurately and quickly fractions within as minute of a temperature difference as possible. A standard distillation head tends to have a temperature gradient extending from a bottom to the a top thereof, as the heat source is beneath the distillation head and the distillate is a gas rising up from the bottom. Using an infrared camera, differences in heat were measured on a single jacket (single gas insulated layer) distillation head. A noticeable distance along the side the surface was dispersing heat. A very hot section was found in the middle (substantially or exactly 40% to 60% of the distance from the bottom port to the top port) of a main vertical elongated channel of the head. Both the top and bottom had an extended head gradient away from the center, each being cooler than the center. As such, one can summarize that during (fractional) distillation, the lowest section has the bulk of temperature loss to the surroundings. This would be expected to be the hottest region as it is most near the heat source, but in practice, condensate sits in the lower area (defined as “lowest ⅓ or ¼″ of the vertical elongated chamber”) causing vapors that pass through this section and become more cooled. Based on the above tests, and Newton's law of cooling, it has been found that a maximum amount of heat is reached, compared to the input temperature, in any distillation head. The head is exposed to the atmosphere creating a thermal conductive effect from the glass to the air, and even more so if the air is flowing at high speeds such as when using a ventilated fume hood. The core, a central hollow region where vapors pass through, thus also has a maximum temperature with little change based on the input temperature. Thus, there is a need to find a way to distill with greater efficiency and separation of compounds, while preventing vapors from re-condensing back into the product being distilled.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSED TECHNOLOGY <EOH>A distillation unit of embodiments of the disclosed technology has a jacket (a region of glass which surrounds other area but is designed to lack a pathway for vapors to flow through) and various tubes which function as a pathway for vapor flow. These tubes for vapor flow include a lower distillation tube partially surrounded by the jacket, the lower tube being crimped (having alternating larger and smaller cross sections at an interior thereof where vapors are designed to flow) in embodiments of the disclosed technology. A middle distillation tube extends into a region circumscribed by the lower distillation tube. “Circumscribed” is defined as “surrounding by, in at least one plane.” A fraction collector circumscribes, on an opposite side/other end of the middle distillation tube. The distillation unit, in embodiments of the disclosed technology, further has a distillation key which, in turn, has a plurality of circumferential rings extending transverse to a length of the distillation key. The distillation key can extend entirely through a vertical extent of the fraction collector and the middle distillation tube while being entirely spaced apart from the middle distillation tube. The distillation key can further extend into a lower distillation tube without touching the tube itself because it is entirely spaced apart therefrom. The distillation key can form a unitary structure with the jacket, such as by being attached to and/or connecting to and/or touching the jacket or interior side thereof. In embodiments, the sole point of connection of the distillation key to the rest of the distillation unit is at a top of the distillation key where it is attached to the distillation unit. A portion of the lower distillation tube is unprotected by any insulative region, in embodiments of the disclosed technology. Thus, a jacket or other protective region is lacking around a portion of what can be a single layer of glass of the lower distillation tube. This portion which is unprotected by the rest of the distillation head be placed into a flask or other exterior device to which heat is applied and a product (solid and/or liquid) is to be distilled. In this manner, the walls of the flask (or other device beneath the distillation unit and surrounding the uninsulated region of the distillation head/lower distillation tube) serve to “insulate” this portion of the lower distillation tube. A bellowed region of the jacket (defined as a portion which has a greater cross sectional area than rest of the jacket/a region which gradually increases in width) abuts the flask while a portion of the lower distillation tube is surrounded by the flask, in some embodiments. Where “longitudinal” is used in the disclosure, this should be understood to be defined as horizontal or extending perpendicular to a vertical length of the distillation unit. A first rejection area for vapors is between upper walls of the lower distillation tube and outer walls of the middle distillation tube, in some embodiments of the disclosed technology. (The “detailed description” comprises the definition and explanation of “rejection” for purposes of this disclosure.) A second rejection area for vapors is created between walls of the lower distillation tube and upper walls of the flask in some embodiments of the disclosed technology. A “flask” is a separate device for holding a solid or liquid which is abutted against or attached below the distillation head in embodiments of the disclosed technology. The fraction collector has a bulbous shape with a rounded upper side and flat lower side in some embodiments of the disclosed technology. The fraction collector can have a bottom (lower) side which is perpendicular to a longest vertical length of the jacket and/or the middle distillation tube. A connecting region between the fraction collector and a condenser can include an exit portal there-between. The bottom side of the fraction collector can be continuous and remain horizontal with at least a portion of the connecting region, e.g. they are coplanar in embodiments of the disclosed technology. Thus, in embodiments, a continuous internal pathway extends through, in order: an interior of the lower distillation tube, the middle distillation tube. the fractional collector, a side exit portal, and a condenser. The condenser can form a unitary piece with the distillation unit as a whole. In some cases, at least some vapors extend upwards through the pathway and are rejected at a top of the interior of the lower distillation tube in a method of using the distillation unit. Further, in some cases at least some of these or other vapors are rejected by at least some rings of a distillation key. The distillation key can extend through without contacting the middle distillation tube and extend through at least a majority of the lower distillation tube without touching this tube either. The crimped glassware of the lower distillation tube can have many inner crimps and outer crimps, the inner crimps having smaller cross sectional areas than the outer crimps but the inner and outer respectively being equal to each other in cross sections in some embodiments. The inner crimps cause turbulent flow of vapors moving upwards, helping to reject some of the vapors in embodiments of the disclosed technology. The distillation unit, described slightly differently, can have a distillation key attached to a top side of the distillation unit. A fraction collector is found with the distillation key extending through from end to end entirely (top to bottom). A middle distillation tube, narrower (in width) than the fraction collector, has extending there-through the same distillation key form end to end (top to bottom). A lower distillation tube, wider than the middle distillation tube, has the distillation key extends at least partially there-through. The distillation key, in embodiments, is spaced apart from and/or does not contact the middle distillation tube or lower distillation tube in embodiments of the disclosed technology. The middle distillation tube can extend into both the fractional collector and the lower distillation tube. The middle distillation tube extends into the lower distillation tube, creating an area between the lower distillation tube and the middle distillation tube (e.g. around the outside of the middle distillation tube) which terminates an upward pathway from a lower opening of the lower distillation tube. The lower distillation tube, in turn, can itself have a variety of wider and narrower regions. Any device or step to a method described in this disclosure can comprise, or consist of, that which it is a part of, or the parts which make up the device or step. The term “and/or” is inclusive of the items which it joins linguistically and each item by itself. Any element or described portion of the devices shown can be “substantially” as such, if used in the claims in this manner. Where used, “substantially” is defined as “within a 5% tolerance level thereof.”

B01D332

20180202

20180724

20180614

70284.0

B01D332

MILLER, JONATHAN

Integrated Distillation Chamber and Discharge Unit with Integrated Key

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

B01D

PENDING

ORAL IRRIGATOR

An oral irrigator including a handle, a tip, and a pump at least partially received within the handle and fluidly coupled to the tip. The pump includes a pump body defining a pump chamber, an inlet valve regulating fluid flow into the pump chamber, an outlet valve regulating fluid flow out of the pump chamber, a piston, and a linkage operably coupled to the piston and a drive shaft of a motor. The linkage translates rotational movement of the drive shaft into movement of the piston in first and second directions within pump chamber. When the piston moves in the first direction, the inlet valve opens, allowing fluid to flow into the pump chamber, and the outlet valve closes. When the piston moves in the second direction, the inlet valve closes and the outlet valve opens, allowing fluid to flow out of the pump chamber.

1. An oral irrigator comprising: a handle; a tip; and a pump at least partially received within the handle and in fluid communication with the tip, the pump comprising: a pump body defining a pump chamber in fluid communication with a fluid source; an inlet valve regulating flow into the pump chamber; an outlet valve regulating flow out of the pump chamber; a piston movably positioned within the pump chamber, the piston including a bottom portion and a top portion, the top portion having an increasingly larger diameter compared with the bottom portion, wherein when the piston moves in a first direction within the pump chamber, the inlet valve opens allowing fluid into the pump chamber and the outlet valve closes, and wherein when the piston moves in a second direction within the pump chamber, the outlet valves opens allowing fluid to flow out of the pump chamber and the inlet valve closes; and a linkage operably coupling the piston to a drive shaft of a motor, wherein the linkage translates a rotational movement of the drive shaft into movement of the piston in the first and second directions. 2. The oral irrigator of claim 1, wherein an axis of rotation of the drive shaft of the motor is parallel to the first and second directions of the piston. 3. The oral irrigator of claim 1, wherein the linkage comprises: a driven gear having a center axis, wherein the driven gear is rotated by the drive shaft; and a connecting rod coupled to the piston and eccentrically connected to the driven gear such that the connecting rod is offset from the center axis of the driven gear. 4. The oral irrigator of claim 3, wherein the linkage further comprises a pinion gear coupled between the driven gear and the drive shaft, wherein rotation of the drive shaft rotates the pinon gear, which in turn rotates the driven gear. 5. The oral irrigator of claim 3, wherein the connecting rod further comprises: a ball end received within a piston cavity of the piston; and a cylindrical end operably coupled to the driven gear. 6. The oral irrigator of claim 3, wherein the driven gear further comprises: a first disc portion having the center axis; and a second disc portion connected to the first disc portion, wherein a center of the second disc portion is offset from the center axis. 7. The oral irrigator of claim 6, wherein the driven gear has a plurality of teeth on the first disc portion that are parallel to the center axis. 8. The oral irrigator of claim 7, wherein the plurality of teeth are located on a first side of the first disc portion and the second disc portion is located adjacent a second side of the first disc portion. 9. The oral irrigator of claim 6, wherein the linkage further comprises a pin aligned with the center axis and coupled to the pump body, wherein the driven gear rotates about the pin. 10. The oral irrigator of claim 9, wherein the pin extends from a dry side of the unit to a wet side of the unit, wherein the driven gear is located on the dry side of the unit and the pump body is located on the wet side of the unit. 11. The oral irrigator of claim 1, wherein the first valve is a reed valve having a movable flap, wherein when the piston moves in the first direction, the flap moves to an open position to allow fluid to flow into the pump chamber and when the piston moves in the second direction, the flap moves to a closed position. 12. The oral irrigator of claim 1, wherein the top portion includes an outer wall extending outwardly therefrom. 13. The oral irrigator of claim 1, wherein the flow of fluid into and out of the pump chamber is substantially transverse to the first and second directions of the piston. 14. An oral irrigation device comprising a tip; a pump in fluid communication with the tip and a fluid source and operative to draw fluid from the fluid source and propel the fluid to the tip, the pump including an interior fluid channel disposed between the tip and the reservoir; a first valve regulating fluid flow into the interior channel from the fluid source; a second valve regulating fluid flow from the interior channel to the tip; a pump body defining a pump chamber in fluid communication with the interior fluid channel; and a piston positioned within the chamber of the pump body, the piston including a top portion, a bottom portion, and an outer wall extending outwardly from the top portion such that the piston has an increasingly larger diameter, wherein when the piston moves downwards within the chamber the first valve is open and the second valve is closed, and when the piston moves upwards within the chamber the second valve is open and the first valve is closed; a pump gear comprising a first disc portion; and a second disc portion extending from the first disc portion, wherein the second disc portion is offset relative to a center axis of the first disc portion; a gear pin coaxial with an axis of the first disc portion and about which the pump gear rotates; and a connecting rod comprising a ball end operatively connected to the piston; and a cylindrical end operatively connected to the second disc portion; wherein when the pump gear rotates, the ball end moves in an upward and downward motion within the chamber. 15. The oral irrigation device of claim 16, wherein the pump further comprises a pump head connected to the pump body, wherein the pump head comprises an inlet fluid port in fluid communication with the interior channel; and an outlet fluid port in fluid communication with the interior channel; wherein the inlet fluid port and the outlet fluid port are orientated at approximately right angles relative to the pump chamber. 16. The oral irrigation device of claim 15, wherein the inlet fluid port comprises an inner wall defining a fluid inlet therethrough; an outer collar extending from the inner wall; and a protrusion extending outwardly from the inner wall, wherein the outer collar extends further from the inner wall than the protrusion; and an inlet cap operably received around the outer collar of the inlet fluid port; wherein the first valve is positioned at least partially between the inlet cap and the outer collar; and the protrusion limits inward movement of a portion of the first valve. 17. The oral irrigation device of claim 16, wherein the first valve is a reed valve including a movable flap and when the piston moves downwards within the chamber, the movable flap moves towards the inner wall and the protrusion limits the movement of the movable flap. 18. The oral irrigation device of claim 16, further comprising an O-ring received around the outer collar of the inlet fluid port and positioned between the outer collar and an interior surface of the inlet cap. 19. The oral irrigation of claim 16, further comprising a pump inlet conduit coupled to the inlet cap, wherein the pump inlet conduit is in fluid communication with the fluid source. 20. The oral irrigation device of claim 14, further comprising a body housing the pump including a tip insertion opening, wherein the tip is releasably connected to the body via the tip insertion opening; and a tip release mechanism for releasing the tip from the body, comprising a tip securing clip; and a biasing element coupled to the tip securing clip; wherein the biasing element biases the tip securing clip into an annular groove formed on an outer surface of the tip.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/207,095, filed Mar. 12, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/372,409 (now abandoned), filed Feb. 13, 2012, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/609,224 (now patented), filed Dec. 11, 2006; which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/749,675 (now patented), filed Dec. 30, 2003, which claims the benefit, under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e), of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/437,300, filed Dec. 31, 2002, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein in their entireties. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This disclosure relates, in general, to devices for irrigating a person's teeth and gums. BACKGROUND Conventional oral irrigators typically include a large base unit having a reservoir, and a separate hand-held portion having a tip or wand that is connected to the reservoir with a tube. In use, a user directs fluid streams or pulses by pointing the tip of the hand-held portion in the desired position towards the users gum line. While the benefits of regular oral irrigation of the teeth and gums are well-known, oral irrigators having large base units can be difficult to transport, use, or store, for instance when the user is traveling, due to the size of the components. As recognized by the present inventors, what is needed is a hand-held oral irrigator which is portable, easy to store and use, and provides a user with the benefits of oral irrigation of the teeth and gums. It is against this background that various embodiments of the present invention were developed. SUMMARY According to one broad aspect of one embodiment of the present disclosure, disclosed herein is a hand held oral irrigation device having a tip for dispensing fluids. In one example, an oral irrigation device includes a body portion, and a reservoir for storing fluids, wherein the body and/or the reservoir define a first major diameter at a lower end of the oral irrigation device, and define a second major diameter at an upper end of the oral irrigation device, the first major diameter being larger than the second major diameter. In this example, by providing such a geometry for the device, a user can grasp the device with one hand about the second major diameter about the upper end during use. Other geometries are also possible. In one example, the reservoir is detachable from the body so that a user can easily refill the reservoir. The reservoir may include an opening positioned at a top end, and a lid releasably secured about the opening. In one example, the reservoir has a capacity of approximately 120-200 ml of fluid. In one aspect of the disclosure, a pump for an oral irrigator is disclosed. The pump includes a pump body defining a pump chamber in fluid communication with a fluid source, an inlet valve regulating fluid flow into the pump chamber, and outlet valve regulating fluid flow into the pump chamber, a piston, and a linkage operably coupled to the piston and a drive shaft of a motor. The linkage translates rotational movement of the drive shaft into vertical movement of the piston in a first direction and a second direction in the pump chamber. When the piston moves in the first direction, the inlet valve opens, allowing fluid to flow into the pump chamber and the outlet valve closes, preventing fluid from flowing into the pump chamber. When the piston moves in the second direction, the inlet valve closes, preventing fluid from flowing into the pump chamber and the outlet valve opens, allowing fluid to flow out of the pump chamber. In another example, the body may also include a motor, a pump, and a drive mechanism coupling the motor to the pump, the pump controllably delivering fluids from the reservoir to the tip. A three-way control structure may be provided having a first button for activating the motor, a second button for de-activating the motor, and a third button for releasing the tip from the body. Alternatively, an on/off control or switch may be utilized to activate and deactivate the motor. The body may include a wall structure defining a first and second section within the body, the first section containing the pump and the second section containing the motor and the drive mechanism, wherein the first and second sections are fluidly isolated. In this way, the wall prevents fluids from reaching the motor and other electrical components within the second section in the body of the oral irrigation device. In one example, the drive mechanism includes a pump gear coupled with the motor, wherein the pump gear includes an eccentric offset disc extending from the pump gear. A connecting rod may be coupled with the eccentric offset disc through a hollow cylindrical portion receiving the eccentric offset disc of the pump gear, and the connecting rod may include an arm extending from the cylindrical portion and a ball end positioned at the end of the arm. In this way, the eccentric rotation of the offset disc driven by the motor is converted into reciprocating motion of the connecting rod arm. In another example, the pump may include a pump head having an inlet fluid port, an outlet fluid port, and an interior fluid channel in fluid communications with the inlet and outlet fluid ports; a pump body defining a cylindrical chamber in fluid communications with the interior fluid channel of the pump head; and a piston having a bottom portion and a top portion. In one example, the inlet fluid port of the pump is positioned within the body at a location which is vertically lower than a location of the top or full level of fluid in the reservoir, thereby priming or self priming the pump with the fluid by force of gravity. The bottom portion of the piston can receive the ball end of the connecting rod and the piston may be positioned within the cylindrical chamber of the pump body. In this way, the connecting rod drives the piston within the pump body to create suction/intake and compressing/exhaust cycles of the pump. The body may include an inlet conduit fluidly coupling the reservoir with the inlet fluid port, and an outlet conduit fluidly coupling the outlet fluid port with the tip. The reservoir may include a fluid access valve fluidly coupling with the inlet conduit when the reservoir and the body are attached together. The pump may also include an inlet fluid valve regulating fluid flow into the inlet fluid port, and an outlet fluid valve regulating fluid flow into the outlet fluid port, wherein as the piston is moved downwardly within the cylindrical chamber of the pump body, the inlet fluid valve is open, the outlet fluid valve is closed, and fluid is drawn from the inlet port (which is coupled with reservoir) into the cylindrical chamber of the pump body. In another example, when the piston is moved upwardly within the cylindrical chamber of the pump body, the inlet fluid valve is closed, the outlet fluid valve is open, and fluid is expelled from the cylindrical chamber of the pump body to the outlet fluid valve for delivery to the tip. In one embodiment, the pump of an oral irrigator includes at least one valve assembly having a reed valve therein. For instance, the inlet fluid valve may include a first reed valve made of flexible fabric material, and the outlet fluid valve may include a second reed valve made of flexible fabric material. In one example, the reservoir may include a shelf portion defined about a bottom portion of the reservoir, and a base at the bottom end of the reservoir. The fluid access valve may also include a channel defined within the reservoir extending from the shelf to the base of the reservoir, the channel receiving the inlet conduit; a seal positioned about the top end of the channel; a spring extending upwardly from the base within the channel of the reservoir; a ball positioned within the channel between the seal and the spring; and a reservoir inlet conduit positioned along the base within the reservoir, the reservoir inlet conduit fluidly coupled with the channel so that fluid is drawn from the bottom of the reservoir. The spring presses the ball against the seal within the channel, and thereby prevents fluid from escaping the reservoir when the reservoir is separated from the body of the oral irrigator. In another example, the oral irrigation device is provided with a mechanism for releasably securing a tip to the body of the oral irrigator. The tip may include an annular groove, and the body may include a tip holding structure having a cylindrical wall defining a cylindrical opening; a slot defined within the cylindrical wall; a clip having an interior lip, the interior lip positioned within the slot and extending into the cylindrical opening; and a spring for biasing the lip of the clip into the slot. In one example, when the spring is uncompressed and the tip fully inserted in the body, the lip is received within the annular groove of the tip and secures the tip to the body. According to a broad aspect of another embodiment of the present invention, disclosed herein is a hand held oral irrigation device having a tip for dispensing fluids. In one example, the device includes a reservoir for storing fluids and a body including a pump for pumping fluids from the reservoir to the tip, wherein the pump includes an inlet valve and an outlet valve, the inlet valve including a reed valve made of flexible, non-porous fabric material. The outlet valve may also include a reed valve made of flexible, non-porous fabric material. According to another broad aspect of another embodiment of the present invention, disclosed herein is a hand held oral irrigator including a reservoir and a body portion, the body portion containing a pump with a fluid inlet port. In one example, the pump inlet port is positioned within the body and the reservoir is shaped such that the top of the reservoir is vertically higher relative to the position of the fluid inlet port of the pump. In this way, when the reservoir is full or approximately full of fluid, the fluid level in the reservoir is higher than the position of the pump inlet port, and therefore the pump is self-priming or primed by the effect of gravity. In one embodiment, an oral irrigator is disclosed. The oral irrigator includes a handle, a tip, and a pump at least partially received within the handle and in fluid communication with the tip. The pump includes a pump body defining a pump chamber in fluid communication with a fluid source, an inlet valve regulating flow into the pump chamber, an outlet valve regulating flow out of the pump chamber, a piston movably positioned with the pump chamber, and a linkage operably coupling the piston to a drive shaft of a motor. The piston may include a bottom portion and a top portion. The top portion of the piston may have an increasingly larger diameter compared with the bottom portion. When the piston moves in a first direction within the pump chamber, the inlet valve opens allowing fluid into the pump chamber and the outlet valve closes. When the piston moves in a second direction within the pump chamber, the outlet valve opens allowing fluid to flow out of the pump chamber and the inlet valve closes. The linkage translates a rotational movement of the drive shaft into movement of the piston in the first and second directions. In one embodiment, an oral irrigation device is disclosed. The device includes a tip and a pump in fluid communication with the tip and a fluid source. The pump is operative to draw fluid from the fluid source and propel the fluid to the tip. The pump includes an interior fluid channel disposed between the tip and the reservoir, a first valve regulating fluid flow into the interior channel from the fluid source, a second valve regulating fluid flow from the interior channel to the tip, a pump body defining a pump chamber in fluid communication with the interior fluid channel, and a piston positioned within the chamber of the pump body. The piston may include a top portion, a bottom portion, and an outer wall extending outwardly from the top portion such that the piston has an increasingly larger diameter. When the piston moves downwards within the chamber the first valve is open and the second valve is closed and when the piston moves upwards within the chamber the second valve is open and the first valve is closed. In this embodiment, the pump also includes a linkage coupling the piston to a drive shaft of a motor. The linkage may include a pump gear including a first disc portion and a second disc portion extending from the first disc portion, where the second disc portion is offset relative to a center axis of the first disc portion, a gear pin coaxial with an axis of the first disc portion and about which the pump gear rotates, and a connecting rod including a ball end operatively coupled to the piston and a cylindrical end operatively coupled to the second disc portion, when the pump gear rotates the ball end moves in an upward and downward motion within the chamber. Other embodiments of the invention are disclosed herein. The foregoing and other features, utilities and advantages of various embodiments of the invention will be apparent from the following more particular description of the various embodiments of the invention as illustrated in the accompanying drawings and claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 illustrates a hand-held oral irrigator and a battery charger, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 illustrates a hand-held oral irrigator with a tip attached thereto, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 illustrates an exploded view of an oral irrigator with a body portion, a detachable reservoir, and a detachable tip, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 illustrates a cross-sectional view taken along section lines 4-4 of the oral irrigator of FIG. 2, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 illustrates an exploded view of the body portion of an oral irrigator, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 illustrates various components of a fluid flow path of the body portion of an oral irrigator, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 illustrates a sectional view taken along sectional lines 7-7 of FIG. 5 showing various components of the fluid flow path of the body portion of an oral irrigator, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8 illustrates an example of a reed valve used in the pump, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 9 illustrates a sectional view taken along section lines 9-9 of the inlet port of the pump of FIG. 7, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 10 illustrates a sectional view of the pump, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11 illustrates a sectional view of the pump during an intake or suction stroke, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 12 illustrates a sectional view of the pump during an exhaust or compression stroke, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 13 illustrates a sectional view taken along section lines 13-13 of FIG. 10 showing the positions of the flaps of the reed valves, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 14 illustrates a sectional view taken along section lines 14-14 of FIG. 11 showing the positions of the flaps of the reed valves during an intake or suction stroke, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 15 illustrates a sectional view taken along section lines 15-15 of FIG. 12 showing the positions of the flaps of the reed valves during an exhaust or compression stroke, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 16 illustrates an exploded view of the reservoir, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 17 illustrates a cross sectional view of the reservoir taken along section lines 17-17 of FIG. 3 showing the reservoir lid in an open position and the fluid access valve in a closed position, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 18 illustrates a portion of the cross-sectional view of FIG. 17 showing the reservoir lid in a closed position, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 19 illustrates a cross-sectional view taken along section lines 19-19 of FIG. 17 showing the fluid access valve in detail, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 20 illustrates a sectional view along section lines 20-20 of FIG. 1. FIG. 21 illustrates a sectional view taken along section lines 21-21 of FIG. 20, showing the fluid access valve in an open position which permits fluid from the reservoir to enter into the pump inlet conduit of the body, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 22 illustrates an exploded view of a tip which may be used with the hand-held oral irrigator, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 23 illustrates a sectional view of the tip taken along section lines 23-23 of FIG. 3. FIG. 24 illustrates a sectional view taken along section lines 24-24 of FIG. 3 of the body portion of a hand-held oral irrigator, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 25 illustrates a portion of a sectional view of the body portion of a hand-held oral irrigator showing the tip release button in the normally locked position, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 26 illustrates a portion of a sectional view of the body portion of a hand-held oral irrigator showing the tip release button in the depressed, unlocked position, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 27 illustrates a front view of a pump gear, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 28 illustrates a top view of a pump gear, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 29 illustrates a bottom view of a pump gear, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 30 illustrates a sectional view of a pump gear taken along section lines 30-30 of FIG. 27, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 31 illustrates an example of a travel case which may be used to store a hand-held oral irrigator, a battery charger, and one or more tips or other accessories, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Disclosed herein are various embodiments of a hand held, compact and portable oral irrigator with a detachable and refillable reservoir, wherein various different tips may be attached to the oral irrigator. Referring to FIGS. 1-3, in one example, a hand-held oral irrigator 50 has a body 52, a detachable refillable reservoir 54 for storing fluid, and a detachable jet tip or nozzle 56 for delivering a pressurized stream of fluid to the user's teeth and gums. The body 52 and the reservoir 54 are shaped having a slender upper portion 58 so that a user can easily grasp the oral irrigator 50 about the upper portion 58, and a larger lower portion 60 which aids in the storage of fluids in the reservoir 54 as well as providing a stable platform when the oral irrigator 50 is placed on a table or surface in a vertical orientation. When coupled together as shown in FIG. 4, the body 52 and reservoir 54 form an oral irrigator 50 that has a generally oval cross-section from the lower end 62 (See FIGS. 4 and 20) to the upper end 64 (FIG. 4). At the lower end 62, the oral irrigator 50 has a larger major diameter 66 that decreases to a second, smaller major diameter 68 at a point 70 along the length of device 50, such as at a midpoint of the oral irrigator 50. The second major diameter 68 may be relatively consistent from point 70 to the upper end 64, or may increase if desired. In one example, the reservoir 54 defines a larger major diameter 66 along the lower end 62 of the oral irrigator 50, while portions of the base 52 and reservoir 54 define a second diameter 68 being smaller than diameter 66. In one embodiment, the smaller diameter 68 defines a region about where a user may grasp or hold the oral irrigation device 50 during use. Generally and as shown in FIGS. 4-5, the body 52 includes a three-way control structure 80 that permits the user to turn the oral irrigator 50 on or off or to release the tip 56 from the body 52, a motor 82, a drive mechanism 84, and a pump 86 connected to fluid conduits 88, 90 for drawing fluid from the reservoir 54 and delivering fluid to the tip 56. Alternatively, the body 52 may include an on/off control or switch to activate and deactivate the motor 52. The body 52 also includes a tip securing mechanism 92 (FIGS. 25, 26) that permits the user to releasably secure different tips to the body. Referring to FIGS. 4-6, the body 52 generally includes a motor 82 and a rechargeable battery 100 that, based on the state of the control structure 80, activates a pump 86 through a drive mechanism 84 that draws fluid from the reservoir 54 and delivers the fluid to the tip 56 in a controlled and pressurized manner. In FIGS. 3-4, the control structure 80 includes a wedge shaped pad 102 with three buttons 104, 106, 108 integrated therein and adapted for depression by a user's thumb or finger. In one example, a first button 104 controls a tip release mechanism 92 (FIGS. 25, 26) for controlling the release of a tip 56 from the body 52; and a second button 106 and third button 108 selectively activate and deactivate an electrical switch or contact 110 connected through wires or conductors 112 to the positive and negative terminals 114, 116 of a rechargeable battery 100, thereby turning the oral irrigator on and off. Referring to FIG. 5, the body 52 includes a wall structure 120 which defines a first section 122 of the interior of the body which is used to contain a self-contained fluid flow path 124 and related components, and a second section 126 of the interior of the body which is used to contain the motor 82, battery 100, charging connector 128, and other electrical components of the oral irrigator 50. The wall structure 120 maintains sections 122 and 126 isolated, which prevents fluid from entering section 126 and damaging motor 82, battery 100, or any other electrical components within section 126. The battery 100 is electrically coupled with the motor 82 through wires 112 or other conductors. In FIG. 4, the motor 82 includes a shaft 130 that drives a motor gear 132. In one example, the motor 82 is a DC motor rotating at 8000-11200 RPM under no load conditions when 2.3 volts is applied. In FIG. 5, the motor gear 132 is operably connected with a drive mechanism 84 for driving the pump 86. In one example and as shown in FIGS. 5 and 24, the drive mechanism 84 includes a pump gear 140, a gear pin 142, and a connecting rod 144. A motor/gear support member 146 securably attaches the motor 82 and the gear pin 142 within the body 52 of the oral irrigator 50, and maintains a fixed orthogonal orientation between the motor 82 and the pump gear 140 so that the teeth 147 of the motor gear 132 are properly aligned with the teeth 148 of the pump gear 140. The opposing end 150 of the gear pin 142 may be secured to an interior portion of the body or to an extension 152 from the wall structure 120. Referring to FIGS. 27-30, the pump gear 140 includes an outer disc 160 having the gear teeth 148 extending therefrom, an intermediate concentric disc 162, and an offset disc 164 which acts as an eccentric shaft 166, wherein the outer disc 160 and the concentric disc 162 are both centered about a cylindrical axis 168 through which the gear pin 142 is positioned and about which the pump gear 140 rotates. As shown in FIGS. 12 and 30, the center 170 of the offset disc 164 is offset from the cylindrical axis 168 by some offset distance 172, for example 0.081 inches or 0.091 inches. The amount of the offset distance 172 will vary depending upon the desired performance of the oral irrigator 50 as well as other design parameters such as the desired fluid pressure delivery, the mechanics of the pump 86, or the rotational speed of the motor 82. In one example, the eccentric offset disc 164 has a crescent shaped opening 174 therethrough in order to control the rotational inertia of the pump gear 140 as it rotates, as well as to simplify the manufacture of the pump gear 140. In FIG. 5, a seal 176 is positioned between the pump gear 140 and the wall structure 120 about an opening 178 in the wall structure 120 to prevent any moisture from entering the second section 126 from the first section 122 about the pump gear 140. The connecting rod 144 of the drive mechanism 84 includes a hollow cylindrical portion 180 coupled with an arm 182 terminating at a ball end 184 (FIGS. 6, 24). The hollow cylindrical portion 180 encases the eccentric shaft/offset disc 164, 166 of the pump gear 140 so as to receive the motion of the pump gear 140. In FIGS. 10 and 24, the ball end 184 of the connecting rod 144 is positioned within a curved, interior surface 190 of a recess 192 formed in a piston 194 that creates the pump 86. As the pump gear 140 rotates, the ball end 184 moves upwardly and downwardly and pivots within the recess 192 in the piston 194 as the piston 194 also moves in an upward and downward motion within a cylindrical chamber 196 of the pump 86. Hence, the connecting rod 144, attached to the piston 194 within the cylinder 196, converts the eccentric rotational movement of the offset disc 164 into linear movement and drives the piston 194 in an upward and downward motion within the cylinder 196 of the pump 86. The amount of offset distance 172 will affect the distance that the piston 194 travels within the pump body 200. The piston 194 is sealed with the walls of the cylinder 196 but is also allowed to slide up and down in the cylinder 196 while maintaining the sealed relationship. In one example and referring to FIGS. 6 and 10, the piston 194 is generally cylindrical and has on its top surface 202 an annular flange 204 and an interior pedestal, an annular valley or recess 208 being defined between the annular flange 204 and pedestal 206. Within the pedestal 206, an interior cylindrical recess 192 is formed with a first inner diameter 210, with a second larger and convex inner diameter 212, increasing towards the lower end 214 of the piston 194. A curved interior surface 190 is provided within the interior cylindrical recess 192, between the first and second inner diameters 210, 212, for receiving the ball end 184 of the connecting rod 144 in order to form a ball joint. Referring to FIGS. 6, 10-15, the pump 86 generally includes a pump head 220 and a pump body 200. The pump head 220 includes an inlet fluid port 222 and an outlet fluid port 224 each in fluid communications with an interior fluid channel 226. The pump body 200 defines a cylindrical chamber 196 in fluid communications with the interior fluid channel 226 of the inlet and outlet ports 222, 224. The pump 86 also includes a piston 194 and a pair of valves 230, 232 regulating the flow of fluid into and out of the inlet and outlet ports 222, 224. The inlet fluid port 222 includes an outer ring or collar portion 240 defining an opening 242 terminating at an inner wall 244, the opening 242 having a diameter larger than the diameter of the interior fluid channel 226. The inlet port 222 also includes a protrusion 246 extending outwardly from the inner wall 244 but not extending beyond the outer ring/collar 240. In one example, the opening 242 is circular along a portion of its perimeter with a portion of its perimeter defining a straight ledge 248 (FIG. 6). The outlet fluid port 224 is defined, in one example, by a flat outer surface 250 centered about the interior fluid channel 226. A transverse fluid channel 252 (FIGS. 10-12) extends from the interior fluid channel 226 to the cylindrical chamber 196 of the pump body 200. At one end, the cylindrical chamber 196 of the pump body 200 is in fluid communications with the interior fluid channel 226 of the pump head 220 via the transverse fluid channel 252. The opposing end 254 of the pump body is open so that the piston 194 can be inserted within the cylindrical chamber 196. As shown in FIG. 6, flanges 256, 258 extend outwardly and downwardly from the pump body 200 and act as support or securing members for securing the pump body 200 to the wall structure 120 or to the body 52. Both the inlet and outlet ports 222, 224 of the pump 86 have annular grooves 260, 262 for receiving O-rings 264, 266 thereabout for forming fluid tight seals with the adjacent conduits 88, 90, 268 attached to the inlet and outlet ports 222, 224. In order to form a fluid tight seal between the piston 194 and the cylindrical chamber 196 within the pump body, the piston 194 is provided with a semi-hollow top portion 208 (FIGS. 10-12) that has an outer wall 270 which extends outwardly so that this top portion 208 of the piston 194 has an increasingly larger diameter when compared with the bottom portion 214 of the piston 194. In this way, the top portion 208 of the piston 194 forms a tight seal with the interior walls of the cylindrical chamber 196 of the pump body 200, while still permitting some clearance between the lower portion 214 of the piston and the interior walls of the cylindrical chamber 196 of the pump body 200. In one embodiment, and as shown in FIGS. 6, 10-15, the pump 86 utilizes, on both its inlet and exhaust/outlet ports 222, 224, valves 230, 232, such as reed valves made from a flexible Teflon coated fiberglass tear-resistant, non-porous fabric material, such as Fluorofab 100-6 from Greenbelt Industries, which makes the pump assembly 86 simpler, lighter weight, smaller, and having less parts when compared with conventional spring-loaded valve assemblies. Further, the light weight nature of the reed valves 230, 232 also allows the valves to control/check the flow of fluid and air, thereby providing a reliable priming of the pump 86. The reed valves 230, 232 act as check valves which, when used as described herein, permit fluid to flow in only one direction. One or more reed valves 230, 232 may be used in hand held oral irrigator 50, or may also be useful for non-hand-held oral irrigators. As shown in the example of FIG. 8, in one example a reed valve 230, 232 may include a flat piece of material with a rim 280 on a portion of its perimeter, a flap or tongue 282 with a rounded end 284 extending into the interior of the rim 280 forming a crescent shaped opening 286 between the flap 282 and the rim 280. A living hinge 288 is formed between the flap 282 and the rim 280, so that the flap 282 can move relative to the rim 280 about the hinge 288. A pair of stress/strain relief openings or slots 290 may be provided about the hinge 288 to reduce stress/strain on the hinge 288 as the flap 282 moves. A portion 292 of the perimeter of the reed valve 230, 232 may be straight, so as to fit within the inlet and outlet ports 222, 224 of the pump head 220 (FIG. 6) and ensure proper orientation within the pump 86. As shown in FIGS. 10-12 and 13-15, the diameter of the flap 282 is selected so as to be greater than the diameter of the interior fluid channel 226 of inlet and outlet ports 222, 224 of the pump head 220. In this manner, the flaps 282 of the reed valves 230, 232 can fully seal closed the interior fluid channel 226 on either the inlet or outlet port 222, 224 during an exhaust or intake stroke of the pump 86. When the flap 282 of one of the reed valves 230, 232 is in an open position, fluid may pass through the reed valve by the flap 282 being displaced from the sealed position and through a portion of the crescent shaped opening 286 of the reed valve. In operation, when the piston 194 is moved downwardly within the pump body 200, this creates a suction stroke where fluid is drawn or sucked from the inlet port 222 past the opened inlet reed valve 230 into the cylindrical chamber 196 of the pump body 200 (FIGS. 11, 14). During the suction stroke, the outlet reed valve 232 is sealed shut because the diameter of the flap 282 is greater than the diameter of the interior fluid channel 226, and the flap 282 is drawn under suction toward the interior fluid channel 226 which creates a seal with the edges of the outer surface 250 of the outlet port 224. When the piston 194 is moved upwardly within the pump body 200, this creates a compression or exhaust stroke wherein the fluid within the cylindrical chamber 196 of the pump body 200 is expelled or pushed out of the pump body 200 through the outlet port 224 (FIGS. 12, 15) and past the opened outlet reed valve 232. During the exhaust stroke, the inlet reed valve 230 is sealed shut because the diameter of the flap 282 is greater than the diameter of the fluid channel 300 of the inlet cap 302 and the flap 282 is pushed outwardly to seal the inlet port 222. Within the body 52 of the oral irrigator 50, a self-contained fluid flow path is defined, in one embodiment, by various conduits 88, 90 connected between the reservoir 54, pump 86 and tip 56. Referring to FIG. 6, a cylindrical pump inlet conduit 88 receives fluid from the reservoir 54 and is in fluid communications with the inlet port 222 of the pump 86 and the outlet port 224 of the pump 86, which is in fluid communications with an outlet conduit 90 which delivers fluid to an outlet joint 304 which is in fluid communications with the tip 56. The pump inlet conduit 88 provides a channel 306 through which fluid enters the inlet port 222 of the pump body 200 through the inlet reed valve 230 during a suction stroke. In one embodiment, the pump inlet conduit 88 has an inlet cap 302 that is coupled with and around the inlet port 222 and also houses the inlet reed valve 230 and an O-ring 264 to form a fluid-tight inlet port (FIGS. 6, 7, 10, 11). The inlet reed valve 230 is positioned between the interior walls 307 of the inlet cap 302 and the outer ring 204 of the inlet port 222. During a suction stroke, the flap 282 of the reed valve 230 moves inwardly until it contacts a protrusion 246 (FIGS. 7, 9, 10) which limits the inward movement of the flap 282 (thereby opening the fluid flow path and drawing fluid into the pump body 200), but during a compression or exhaust stroke, the flap 282 of the reed valve 230 cannot move outwardly from the pump body 200 and remains closed since the interior walls 307 of the inlet cap 302 limit the outward movement of the flap 282 (FIGS. 10, 11, 12, 14, 15). The outlet reed valve 232 is positioned between the outer surface 250 of the outlet port 224 of the pump body 200 and the inner ledge surface 308 (FIG. 10) of the outlet cap 268. A protrusion 310 from the outlet cap 268 limits the maximum movement of the flap 282 of the outlet reed 232 valve during a compression or exhaust stroke such that the flap 282 of the reed valve 232 can move outwardly (thereby opening the fluid flow path into the outlet cap 268 and outlet conduit 90) but during a suction stroke, the flap 282 of the outlet reed valve 232 is sucked inwardly and its inward movement is limited by the outer surface 250 of the outlet port 224, hence the outlet port 224 remains closed, which prevents fluid from the outlet port 224 and outlet conduit 90 from being drawn into the pump body 200 (FIGS. 11, 12, 14, 15). The outlet cap 268 defines an L-shaped fluid channel 312 therein and is coupled with a cylindrically shaped outlet conduit 90 (FIGS. 5, 7). Both the inlet cap 302 and the outlet cap 268 can be secured to the pump body 200 through a screw 314 as shown in FIGS. 6, 10. The outlet conduit 90 is fluidly coupled with an outlet joint 304 which is in fluid communications with the tip 56. In FIG. 24, a tip holding structure 320, with a U- 322 positioned along its lower edge to form a seal between structure 320 and the interior of outlet joint 304, receives various tips 56 which can be inserted therein for delivering fluid to the user's teeth or gums. Referring now to FIGS. 16-21, a detachable, refillable reservoir 54 is illustrated in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 16, the reservoir 54 is generally elongated with a top portion 330 having a cross-section generally smaller than a cross-section of the bottom portion 332 of the reservoir 54. Due to this geometry, when the body 52 and reservoir 54 are connected together for operation, a user can easily hold the oral irrigator 50 in the user's hand about the top portion 330 of the reservoir 54. In one example, the reservoir 54 may be removed from the body 52 of the oral irrigator 50 as the user desires, for instance, when the user wishes to refill the reservoir 54. Alternatively, the user may refill the reservoir 54 without disconnecting the reservoir 54 from the body 52. On the interface portion 334 of the reservoir 54 (FIGS. 3, 16) adapted to contact or connect with the body 52, a pair of slots or grooves 336 are defined axially for slidably receiving the corresponding pair of parallel tongues or rails 338 (FIG. 5) extending from the body 52 of the oral irrigator 50. In one example, the top end 340 of the reservoir 54 is provided with an opening 342 for refilling the reservoir 54 with fluid such as water or other fluids. An end cap 344 with an opening 346 may be affixed to the top end 340 of the reservoir 54 and defines two pivot points or protrusions 348 about which a lid 350 with indentations 352 corresponding to the protrusions 348 can rotate upwardly or downwardly about the protrusions 348 as desired. A seal 354 with o-ring 355 can be affixed to the bottom portion 356 of the lid 350, or alternatively on the top portion of the opening 346, in order to sealably engage in the opening 346 of the end cap 344 so that when the lid 350 and seal 354 are in the closed position, a fluid tight seal is formed about the top end 340 of the reservoir 54 (FIG. 18). As shown in FIG. 16, one or more vent holes 358 are provided in the top of the reservoir end cap 344 in order to admit air into the reservoir 54 so that a vacuum is not created as fluid is pumped from the reservoir 54 through the tip 56. In one embodiment, the reservoir 54 is formed with a base 360 having a biased-closed fluid access valve 362 positioned on an interior shelf 364 of the reservoir 54 (FIGS. 16, 17, 19, 21). The fluid access valve 362 is normally closed and may be opened via contact with the pump inlet conduit 88 of the body 52 (FIG. 21). In one example, the fluid access valve 362 includes a vertically oriented cylindrical channel 366 defined within the reservoir 54 having an opening 367 at one end 368 for receiving a portion of a reservoir inlet conduit 370, and an opening 372 at the other end terminating on the interior shelf 364 of the reservoir 54 where a seal 374 with a cylindrical opening is positioned. Within the cylindrical channel 366, a ball 376 is pressed upwardly against the bottom of the seal 374 by a spring 378 which is maintained in position by an upwardly extending portion 380 of the reservoir inlet conduit 370 when positioned within the opening 367 of the cylindrical channel 366. An o-ring 382 is positioned about an annular recess 384 about the upwardly extending portion 380 of the reservoir inlet conduit 370. When the reservoir 54 is separated from the body 52 of oral irrigator 50, the spring 378 presses the ball 376 against the seal 374 within channel 366, thereby preventing fluid from escaping reservoir 54. Due to the positioning of the components of the fluid flow path within the reservoir 54 and the body 52, the pump 86 is self-priming which provides fast and rapid delivery of fluid stored in the reservoir 54 to the tip 56 during operation of the hand-held oral irrigator 50. The reservoir inlet conduit 370 is positioned on the base 360 of the reservoir 54 and defines an L-shaped fluid channel (FIG. 17) which receives fluid at its input 386 and guides, when the pump 86 is in suction mode, fluid to its upwardly extending portion 380 which is contained within the cylindrical channel 366. Accordingly, as the user fills the reservoir 54 with fluid, fluid immediately enters the input 386 of the reservoir inlet conduit 370, and as the fluid level within the reservoir 54 rises to above the level of the shelf 364, the fluid level within the cylindrical channel 366 also rises. As shown in FIG. 21, when the body 52 of the oral irrigator 50 is slidably connected with the reservoir 54, the tip 388 of the pump inlet conduit 88 enters the opening 372 of the seal 374 and engages the ball 376 which compresses the spring 378 and allows fluid to enter the interior of the pump inlet conduit 88 through the slot 390 in the pump inlet conduit 88. As the fluid level within the reservoir 54 is, for instance, at or near a full level, the fluid pressure formed by gravitational force or potential energy has a tendency to force the fluid upwards and out of the fluid access valve 362 whenever fluid access valve 362 is in an open position through contact with tip 388 of pump inlet conduit 88. Accordingly, when the reservoir 54 is at or near a full fluid level and the tip 388 of the pump inlet conduit 88 contacts and depresses the ball/spring 376, 378 of the fluid access valve 362, fluid flows upwardly into the inlet port 222 of the pump body 200 and primes the pump body 200 with fluid because the level of the fluid in the reservoir 54 is higher than the level of the inlet port 222 of the pump 86. This self priming effect occurs without reliance on the operation of the pump 86. When the user activates the oral irrigator 50 and the motor 82 activates the pump 86 to cycle between its suction and exhaust strokes, fluid is delivered to the tip 56 quickly and rapidly due to the fact that the pump 86 has been primed with fluid. Various tips 56 can be detachably secured with the oral irrigator through the use of a tip release mechanism 92 illustrated in FIGS. 4, 24-26. One example of a tip 56 is illustrated in FIGS. 22-23, wherein the tip 56 is generally elongated with a cylindrical bore 400 through which fluid flows from the bottom 402 to the top 404 of the tip 56, and has an annular flange 406 upon which an identification or color-coded ring 408 rests which users may utilize to personalize or identify their tips 56. Further, a tip 56 may include an annular groove 410 defined in the lower portion 412 of the tip 56 which is used in combination with the tip release mechanism 92 for securely attaching the tip 56 to the body 52 of the oral irrigator 50. A restrictor 412 may be included within the bottom end 402 of the tip 56 for controlling the volume and rate of fluid flow through the tip 56. For instance, tips 56 having different sizes or differing restrictor 412 sizes may be provided with the oral irrigator 50 in order to permit the user to control the pressure at which the stream of fluid is delivered to the user's teeth or gums. For instance, in one example, a tip 56 characterized by an orifice size of 0.035 inches with a 0.030 inch diameter restrictor 412 has been found to provide pressure of approximately 64 psi, while in another example a tip 56 characterized by an orifice size of 0.026 inches with a 0.025 inch diameter restrictor 412 has been found to provide pressure of approximately 48-52 psi. Referring now to FIGS. 24-26, the tip release mechanism 92 will now be described. The upper portion of the body 52 includes an opening 420 into which a tip control knob 422 is inserted which provides an interior surface 424 to engage and initially guide the tip 56 within the opening 420. The tip holding structure 320, which is generally cylindrical in shape, receives the bottom portion of the tip 56 as it is inserted into the body 52. In one example, the tip holding structure 320 includes an opening or slot 426 through a portion of its perimeter through which an interior lip 428 of a tip securing clip 430 may pass. The tip securing clip 430 and spring 432 (FIGS. 5, 25, 26) are provided such that as a tip 56 is inserted into the opening 420 of the tip holding structure 320, the outer walls of the bottom portion of the tip 56 push outwardly on the lip 428 of the clip and compress the spring 432, and when the lower portion of the tip 56 is fully inserted into the opening 420 of the tip holding structure 320, the interior lip 428 of the clip 430 is received in the annular groove 410 of the tip 56 to provide the user with tactile and/or audible feedback that the tip has been completely and properly inserted in the body 52 (FIG. 25). The clip 430 is biased in this position under the force of the spring 432. Further, if the groove 410 is continuous around the tip 56, once the tip 56 has been fully inserted into the body 52, the tip 56 may be oriented or rotated as desired by the user. When a user wishes to remove the tip 56 from the body 52, the user depresses a tip release button 104 (which is preferably part of the 3-way control structure 80) on the body 52 which pushes on a protrusion 434 of the tip securing clip 430, the protrusion 434 preferably located 180 degrees opposite the lip 428 of the clip 430. By moving the clip 430 towards the spring 432, the spring 432 is compressed which disengages the lip 428 of the clip 430 from the annular slot 410 of the tip 56 so that the tip 56 may be removed from the body 52 (FIG. 26). In order to control the pressure of the fluid stream delivered to a user's teeth and gums, various tips 56 with differing orifice diameters may be used, with or without restrictors 412. For example, a jet tip 56 having orifice sizes of 0.026 inches for low-pressure (which may be used with a restrictor of 0.030 or 0.025 inch diameters, for example), 0.035 inches for low-pressure, or 0.026 inches for high-pressure, for example. A battery 100 (FIG. 4) such as a NiCad battery, such as a pair of 4/5SC NiCad rechargeable batteries, may be used, in one example. A charger 436 can be used to recharge the battery 100 in the oral irrigation device 50 through a door 438 which provides access to charger connection 128. Reducing the motor speed may also reduce the pressure of the delivered fluid, and in one embodiment, the control 80 of FIG. 2 permits the user to select a low or high motor speed by correspondingly altering the voltage level applied to the motor. Furthermore, the offset 172 of the eccentric shaft 164, 166 used to drive the piston 194 (FIGS. 27-30) may also be selected to achieve a desired pressure or pulsation frequency. In one example, a 0.081 inch offset achieves a pulse rate of 1670 pulses/minute in a high frequency application and 1860 pulses/minute in a low frequency application, while a 0.091 inch offset achieves a pulse rate of 1750 pulses/minute in a high frequency application and 1920 pulses/minute in a low frequency application. Pressure control may also be provided through the use of an adjustable valve located in the tip 56. In one example, a valve with a dial, such as a barrel valve, is provided in the tip 56 which permits a user to selectively adjust the pressure as the fluid stream passes through the valve in the tip 56, thereby regulating the overall pressure of the fluid as delivered by the oral irrigator 50. By way of example only, an oral irrigator 50 may include a reservoir 54 having a capacity of approximately 120-200 ml (i.e., 150 ml), and delivering a flow rate of approximately 300 to 321 ml/minute when used with a high-pressure tip, resulting in approximately 30 seconds of irrigation when used with a full reservoir 54. Using a low pressure tip, the pressures may include 48-66 psi, in one example, resulting in approximately 27-35 seconds of irrigation when used with a full reservoir 54. Accordingly, as described above, it can be seen that various embodiments of the present invention may be used to form a hand held, portable oral irrigator with a detachable and refillable reservoir wherein various different tips may be attached to the oral irrigator. The compact and portable nature of embodiments of the present invention permit use of a travel case 440 (FIG. 31) to store and carry a hand held oral irrigator 50, a battery charger 442, and one or more tips 56 or other accessories in accordance with various embodiments of the present invention. All directional references used herein (e.g., upper, lower, upward, downward, left, right, leftward, rightward, top, bottom, above, below, vertical, horizontal, clockwise, and counterclockwise) are only used for identification purposes to aid the reader's understanding of the present invention, and do not create limitations, particularly as to the position, orientation, or use of the invention. While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to various embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various other changes in the form and details may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Conventional oral irrigators typically include a large base unit having a reservoir, and a separate hand-held portion having a tip or wand that is connected to the reservoir with a tube. In use, a user directs fluid streams or pulses by pointing the tip of the hand-held portion in the desired position towards the users gum line. While the benefits of regular oral irrigation of the teeth and gums are well-known, oral irrigators having large base units can be difficult to transport, use, or store, for instance when the user is traveling, due to the size of the components. As recognized by the present inventors, what is needed is a hand-held oral irrigator which is portable, easy to store and use, and provides a user with the benefits of oral irrigation of the teeth and gums. It is against this background that various embodiments of the present invention were developed.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>According to one broad aspect of one embodiment of the present disclosure, disclosed herein is a hand held oral irrigation device having a tip for dispensing fluids. In one example, an oral irrigation device includes a body portion, and a reservoir for storing fluids, wherein the body and/or the reservoir define a first major diameter at a lower end of the oral irrigation device, and define a second major diameter at an upper end of the oral irrigation device, the first major diameter being larger than the second major diameter. In this example, by providing such a geometry for the device, a user can grasp the device with one hand about the second major diameter about the upper end during use. Other geometries are also possible. In one example, the reservoir is detachable from the body so that a user can easily refill the reservoir. The reservoir may include an opening positioned at a top end, and a lid releasably secured about the opening. In one example, the reservoir has a capacity of approximately 120-200 ml of fluid. In one aspect of the disclosure, a pump for an oral irrigator is disclosed. The pump includes a pump body defining a pump chamber in fluid communication with a fluid source, an inlet valve regulating fluid flow into the pump chamber, and outlet valve regulating fluid flow into the pump chamber, a piston, and a linkage operably coupled to the piston and a drive shaft of a motor. The linkage translates rotational movement of the drive shaft into vertical movement of the piston in a first direction and a second direction in the pump chamber. When the piston moves in the first direction, the inlet valve opens, allowing fluid to flow into the pump chamber and the outlet valve closes, preventing fluid from flowing into the pump chamber. When the piston moves in the second direction, the inlet valve closes, preventing fluid from flowing into the pump chamber and the outlet valve opens, allowing fluid to flow out of the pump chamber. In another example, the body may also include a motor, a pump, and a drive mechanism coupling the motor to the pump, the pump controllably delivering fluids from the reservoir to the tip. A three-way control structure may be provided having a first button for activating the motor, a second button for de-activating the motor, and a third button for releasing the tip from the body. Alternatively, an on/off control or switch may be utilized to activate and deactivate the motor. The body may include a wall structure defining a first and second section within the body, the first section containing the pump and the second section containing the motor and the drive mechanism, wherein the first and second sections are fluidly isolated. In this way, the wall prevents fluids from reaching the motor and other electrical components within the second section in the body of the oral irrigation device. In one example, the drive mechanism includes a pump gear coupled with the motor, wherein the pump gear includes an eccentric offset disc extending from the pump gear. A connecting rod may be coupled with the eccentric offset disc through a hollow cylindrical portion receiving the eccentric offset disc of the pump gear, and the connecting rod may include an arm extending from the cylindrical portion and a ball end positioned at the end of the arm. In this way, the eccentric rotation of the offset disc driven by the motor is converted into reciprocating motion of the connecting rod arm. In another example, the pump may include a pump head having an inlet fluid port, an outlet fluid port, and an interior fluid channel in fluid communications with the inlet and outlet fluid ports; a pump body defining a cylindrical chamber in fluid communications with the interior fluid channel of the pump head; and a piston having a bottom portion and a top portion. In one example, the inlet fluid port of the pump is positioned within the body at a location which is vertically lower than a location of the top or full level of fluid in the reservoir, thereby priming or self priming the pump with the fluid by force of gravity. The bottom portion of the piston can receive the ball end of the connecting rod and the piston may be positioned within the cylindrical chamber of the pump body. In this way, the connecting rod drives the piston within the pump body to create suction/intake and compressing/exhaust cycles of the pump. The body may include an inlet conduit fluidly coupling the reservoir with the inlet fluid port, and an outlet conduit fluidly coupling the outlet fluid port with the tip. The reservoir may include a fluid access valve fluidly coupling with the inlet conduit when the reservoir and the body are attached together. The pump may also include an inlet fluid valve regulating fluid flow into the inlet fluid port, and an outlet fluid valve regulating fluid flow into the outlet fluid port, wherein as the piston is moved downwardly within the cylindrical chamber of the pump body, the inlet fluid valve is open, the outlet fluid valve is closed, and fluid is drawn from the inlet port (which is coupled with reservoir) into the cylindrical chamber of the pump body. In another example, when the piston is moved upwardly within the cylindrical chamber of the pump body, the inlet fluid valve is closed, the outlet fluid valve is open, and fluid is expelled from the cylindrical chamber of the pump body to the outlet fluid valve for delivery to the tip. In one embodiment, the pump of an oral irrigator includes at least one valve assembly having a reed valve therein. For instance, the inlet fluid valve may include a first reed valve made of flexible fabric material, and the outlet fluid valve may include a second reed valve made of flexible fabric material. In one example, the reservoir may include a shelf portion defined about a bottom portion of the reservoir, and a base at the bottom end of the reservoir. The fluid access valve may also include a channel defined within the reservoir extending from the shelf to the base of the reservoir, the channel receiving the inlet conduit; a seal positioned about the top end of the channel; a spring extending upwardly from the base within the channel of the reservoir; a ball positioned within the channel between the seal and the spring; and a reservoir inlet conduit positioned along the base within the reservoir, the reservoir inlet conduit fluidly coupled with the channel so that fluid is drawn from the bottom of the reservoir. The spring presses the ball against the seal within the channel, and thereby prevents fluid from escaping the reservoir when the reservoir is separated from the body of the oral irrigator. In another example, the oral irrigation device is provided with a mechanism for releasably securing a tip to the body of the oral irrigator. The tip may include an annular groove, and the body may include a tip holding structure having a cylindrical wall defining a cylindrical opening; a slot defined within the cylindrical wall; a clip having an interior lip, the interior lip positioned within the slot and extending into the cylindrical opening; and a spring for biasing the lip of the clip into the slot. In one example, when the spring is uncompressed and the tip fully inserted in the body, the lip is received within the annular groove of the tip and secures the tip to the body. According to a broad aspect of another embodiment of the present invention, disclosed herein is a hand held oral irrigation device having a tip for dispensing fluids. In one example, the device includes a reservoir for storing fluids and a body including a pump for pumping fluids from the reservoir to the tip, wherein the pump includes an inlet valve and an outlet valve, the inlet valve including a reed valve made of flexible, non-porous fabric material. The outlet valve may also include a reed valve made of flexible, non-porous fabric material. According to another broad aspect of another embodiment of the present invention, disclosed herein is a hand held oral irrigator including a reservoir and a body portion, the body portion containing a pump with a fluid inlet port. In one example, the pump inlet port is positioned within the body and the reservoir is shaped such that the top of the reservoir is vertically higher relative to the position of the fluid inlet port of the pump. In this way, when the reservoir is full or approximately full of fluid, the fluid level in the reservoir is higher than the position of the pump inlet port, and therefore the pump is self-priming or primed by the effect of gravity. In one embodiment, an oral irrigator is disclosed. The oral irrigator includes a handle, a tip, and a pump at least partially received within the handle and in fluid communication with the tip. The pump includes a pump body defining a pump chamber in fluid communication with a fluid source, an inlet valve regulating flow into the pump chamber, an outlet valve regulating flow out of the pump chamber, a piston movably positioned with the pump chamber, and a linkage operably coupling the piston to a drive shaft of a motor. The piston may include a bottom portion and a top portion. The top portion of the piston may have an increasingly larger diameter compared with the bottom portion. When the piston moves in a first direction within the pump chamber, the inlet valve opens allowing fluid into the pump chamber and the outlet valve closes. When the piston moves in a second direction within the pump chamber, the outlet valve opens allowing fluid to flow out of the pump chamber and the inlet valve closes. The linkage translates a rotational movement of the drive shaft into movement of the piston in the first and second directions. In one embodiment, an oral irrigation device is disclosed. The device includes a tip and a pump in fluid communication with the tip and a fluid source. The pump is operative to draw fluid from the fluid source and propel the fluid to the tip. The pump includes an interior fluid channel disposed between the tip and the reservoir, a first valve regulating fluid flow into the interior channel from the fluid source, a second valve regulating fluid flow from the interior channel to the tip, a pump body defining a pump chamber in fluid communication with the interior fluid channel, and a piston positioned within the chamber of the pump body. The piston may include a top portion, a bottom portion, and an outer wall extending outwardly from the top portion such that the piston has an increasingly larger diameter. When the piston moves downwards within the chamber the first valve is open and the second valve is closed and when the piston moves upwards within the chamber the second valve is open and the first valve is closed. In this embodiment, the pump also includes a linkage coupling the piston to a drive shaft of a motor. The linkage may include a pump gear including a first disc portion and a second disc portion extending from the first disc portion, where the second disc portion is offset relative to a center axis of the first disc portion, a gear pin coaxial with an axis of the first disc portion and about which the pump gear rotates, and a connecting rod including a ball end operatively coupled to the piston and a cylindrical end operatively coupled to the second disc portion, when the pump gear rotates the ball end moves in an upward and downward motion within the chamber. Other embodiments of the invention are disclosed herein. The foregoing and other features, utilities and advantages of various embodiments of the invention will be apparent from the following more particular description of the various embodiments of the invention as illustrated in the accompanying drawings and claims.

A61C170214

20180202

20180607

69815.0

A61C1702

LEWIS, RALPH A

ORAL IRRIGATOR

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

A61C

PENDING

CONTAINER DEPLOYMENT METHOD AND APPARATUS

A container deployment method and apparatus are disclosed. The method includes receiving a first container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and a required image identifier, where the required image identifier is an identifier of an image corresponding to an application that needs to be run. From a cluster of working nodes, at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity is greater than the required resource capacity are selected. A target working node is determined from the at least two working nodes according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier. A second container creation request is sent to the target working node carrying the required resource capacity and the required image identifier.

1. A container deployment method, comprising: receiving a first container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and a required image identifier, wherein the required image identifier is an identifier of an image corresponding to an application that needs to be run; selecting, from a cluster of working nodes, at least two first working nodes, wherein an unused resource capacity of each of the at least two first working nodes is greater than the required resource capacity; determining, from the at least two first working nodes, a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier; and sending, to the target working node, a second container creation request that carries the required resource capacity and the required image identifier. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the determining, from the at least two first working nodes, the target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier comprises: obtaining an image identifier corresponding to each image stored on each of the at least two first working nodes; identifying at least one second working node, each of the at least one second working node storing an image whose image identifier is the same as the required image identifier; and selecting, from the identified at least one second working nodes, the target working node. 3. The method according to claim 2, wherein the selecting, from the identified at least one second working nodes, the target working node comprises: if a quantity of the identified at least one second working nodes is one, determining the identified second working node as the target working node; or if a quantity of the identified at least one second working nodes is greater than one, selecting, from the identified at least one second working nodes, a working node with a smallest unused resource capacity as the target working node. 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein the determining, from the at least two first working nodes, the target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier comprises: obtaining an image identifier corresponding to each image stored on each of the at least two first working nodes; determining, according to the image identifier corresponding to each image, that none of the at least two first working nodes stores an image corresponding to the required image identifier; obtaining, according to the required image identifier and from a registry repository, image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers comprised in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; obtaining image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on each of the at least two first working nodes; determining that there is at least one third working node in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the stored image layers, wherein image layer identifiers of each of the at least one third working node are the same as one or more image layer identifiers in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the image layers comprised in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; and selecting, from the determined at least one third working node, the target working node. 5. The method according to claim 4, wherein the selecting, from the determined at least one third working node, the target working node comprises: if a quantity of the determined at least one third working node is one, determining the determined at least one third working node as the target working node; or if a quantity of the determined at least one third working node is greater than one, selecting, from the determined at least one third working node, a working node with a largest quantity of the one or more image layer identifiers as the target working node.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of International Application No. PCT/CN2016/080139, filed on Apr. 25, 2016, which claims priority to Chinese Patent Application No. 201510475714.2, filed on Aug. 6, 2015. The disclosures of the aforementioned applications are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to the field of Internet technologies, and in particular, to a container deployment method and apparatus. BACKGROUND Docker is an open source application container engine, and is based on a kernel lightweight virtualization technology, and can implement resource isolation among applications, configuration and security assurance of each application, and meet a requirement of on-demand resource allocation for each application, isolation among applications and availability of the applications. Before Docker is used to run an application, a corresponding container needs to be created on a working node. Currently, during deployment of a container on the working node, the container is created on a highest-priority working node. Factors that affect container creation include both resource capacity and image, wherein the resource capacity includes a CPU capacity and a memory capacity. Docker images are organized in layers. An image at a lower layer is referred to as a parent image of an image at a current layer, and an image without the parent image is referred to as a base image. However, in a deployment process of the foregoing container, only impact of the resource capacity on the container creation is considered. This may lead to a waste of resources. SUMMARY Embodiments of the present invention disclose a container deployment method and apparatus. A container is deployed according to an identifier of a stored image, so that the deployed container uses deployed resources, and resources are reduced. A first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention discloses a container deployment method, including: receiving a first container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and a required image identifier, where the required image identifier is an identifier of an image corresponding to an application that needs to be run; selecting, from a cluster of working nodes, at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity is greater than the required resource capacity; determining, in the at least two first working nodes, a working node as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier; and sending, to the target working node, a second container creation request that carries the required resource capacity and the required image identifier. With reference to the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a first possible implementation manner of the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the determining, in the at least two first working nodes, a working node as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier includes: obtaining an image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node; determining a working node with the image identifier corresponding to the stored image as the first working node of the required image identifier; and selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node. With reference to the first possible implementation manner of the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a second possible implementation manner of the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node is specifically: when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, determining the determined first working node as the target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a working node with a smallest unused resource capacity as the target working node. With reference to the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a third possible implementation manner of the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the determining, in the at least two first working nodes, a working node as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier includes: obtaining an image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node; determining, according to the image identifier corresponding to the stored image, that none of the first working nodes stores the image corresponding to the required image identifier; obtaining, according to the required image identifier and from a registry repository, image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; obtaining image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on each first working node; determining that there is a first working node in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the stored image layers, where image layer identifiers of the first working node are the same as some image layer identifiers in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; and selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node. With reference to the third possible implementation manner of the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a fourth possible implementation manner of the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node is specifically: when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, determining the determined first working node as the target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a working node with a largest quantity of the some image layer identifiers as the target working node. A second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention discloses a container deployment apparatus, including: a receiving unit, configured to receive a first container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and a required image identifier, where the required image identifier is an identifier of an image corresponding to an application that needs to be run; a selection unit, configured to select, from a cluster of working nodes, at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity is greater than the required resource capacity; a determining unit, configured to determine, in the at least two first working nodes, a working node as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier; and a sending unit, configured to send, to the target working node, a second container creation request that carries the required resource capacity and the required image identifier. With reference to the second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a first possible implementation manner of the second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the determining unit includes: a first obtaining subunit, configured to obtain an image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node; a first determining subunit, configured to identify all first working nodes, each of which stores an image whose image identifier is the same as the required image identifier; and a first selection subunit, configured to select, from the identified all first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node. With reference to the first possible implementation manner of the second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a second possible implementation manner of the second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the first selection subunit is specifically configured to: when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, determine the determined first working node as the target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, select, from the determined first working nodes, a working node with a smallest unused resource capacity as the target working node. With reference to the second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a third possible implementation manner of the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the determining unit includes: a second obtaining subunit, configured to obtain an image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node; a second determining subunit, configured to determine, according to the image identifier corresponding to the stored image, that none of the first working nodes stores the image corresponding to the required image identifier; a third obtaining subunit, configured to obtain, according to the required image identifier and from a registry repository, image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; a fourth obtaining subunit, configured to obtain image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on each first working node; a third determining subunit, configured to determine that there is a first working node in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the stored image layers, where image layer identifiers of the first working node are the same as some image layer identifiers in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; and a second selection subunit, configured to select, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node. With reference to the third possible implementation manner of the second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a fourth possible implementation manner of the second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the second selection subunit is specifically configured to: when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, determine the determined first working node as the target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, select, from the determined first working nodes, a working node with a largest quantity of the some image layer identifiers as the target working node. In the embodiments of the present invention, after a first container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and a required image identifier is received, at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity is greater than the required resource capacity are selected from a cluster of working nodes, and a working node is determined, in the at least two first working nodes, as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier, and then a second container creation request that carries the required resource capacity and the required image identifier is sent to the target working node. Because a container is deployed on a working node according to an identifier of a stored image, the deployed container uses deployed resources, and resources are reduced. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS To describe the technical solutions in the embodiments of the present invention more clearly, the following briefly describes the accompanying drawings required for describing the embodiments. Apparently, the accompanying drawings in the following description show merely some embodiments of the present invention, and a person of ordinary skill in the art may still derive other drawings from these accompanying drawings without creative efforts. FIG. 1 is a diagram of a container deployment network architecture according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a structural diagram of a container deployment apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a flowchart of a container deployment method according to an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 4 is a structural diagram of another container deployment apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS The following clearly describes the technical solutions in the embodiments of the present invention with reference to the accompanying drawings in the embodiments of the present invention. Apparently, the described embodiments are merely some but not all of the embodiments of the present invention. All other embodiments obtained by a person of ordinary skill in the art based on the embodiments of the present invention without creative efforts shall fall within the protection scope of the present invention. Embodiments of the present invention disclose a container deployment method and apparatus. A container is deployed according to an identifier of a stored image, so that the deployed container uses deployed resources, and resources are reduced. Details are separately described in the following. For a better understanding of the container deployment method and apparatus disclosed in the embodiments of the present invention, the following first describes a container deployment network architecture used in the embodiments of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 1, FIG. 1 is a structural diagram of the container deployment network architecture according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 1, the container deployment network architecture may include a client 101, a management node 102, at least two working nodes 103, and a registry repository 104. The client 101 is configured to communicate with the management node 102 by using a network, and submit a container creation request. The network may be a local area network, may be the Internet, or may be another network. This is not limited in this embodiment. The management node 102 is configured to communicate with the client 101 by using the network, and receive the container creation request submitted by the client 101. The management node 102 further specifies, for each container creation request, the working node 103 configured to create a container, communicates with the working node 103 by using the network, instructs the working node 103 to create the container, and obtains an image identifier corresponding to an image stored on the working node 103, image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on the working node 103, a total resource capacity of the working node 103, and a used resource capacity of the working node 103. In addition, the management node 102 may communicate with the registry repository 104 by using the network, and obtain, from the registry repository 104, image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers included in an image corresponding to a required image identifier carried in the container creation request. The working node 103 is configured to communicate with the management node 102 by using the network, creates the container according to an instruction of the management node 102, and sends information to the management node 102. In addition, the working node 103 communicates with the registry repository 104 by using the network, and obtains, from the registry repository 104, the image or the image layer required for creating the container. The registry repository 104 is configured to store the image required for creating the container, communicate with the management node 102 by using the network, and send, to the management node 102, the image layer identifier corresponding to the image layer. In addition, the registry repository 104 may communicate with the working node 103 by using the network. When the working node needs to create the container, and the working node 103 does not store the image required for creating the container or stores only some image layers of the image required for creating the container, the working node 103 needs to obtain the image or the image layer from the registry repository 104. The image in the registry repository 104 is produced by an application developer, and is uploaded to the registry repository 104 by an application administrator by using a related interface. In this embodiment of the present invention, a cluster of working nodes includes all the working nodes 103 in the container deployment network architecture, that is, all the working nodes 103 managed by the management node 102. In this embodiment of the present invention, a first working node is the working node 103 that is in the cluster of the working nodes and whose unused resource capacity is greater than a resource capacity required for creating the container. Based on the container deployment network architecture shown in FIG. 1, referring to FIG. 2, FIG. 2 is a structural diagram of a container deployment apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention. The container deployment apparatus may be a management node. As shown in FIG. 2, the container deployment apparatus 200 may include at least one processor 201, for example, a CPU, a memory 202, a transceiver 203, and at least one communications bus 204. The communications bus 204 is configured to implement connection and communication that are between these components. The memory 202 may include a high-speed RAM, or may include a non-volatile memory (non-volatile memory), for example, at least one magnetic disk memory. Optionally, the memory 202 may include at least one storage apparatus away from the processor 201. The transceiver 203 is configured to receive a first container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and a required image identifier, and send the first container creation request to the processor 201, where the required image identifier is an identifier of an image corresponding to an application that needs to be run. The memory 202 stores a set of program code, and the processor 201 is configured to call the program code stored in the memory 202 to perform the following operations: selecting, from a cluster of working nodes, at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity is greater than the required resource capacity; and determining, in the at least two first working nodes, a working node as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier. The transceiver 203 is further configured to send, to the target working node, a second container creation request that carries the required resource capacity and the required image identifier. In a possible implementation manner, a manner in which the processor 201 determines, in the at least two first working nodes, a working node as the target working node according to the images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier is specifically: obtaining an image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node; identifying all first working nodes, each of which stores an image whose image identifier is the same as the required image identifier; and selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node. In a possible implementation manner, a manner in which the processor 201 selects, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node is specifically: when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, determining the determined first working node as the target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a working node with a smallest unused resource capacity as the target working node. In a possible implementation manner, a manner in which the processor 201 determines, in the at least two first working nodes, a working node as the target working node according to the images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier is specifically: obtaining an image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node; determining, according to the image identifier corresponding to the stored image, that none of the first working nodes stores the image corresponding to the required image identifier; obtaining, according to the required image identifier and from a registry repository, image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; obtaining image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on each first working node; determining that there is a first working node in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the stored image layers, where image layer identifiers of the first working node are the same as some image layer identifiers in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; and selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node. In a possible implementation manner, a manner in which the processor 201 selects, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node is specifically: when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, determining the determined first working node as the target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a working node with a largest quantity of the some image layer identifiers as the target working node. In the container deployment apparatus described in FIG. 2, after a first container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and a required image identifier is received, at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity is greater than the required resource capacity are selected from a cluster of working nodes, and a working node is determined, in the at least two first working nodes, as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier, and then a second container creation request that carries the required resource capacity and the required image identifier is sent to the target working node. Because a container is deployed on a working node according to an identifier of a stored image, the deployed container uses deployed resources, and resources are reduced. Based on the container deployment network architecture shown in FIG. 1, an embodiment of the present invention discloses a container deployment method. Referring to FIG. 3, FIG. 3 is a flowchart of the container deployment method according to this embodiment of the present invention. The container deployment method may be performed by a management node. As shown in FIG. 3, the container deployment method may include the following steps. S301. Receive a first container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and a required image identifier, where the required image identifier is an identifier of an image corresponding to an application that needs to be run. In this embodiment, when the application needs to be run on a working node, a corresponding container first needs to be created on the working node. Therefore, when a user needs to run the application, the user may input, by operating a keyboard, a mouse, a push button, and the like and to a client, a container creation instruction including the identifier of the image corresponding to the application that needs to be run and the resource capacity required for creating the container. After receiving the container creation instruction, the client parses the container creation instruction, generates a first container creation request, and sends the first container creation request to the management node. Alternatively, when a client needs to run the application, the client generates a first container creation request that includes the required resource capacity and the required image identifier, and sends the first container creation request to the management node. The required image identifier is the identifier of the image corresponding to the application that needs to be run; and the required resource capacity may include a required CPU capacity and a required memory (memory) capacity. S302. Select, from a cluster of working nodes, at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity is greater than the required resource capacity. In this embodiment, after receiving the first container creation request that carries the required resource capacity and the required image identifier, the management node selects, from the cluster of the working nodes, the at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity is greater than the required resource capacity. That is, the unused resource capacity of each working node in the cluster of the working nodes is compared with the required resource capacity. When the unused resource capacity of the working node is greater than the required resource capacity, it indicates that the unused resource capacity of the working node can meet the required resource capacity. Therefore, the working node is used as the first working node. In this embodiment, the management node may obtain, by using a network, in advance a used resource capacity and a total resource capacity that are of each working node in the cluster of the working nodes; or may obtain, by using a network, a used resource capacity and a total resource capacity that are of each working node in the cluster of the working nodes after receiving the first container creation request. This is not limited in this embodiment. After obtaining the used resource capacity and the total resource capacity that are of each working node in the cluster of the working nodes, the management node may obtain the unused resource capacity of the working node by subtracting the used resource capacity of the working node from the total resource capacity of the working node. The unused resource capacity of the working node may include an unused CPU capacity and an unused memory capacity. After receiving the first container creation request or obtaining the unused resource capacity of each working node, the management node compares the unused CPU capacity of each working node with the required CPU capacity, and compares the unused memory capacity of the working node with the required memory capacity. When the unused CPU capacity of the working node is greater than the required CPU capacity, and the unused memory capacity of the working node is greater than the required memory capacity, the working node is used as the first working node. In this embodiment, when the used resource capacity and the total resource capacity that are of the working node are obtained in advance by the management node, the used resource capacity and the total resource capacity may be actively obtained by the management node, or may be actively sent by the working node to the management node. This is not limited in this embodiment. When the used resource capacity and the total resource capacity that are of the working node are obtained in advance by the management node, if the used resource capacity of the working node changes, the management node updates an unused resource capacity that is stored and that is of the working node; or when the used resource capacity and the total resource capacity that are of the working node are actively sent by the working node to the management node, if the used resource capacity of the working node changes, the working node sends an update message to the management node. When the used resource capacity and the total resource capacity that are of the working node are obtained by the management node after the first container creation request is received, the used resource capacity and the total resource capacity are actively obtained by the management node. In this embodiment, the management node may actively obtain the used resource capacity and the total resource capacity that are of the working node in an HTTP request manner. A request message of the management node may be in the following format: GET /resources A response message is carried by using JSON over HTTP. Content-Type: application/josn Defined JSON syntax: { “Resources”: { “total_CPU”: int //A CPU capacity of a node “total_CPU”: int //A memory capacity of a node } } Example: { “Resources”: { “total_CPU”: 4 “total_memory”: 64 } } When the used resource capacity and the total resource capacity that are of the working node are obtained in advance by the management node by using the network, after the used resource capacity and the total resource capacity that are of each working node are obtained, the unused resource capacity of each working node is obtained by means of calculation, and then resource capacities of these working nodes are stored, and when the used resource capacity of the working node changes, the resource capacity that is stored and that is of the working node is updated for subsequent use. A table in which the management node stores CPU capacities and memory capacities of these working nodes may be shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 A CPU capacity and a memory capacity that are stored and that are of a working node Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 . . . total_CPU 4 8 4 . . . total_Memory 64 128 64 . . . S303. Determine, in the at least two first working nodes, a working node as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier. In a possible implementation manner, a manner in which the working node is determined, in the at least two first working nodes, as the target working node according to the images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier is specifically: obtaining an image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node; identifying all first working nodes, each of which stores an image whose image identifier is the same as the required image identifier; and selecting, from the identified all first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node. In a possible implementation manner, a manner in which the first working node is selected, from the determined first working nodes, as the target working node is specifically: when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, determining the determined first working node as the target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a working node with a smallest unused resource capacity as the target working node. In a possible implementation manner, a manner in which the working node is determined, in the at least two first working nodes, as the target working node according to the images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier is specifically: obtaining an image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node; determining, according to the image identifier corresponding to the stored image, that none of the first working nodes stores the image corresponding to the required image identifier; obtaining, according to the required image identifier and from a registry repository, image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; obtaining image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on each first working node; determining that there is a first working node in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the stored image layers, where image layer identifiers of the first working node are the same as some image layer identifiers in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; and selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node. In a possible implementation manner, a manner in which the first working node is selected, from the determined first working nodes, as the target working node is specifically: when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, determining the determined first working node as the target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a working node with a largest quantity of the some image layer identifiers as the target working node. In this embodiment, after selecting, from the cluster of the working nodes, the at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity meets the required resource capacity, the management node obtains the image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node, and determines whether an image identifier in the image identifiers corresponding to images stored on a first working node is the same as the required image identifier, so as to determine whether a first working node in the at least two first working node stores the image corresponding to the required image identifier. When an image identifier in the image identifiers corresponding to images stored on each first working node is the same as the required image identifier, that is, when a first working node stores the image corresponding to the required image identifier, the first working node is determined out of the at least two first working nodes, where one of the image identifiers corresponding to the images stored on the first working node is the same as the required image identifier. When the quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, the first working node is used as the target working node; or when the quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, the working node with the smallest unused resource capacity in the determined first working nodes may be used as the target working node, or a working node with a largest unused resource capacity in the determined first working nodes may be used as the target working node, or the working node may be selected from the determined first working node as the target working node in another manner. This is not limited in this embodiment. When the working node with the smallest unused resource capacity in the determined first working nodes is used as the target working node, a container may be created on the working node with the smallest unused resource capacity, and a working node with a relatively large unused resource capacity may be configured to subsequently create a container with a relatively large required resource capacity. In this embodiment, when none of the image identifiers corresponding to images stored on each first working node is the same as a required image identifier, that is, when no first working node stores an image corresponding to the required image identifier, a management node sends, to a registry repository, an image layer identifier obtaining request that carries the required image identifier, so that the registry repository sends, to the management node, image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier. In addition, the management node obtains image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on each first working node; and then compares image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on each first working node with image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier, so as to determine whether some image layers in the image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier are stored on the at least two first working nodes. When some image layer identifiers in image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on the first working node are the same as some image layer identifiers in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier, that is, when a first working node stores the some image layers in the image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier, the first working node is determined in the at least two working nodes, where the some image layer identifiers in image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on the at least two working nodes are the same as the some image layer identifiers in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier. When a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, the first working node is used as a target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, a working node with a largest quantity of the some image layer identifiers in the determined first working nodes may be used as a target working node, or a working node with a largest capacity of the image layers corresponding to the some image layer identifiers may be used as a target working node, or a working node may be selected from the determined first working nodes as a target working node in another manner. This is not limited in this embodiment. When the working node with the largest quantity of the some image layer identifiers in the determined first working nodes is used as the target working node, a quantity of image layers that need to be obtained from the registry repository is smallest when the target working node creates a container; or when the working node with the largest capacity of the image layers corresponding to the some image layer identifiers is used as the target working node, a capacity of the image layers that needs to be obtained from the registry repository is smallest when the target working node creates a container, so that a container creation rate can be increased. In this embodiment, when none of the first working nodes stores the image corresponding to the required image identifier, and none of the first working nodes stores the some image layers in the image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier, the management node may select, from the at least two first working nodes, the working node with the largest unused resource capacity as the target working node, or may select, from the at least two first working nodes, the working node with the smallest unused resource capacity as the target working node, or may select, from the at least two first working nodes, a working node as the target working node in another manner. This is not limited in this embodiment. In this embodiment, the management node may obtain in advance an image identifier and image layer identifiers that are respectively corresponding to an image and image layers that are stored on each first working node in the at least two first working nodes, or may obtain, by using the network, an image identifier and image layer identifiers that are respectively corresponding to an image and image layers that are stored on some or all of the first working nodes in the at least two first working nodes after receiving the first container creation request. This is not limited in this embodiment. A quantity of the images stored on each first working node may be zero, may be one, or may be an integer greater than one. This is not limited in this embodiment. One image may include one image layer, or may include multiple image layers. This is not limited in this embodiment. Therefore, a quantity of the image layers stored on each first working node may be zero, may be one, or may be an integer greater than one. This is not limited in this embodiment. In this embodiment, when an image identifier and image layer identifiers that are respectively corresponding to an image and image layers that are stored on the working node are obtained in advance by the management node, the image identifier and the image layer identifiers may be actively obtained by the management node, or may be actively sent by the working node to the management node. This is not limited in this embodiment. When the image identifier and the image layer identifiers are actively obtained by the management node, if the image stored on the working node changes, the management node updates the image identifier and the image layer identifiers that are stored and that are respectively corresponding to the image and the image layers that are stored on the working node; or when the image identifier and the image layer identifiers are actively sent by the working node to the management node, if the image stored on the working node changes, the working node sends an update message to the management node. When the image identifier and the image layer identifiers that are respectively corresponding to an image and image layers that are stored on the working node are obtained by the management node after the first container creation request is received, the image identifier and the image layer identifiers are actively obtained by the management node. In this embodiment, when an image identifier and image layer identifiers that are respectively corresponding to an image and image layers that are stored on the working node are obtained by the management node after the first container creation request is obtained, the image identifier and the image layer identifiers that are respectively corresponding to an image and image layers that are stored on each working node in the cluster of the working nodes may be obtained immediately after the first container creation request is obtained; or the image identifier and the image layer identifiers that are respectively corresponding to an image and image layers that are stored on each first working node may be obtained, or the image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node may be first obtained after the at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity meets the required resource capacity are selected from the cluster of the working nodes. When a first working node stores the image corresponding to the required image identifier, there is no need to obtain image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on each first working node; or when no first working node stores the image corresponding to the required image identifier, image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on each first working node need to be obtained. The management node may obtain, by using an image manager on the management node, an image identifier and image layer identifiers that are respectively corresponding to an image and image layers that are stored on the working node. In this embodiment, the management node may actively obtain, in an HTTP request manner, an image identifier and image layer identifiers that are respectively corresponding to an image and image layers that are stored on the working node. An HTTP request message may be in the following format: GET /images/all/layers A response message is carried by using JSON over HTTP. Content-Type: application/josn Defined JSON syntax: { “ImagesLayersID”: [ [string, ...], //It indicates a unique identifier of each layer of an image. ... ] } Example: { “ImagesLayersID”: [ [aa0abbcccddd bbcc222fffcc ddeeefff99aa], //It indicates a unique identifier of each layer of an image, and aa0abbcccddds is a unique identifier of a top layer of an image, that is, the unique identifier of the image. [gg0abbcccddd bbcc222fffcc bbeeefff99aa], [ee0abbcccddd ffcc222fffcc ggeeefff99aa hheee333aaaa] ] } In this embodiment, when the working node actively sends, to the management node, an image identifier and image layer identifiers that are respectively corresponding to an image and image layers that are stored, the working node may notify the management node in an HTTP manner. An HTTP notification message may be in the following format: PUT /images/all/layers The notification message is carried by using JSON over HTTP. Content-Type: application/josn Defined JSON syntax: { “ImagesLayersID”: [ [string, ...], //It indicates a unique identifier of each layer of an image. ... ] } Example: { “ImagesTreesID”: [ [aa0abbcccddd bbcc222fffcc ddeeefff99aa], [gg0abbcccddd bbcc222fffcc bbeeefff99aa], [ee0abbcccddd ffcc222fffcc ggeeefff99aa hheee333aaaa] ] } The response message may be in the following format: HTTP/1.1 200 When the image identifier and the image layer identifiers that are stored on the working node that are respectively corresponding to an image and image layers that are stored on the working node are obtained in advance by the management node by using the network, after obtaining an image identifier and image layer identifiers that are respectively corresponding to an image and image layers that are stored on the working node, the management node may store these image identifiers and image layer identifiers. When the image stored on the working node changes, the management node may update the image identifier and the image layer identifiers that are stored and that are respectively corresponding to the image and the image layers that are stored on the working node for subsequent use. A table in which the management node stores an image identifier and image layer identifiers that are respectively corresponding to an image and image layers that are stored on the working node may be shown in Table 2. TABLE 2 An image identifier and image layer identifiers that are stored and that are of a working node Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 . . . [aa0abbcccddd [gg0abbcccddd [aa0abbcccddd . . . bbcc222fffcc bbcc222fffcc bbcc222fffcc ddeeefff99aa] bbeeefff99aa] ddeeefff99aa] [gg0abbcccddd [ee0abbcccddd N/A . . . bbcc222fffcc ffcc222fffcc bbeeefff99aa] ggeeefff99aa hheee333aaaa] [ee0abbcccddd N/A N/A . . . ffcc222fffcc ggeeefff99aa hheee333aaaa] S304. Send, to the target working node, a second container creation request that carries the required resource capacity and the required image identifier, so as to trigger the target working node to create a container according to the required resource capacity and the required image identifier. In this embodiment, after determining, in at least two first working nodes, a working node as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and a required image identifier, a management node sends, to the target working node, a second container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and the required image identifier, so as to trigger the target working node to create a container according to the required resource capacity and the required image identifier, so that an application corresponding to the required image identifier is run on the target working node. In this embodiment, a management node may periodically select a target image from images stored on a cluster of working nodes, and send, to some or all working nodes that store the target image, a purge instruction that carries an image identifier corresponding to the target image, so as to trigger the working node that receives the purge instruction to purge the stored target image corresponding to the image identifier, thereby reducing storage resources of the working node. The target image is an image that is not used within a preset time length, or one of images stored on at least two working nodes. In the container deployment method described in FIG. 3, after a first container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and a required image identifier is received, at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity is greater than the required resource capacity are selected from a cluster of working nodes, and a working node is determined, in the at least two first working nodes, as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier, and then a second container creation request that carries the required resource capacity and the required image identifier is sent to the target working node. Because a container is deployed on a working node according to an identifier of a stored image, the deployed container uses deployed resources, and resources are reduced. Based on the container deployment network architecture shown in FIG. 1, an embodiment of the present invention discloses a container deployment apparatus. Referring to FIG. 4, FIG. 4 is a structural diagram of another container deployment apparatus according to this embodiment of the present invention. The container deployment apparatus may be a management node. As shown in FIG. 4, the container deployment apparatus 400 may include: a receiving unit 401, configured to receive a first container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and a required image identifier, where the required image identifier is an identifier of an image corresponding to an application that needs to be run; a selection unit 402, configured to select, from a cluster of working nodes, at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity is greater than the required resource capacity carried in the first container creation request received by the receiving unit 401; a determining unit 403, configured to determine, in the at least two first working nodes selected by the selection unit 402, a working node as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes selected by the selection unit 402 and the required image identifier carried in the first container creation request received by the receiving unit 401; and a sending unit 404, configured to send, to the target working node determined by the determining unit 403, a second container creation request that carries the required resource capacity carried in the first container creation request received by the receiving unit 401 and the required image identifier carried in the first container creation request received by the receiving unit 401, so as to trigger the target working node to create a container according to the required resource capacity and the required image identifier. In a possible implementation manner, the determining unit 403 may include: a first obtaining subunit, configured to obtain an image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node; a first determining subunit, configured to identify all first working nodes, each of which stores an image whose image identifier is the same as the required image identifier; and a first selection subunit, configured to select, from the identified all first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node. In a possible implementation manner, the first selection subunit is specifically configured to: when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, determine the determined first working node as the target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, select, from the determined first working nodes, a working node with a smallest unused resource capacity as the target working node. In a possible implementation manner, the determining unit 403 may include: a second obtaining subunit, configured to obtain an image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node; a second determining subunit, configured to determine, according to the image identifier corresponding to the stored image, that none of the first working nodes stores the image corresponding to the required image identifier; a third obtaining subunit, configured to obtain, according to the required image identifier and from a registry repository, image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; a fourth obtaining subunit, configured to obtain image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on each first working node; a third determining subunit, configured to determine that there is a first working node in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the stored image layers, where image layer identifiers of the first working node are the same as some image layer identifiers in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; and a second selection subunit, configured to select, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node. In a possible implementation manner, the second selection subunit is specifically configured to: when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, determine the determined first working node as the target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, select, from the determined first working nodes, a working node with a largest quantity of the some image layer identifiers as the target working node. In the container deployment apparatus described in FIG. 4, after a first container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and a required image identifier is received, at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity is greater than the required resource capacity are selected from a cluster of working nodes, and a working node is determined, in the at least two first working nodes, as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier, and then a second container creation request that carries the required resource capacity and the required image identifier is sent to the target working node. Because a container is deployed on a working node according to an identifier of a stored image, the deployed container uses deployed resources, and resources are reduced. A person of ordinary skill in the art may understand that all or some of the steps of the methods in the embodiments may be implemented by a program instructing relevant hardware. The program may be stored in a computer readable storage medium. The storage medium may include a flash memory, a read-only memory (Read-Only Memory, ROM), a random access memory (Random Access Memory, RAM), a magnetic disk, and an optical disc. The foregoing describes in detail the container deployment method and apparatus disclosed in the embodiments of the present invention. In this specification, specific examples are used to illustrate a principle and an implementation manner that are of the present invention, and description of the foregoing embodiments is merely intended to help understand the method and a core idea that are of the present invention. In addition, a person of ordinary skill in the art makes modifications with respect to a specific implementation manner and an application scope according to the idea of the present invention. In conclusion, content of this specification shall not be construed as a limitation on the present invention.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Docker is an open source application container engine, and is based on a kernel lightweight virtualization technology, and can implement resource isolation among applications, configuration and security assurance of each application, and meet a requirement of on-demand resource allocation for each application, isolation among applications and availability of the applications. Before Docker is used to run an application, a corresponding container needs to be created on a working node. Currently, during deployment of a container on the working node, the container is created on a highest-priority working node. Factors that affect container creation include both resource capacity and image, wherein the resource capacity includes a CPU capacity and a memory capacity. Docker images are organized in layers. An image at a lower layer is referred to as a parent image of an image at a current layer, and an image without the parent image is referred to as a base image. However, in a deployment process of the foregoing container, only impact of the resource capacity on the container creation is considered. This may lead to a waste of resources.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Embodiments of the present invention disclose a container deployment method and apparatus. A container is deployed according to an identifier of a stored image, so that the deployed container uses deployed resources, and resources are reduced. A first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention discloses a container deployment method, including: receiving a first container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and a required image identifier, where the required image identifier is an identifier of an image corresponding to an application that needs to be run; selecting, from a cluster of working nodes, at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity is greater than the required resource capacity; determining, in the at least two first working nodes, a working node as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier; and sending, to the target working node, a second container creation request that carries the required resource capacity and the required image identifier. With reference to the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a first possible implementation manner of the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the determining, in the at least two first working nodes, a working node as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier includes: obtaining an image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node; determining a working node with the image identifier corresponding to the stored image as the first working node of the required image identifier; and selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node. With reference to the first possible implementation manner of the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a second possible implementation manner of the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node is specifically: when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, determining the determined first working node as the target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a working node with a smallest unused resource capacity as the target working node. With reference to the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a third possible implementation manner of the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the determining, in the at least two first working nodes, a working node as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier includes: obtaining an image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node; determining, according to the image identifier corresponding to the stored image, that none of the first working nodes stores the image corresponding to the required image identifier; obtaining, according to the required image identifier and from a registry repository, image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; obtaining image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on each first working node; determining that there is a first working node in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the stored image layers, where image layer identifiers of the first working node are the same as some image layer identifiers in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; and selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node. With reference to the third possible implementation manner of the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a fourth possible implementation manner of the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node is specifically: when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, determining the determined first working node as the target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, selecting, from the determined first working nodes, a working node with a largest quantity of the some image layer identifiers as the target working node. A second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention discloses a container deployment apparatus, including: a receiving unit, configured to receive a first container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and a required image identifier, where the required image identifier is an identifier of an image corresponding to an application that needs to be run; a selection unit, configured to select, from a cluster of working nodes, at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity is greater than the required resource capacity; a determining unit, configured to determine, in the at least two first working nodes, a working node as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier; and a sending unit, configured to send, to the target working node, a second container creation request that carries the required resource capacity and the required image identifier. With reference to the second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a first possible implementation manner of the second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the determining unit includes: a first obtaining subunit, configured to obtain an image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node; a first determining subunit, configured to identify all first working nodes, each of which stores an image whose image identifier is the same as the required image identifier; and a first selection subunit, configured to select, from the identified all first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node. With reference to the first possible implementation manner of the second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a second possible implementation manner of the second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the first selection subunit is specifically configured to: when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, determine the determined first working node as the target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, select, from the determined first working nodes, a working node with a smallest unused resource capacity as the target working node. With reference to the second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a third possible implementation manner of the first aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the determining unit includes: a second obtaining subunit, configured to obtain an image identifier corresponding to the image stored on each first working node; a second determining subunit, configured to determine, according to the image identifier corresponding to the stored image, that none of the first working nodes stores the image corresponding to the required image identifier; a third obtaining subunit, configured to obtain, according to the required image identifier and from a registry repository, image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; a fourth obtaining subunit, configured to obtain image layer identifiers corresponding to image layers stored on each first working node; a third determining subunit, configured to determine that there is a first working node in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the stored image layers, where image layer identifiers of the first working node are the same as some image layer identifiers in the image layer identifiers corresponding to the image layers included in the image corresponding to the required image identifier; and a second selection subunit, configured to select, from the determined first working nodes, a first working node as the target working node. With reference to the third possible implementation manner of the second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, in a fourth possible implementation manner of the second aspect of the embodiments of the present invention, the second selection subunit is specifically configured to: when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is one, determine the determined first working node as the target working node; or when a quantity of the determined first working nodes is greater than one, select, from the determined first working nodes, a working node with a largest quantity of the some image layer identifiers as the target working node. In the embodiments of the present invention, after a first container creation request that carries a required resource capacity and a required image identifier is received, at least two first working nodes whose unused resource capacity is greater than the required resource capacity are selected from a cluster of working nodes, and a working node is determined, in the at least two first working nodes, as a target working node according to images stored on the at least two first working nodes and the required image identifier, and then a second container creation request that carries the required resource capacity and the required image identifier is sent to the target working node. Because a container is deployed on a working node according to an identifier of a stored image, the deployed container uses deployed resources, and resources are reduced.

G06F95061

20180202

20180607

64104.0

G06F950

DASCOMB, JACOB D

CONTAINER DEPLOYMENT METHOD AND APPARATUS

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

G06F

PENDING

DETECTING TOOTH SHADE

Disclosed in a method, a user interface and a system for use in determining shade of a patient's tooth, wherein a digital 3D representation including shape data and texture data for the tooth is obtained. A tooth shade value for at least one point on the tooth is determined based on the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation and on known texture values of one or more reference tooth shade values.

1. A method for determining shade of a patient's tooth, wherein the method comprises: obtaining a digital 3D representation of the tooth, where the digital 3D representation comprises shape data and texture data for the tooth; and determining a tooth shade value for at least one point on the tooth based on the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation and on known texture values of one or more reference tooth shade values. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein determining the tooth shade value for the point comprises selecting the reference tooth shade value with the known texture value closest to the texture data of the point. 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein determining the tooth shade value for the point comprises an interpolation of the two or more reference tooth shade values having known texture values close to the texture data of the point. 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein the method comprises deriving a certainty score expressing the certainty of the determined tooth shade value. 5. The method according to claim 4, wherein the method comprises generating a visual representation of the certainty score and displaying this visual representation in a user interface. 6. The method according to claim 5, wherein the visual representation of the certainty score is displayed together with or is mapped onto the digital 3D representation of the tooth. 7. The method according to claim 4, wherein the method comprises comparing the derived certainty score with a range of acceptable certainty score values. 8. The method according to claim 4, wherein the certainty measure relates to how uniform the sub-scan texture information is at the point, and/or to how close the texture data is to the known texture value of the determined tooth shade value, and/or to the amount of texture information used to derive the texture data at the point. 9. The method according to claim 4, wherein the visual representation of the certainty score comprises a binary code, a bar structure with a color gradient, a numerical value, and/or a comparison between the texture data and the known texture value of the determined tooth shade value. 10. The method according to claim 1, wherein the one or more reference tooth shade values relate to shade values for natural teeth with intact surface and/or to shade values for teeth prepared for a dental restoration. 11. The method according to claim 1, wherein the method comprises comparing the texture data with known texture values for soft oral tissue, such as gum tissue and gingiva. 12. The method according to claim 1, wherein the texture information comprises at least one of tooth color or surface roughness. 13. The method according to claim 1, wherein the method comprises creating a shade profile for the tooth from shade values determined one or more points on the tooth. 14. The method according to claim 13, wherein the tooth shade profile comprises a one or more tooth shade regions on the tooth surface where an average tooth shade is derived for each region from tooth shade values determined for a number of points within the region 15. The method according to claim 1, wherein obtaining the digital 3D representation of the tooth comprises recording a series of sub-scans of the tooth, where at least one of said sub-scans comprises both texture information and geometry information for said tooth, and generating the digital 3D representation of the tooth from the recorded series of sub-scans. 16. The method according to claim 15, wherein the texture data at least partly are derived by combining the texture information from corresponding parts of a number of the sub-scans. 17. The method according to claim 16, wherein combining the texture information from the sub-scans comprises interpolating the texture information and/or calculating an average value of the texture information. 18. The method according to claim 17, wherein the calculated average value is a weighted average of the texture information.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/117,078, filed on Aug. 5, 2016, which is a U.S. national stage of International Application No. PCT/EP2015/052537, filed on Feb. 6, 2015, which claims the benefit of Danish Application No. PA 2014-70066, filed on Feb. 7, 2014. The entire contents of each of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/117,078, International Application No. PCT/EP2015/052537, and Danish Application No. PA 2014-700665 are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD This invention generally relates to methods and a user interfaces for determining the shade of a patient's tooth or teeth and for utilizing the determined tooth shades for designing and manufacturing dental restorations. When designing and manufacturing a dental restoration for a patient, such as a crown or a bridge restoration, it is advantageous that both the shape and shade of the manufactured restoration is adapted to the patient's natural teeth surrounding the restoration. If the shade of the restoration differs significantly from the surrounding natural teeth, e.g. is significantly darker or brighter than these, the restoration appear artificial and deteriorate the aesthetic impression of the patient's smile. The tooth color can be represented in many different color spaces, such as the L*C*h* color space representing color in terms of Lightness, Chroma and Hue, or in the L*a*b* color space as described e.g. by Hassel et al. (Hassel 2012) and Dozic et al. (Dozic 2007). The L*a*b* color space has the advantage that it is designed to approximate human vision with the L* component closely matches human perception of lightness. In order to aid dental technicians in their manual work of manufacturing a restoration which appears natural, the tooth colors are often expressed in terms of reference tooth shade values of a tooth shade system (often referred to as a tooth shade guide). Each reference tooth shade value in a tooth shade guide represents a predetermined and known tooth color value and often correspond to the color of commercially available ceramics for the production of dental restorations. This is e.g. the case for the VITA 3D-Master or the VITA Classic shade guides provided by VITA Zahnfabrik, Germany. In the VITA 3D-Master system, tooth shades are expressed in codes referring to the L*C*h* color space, where each code is constructed according to (Lightness, hue, Chroma). One example of a tooth shade value is 3R1.5 where “3” refers to the lightness, “R” to the hue and “1.5” to the Chroma of the tooth. This allows the dentist to describe the shade of the patient's tooth in terms that a dental technician immediately understands, such that the technician will know from which ceramics he should manufacture the restoration to provide that it has the correct shade. When manually determining which reference tooth shade value best matches the color of a patient's tooth, the dentist holds different pre-manufactured teeth of the shade guide at the tooth for comparison. Often a picture is taken with the pre-manufactured structures arranged at the teeth. The technician who produces the prosthetic then uses the picture in evaluating which ceramic must be used for the different parts of the restoration based on the picture. This process is both time consuming and inaccurate. SUMMARY Disclosed is a method for determining shade of a patient's tooth, wherein the method comprises: obtaining a digital 3D representation of the tooth, where the digital 3D representation comprises shape data and texture data for the tooth; and determining a tooth shade value for at least one point on the tooth based on the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation and on known texture values of one or more reference tooth shade values. Disclosed is a user interface for determining and displaying shade of a patient's tooth, wherein the user interface is configured for: obtaining a digital 3D representation of the tooth, said digital 3D representation comprising shape data and texture data for the tooth; displaying at least the shape data of the digital 3D representation such that the shape of the tooth is visualized in the user interface; determining a tooth shade value for at least one point on the tooth based on the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation and on known texture values of one or more reference tooth shade values; and displaying the determined tooth shade value. The texture data of the digital 3D representation expresses the texture of the tooth. The texture data can be a texture profile expressing the variation in the texture over the tooth. The shape data of the digital 3D representation expresses the shape of the tooth. In some embodiments, the texture information comprises at least one of tooth color or surface roughness. When the texture information comprises tooth color information, the texture data expressing a texture profile of the tooth may be color data expressing a color profile of the tooth, and the tooth shade value for a point on the tooth may be derived by comparing the color data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation with known color values of one or more reference tooth shade values. Determining both the tooth shade value from a digital 3D representation comprising both shape data expressing the shape of the tooth and texture data expressing a texture profile of the tooth provides the advantage that shade and geometry information are directly linked. This e.g. advantageous e.g. in CAD/CAM dentistry where dental restorations are designed using Computer Aided Design (CAD) tools and subsequently manufactured from the design using Computer Aided Design (CAM) tools. The material used for the manufacture of the dental restoration can then be selected based on the determined tooth shade value. In many cases, the dental restoration is manufactured with a shade profile where the shade differs from the incisal edge towards cervical end of the restoration. The disclosed invention allows the operator to determine tooth shade values for several points on the tooth such that a shade profile can be determined for the dental restoration. Multi-shaded milling blocks exits which mimics standard tooth shade profiles. Having the shape data and the tooth shade values linked via the digital 3D representation provides that the correct portion of the multi-shaded milling block can be milled out. The remaining portion of the multi-shaded milling block forming the dental restoration will then have a shape and shade profile which closely resembles that of a natural tooth. In some embodiments, obtaining the digital 3D representation of the tooth comprises recording a series of sub-scans of the tooth, where at least one of said sub-scans comprises both texture information and geometry information for said tooth, and generating the digital 3D representation of the tooth from the recorded series of sub-scans. When a plurality of the sub-scans comprise texture information, the texture data for the digital 3D representation can be derived by combining the texture information of the several sub-scans. The recorded sub-scans comprise at least data of the tooth for which the shade is determined, but potentially also of the neighboring teeth such that for example the shape and location of the neighboring teeth can be taken into account when designing a dental restoration for the tooth. Texture information and texture data for the neighboring teeth can also be used to determine the shade value for the tooth, e.g. by interpolation of the shades determined for the neighbor teeth. In some embodiments, the method comprises creating a shade profile for the tooth from shade values determined for one or more of points on the tooth. The shade profile of natural teeth often has a brighter shade at the incisal edge of the tooth and gradually changes into a darker shade towards the cervical end of the tooth, i.e. the end at the patient's gingiva. When the tooth shade value is determined for one point only the tooth shade profile may be generated based on knowledge of the normal tooth shade profile for that particular type of tooth and patient. This knowledge may relate to how the shade profile normally changes over the tooth, the age and gender of the patients, etc. Often the profile will be based on tooth shades determined in several points on the tooth to provide the most reliable tooth shade profile. In some embodiments the user interface is configured for creating a shade profile for the tooth from tooth shade values determined for one or more points on the tooth. In some embodiments, the tooth shade profile can be created by interpolation of tooth shade values determined for points distributed over the tooth surface with some distance between the points. The tooth shade value for some parts of the tooth surface are then not derived directly from sub-scan texture information relating to these parts but from the determined tooth shade values for other parts/points on the tooth surface. A tooth shade profile for the entire labial/buccal surface of the tooth can thus be created from a selection of points on the surface providing a fast and often sufficiently accurate procedure for creating the tooth shade profile. The interpolation of the tooth shade values can be realized by an interpolation in each of the coordinates of the color space used to describe the tooth color. In some embodiments, the tooth shade profile comprises a one or more tooth shade regions on the tooth surface where an average tooth shade is derived for each region from tooth shade values determined for a number of points within the region. The tooth shade region can be defined by a structure encircling a portion of the tooth surface in the digital 3D representation, where either the operator or a computer implemented algorithm decides where each geometric structure is located on the digital 3D representation. Different shapes (e.g. circles, squares, or rectangles) and sizes (e.g. corresponding to a few millimeters) of the geometric structure can be used. The number of points within the geometrical structure can be increased to provide a more accurate measure of the shade or reduced to provide a faster calculation. The average tooth shade value for a region can e.g. be derived as a weighted average where the tooth shade value for points in the center of the structure is assigned a higher weight than tooth shade value of points closer to the boundary. The tooth surface can also be divided into a coronal, a middle and a cervical region. Some natural teeth has a shade profile which can be expressed by such a division and many dentists and dental technicians are familiar with such a division In some embodiments, tooth shade values are determined for a plurality of teeth, i.e. on parts of the digital 3D representation corresponding to two or more teeth, and a tooth shade value and/or a tooth shade profile for each of these teeth is created from the determined tooth shade values. In some embodiments, the texture data at least partly are derived by combining the texture information from corresponding parts of a number of the sub-scans. The digital 3D representation can be generated through registration of sub-scans into a common coordinate system by matching overlapping sections of sub-scans, i.e. the sections of the sub-scans which relate to the same region of the tooth. When two or more sub-scans also comprise texture information relating to the same region of the tooth, deriving the texture data for this region in the digital 3D representation can comprise combining the corresponding texture information, i.e. the texture information in the sub-scans corresponding to the same sections of the tooth. Deriving the texture data based on texture information from two or more sub-scan can provide a more accurate measurement of the texture data. The texture information of one sub-scan for a particular region of the tooth may be unreliable e.g. due to the angle between the surface in this region and the scanner when this particular sub-scan was recorded. The combination of texture information from several sub-scans can provide a more reliable color. In some embodiments, combining the texture information from the sub-scans comprises interpolating the texture information, i.e. texture information from parts of the sub-scans corresponding to a point on the tooth are interpolated to determine the texture data for that point. Such an interpolation can provide that the determined texture data is more accurate e.g. in cases where the texture information for a point on the tooth is not linearly varying over the sub-scans such that a simple averaging will not provide the best result. In some embodiments, combining the texture information from the sub-scans comprises calculating an average value of the texture information, i.e. texture data for a point on the digital 3D representation are determined by averaging the texture information of the sub-scans corresponding to that point on the tooth. In some embodiments, the calculated average value is a weighted average of the texture information. This approach has the advantage that the derived texture data of the digital 3D representation are not as sensitive to errors in the texture information of a single sub-scan. Such errors can be caused by several factors. One factor is the angle between the optical path of the probe light at the tooth surface and the tooth surface itself. When utilizing e.g. the focus scanning technique, the texture data for a point on the tooth is preferably derived from a number of sub-scans where at least some of the sub-scans are recorded at different orientations of the scanner relative to the teeth. The sections of the sub-scans relating to this point are hence acquired at different angles relative to the tooth surface in this point. A portion of a sub-scan recorded from a surface perpendicular to the optical path of the probe light at the tooth may be dominated by specular reflected light which does not describe the texture of the tooth but rather the spectral distribution of the probe light. A portion of a sub-scan recorded from a tooth surface almost parallel to the optical path is often quite weak and hence often provide an erroneous detection of the texture at that point. In some embodiments, the texture information from parts of a sub-scan relating to a tooth surface which is substantially perpendicular or parallel to the optical path are assigned a low weight in the weighted averaging of the texture information to determine the texture data for the point. The orientation of the scanner relative to the tooth when a sub-scan is acquired can be determined from the shape of the sub-scan. Parts of the sub-scan relating to tooth surfaces which are substantially parallel or perpendicular to the optical path can thus immediately be detected in the sub-scan such that the texture information of the corresponding parts are assigned at low weight when determining the texture data for this point from a series of sub-scans. A specular reflection from the tooth often has an intensity which is significantly higher than that of e.g. diffuse light from surfaces which have an oblique angle relative to the optical path. In some cases the specular reflection will saturate the pixels of the image sensor used for the recording of the sub-scans. In some embodiments, the method comprises detecting saturated pixels in the recorded sub-scans and assigning a low weight to the texture information of the saturated pixels when combining the texture information from the sub-scans, i.e. when calculating the weighted average of the texture information. Specular reflection from a tooth surface may also be detected from a comparison between the spectrum of the light received from the tooth and that of the probe light. If these spectra a very similar it indicates that the tooth has a perfectly white surface which is not natural. Such texture information may thus be assigned a low weight in a weighted average of texture information. In some embodiments determining the tooth shade value for the point comprises selecting the reference tooth shade value with known texture value closest to the texture data of the point. When the texture data comprises color data, selecting the tooth shade value of the point can comprise calculating the color difference between the determined color data in the point and the color data of the reference tooth shade values. This difference can e.g. be calculated as a Euclidian distance in the used color space. As an example, Dozic et al. (Dozic 2007) describes that the Euclidian distance ΔE between two points (L1*, a1*, b1*) and (L2*, a2*, b2*) in the L*a*b* color space is given by: Δ   E = ( L 1 * - L 2 * ) 2 + ( a 1 * - a 2 * ) 2 + ( b 1 * - b 2 * ) 2 2 Selecting the tooth shade value can then comprise determining for which of the reference tooth shades the color difference, i.e. the Euclidian distance, is the smallest. In some embodiments determining the tooth shade value for the point comprises an interpolation of the two or more reference tooth shade values having known texture values close to the texture data of the point. This interpolation provides that the tooth shade can be represented with a more detailed solution than what is provided by the tooth shade standard used to describe the tooth shade. For instance when using a Lightness-Hue-Chroma code a tooth shade value of 1.5M2.5 can be determined for the tooth by interpolation of Lightness values of 1 and 2, and Chroma values of 2 and 3. The tooth shade value can be displayed in a user interface e.g. together with the digital 3D representation of the tooth. If the digital 3D representation also contains parts relating to other teeth the tooth shade value for the tooth is preferably displayed at the tooth, such as at the point of the for which the tooth shade value has been determined. The tooth shade value can also be represented as a color mapped onto the digital 3D representation. When a dental restoration is designed based on the determined tooth shade value this can provide a visualization of how the restoration will appear together with neighboring teeth also contained in the digital 3D representation obtained by scanning the teeth. In some embodiments, the method comprises deriving a certainty score expressing the certainty of the determined tooth shade value. Deriving a certainty score for the determined tooth shade value provides the advantage that a measure of how accurate the determined value is can be displayed to the operator, preferably when the patient is still at the clinic such that further scanning can be performed if this is required to provide a more precise tooth shade value. In some embodiments, the method comprises generating a visual representation of the certainty score and displaying this visual representation in a user interface. In some embodiments, the method comprises generating a certainty score profile at least for a portion of the tooth, where the certainty scope profile represents the certainty scores for tooth shade values determined for a number of points on the tooth, such as for the values in a tooth shade profile for the tooth. The certainty score profile can be mapped onto the digital 3D representation of the tooth and visualized in a user interface. When the tooth shade profile also is mapped onto the tooth digital 3D representation the operator may be allowed to toggle between having the tooth shade profile and having the certainty scope profiled visualized on the digital 3D representation. In some embodiments the visual representation of the certainty score is displayed together with or is mapped onto the digital 3D representation of the tooth. In some embodiments, the method comprises comparing the derived certainty score with a range of acceptable certainty score values. This is done to verify that the certainty score is acceptable, i.e. that the determined tooth shade value is sufficiently reliable. One boundary of the range can be defined by a threshold value. When a high certainty scope indicates that the determined shade value most likely is correct, the threshold value may define the lower boundary of the range and vice versa. A visual representation of the certainty score or of the result of the comparison of the certainty score with the range can be generated and displayed in a user interface. Preferably, this visual representation is displayed together with the determined tooth shade value. In some embodiments, the method comprises deciding based on the certainty score whether the determined tooth shade value or tooth shade profile is acceptable. This may be based on the comparison of the derived certainty score and the range of acceptable certainty score values, e.g. where it is decided that the determined tooth shade value is acceptable if the certainty score is within the range of acceptable values. In some embodiments, the certainty measure relates to how uniform the sub-scan texture information is at the point. If large variations are found in the texture information in the vicinity of the parts corresponding to the point for a substantial fraction of the sub-scans, the texture data derived therefrom may be unreliable and the tooth shade value derived for this point is accordingly not very reliable. In some embodiments, the certainty measure relates to how close the texture data is to the known texture value of the determined tooth shade value. In particular, the certainty measure may relate to how close one parameter of the color data of the digital 3D representation is to the corresponding parameter of the known color for the determined tooth shade value. For example, the certainty measure may relate to the difference in the lightness parameter between point of the digital 3D representation and the determined tooth shade value. The Euclidian distance between the color data to the selected reference tooth shade value can also be used in determining the certainty measure. If the Euclidian distance is above a threshold value the uncertainty is then evaluated to be too large. The color data can here both relate to color data of the point or the average color data for a region surrounding the point. In some embodiments, the certainty measure relates to the amount of texture information used to derive the texture data at the point. When the texture data for the point is derived from a limited amount of texture information the texture data, and accordingly the tooth shade value derived therefrom, may be less reliable than the tooth shade values derived from large amounts of texture information. In some embodiments, the visual representation of the certainty score comprises a binary code, such as red for certainty scores outside a range of acceptable certainty score values, and green for certainty scores within the range, a bar structure with a color gradient, a numerical value, and/or a comparison between the texture data and the known texture value of the determined tooth shade value. In some embodiments, the visual representation of the certainty score comprises a certainty score indicator. The certainty score indicator may comprise a bar structure with a color gradient going from a first color representing a low certainty score to a second color representing a high certainty score. The first color may be red and the second color green. The color gradient of the bar structure may be configured to have an intermediate color, e.g. yellow representing the threshold value for the certainty score. The certainty score indicator may comprise marker which is arranged relative to the color gradient of the bar structure such that it indicated the certainty score. In some embodiments, the visual representation of the certainty score comprises a numerical value, such as a numerical value in an interval extending from a lower limit indicating a low certainly, i.e. a relatively uncertain tooth shade value, to a higher limit indicating a high certainty, i.e. a relatively certain tooth shade value. In some embodiments, the one or more reference tooth shade values relate to shade values for natural teeth with intact surface and/or to shade values for teeth prepared for a dental restoration. The reference tooth shade values used for determining the tooth shade can be selected based on the tooth. Intact and healthy teeth normally have tooth shades in one range of tooth shade values where a tooth prepared for a dental restoration has a tooth shade in another range, which may overlap with the range for healthy teeth. It may thus be advantageous that the operator enters whether the tooth is intact or prepared for a restoration and the appropriate color space is used in the comparison with the texture data. If the color data in the point on the digital 3D representation of the tooth has a poor match to all the reference tooth shade values of the selected tooth shade system/guide the point may e.g. be on the gingiva of the patient or relate to silver filling. In some embodiments, the method comprises comparing the texture data with known texture values for soft oral tissue, such as gum tissue and gingiva. This may e.g. be relevant when the certainty scores are outside said range of acceptable certainty score values for all tooth shade values of a tooth shade system, i.e. if there is a poor match between the texture data and the known texture for all the tooth shades of the reference set. In a user interface for implementing the method, it may be suggested to the operator that the point perhaps is not on a tooth surface but on the gums or gingiva of the patient. This suggestion may be provided both when the texture data has been found to give a good match with known texture values of gum/gingiva and/or when the texture data has a poor match with the known texture values of the reference tooth shade values in the tooth shade system or systems. In some embodiments, the method comprises determining an alternative tooth shade value for the point when said certainty score is outside said range of acceptable certainty score values. In some embodiments, the method comprises displaying the alternative tooth shade value in the user interface optionally together with the digital 3D representation of the patient's set of teeth and/or the initially determined tooth shade value The digital 3D representation of the tooth is generated at least partly from the geometry information of the sub-scans. In some embodiments, the texture information of the sub-scans is also taken into account when generating the digital 3D representation of the tooth. Sub-scans comprising texture information and geometry information may be recorded for more than said tooth, such that the generated digital 3D representation may comprise shade data expressing the shape and texture data expressing the texture profile of several of the patient's teeth. Disclosed is a method for determining shade of a patient's tooth, wherein the method comprises: recording a series of sub-scans of the patient's set of teeth, where a plurality of said sub-scans comprises both texture information and geometry information for said tooth; generating a digital 3D representation of the tooth from said sub-scans, wherein the digital 3D representation comprises shape data expressing the shape of the tooth and texture data expressing a texture profile of the tooth; and determining a tooth shade value for a point on the tooth by comparing the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation with a known texture value of one or more reference tooth shade values. Disclosed is a user interface for determining and displaying shade of a patient's tooth, wherein the user interface is configured for: obtaining a digital 3D representation of the tooth, said digital 3D representation comprising shape data expressing the shape of the tooth and texture data expressing a texture profile of the tooth; displaying at least the shape data of the digital 3D representation such that the shape of the tooth is visualized in the user interface; determining a tooth shade value for a point on the tooth by comparing the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation with a known texture value of one or more reference tooth shade values; and displaying the determined tooth shade value. In some embodiments, the user interface is configured for deriving a certainty score expressing the certainty of the determined tooth shade value for said point. In some embodiments, the user interface comprises a virtual tool which when activated on a point of the digital 3D representation of the tooth provides that the determined tooth shade value for the point; and/or a visual representation of a certainty score for the determined tooth shade value; and/or a visual representation of a comparison of the derived certainty score with a range of acceptable certainty score values is visualized in the user interface. The user interface can then provide the operator with an opportunity to decide based on the visualized certainty score and/or the visual representations whether the determined tooth shade value or tooth shade profile is acceptable. In some embodiments, the visual representation of the comparison of the derived certainty score with the range of acceptable certainty score values comprises a binary code, such as red for certainty scores outside a range of acceptable certainty score values, and green for certainty scores within the range. Other means for this visualization are described above. The visualized certainty score and/or the representation(s) of the certainty score or comparison of the certainty score with the range of acceptable certainty score values may be displayed at the digital 3D representation in the user interface or in a shade value region of the user interface. In some embodiments, the user interface is configured for determining an alternative shade value for the point and for displaying the alternative shade value when the certainty scores outside a range of acceptable certainty score values. Disclosed is a method for designing a dental restoration for a patient, wherein the method comprises: obtaining a digital 3D representation of at least one tooth, said digital 3D representation comprising shape data expressing the shape of the tooth and texture data expressing a texture profile of the tooth; determining a tooth shade value for a point on the tooth by comparing the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation with a known texture value of one or more reference tooth shade values; and creating a digital restoration design for one or more of the patient's teeth; and selecting a restoration shade of the digital restoration design based on said tooth shade value. The digital restoration design can e.g. be for the manufacture of dental prosthetic restoration for the patient, such as a crown or a bridge restoration, where the digital restoration design expresses a desired shape and shade profile of the dental restoration. Such digital restoration designs can be in the form of a CAD model of the dental restoration. In some embodiments, the method comprises suggesting a dental material for manufacturing the dental restoration from the digital restoration design based on the determined restoration shade. In cases where the dental restoration is designed and manufactured for an existing tooth which has an acceptable shade, the tooth shade value or tooth shade profile can be determined for the existing tooth and the shade of the digital restoration design based on the tooth shade value or tooth shade profile of the existing tooth. This may e.g. be advantageous for the crown portions of a bridge restoration in the case where the tooth which is intended to accept the crown portion of the bridge is a healthy tooth. In some cases the dental restoration is designed and manufactured for a tooth which either is damaged or has an undesired shade profile, such as for a broken or dead tooth. In such cases it can be advantageous to determine the tooth shade value or tooth shade profile for one or more of the neighboring teeth and selecting the restoration shade of the digital restoration design from e.g. an interpolation of the tooth shade values/profiles of the neighboring teeth. Disclosed is a method for designing a dental restoration for a first tooth, wherein the method comprises: obtaining a digital 3D representation of the patient's set of teeth, said digital 3D representation comprising shape data and texture data expressing the shape and texture profile, respectively, of at least one second tooth; designing a digital restoration design for the first tooth; deriving a desired texture profile of the digital restoration design from the texture data of the at least one second tooth; and determining a restoration shade value or restoration shade profile of the digital restoration design by comparing the desired texture profile with texture values for one or more reference tooth shade values. In some embodiments, the desired texture profile is derived by interpolation or averaging of the texture data of the digital 3D representation of the neighbor teeth. In some embodiments, one or more of the sub-scans comprise texture information for the patient's soft tissue, and optionally geometry information for said soft tissue. The generated digital 3D representation may then comprise shape data expressing the shape of the soft tissue and texture data expressing a texture profile of the soft tissue. From this information, an aesthetica) pleasing denture can be designed where the color of the soft tissue part of the denture is selected based on the texture profile of the corresponding part of the digital 3D representation. Knowledge of the texture of the soft tissue, such as of the color of the soft tissue, can also be used for diagnostics. When the texture data of a point on the digital 3D representation corresponding to soft tissue does not provide a sufficiently good match with a known range of texture values for soft tissue, a warning may be prompted in a user interface to alert the operator that the soft tissue is suspicious. Disclosed is a system for determining shade of a patient's tooth, wherein the system comprises: a scanner capable of recording a digital 3D representation of the tooth, where the digital 3D representation comprises shape data and texture data for the tooth; and a data processing system comprising a computer-readable medium having stored thereon the program code means for causing the data processing system to determine a tooth shade value for at least one point on the tooth based on the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation and on known texture values of one or more reference tooth shade values using the method according to any of the embodiments. In some embodiments, the sub-scans are recorded using an intra-oral scanner, such as the 3Shape TRIOS intra-oral scanner. The intra-oral scanner may be configured for utilizing focus scanning, where the sub-scans of the scanned teeth are reconstructed from in-focus images acquired at different focus depths. The focus scanning technique can be performed by generating a probe light and transmitting this probe light towards the set of teeth such that at least a part of the set of teeth is illuminated. Light returning from the set of teeth is transmitted towards a camera and imaged onto an image sensor in the camera by means of an optical system, where the image sensor/camera comprises an array of sensor elements. The position of the focus plane on/relative to the set of teeth is varied by means of focusing optics while images are obtained from/by means of said array of sensor elements. Based on the images, the in-focus position(s) of each of a plurality of the sensor elements or each of a plurality of groups of the sensor elements may be determined for a sequence of focus plane positions. The in-focus position can e.g. be calculated by determining the maximum of a correlation measure for each of a plurality of the sensor elements or each of a plurality of groups of the sensor elements for a range of focus planes as described in WO2010145669. From the in-focus positions, sub-scans of the set of teeth can be derived with geometry information relating to the shape of the scanned surface. When e.g. the image sensor is a color sensor and the light source provides a multispectral signal a plurality of the sub-scans can include both geometry information and texture information, such as color information, for said tooth. A digital 3D representation of the set of teeth can then be generated from the recorded sub-scans by e.g. the use of an Iterative Closest Point (ICP) algorithm. Iterative Closest Point (ICP) is an algorithm employed to minimize the difference between two clouds of points. ICP can be used to reconstruct 2D or 3D surfaces from different scans or sub-scans. The algorithm is conceptually simple and is commonly used in real-time. It iteratively revises the transformation, i.e. translation and rotation, needed to minimize the distance between the points of two raw scans or sub-scans. The inputs are: points from two raw scans or sub-scans, initial estimation of the transformation, criteria for stopping the iteration. The output is: refined transformation. Essentially the algorithm steps are: 1. Associate points by the nearest neighbor criteria. 2. Estimate transformation parameters using a mean square cost function. 3. Transform the points using the estimated parameters. 4. Iterate, i.e. re-associate the points and so on. The generated digital 3D representation formed by such a procedure comprises shape data expressing the shape of the tooth. The texture information of the sub-scans can be used in various ways to provide that the generated digital 3D representation also comprises texture data expressing a texture profile of the tooth. For a number of the sub-scans, the part of the sub-scan relating to the same point on the tooth can be identified, e.g. during the ICP procedure. The corresponding texture information of these parts of the sub-scans can then be combined to provide the texture data for that point. Furthermore, the invention relates to a computer program product comprising program code means for causing a data processing system to perform the method according to any of the embodiments, when said program code means are executed on the data processing system, and a computer program product, comprising a computer-readable medium having stored there on the program code means. The present invention relates to different aspects including the method and user interface described above and in the following, and corresponding methods and user interface, each yielding one or more of the described advantage, and each having one or more embodiments corresponding to the embodiments described above and/or disclosed in the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and/or additional objects, features and advantages of the present invention, will be further elucidated by the following illustrative and non-limiting detailed description of embodiments of the present invention, with reference to the appended drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 shows an example of a flow chart for an embodiment. FIGS. 2 to 4 show parts of screen shots of user interfaces. FIG. 5 shows steps of a method for designing a dental restoration. FIG. 6 shows a schematic of a system for determining tooth shade values FIGS. 7A-7D and 8A-8B show schematics of intra-oral scanning. FIGS. 9A-9B illustrates one way of determining tooth shade values from texture data. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following description, reference is made to the accompanying figures, which show by way of illustration how the invention may be practiced. FIG. 1 shows an example of a flow chart 100 for an embodiment of the method for determining shade of a patient's tooth. In step 102 a series of sub-scans of the patient's set of teeth is recorded, where a plurality of said sub-scans comprises both texture information and shape information for the tooth. In step 103 a digital 3D representation of the tooth is generated from said sub-scans, where the digital 3D representation comprises texture data expressing a texture profile of the tooth. The digital 3D representation further comprises shape data expressing the shape of the tooth such that the shape of the tooth can be visualized in a user interface. In step 104 a tooth shade value for a point on the tooth is determined based on the texture data. This is done at least in part by comparing the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation with a known texture value of one or more reference tooth shade values. The reference tooth shade values may be provided in the form of a library file and comprise tooth shade values and corresponding texture values based on e.g. the VITA 3D-Master and/or the VITA Classic tooth shade systems. FIGS. 2 to 4 show parts of screen shots from user interfaces in which derived tooth shade values and visual representation of the corresponding certainty scores for a number of tooth regions are displayed at the digital 3D representations of the patient's set of teeth. The point or points on the tooth for which the tooth shade value(s) is/are determined can be selected by an operator. This can be the case e.g. when the digital 3D representation of the tooth is visualized in a user interface and the operator uses a pointing tool, such as a computer mouse, to indicate where on the digital 3D representation of the tooth, he wishes to determine the tooth shade value. The point or points can also be selected by a computer implemented algorithm based on predetermined positions on the digital 3D representation of the tooth, such as a point arranged at a certain distance to the incisal edge of the tooth. The screen shot 210 seen in FIG. 2 shows three regions 212, 213, 214 on the digital 3D representation of the patient's set of teeth. Two of these 212, 213, are selected at the part of the digital 3D representation corresponding to the tooth 211 while the third 214 is selected on the soft tissue part 215 of the digital 3D representation. Average tooth shade value for a region can be calculated by averaging over tooth shade values derived for a number of points within the region or by calculating an average texture value for the region and determining the average tooth shade value therefrom. The average tooth shade values are displayed in tooth value sections 217, 218, 219 linked to the regions in the user interface. In the tooth value sections 217, 218 relating to the regions 212, 213 two tooth shade values are displayed where the upper shade value is derived using known texture values corresponding to the reference tooth shade values of the VITA 3D-Master tooth shade system and the lower tooth shade values relates to the VITA Classic tooth shade system. It is also seen that for the region 213 closest to the gingiva, the tooth shade is determined to be 2L1.5 in the VITA 3D-Master system and B1 in the VITA Classic system. In FIG. 2 the certainty scores for the derived tooth shade values are visualized as a certainty score indicator displayed next to the tooth shade values. In FIG. 2 the visualization of the certainty score indicator is in the form of a checkmark which indicates that the certainty score is sufficiently good to provide that the derived tooth shade values can be relied upon. The color of the checkmark may provide further information to the certainty score, such as in cases where a green checkmark indicates a more certain tooth shade value than a yellow checkmark. The third region 214 is located at the patient's soft tissue. An anatomical correct tooth shade value can hence not be calculated from the texture data of that part of the digital 3D representation of the patient's teeth and the corresponding certainty scope is accordingly very low. The visualization of the certainty score in the tooth value section 219 is hence a cross indicating that the derived shade value was rejected. Further no shade value is indicated in the tooth value section 219. The screen shot 310 seen in FIG. 3 shows two regions 312, 314 on the digital 3D representation of the patient's set of teeth. One of these regions 312 is selected at the part of the digital 3D representation corresponding to the tooth 311 while the second region 314 is selected on the soft tissue part 315 of the digital 3D representation. Average tooth shade value for a region can be calculated as described above in relation to FIG. 2. Shade value sections 317, 319 are also displayed for the regions 312, 314. Two tooth shade values 321 are derived for the region 312 and displayed in the corresponding tooth value section 317, where the upper value is derived using known texture values corresponding to the reference tooth shade values of the VITA 3D-Master tooth shade system (derived tooth shade value is 1.5M1) and the lower value using the VITA Classic tooth shade system (derived tooth shade value is B1). In FIG. 3 the certainty score is visualized in the form of a certainty score indicator 322 comprising a vertical bar with a color gradient going from red representing a poor certainty score to green representing a good certainty score. The certainty score indicator has a marker indicating the certainty score on the bar. It is seen that the tooth shade value 1.5M1 of the VITA 3D-Master system is more certain than the tooth shade value B1 of the VITA Classic system for this region. The tooth shade value of 1.5M1 is found by interpolation of the reference tooth shades 1M1 and 2M2. The second region 314 is located at the patient's soft tissue. An anatomical correct tooth shade value can hence not be calculated from the texture data of that part of the digital 3D representation of the patient's teeth and the corresponding certainty scope is accordingly very low as seen in the vertical bars of tooth value section 319. FIG. 4 shows a screen shot 410 where determined tooth shade values are derived for a total of 15 regions on the digital 3D representation of the tooth 411. The tooth shade values are all derived based on the known texture values of the reference tooth shade values of the VITA 3D-Master tooth shade system. The certainty scores are visualized in the form of a certainty score indicator comprising a vertical bar with a color gradient going from red representing a poor certainty score to green representing a good certainty score. As can be seen in the tooth value sections 417, 418 of the user interface there are large variations in the certainty scores. For example, the certainty score for the region 412 is almost at maximum while the certainty score of the region 413 is much close to a threshold for acceptable certainty score values. When tooth shade values are determined for a number of points on the tooth, the points may be arranged in a grid over the part of the digital 3D representation of the tooth. FIG. 5 shows steps of a method for designing a dental restoration. In step 531 a digital restoration design is created e.g. based on the shape data of a digital 3D representation of the patient's set of teeth and/or on template digital restoration design loaded from a library. Template digital restoration designs may e.g. be used when the tooth is broken. In step 532 the tooth shade values of different points or regions of the teeth are derived from the texture data of the digital 3D representation of the patient's set of teeth. From the derived tooth shade values or from tooth shade profiles created based on the derived tooth shade values a desired shade profile for the dental restoration can be determined. This can be based on e.g. feature extraction where shade values are extracted from the other teeth by e.g. identifying shade zones on these teeth and copying these zones to the dental restoration. It can also be based on established shade rules for teeth, e.g. a rule describing a relation between the tooth shades values or profiles of the canines and the anterior teeth. In step 533 the desired tooth shade value(s) for the dental restoration is merged into the digital restoration design. When the dental restoration is to be drilled from a multicolored milling block it is important that the dental restoration is milled from the correct parts of the milling block. In step 534 a CAD model of the milling block is provided, where the CAD model comprises information of the shade profile of the milling block material. The optimal position of the digital restoration design relative to the CAD model of the milling block is then determined in 535, where different criteria can be apply to provide the best fit between the desired shade profile and what actually can be obtained as dictated by the shade profile of the milling block. In step 536 the dental restoration is manufactured from the milling block by removing milling block material until the dental restoration is shaped according to the digital restoration design. FIG. 6 shows a schematic of a system for determining tooth shade values. The system 640 comprises a computer device 642 comprising a computer readable medium 643 and a processor 644. The system further comprises a visual display unit 647, a computer keyboard 645 and a computer mouse 646 for entering data and activating virtual buttons in a user interface visualized on the visual display unit 647. The visual display unit can be a computer screen. The computer device 642 is capable of receiving a digital 3D representation of the patient's set of teeth from a scanning device 641, such as the TRIOS intra-oral color scanner manufactured by 3 shape A/S, or capable of receiving scan data from such a scanning device and forming a digital 3D representation of the patient's set of teeth based on such scan data. The obtained digital 3D representation can be stored in the computer readable medium 643 and provided to the processor 644. The processor is configured for implementing the method according to any of the embodiments. This may involve presenting one or more options to the operator, such as where to derive the tooth shade value and whether to accept a derived tooth shade value. The options can be presented in the user interface visualized on the visual display unit 647. Many scanning devices have Bayer color filters with Red, Green and Blue filters and hence record color information in the RGB color space. For instance a focus scanner can record series of 2D color images for the generation of sub-scans, where the color information is provided in the RGB color space. The processor 644 then comprises algorithms for transforming the recorded color data into e.g. the L*a*b or L*C*h color spaces. The system may further comprise a unit 648 for transmitting a digital restoration design and a CAD model of a milling block to e.g. a computer aided manufacturing (CAM) device 649 for manufacturing a shaded dental restoration or to another computer system e.g. located at a milling center where the dental restoration is manufactured. The unit for transmitting the digital restoration design can be a wired or a wireless connection. The scanning of the patient's set of teeth using the scanning device 641 can be performed at a dentist while deriving the tooth shade values can be performed at a dental laboratory. In such cases the digital 3D representation of the patient's set of teeth can be provided via an internet connection between the dentist and the dental laboratory. FIGS. 7A-7D and 8A-8B show schematics of intra-oral scanning. Different scanner configurations can be used to acquire sub-scans comprising both shape and texture information. In some scanner designs the scanner is mounted on axes with encoders which provides that the sub-scans acquired from different orientations can be combined using position and orientation readings from the encoders. When the scanner operates by the focus-scanning technique the individual sub-scans of the tooth are derived from a sequence of 2D images obtained while scanning a focus plane over a portion of the tooth. The focus scanning technique is described in detail in WO2010145669. The shape information of the sub-scans for an object, such as a tooth, can be combined by algorithms for stitching and registration as widely known in the literature. Texture data relating to the tooth color can be obtained using a scanner having a multi-chromatic light source, e.g. a white light source and a color image sensor. Color information from multiple sub-scans can be interpolated and averaged by methods such as texture weaving, or by simply averaging corresponding color components of the sub-scans corresponding to the same point/location on the surface. Texture weaving is described by e.g. Callieri M, Cignoni P, Scopigno R. “Reconstructing textured meshes from multiple range rgb maps”. VMV 2002, Erlangen, Nov. 20-22, 2002. In FIG. 7A the scanner 741 (here represented by a cross-sectional view of the scanner tip) is held in one position relative to the teeth 711, 760 (also represented by a cross-sectional view) while recording a sequence of 2D images for one sub-scan. The illustrated teeth can e.g. be the anterior teeth in the lower jaw. The size of the Field of View (here represented by the full line 761 on the teeth) of the scanner is determined by the light source, the optical components and the image sensor of the scanner. In the illustrated example, the Field of View 761 covers part of the surface of the tooth 711 and part of the surface of the neighbor tooth 760. The generated digital 3D representation can thus also contain data for the neighbor teeth. This is often advantageous, e.g. when the generated digital 3D representation is used for creating a digital restoration design for the manufacture of a dental restoration for the tooth. In the Figure, the scanner is arranged such that the acquired sub-scan comprises shape and color information for the incisal edge 762 of the teeth. The probe light rays 763 from the scanner corresponding to the perimeter of the Field of View are also shown in the Figure. These probe light rays 763 define the optical path 764 of the scanner probe light at the tooth 711. A digital 3D representation of the tooth can be generated by combining sub-scans acquired from different orientations relative to the teeth, e.g. by sub-scan registration. Sub-scans acquired from three such different orientations are illustrated in FIGS. 7B, 7C and 7D, where only the optical path 763 of the scanner probe light is used to represent the relative scanner/tooth orientation in FIGS. 7C and 7D. The sub-scans (here represented by the full line 765 on the teeth) covers different but overlapping sections of the tooth surface such that the sub-scans can be combined by registration into a common coordinate system using e.g. an Iterative Closest Point (ICP) algorithm as described above. A segment of each of the sub-scans corresponds to the point P on the tooth surface. When the sub-scans are registered to generate a digital 3D representation of the tooth, a correlation between these segments is established and the texture information of these sub-scan segments can be combined to determine the texture data for point P on the generated digital 3D representation of the tooth. One way of doing this is to calculate the average value for each of the parameters used to describe the texture. For example, when the L*a*b* color system is used to describe the color information provided in each sub-scan, the color data of the digital 3D representation can be derived by averaging over each of the L*, a*, and b* parameters of the sub-scans. For example, the L* parameter of the color data for a given point P is then given by L *  ( P ) = 1 N  ∑ i N  L i *  ( P ) where N is the number of sub-scans used in deriving the texture data and Li*(P) is the L* parameter of the i'th sub-scan for the segment relating to P. Equivalent expressions are true for the a* and b* parameters for point P. The color parameters for each point on the digital 3D representation of the tooth can be determined for sections of or the entire surface of the tooth, such that the generated digital 3D representation comprises both shape and texture information about the tooth. The spatial resolution of the color data does not necessarily have to be identical to the resolution of the shape data of the digital 3D representation. The point P can be described e.g. in Cartesian, cylindrical or polar coordinates. When the color data is derived for a point on the tooth, the tooth shade value for that point can be determined by comparing the derived color data with the known color data of the reference tooth shade values of a tooth shade guide such as the VITA 3D-Master. FIG. 8A-8B illustrates some potentially problematic tooth surface areas for particular arrangements of the scanner 841 relative to the tooth 811. FIG. 8A shows two points Pi and Pii on the tooth 811 where the tooth surface is either substantially perpendicular or parallel to the optical path, such that the texture information recorded at Pi and Pii may be unreliable. This is because the tooth surface at Pi is perpendicular to the optical path 864i at point Pi which introduces the risk of having specular reflections of the probe light. The optical path 864ii at point Pii is parallel to the tooth surface at Pii such that the signal recorded from this part of the tooth surface in this sub-scan is relatively weak. This may cause that the color information in this section of the sub-scan are unreliable. In order to obtain more precise color data the averaging of the color information described above in relation to FIG. 7 can be a weighted averaging where the color information of unreliable sub-scans segments are assigned a lower weight than others. In FIG. 8B is indicated three different optical paths 864i, 864ii and 864iii at which sub-scans are acquired. When combining the color information for point P the color information of the segments of the sub-scans recorded with optical paths 864i and 864ii should be given a lower weight that the color information of the segment of the sub-scan recorded with the optical path 864iii. This can be expressed by a modification of the equation given above. For a weighted averaging of the color information, the L* parameter of the color data for a given point P is given by L*(P)=ΣiN{αi(P)·Li*(P)}/ΣiNαi where αi(P) is the weight factor for the color information of the i'th sub-scan in the segment at P. When a given sub-scan (e.g. the j'th sub-scan) is recorded at an angle relative to the tooth surface which causes the optical path to be e.g. perpendicular to the tooth surface at P, the corresponding weight factor αi(P) is given a lower value than the color data of sub-scans acquired with an oblique angle between the optical path and the tooth surface. Equivalent equations are true for the a* and b* parameters of the color data for point P. FIG. 9A=9B illustrates how a tooth shade value for a point P on a tooth can be determined based on reference tooth shade values. For a given point P on the digital 3D representation, the color data (Lp*, ap*, bp*) has been determined, e.g. by combining the color information of a series of sub-scans used for generating the digital 3D representation. If the color information originally is recorded using the RGB color space it is transformed into the L*a*b* color space using algorithms known to the skilled person. In the example illustrated by FIG. 9A, the color data of the digital 3D representation and the known color values of the reference tooth shades are expressed in the L*a*b* color space, and the reference tooth shades are those from the VITA classical shade guide. The reference shade values of the Vita classical shade guide are: B1, A1, B2, D2, A2, C1, C2, D4, A3, D3, B3, A3.5, B4, C3, A4, and C4. The color data of these reference shades can be provided by scanning the corresponding pre-manufactured teeth of the shade guide. These color data are then also initially obtained in the RGB color space and can be converted to the L*a*b color space using the same algorithms applied to the color information/data for the point P. The tooth shade value for the point is determined as the reference tooth shade value which has the smallest Euclidian distance to the point in the L*a*b color space. The Euclidian distance ΔEP−Ri from the color (Lp*, ap* , bp*) to the known colors of the reference tooth shade values are calculated using the expression: Δ   E P - Ri = ( L P * - L Ri * ) 2 + ( a P * - a Ri * ) 2 + ( b P * - b Ri * ) 2 2 where Ri refers to the i'th reference tooth shade. In FIG. 9A only the known colors (LR1*, aR1*, bR1*) and (LR2*, aR2*, bR2*) for the two closest reference values R1 and R2, respectively, are illustrated for simplicity. It can be seen that the Euclidian distance in the color space from P to R2 is the smallest, and the tooth shade in point P is hence selected as that of R2. The certainty score for the tooth shade value determined for point P depends on how close the color data of the point P is to the known color value of the selected reference tooth shade value. This can be quantified by the Euclidian distance and since point P is not particularly close to R2 in FIG. 9A the determined tooth shade has a poor certainty value. An alternative approach to using the Euclidian distance is to determine individual parameters of the tooth shade value one at a time. This approach can be used e.g. when the reference tooth shades values are those of the Vita 3D-master system. The reference tooth shade values of the Vita 3D-master shade guide are expressed in codes consisting of the three parameters Lightness-hue-Chroma, where Lightness is given in values between 1 and 5, the Chroma in values between 1 and 3, and the hue as one of “L”, “M”, or “R”. A shade code in the Vita 3D-master can e.g. be 2M1, where the Lightness parameter equals 2, the Chroma 1 and the hue “M”. The known color data of the VITA 3D-master shade guide reference shades can be provided by scanning the pre-manufactured teeth of the shade guide. These color data are then also initially obtained in the RGB color space and can be converted to the L*a*b color space using the same algorithms applied to the color information/data for the point P. The known color data of each reference shade guide (having a code expressed in terms of Lightness, hue and Chroma) is then provided in terms of the L*a*b color space. Since the lightness L has the largest impact on the human perception of the tooth color, the value of the Lightness-parameter LP* in the point is determined first. The value of LP* is compared with the values of the L* parameters for the reference tooth shades. If LP* is close to the L*-value for the i'th reference tooth shade value, LRi* the L* parameter for point P may be set equal to LRi*. In some cases the Lightness parameter is not close to any of the references but instead is located almost in the middle between two L*-values. For example when LP* in the point is between the values of LRi*=2 and LRi+1*=3 with almost equal distance to each of these as illustrated in FIG. 9B. Since the L*a*b color space is a linear space, the individual parameters of the shade values can be interpolated such that the Lightness for point P, LP*, can be set to 2.5. The same procedure is performed for first the Chroma parameter and finally for the hue such that the three parameter of the tooth shade value are determined. Although some embodiments have been described and shown in detail, the invention is not restricted to them, but may also be embodied in other ways within the scope of the subject matter defined in the following claims. In particular, it is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural and functional modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the present invention. In device claims enumerating several means, several of these means can be embodied by one and the same item of hardware. The mere fact that certain measures are recited in mutually different dependent claims or described in different embodiments does not indicate that a combination of these measures cannot be used to advantage. A claim may refer to any of the preceding claims, and “any” is understood to mean “any one or more” of the preceding claims. It should be emphasized that the term “comprises/comprising” when used in this specification is taken to specify the presence of stated features, integers, steps or components but does not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps, components or groups thereof. The features of the method described above and in the following may be implemented in software and carried out on a data processing system or other processing means caused by the execution of computer-executable instructions. The instructions may be program code means loaded in a memory, such as a RAM, from a storage medium or from another computer via a computer network. Alternatively, the described features may be implemented by hardwired circuitry instead of software or in combination with software. REFERENCES Hassel 2012: Hassel et al. “Determination of VITA Classical shades with the 3D-Master shade guide” Acta Odontol Scand. 2013; 71(3-4): 721-6. Dozic 2007: Dozic et al. “Performance of five commercially available tooth color-measuring devices”, J Prosthodont. 2007; 16(2): 93-100. Embodiments 1. A method for determining shade of a patient's tooth, wherein the method comprises: obtaining a digital 3D representation of the tooth, where the digital 3D representation comprises shape data and texture data for the tooth; and determining a tooth shade value for at least one point on the tooth based on the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation and on known texture values of one or more reference tooth shade values. 2. The method according to embodiment 1, wherein determining the tooth shade value for the point comprises selecting the reference tooth shade value with the known texture value closest to the texture data of the point. 3. The method according to embodiment 1 or 2, wherein determining the tooth shade value for the point comprises an interpolation of the two or more reference tooth shade values having known texture values close to the texture data of the point. 4. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein the method comprises deriving a certainty score expressing the certainty of the determined tooth shade value. 5. The method according to embodiment 4, wherein the method comprises generating a visual representation of the certainty score and displaying this visual representation in a user interface. 6. The method according to embodiment 5, wherein the visual representation of the certainty score is displayed together with or is mapped onto the digital 3D representation of the tooth. 7. The method according to any one of embodiments 4 to 6, wherein the method comprises comparing the derived certainty score with a range of acceptable certainty score values. 8. The method according to any one of embodiments 4 to 7, wherein the certainty measure relates to how uniform the sub-scan texture information is at the point, and/or to how close the texture data is to the known texture value of the determined tooth shade value, and/or to the amount of texture information used to derive the texture data at the point. 9. The method according to any one of embodiments 4 to 8, wherein the visual representation of the certainty score comprises a binary code, a bar structure with a color gradient, a numerical value, and/or a comparison between the texture data and the known texture value of the determined tooth shade value. 10. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein the one or more reference tooth shade values relate to shade values for natural teeth with intact surface and/or to shade values for teeth prepared for a dental restoration. 11. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein the method comprises comparing the texture data with known texture values for soft oral tissue, such as gum tissue and gingiva. 12. The method according to any of the previous embodiments, wherein the texture information comprises at least one of tooth color or surface roughness. 13. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein the method comprises creating a shade profile for the tooth from shade values determined one or more points on the tooth. 14. The method according to embodiment 13, wherein the tooth shade profile comprises a one or more tooth shade regions on the tooth surface where an average tooth shade is derived for each region from tooth shade values determined for a number of points within the region 15. The method according to any of the previous embodiments, wherein obtaining the digital 3D representation of the tooth comprises recording a series of sub-scans of the tooth, where at least one of said sub-scans comprises both texture information and geometry information for said tooth, and generating the digital 3D representation of the tooth from the recorded series of sub-scans. 16. The method according to embodiment 15, wherein the texture data at least partly are derived by combining the texture information from corresponding parts of a number of the sub-scans. 17. The method according to embodiment 16, wherein combining the texture information from the sub-scans comprises interpolating the texture information and/or calculating an average value of the texture information. 18. The method according to embodiment 17, wherein the calculated average value is a weighted average of the texture information. 19. A user interface for determining and displaying shade of a patient's tooth, wherein the user interface is configured for: obtaining a digital 3D representation of the tooth, said digital 3D representation comprising shape data and texture data for the tooth; displaying at least the shape data of the digital 3D representation such that the shape of the tooth is visualized in the user interface; determining a tooth shade value for at least one point on the tooth based on the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation and on known texture values of one or more reference tooth shade values; and displaying the determined tooth shade value.

<SOH> TECHNICAL FIELD <EOH>This invention generally relates to methods and a user interfaces for determining the shade of a patient's tooth or teeth and for utilizing the determined tooth shades for designing and manufacturing dental restorations. When designing and manufacturing a dental restoration for a patient, such as a crown or a bridge restoration, it is advantageous that both the shape and shade of the manufactured restoration is adapted to the patient's natural teeth surrounding the restoration. If the shade of the restoration differs significantly from the surrounding natural teeth, e.g. is significantly darker or brighter than these, the restoration appear artificial and deteriorate the aesthetic impression of the patient's smile. The tooth color can be represented in many different color spaces, such as the L*C*h* color space representing color in terms of Lightness, Chroma and Hue, or in the L*a*b* color space as described e.g. by Hassel et al. (Hassel 2012) and Dozic et al. (Dozic 2007). The L*a*b* color space has the advantage that it is designed to approximate human vision with the L* component closely matches human perception of lightness. In order to aid dental technicians in their manual work of manufacturing a restoration which appears natural, the tooth colors are often expressed in terms of reference tooth shade values of a tooth shade system (often referred to as a tooth shade guide). Each reference tooth shade value in a tooth shade guide represents a predetermined and known tooth color value and often correspond to the color of commercially available ceramics for the production of dental restorations. This is e.g. the case for the VITA 3D-Master or the VITA Classic shade guides provided by VITA Zahnfabrik, Germany. In the VITA 3D-Master system, tooth shades are expressed in codes referring to the L*C*h* color space, where each code is constructed according to (Lightness, hue, Chroma). One example of a tooth shade value is 3R1.5 where “3” refers to the lightness, “R” to the hue and “1.5” to the Chroma of the tooth. This allows the dentist to describe the shade of the patient's tooth in terms that a dental technician immediately understands, such that the technician will know from which ceramics he should manufacture the restoration to provide that it has the correct shade. When manually determining which reference tooth shade value best matches the color of a patient's tooth, the dentist holds different pre-manufactured teeth of the shade guide at the tooth for comparison. Often a picture is taken with the pre-manufactured structures arranged at the teeth. The technician who produces the prosthetic then uses the picture in evaluating which ceramic must be used for the different parts of the restoration based on the picture. This process is both time consuming and inaccurate.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Disclosed is a method for determining shade of a patient's tooth, wherein the method comprises: obtaining a digital 3D representation of the tooth, where the digital 3D representation comprises shape data and texture data for the tooth; and determining a tooth shade value for at least one point on the tooth based on the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation and on known texture values of one or more reference tooth shade values. Disclosed is a user interface for determining and displaying shade of a patient's tooth, wherein the user interface is configured for: obtaining a digital 3D representation of the tooth, said digital 3D representation comprising shape data and texture data for the tooth; displaying at least the shape data of the digital 3D representation such that the shape of the tooth is visualized in the user interface; determining a tooth shade value for at least one point on the tooth based on the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation and on known texture values of one or more reference tooth shade values; and displaying the determined tooth shade value. The texture data of the digital 3D representation expresses the texture of the tooth. The texture data can be a texture profile expressing the variation in the texture over the tooth. The shape data of the digital 3D representation expresses the shape of the tooth. In some embodiments, the texture information comprises at least one of tooth color or surface roughness. When the texture information comprises tooth color information, the texture data expressing a texture profile of the tooth may be color data expressing a color profile of the tooth, and the tooth shade value for a point on the tooth may be derived by comparing the color data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation with known color values of one or more reference tooth shade values. Determining both the tooth shade value from a digital 3D representation comprising both shape data expressing the shape of the tooth and texture data expressing a texture profile of the tooth provides the advantage that shade and geometry information are directly linked. This e.g. advantageous e.g. in CAD/CAM dentistry where dental restorations are designed using Computer Aided Design (CAD) tools and subsequently manufactured from the design using Computer Aided Design (CAM) tools. The material used for the manufacture of the dental restoration can then be selected based on the determined tooth shade value. In many cases, the dental restoration is manufactured with a shade profile where the shade differs from the incisal edge towards cervical end of the restoration. The disclosed invention allows the operator to determine tooth shade values for several points on the tooth such that a shade profile can be determined for the dental restoration. Multi-shaded milling blocks exits which mimics standard tooth shade profiles. Having the shape data and the tooth shade values linked via the digital 3D representation provides that the correct portion of the multi-shaded milling block can be milled out. The remaining portion of the multi-shaded milling block forming the dental restoration will then have a shape and shade profile which closely resembles that of a natural tooth. In some embodiments, obtaining the digital 3D representation of the tooth comprises recording a series of sub-scans of the tooth, where at least one of said sub-scans comprises both texture information and geometry information for said tooth, and generating the digital 3D representation of the tooth from the recorded series of sub-scans. When a plurality of the sub-scans comprise texture information, the texture data for the digital 3D representation can be derived by combining the texture information of the several sub-scans. The recorded sub-scans comprise at least data of the tooth for which the shade is determined, but potentially also of the neighboring teeth such that for example the shape and location of the neighboring teeth can be taken into account when designing a dental restoration for the tooth. Texture information and texture data for the neighboring teeth can also be used to determine the shade value for the tooth, e.g. by interpolation of the shades determined for the neighbor teeth. In some embodiments, the method comprises creating a shade profile for the tooth from shade values determined for one or more of points on the tooth. The shade profile of natural teeth often has a brighter shade at the incisal edge of the tooth and gradually changes into a darker shade towards the cervical end of the tooth, i.e. the end at the patient's gingiva. When the tooth shade value is determined for one point only the tooth shade profile may be generated based on knowledge of the normal tooth shade profile for that particular type of tooth and patient. This knowledge may relate to how the shade profile normally changes over the tooth, the age and gender of the patients, etc. Often the profile will be based on tooth shades determined in several points on the tooth to provide the most reliable tooth shade profile. In some embodiments the user interface is configured for creating a shade profile for the tooth from tooth shade values determined for one or more points on the tooth. In some embodiments, the tooth shade profile can be created by interpolation of tooth shade values determined for points distributed over the tooth surface with some distance between the points. The tooth shade value for some parts of the tooth surface are then not derived directly from sub-scan texture information relating to these parts but from the determined tooth shade values for other parts/points on the tooth surface. A tooth shade profile for the entire labial/buccal surface of the tooth can thus be created from a selection of points on the surface providing a fast and often sufficiently accurate procedure for creating the tooth shade profile. The interpolation of the tooth shade values can be realized by an interpolation in each of the coordinates of the color space used to describe the tooth color. In some embodiments, the tooth shade profile comprises a one or more tooth shade regions on the tooth surface where an average tooth shade is derived for each region from tooth shade values determined for a number of points within the region. The tooth shade region can be defined by a structure encircling a portion of the tooth surface in the digital 3D representation, where either the operator or a computer implemented algorithm decides where each geometric structure is located on the digital 3D representation. Different shapes (e.g. circles, squares, or rectangles) and sizes (e.g. corresponding to a few millimeters) of the geometric structure can be used. The number of points within the geometrical structure can be increased to provide a more accurate measure of the shade or reduced to provide a faster calculation. The average tooth shade value for a region can e.g. be derived as a weighted average where the tooth shade value for points in the center of the structure is assigned a higher weight than tooth shade value of points closer to the boundary. The tooth surface can also be divided into a coronal, a middle and a cervical region. Some natural teeth has a shade profile which can be expressed by such a division and many dentists and dental technicians are familiar with such a division In some embodiments, tooth shade values are determined for a plurality of teeth, i.e. on parts of the digital 3D representation corresponding to two or more teeth, and a tooth shade value and/or a tooth shade profile for each of these teeth is created from the determined tooth shade values. In some embodiments, the texture data at least partly are derived by combining the texture information from corresponding parts of a number of the sub-scans. The digital 3D representation can be generated through registration of sub-scans into a common coordinate system by matching overlapping sections of sub-scans, i.e. the sections of the sub-scans which relate to the same region of the tooth. When two or more sub-scans also comprise texture information relating to the same region of the tooth, deriving the texture data for this region in the digital 3D representation can comprise combining the corresponding texture information, i.e. the texture information in the sub-scans corresponding to the same sections of the tooth. Deriving the texture data based on texture information from two or more sub-scan can provide a more accurate measurement of the texture data. The texture information of one sub-scan for a particular region of the tooth may be unreliable e.g. due to the angle between the surface in this region and the scanner when this particular sub-scan was recorded. The combination of texture information from several sub-scans can provide a more reliable color. In some embodiments, combining the texture information from the sub-scans comprises interpolating the texture information, i.e. texture information from parts of the sub-scans corresponding to a point on the tooth are interpolated to determine the texture data for that point. Such an interpolation can provide that the determined texture data is more accurate e.g. in cases where the texture information for a point on the tooth is not linearly varying over the sub-scans such that a simple averaging will not provide the best result. In some embodiments, combining the texture information from the sub-scans comprises calculating an average value of the texture information, i.e. texture data for a point on the digital 3D representation are determined by averaging the texture information of the sub-scans corresponding to that point on the tooth. In some embodiments, the calculated average value is a weighted average of the texture information. This approach has the advantage that the derived texture data of the digital 3D representation are not as sensitive to errors in the texture information of a single sub-scan. Such errors can be caused by several factors. One factor is the angle between the optical path of the probe light at the tooth surface and the tooth surface itself. When utilizing e.g. the focus scanning technique, the texture data for a point on the tooth is preferably derived from a number of sub-scans where at least some of the sub-scans are recorded at different orientations of the scanner relative to the teeth. The sections of the sub-scans relating to this point are hence acquired at different angles relative to the tooth surface in this point. A portion of a sub-scan recorded from a surface perpendicular to the optical path of the probe light at the tooth may be dominated by specular reflected light which does not describe the texture of the tooth but rather the spectral distribution of the probe light. A portion of a sub-scan recorded from a tooth surface almost parallel to the optical path is often quite weak and hence often provide an erroneous detection of the texture at that point. In some embodiments, the texture information from parts of a sub-scan relating to a tooth surface which is substantially perpendicular or parallel to the optical path are assigned a low weight in the weighted averaging of the texture information to determine the texture data for the point. The orientation of the scanner relative to the tooth when a sub-scan is acquired can be determined from the shape of the sub-scan. Parts of the sub-scan relating to tooth surfaces which are substantially parallel or perpendicular to the optical path can thus immediately be detected in the sub-scan such that the texture information of the corresponding parts are assigned at low weight when determining the texture data for this point from a series of sub-scans. A specular reflection from the tooth often has an intensity which is significantly higher than that of e.g. diffuse light from surfaces which have an oblique angle relative to the optical path. In some cases the specular reflection will saturate the pixels of the image sensor used for the recording of the sub-scans. In some embodiments, the method comprises detecting saturated pixels in the recorded sub-scans and assigning a low weight to the texture information of the saturated pixels when combining the texture information from the sub-scans, i.e. when calculating the weighted average of the texture information. Specular reflection from a tooth surface may also be detected from a comparison between the spectrum of the light received from the tooth and that of the probe light. If these spectra a very similar it indicates that the tooth has a perfectly white surface which is not natural. Such texture information may thus be assigned a low weight in a weighted average of texture information. In some embodiments determining the tooth shade value for the point comprises selecting the reference tooth shade value with known texture value closest to the texture data of the point. When the texture data comprises color data, selecting the tooth shade value of the point can comprise calculating the color difference between the determined color data in the point and the color data of the reference tooth shade values. This difference can e.g. be calculated as a Euclidian distance in the used color space. As an example, Dozic et al. (Dozic 2007) describes that the Euclidian distance ΔE between two points (L 1 *, a 1 *, b 1 *) and (L 2 *, a 2 *, b 2 *) in the L*a*b* color space is given by: Δ   E = ( L 1 * - L 2 * ) 2 + ( a 1 * - a 2 * ) 2 + ( b 1 * - b 2 * ) 2 2 Selecting the tooth shade value can then comprise determining for which of the reference tooth shades the color difference, i.e. the Euclidian distance, is the smallest. In some embodiments determining the tooth shade value for the point comprises an interpolation of the two or more reference tooth shade values having known texture values close to the texture data of the point. This interpolation provides that the tooth shade can be represented with a more detailed solution than what is provided by the tooth shade standard used to describe the tooth shade. For instance when using a Lightness-Hue-Chroma code a tooth shade value of 1.5M2.5 can be determined for the tooth by interpolation of Lightness values of 1 and 2, and Chroma values of 2 and 3. The tooth shade value can be displayed in a user interface e.g. together with the digital 3D representation of the tooth. If the digital 3D representation also contains parts relating to other teeth the tooth shade value for the tooth is preferably displayed at the tooth, such as at the point of the for which the tooth shade value has been determined. The tooth shade value can also be represented as a color mapped onto the digital 3D representation. When a dental restoration is designed based on the determined tooth shade value this can provide a visualization of how the restoration will appear together with neighboring teeth also contained in the digital 3D representation obtained by scanning the teeth. In some embodiments, the method comprises deriving a certainty score expressing the certainty of the determined tooth shade value. Deriving a certainty score for the determined tooth shade value provides the advantage that a measure of how accurate the determined value is can be displayed to the operator, preferably when the patient is still at the clinic such that further scanning can be performed if this is required to provide a more precise tooth shade value. In some embodiments, the method comprises generating a visual representation of the certainty score and displaying this visual representation in a user interface. In some embodiments, the method comprises generating a certainty score profile at least for a portion of the tooth, where the certainty scope profile represents the certainty scores for tooth shade values determined for a number of points on the tooth, such as for the values in a tooth shade profile for the tooth. The certainty score profile can be mapped onto the digital 3D representation of the tooth and visualized in a user interface. When the tooth shade profile also is mapped onto the tooth digital 3D representation the operator may be allowed to toggle between having the tooth shade profile and having the certainty scope profiled visualized on the digital 3D representation. In some embodiments the visual representation of the certainty score is displayed together with or is mapped onto the digital 3D representation of the tooth. In some embodiments, the method comprises comparing the derived certainty score with a range of acceptable certainty score values. This is done to verify that the certainty score is acceptable, i.e. that the determined tooth shade value is sufficiently reliable. One boundary of the range can be defined by a threshold value. When a high certainty scope indicates that the determined shade value most likely is correct, the threshold value may define the lower boundary of the range and vice versa. A visual representation of the certainty score or of the result of the comparison of the certainty score with the range can be generated and displayed in a user interface. Preferably, this visual representation is displayed together with the determined tooth shade value. In some embodiments, the method comprises deciding based on the certainty score whether the determined tooth shade value or tooth shade profile is acceptable. This may be based on the comparison of the derived certainty score and the range of acceptable certainty score values, e.g. where it is decided that the determined tooth shade value is acceptable if the certainty score is within the range of acceptable values. In some embodiments, the certainty measure relates to how uniform the sub-scan texture information is at the point. If large variations are found in the texture information in the vicinity of the parts corresponding to the point for a substantial fraction of the sub-scans, the texture data derived therefrom may be unreliable and the tooth shade value derived for this point is accordingly not very reliable. In some embodiments, the certainty measure relates to how close the texture data is to the known texture value of the determined tooth shade value. In particular, the certainty measure may relate to how close one parameter of the color data of the digital 3D representation is to the corresponding parameter of the known color for the determined tooth shade value. For example, the certainty measure may relate to the difference in the lightness parameter between point of the digital 3D representation and the determined tooth shade value. The Euclidian distance between the color data to the selected reference tooth shade value can also be used in determining the certainty measure. If the Euclidian distance is above a threshold value the uncertainty is then evaluated to be too large. The color data can here both relate to color data of the point or the average color data for a region surrounding the point. In some embodiments, the certainty measure relates to the amount of texture information used to derive the texture data at the point. When the texture data for the point is derived from a limited amount of texture information the texture data, and accordingly the tooth shade value derived therefrom, may be less reliable than the tooth shade values derived from large amounts of texture information. In some embodiments, the visual representation of the certainty score comprises a binary code, such as red for certainty scores outside a range of acceptable certainty score values, and green for certainty scores within the range, a bar structure with a color gradient, a numerical value, and/or a comparison between the texture data and the known texture value of the determined tooth shade value. In some embodiments, the visual representation of the certainty score comprises a certainty score indicator. The certainty score indicator may comprise a bar structure with a color gradient going from a first color representing a low certainty score to a second color representing a high certainty score. The first color may be red and the second color green. The color gradient of the bar structure may be configured to have an intermediate color, e.g. yellow representing the threshold value for the certainty score. The certainty score indicator may comprise marker which is arranged relative to the color gradient of the bar structure such that it indicated the certainty score. In some embodiments, the visual representation of the certainty score comprises a numerical value, such as a numerical value in an interval extending from a lower limit indicating a low certainly, i.e. a relatively uncertain tooth shade value, to a higher limit indicating a high certainty, i.e. a relatively certain tooth shade value. In some embodiments, the one or more reference tooth shade values relate to shade values for natural teeth with intact surface and/or to shade values for teeth prepared for a dental restoration. The reference tooth shade values used for determining the tooth shade can be selected based on the tooth. Intact and healthy teeth normally have tooth shades in one range of tooth shade values where a tooth prepared for a dental restoration has a tooth shade in another range, which may overlap with the range for healthy teeth. It may thus be advantageous that the operator enters whether the tooth is intact or prepared for a restoration and the appropriate color space is used in the comparison with the texture data. If the color data in the point on the digital 3D representation of the tooth has a poor match to all the reference tooth shade values of the selected tooth shade system/guide the point may e.g. be on the gingiva of the patient or relate to silver filling. In some embodiments, the method comprises comparing the texture data with known texture values for soft oral tissue, such as gum tissue and gingiva. This may e.g. be relevant when the certainty scores are outside said range of acceptable certainty score values for all tooth shade values of a tooth shade system, i.e. if there is a poor match between the texture data and the known texture for all the tooth shades of the reference set. In a user interface for implementing the method, it may be suggested to the operator that the point perhaps is not on a tooth surface but on the gums or gingiva of the patient. This suggestion may be provided both when the texture data has been found to give a good match with known texture values of gum/gingiva and/or when the texture data has a poor match with the known texture values of the reference tooth shade values in the tooth shade system or systems. In some embodiments, the method comprises determining an alternative tooth shade value for the point when said certainty score is outside said range of acceptable certainty score values. In some embodiments, the method comprises displaying the alternative tooth shade value in the user interface optionally together with the digital 3D representation of the patient's set of teeth and/or the initially determined tooth shade value The digital 3D representation of the tooth is generated at least partly from the geometry information of the sub-scans. In some embodiments, the texture information of the sub-scans is also taken into account when generating the digital 3D representation of the tooth. Sub-scans comprising texture information and geometry information may be recorded for more than said tooth, such that the generated digital 3D representation may comprise shade data expressing the shape and texture data expressing the texture profile of several of the patient's teeth. Disclosed is a method for determining shade of a patient's tooth, wherein the method comprises: recording a series of sub-scans of the patient's set of teeth, where a plurality of said sub-scans comprises both texture information and geometry information for said tooth; generating a digital 3D representation of the tooth from said sub-scans, wherein the digital 3D representation comprises shape data expressing the shape of the tooth and texture data expressing a texture profile of the tooth; and determining a tooth shade value for a point on the tooth by comparing the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation with a known texture value of one or more reference tooth shade values. Disclosed is a user interface for determining and displaying shade of a patient's tooth, wherein the user interface is configured for: obtaining a digital 3D representation of the tooth, said digital 3D representation comprising shape data expressing the shape of the tooth and texture data expressing a texture profile of the tooth; displaying at least the shape data of the digital 3D representation such that the shape of the tooth is visualized in the user interface; determining a tooth shade value for a point on the tooth by comparing the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation with a known texture value of one or more reference tooth shade values; and displaying the determined tooth shade value. In some embodiments, the user interface is configured for deriving a certainty score expressing the certainty of the determined tooth shade value for said point. In some embodiments, the user interface comprises a virtual tool which when activated on a point of the digital 3D representation of the tooth provides that the determined tooth shade value for the point; and/or a visual representation of a certainty score for the determined tooth shade value; and/or a visual representation of a comparison of the derived certainty score with a range of acceptable certainty score values is visualized in the user interface. The user interface can then provide the operator with an opportunity to decide based on the visualized certainty score and/or the visual representations whether the determined tooth shade value or tooth shade profile is acceptable. In some embodiments, the visual representation of the comparison of the derived certainty score with the range of acceptable certainty score values comprises a binary code, such as red for certainty scores outside a range of acceptable certainty score values, and green for certainty scores within the range. Other means for this visualization are described above. The visualized certainty score and/or the representation(s) of the certainty score or comparison of the certainty score with the range of acceptable certainty score values may be displayed at the digital 3D representation in the user interface or in a shade value region of the user interface. In some embodiments, the user interface is configured for determining an alternative shade value for the point and for displaying the alternative shade value when the certainty scores outside a range of acceptable certainty score values. Disclosed is a method for designing a dental restoration for a patient, wherein the method comprises: obtaining a digital 3D representation of at least one tooth, said digital 3D representation comprising shape data expressing the shape of the tooth and texture data expressing a texture profile of the tooth; determining a tooth shade value for a point on the tooth by comparing the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation with a known texture value of one or more reference tooth shade values; and creating a digital restoration design for one or more of the patient's teeth; and selecting a restoration shade of the digital restoration design based on said tooth shade value. The digital restoration design can e.g. be for the manufacture of dental prosthetic restoration for the patient, such as a crown or a bridge restoration, where the digital restoration design expresses a desired shape and shade profile of the dental restoration. Such digital restoration designs can be in the form of a CAD model of the dental restoration. In some embodiments, the method comprises suggesting a dental material for manufacturing the dental restoration from the digital restoration design based on the determined restoration shade. In cases where the dental restoration is designed and manufactured for an existing tooth which has an acceptable shade, the tooth shade value or tooth shade profile can be determined for the existing tooth and the shade of the digital restoration design based on the tooth shade value or tooth shade profile of the existing tooth. This may e.g. be advantageous for the crown portions of a bridge restoration in the case where the tooth which is intended to accept the crown portion of the bridge is a healthy tooth. In some cases the dental restoration is designed and manufactured for a tooth which either is damaged or has an undesired shade profile, such as for a broken or dead tooth. In such cases it can be advantageous to determine the tooth shade value or tooth shade profile for one or more of the neighboring teeth and selecting the restoration shade of the digital restoration design from e.g. an interpolation of the tooth shade values/profiles of the neighboring teeth. Disclosed is a method for designing a dental restoration for a first tooth, wherein the method comprises: obtaining a digital 3D representation of the patient's set of teeth, said digital 3D representation comprising shape data and texture data expressing the shape and texture profile, respectively, of at least one second tooth; designing a digital restoration design for the first tooth; deriving a desired texture profile of the digital restoration design from the texture data of the at least one second tooth; and determining a restoration shade value or restoration shade profile of the digital restoration design by comparing the desired texture profile with texture values for one or more reference tooth shade values. In some embodiments, the desired texture profile is derived by interpolation or averaging of the texture data of the digital 3D representation of the neighbor teeth. In some embodiments, one or more of the sub-scans comprise texture information for the patient's soft tissue, and optionally geometry information for said soft tissue. The generated digital 3D representation may then comprise shape data expressing the shape of the soft tissue and texture data expressing a texture profile of the soft tissue. From this information, an aesthetica) pleasing denture can be designed where the color of the soft tissue part of the denture is selected based on the texture profile of the corresponding part of the digital 3D representation. Knowledge of the texture of the soft tissue, such as of the color of the soft tissue, can also be used for diagnostics. When the texture data of a point on the digital 3D representation corresponding to soft tissue does not provide a sufficiently good match with a known range of texture values for soft tissue, a warning may be prompted in a user interface to alert the operator that the soft tissue is suspicious. Disclosed is a system for determining shade of a patient's tooth, wherein the system comprises: a scanner capable of recording a digital 3D representation of the tooth, where the digital 3D representation comprises shape data and texture data for the tooth; and a data processing system comprising a computer-readable medium having stored thereon the program code means for causing the data processing system to determine a tooth shade value for at least one point on the tooth based on the texture data of the corresponding point of the digital 3D representation and on known texture values of one or more reference tooth shade values using the method according to any of the embodiments. In some embodiments, the sub-scans are recorded using an intra-oral scanner, such as the 3Shape TRIOS intra-oral scanner. The intra-oral scanner may be configured for utilizing focus scanning, where the sub-scans of the scanned teeth are reconstructed from in-focus images acquired at different focus depths. The focus scanning technique can be performed by generating a probe light and transmitting this probe light towards the set of teeth such that at least a part of the set of teeth is illuminated. Light returning from the set of teeth is transmitted towards a camera and imaged onto an image sensor in the camera by means of an optical system, where the image sensor/camera comprises an array of sensor elements. The position of the focus plane on/relative to the set of teeth is varied by means of focusing optics while images are obtained from/by means of said array of sensor elements. Based on the images, the in-focus position(s) of each of a plurality of the sensor elements or each of a plurality of groups of the sensor elements may be determined for a sequence of focus plane positions. The in-focus position can e.g. be calculated by determining the maximum of a correlation measure for each of a plurality of the sensor elements or each of a plurality of groups of the sensor elements for a range of focus planes as described in WO2010145669. From the in-focus positions, sub-scans of the set of teeth can be derived with geometry information relating to the shape of the scanned surface. When e.g. the image sensor is a color sensor and the light source provides a multispectral signal a plurality of the sub-scans can include both geometry information and texture information, such as color information, for said tooth. A digital 3D representation of the set of teeth can then be generated from the recorded sub-scans by e.g. the use of an Iterative Closest Point (ICP) algorithm. Iterative Closest Point (ICP) is an algorithm employed to minimize the difference between two clouds of points. ICP can be used to reconstruct 2D or 3D surfaces from different scans or sub-scans. The algorithm is conceptually simple and is commonly used in real-time. It iteratively revises the transformation, i.e. translation and rotation, needed to minimize the distance between the points of two raw scans or sub-scans. The inputs are: points from two raw scans or sub-scans, initial estimation of the transformation, criteria for stopping the iteration. The output is: refined transformation. Essentially the algorithm steps are: 1. Associate points by the nearest neighbor criteria. 2. Estimate transformation parameters using a mean square cost function. 3. Transform the points using the estimated parameters. 4. Iterate, i.e. re-associate the points and so on. The generated digital 3D representation formed by such a procedure comprises shape data expressing the shape of the tooth. The texture information of the sub-scans can be used in various ways to provide that the generated digital 3D representation also comprises texture data expressing a texture profile of the tooth. For a number of the sub-scans, the part of the sub-scan relating to the same point on the tooth can be identified, e.g. during the ICP procedure. The corresponding texture information of these parts of the sub-scans can then be combined to provide the texture data for that point. Furthermore, the invention relates to a computer program product comprising program code means for causing a data processing system to perform the method according to any of the embodiments, when said program code means are executed on the data processing system, and a computer program product, comprising a computer-readable medium having stored there on the program code means. The present invention relates to different aspects including the method and user interface described above and in the following, and corresponding methods and user interface, each yielding one or more of the described advantage, and each having one or more embodiments corresponding to the embodiments described above and/or disclosed in the appended claims.

A61C13082

20180205

20180607

57530.0

A61C1308

KASSA, YOSEF

DETECTING TOOTH SHADE

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

A61C

PENDING

Method And System For Improving Efficiency In A Cellular Communications Network

A method and system are described for improving operating efficiency and QoS in a cellular communications network. According to an exemplary embodiment, the method includes predicting background interference levels due at least partly to signals generated in neighboring cells, and transmitting operating parameters to user equipment that include power, frequency, and/or spectral efficiency parameters. The operating parameters are selected according to the predicted background interference to provide acceptable quality of service while also optimizing use of available bandwidth. The method further includes updating the background interference predictions, and transmitting revised operating parameters to the user equipment according to rules that minimize changes to operating parameters that strongly affect background interference in neighboring cells, such as power levels and frequencies, thereby minimizing background interference fluctuations. Power levels for user equipment entering the cell can be initially minimized, and then slowly ramped to an optimal level. SPS can be implemented.

1. A method of improving background interference level predictions in a cellular communications system including at least a first and second base station (“BS”) each serving respective first and second cells, the method comprising: determining a background interference level received at the first BS caused at least in part by wireless signals generated by a second user equipment (“UE”) served by the second cell; determining a background interference level received at the second BS caused at least in part by wireless signals generated by a first UE served by the first cell; determining revised operating parameters for the first UE that minimize changes to the background interference level received at the second BS; determining revised operating parameters for the second UE that minimize changes to the background interference level received at the first BS; wherein the revised operating parameters for the first UE and the second UE include at least one of transmission power, communication frequency, time slot, spreading code, and spectral efficiency parameters; and transmitting the respective revised operating parameters to at least one of the first UE and the second UE. 2. The method of claim 1, comprising predicting a future background interference level at each of the first and second BS based on the respective determined background interference level and the revised operating parameters. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein determining the background interference level includes measuring a level of background interference or background interference plus noise for a communication channel. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein measuring the level of background interference or background interference plus noise includes making a plurality of measurements of the background interference or background interference plus noise. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein determining the background interference level includes evaluating receiver statistics for the communication channel. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the receiver statistics include at least one of a bit error rate (“BER”), a packet error rate (“PER”), and a block error rate (“BLER”). 7. The method of claim 1, wherein semi-persistent scheduling (“SPS”) is implemented by the first BS. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein when the second base station is initiating communication with a new UE, operating parameters are sent to the new UE that initially minimize a transmission power of the new UE, and then incrementally increase the transmission power of the new UE to an optimal level during a specified time interval. 9. The method of claim 2, further comprising communicating information to at least one neighboring BS, said information including at least a transmission power level assigned to new UE that is initiating communication with the second BS, said information being used by the first BS for determining the background interference prediction. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein said information further includes a schedule for increasing a transmission power of the new UE. 11. The method of claim 9, wherein said information further includes information regarding changes to at least one of a UE transmission power level and a UE transmission frequency. 12. The method of claim 2, wherein the first and second BS respond whenever possible to changing background interference predictions by instructing the respective UE to use different spectral efficiency parameters. 13. A system for improving background interference level predictions in a cellular communications system including at least a first and second BS each serving respective first and second cells, the system comprising: respective controllers for the first and second BS configured to: determine a background interference level received at the first BS caused at least in part by wireless signals generated by a second user equipment (“UE”) served by the second cell; determine a background interference level received at the second BS caused at least in part by wireless signals generated by a first UE served by the first cell; determine revised operating parameters for the first UE that minimize changes to the background interference level received at the second BS; determine revised operating parameters for the second UE that minimize changes to the background interference level received at the first BS; wherein the revised operating parameters for the first UE and the second UE include at least one of transmission power, communication frequency, time slot, spreading code, and spectral efficiency parameters; and respective transmitters for the first and second BS configured to transmit the respective revised operating parameters to the first UE and the second UE. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the controllers for the first and second BS are configured to predict a future background interference level at each of the first and second BS based on the respective determined background interference level and the revised operating parameters. 15. The system of claim 13, wherein the controllers are configured to determine the first the background interference level based on a measurement of a level of background interference or background interference plus noise for a communication channel. 16. The system of claim 13, wherein the controllers are configured to determine the first background interference level based on a plurality of measurements of the background interference or background interference plus noise. 17. The system of claim 13, wherein the controllers are configured to determine the first background interference level based on an evaluation of receiver statistics for the communication channel. 18. The system of claim 17, wherein the receiver statistics include at least one of a BER, a PER, and a BLER. 19. The system of claim 13, wherein SPS is implemented by the controllers. 20. The system of claim 13, wherein the first and second BS initiate communication with a new UE, for sending operating parameters to the new UE that initially minimize a transmission power of the new UE, and then incrementally increase the transmission power of the new UE to an optimal level during a specified time interval. 21. The system of claim 13, wherein the controllers are part of the first and second BS, respectively, and are configured to communicate information that includes at least a transmission power level assigned to new UE that is initiating communication with the respective first and second BS. 22. The system of claim 21, wherein the information further includes a schedule for increasing a transmission power of the new UE. 23. The system of claim 21, wherein the information further includes information regarding changes to at least one of a UE transmission power level and a UE transmission frequency. 24. The system of claim 14, wherein the first and second BS respond whenever possible to changing background interference predictions by instructing the respective UE to use different spectral efficiency parameters. 25. A non-transitory computer readable medium storing a computer program, executable by a machine, for improving background interference level predictions in a cellular communications system including at least a first and second BS each serving respective first and second cells, the computer program comprising executable instructions for: determining a background interference level received at the first BS caused at least in part by wireless signals generated by a second user equipment (“UE”) served by the second cell; determining a background interference level received at the second BS caused at least in part by wireless signals generated by a first UE served by the first cell; determining revised operating parameters for the first UE that minimize changes to the background interference level received at the second BS; determining revised operating parameters for the second UE that minimize changes to the background interference level received at the first BS; wherein the revised operating parameters for the first UE and the second UE include at least one of transmission power, communication frequency, time slot, spreading code, and spectral efficiency parameters; and transmitting the respective revised operating parameters to the first UE and the second UE.

RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. Pat. No. 9,888,479 titled “METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR IMPROVING EFFICIENCY IN A CELLULAR COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK,” filed on Oct. 22, 2013, the entire disclosure of which is here incorporated by reference. FIELD This subject matter disclosed relates to telecommunications, and more particularly, to methods of operating base stations in a cellular communications network. BACKGROUND With reference to FIG. 1, cellular networks typically includes a plurality of adjacent cells 100, each of which is managed by a centralized scheduling device 102, commonly referred to as a base station (“BS”), which communicates with subscribers 104 that are located within the cell 100 and connected to the BS 102. The subscribers 104 are commonly referred to as user equipment (“UE”). Each UE transmits and receives data to external networks through the BS, which tightly controls what, when, and how the UE's are allowed to transmit and receive. When a UE sends data to the BS, commonly referred to as an “uplink,” it first requests scheduling resources from the BS, and then waits for its scheduling grant before it actually transmits. The BS allocates certain blocks in time and/or frequency to the UE, and determines the best operating parameters for the UE to use when transmitting. The operating parameters typically include the transmission power, communication frequency, time slot, and spreading code allocated to the UE, as well as instructions regarding spectral efficiency parameters such as which modulation and coding scheme (“MCS”) to use. In addition, the operating parameters may include other parameters that affect the transmission of the signal. The base station selects and updates the operating parameters for all of the UE's in the cell according to a set of base station operating rules, which are configured to balance and optimize various desirable characteristics of the network. These can include network capacity, fairness, Quality of Service (“QoS”), and such like. In particular, the base station must take into account background noise and interference when assigning operating parameters to the UE's. For example, if a certain frequency band has low background interference, the BS may choose to lower the transmit power of the UE assigned to that channel, and/or may instruct the UE to use an efficient but relatively fault intolerant MCS. On the other hand, if the background noise and interference in a certain frequency band is high, and if the BS needs to use that frequency band so as to accommodate all of the UE's in the cell, then the base station may assign a UE to a channel in that frequency band, and instruct the UE to use a relatively higher transmitting power and/or a slower but more fault tolerant MCS. Often, background interference is a major component of the overall background noise and interference. Background interference arises from transmissions that stray into the cell from UE's in adjacent cells. Referring again to FIG. 1, it is clear that UE's located near cell boundaries can be physically close to each other, even though they are located in different cells. Since the UE signals are transmitted omni-directionally, transmissions from UE's near cell boundaries will stray into neighboring cells. And because UE's in different cells are managed by different base stations, there is a high likelihood that some of these stray signals will interfere with communications in the adjacent cells. Accordingly, a BS typically selects and assigns operating parameters to a UE according to a predicted Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio (SINR) for a selected communication channel. Typically, the BS will make measurements of background interference, or of background interference-plus-noise, and will use these measurements in predicting future interference-plus-noise. These predictions may be based on single measurements, but often a plurality of measurements of background interference-plus-noise are made before each SINR prediction, producing a distribution of interference measurements that can be represented as a histogram, possibly with an approximately Gaussian distribution. The prediction of future interference-plus-noise is then based on an average of the measurements, with a margin added to ensure quality of service, or possibly on the shape and width of the histogram. Once the predicted SINR is determined, appropriate operating parameters are selected and transmitted to the UE's. This process is repeated periodically by making new predictions based on new measurements of the background interference or background interference-plus-noise, updating the operating parameters, and transmitting the updated operating parameters to the UE's. Note that selection of the operating parameters may also be affected by other factors, such as the number of simultaneous users, etc. As noted above, background interference is often significant and much larger than the noise. Unfortunately, background interference in a cell can vary rapidly, as new UE's initiate or cease communications with base stations in neighboring cells, and as the neighboring base stations make changes to the operating parameters of their UE's, often in response to rapid fluctuations in background interference experienced by these neighboring cells. These rapid fluctuations in background interference levels can lead to large variances between the estimated background interference levels, based on measurements made at an earlier time, and the actual background interference levels experienced when the signal arrives at a later time. For example, a typical histogram 300 of background interference measurements in the prior art is shown in FIG. 3. The histogram 300 is the result of performing a large number of repeated measurements of background interference, and plotting a curve 300 that shows the relative number of measurement results corresponding to each value of background interference. A typical MCS selection algorithm will then choose an expected level of background interference based on the average background interference plus some margin, so as to ensure quality of service. This expected background interference level will be used to calculate an expected SINR, which is then used for selecting the MCS. The curve in FIG. 3 is approximately Gaussian, but other shapes may occur in practice. This broad histogram 300 of the prior art can be divided into two regions 302, 304, according to the accuracy of the prediction of background interference. Line 306 represents the background interference prediction that a base station 102 will likely make based on the histogram 300 of previous background interference measurements, which is the average interference level plus some margin. The base station 102 will then calculate an expected SINR from the expected interference level and choose appropriate operating parameters. If the actual background interference is in region 302 when the UE 104 later transmits, ie. is less than the predicted background interference level 306, and hence the SINR is actually higher than expected, the base station 102 could have successfully chosen operating parameters for UE 104 to obtain higher spectral efficiency. If the actual background interference is in the region 304 when the UE 104 later transmits, ie. is greater than the predicted interference level 306, and hence the SINR is actually lower than expected, the UE 104 to likely to have a packet error necessitating a packet retransmission. Therefore any deviation of the actual background interference from the predicted background interference causes the base station 102 to allocate non optimal operating parameters to the UE 104. Accordingly, the quality and efficiency with which a cell is managed depends to a significant extent on the accuracy of the background interference predictions made by its base station. One approach to improving this situation is for the BS to transmit modified operating parameters to a UE shortly after the UE has transmitted one or more times to the BS, where the modified operating parameters are based on a bit error rate, packet error rate, or another error rate experienced during these initial transmissions. However, this approach still suffers from inaccurate predictions of the SINR, due to the very rapid fluctuations of the background interference. Many networks have the ability to operate with Semi-Persistent Scheduling (SPS). SPS occurs when a UE is instructed to use a given set of operating parameters for more than a single transmission. SPS can be advantageous, because most traffic in a cell is not in the form of tiny bursts of data, and so the scheduling overhead to update the operating parameters for each packet could otherwise be needlessly burdensome. SPS can also provide some improvement in the SINR estimates, because the measurements of background interference or background interference-plus-noise can be made over longer periods of time, thereby providing better averaging of the background interference fluctuations. However, even predictions of background interference based on longer averaging periods can be unreliable. Also, it may not be possible to implement SPS in a given network, due to other factors and priorities of the network. For example, many networks include base station operating rules that require that the UE's be “hopped” rapidly between communication frequency bands, so that each of the UE's experiences approximately the same QoS. Of course, if the base stations were able to communicate directly and fully with each other, so that each base station knew in advance what the others were planning to do, then predictions of background interference could be significantly improved. However, such comprehensive inter-BS communication is typically prohibitive. What is needed, therefore, is a method for improving the operating efficiency and quality of service in a cellular communications network by improving the accuracy of the SINR predictions made by the base stations. SUMMARY Accordingly, a method and system are described for improving the operating efficiency and quality of service in a cellular communications network. Embodiments improve the accuracy of background interference-plus-noise predictions made by the base stations (“BS's”) by reducing the average size and rate of fluctuation of the background interference, so that current measurements of background interference-plus-noise are good predictors of future levels of background interference-plus-noise. Note that background interference is typically the dominant contributor to the overall background interference-plus-noise According to an exemplary embodiment, a method is described that includes determining a prediction of a level of background interference for a communication channel, where the background interference is due at least in part to signals generated in a neighboring cell, and transmitting operating parameters to user equipment communicating with the base station, where the operating parameters are selected according to the background interference level prediction so as to provide acceptable quality of service for the user equipment while also optimizing use of available bandwidth. The operating parameters can include transmission power, communication frequency, time slot, spreading code, and/or spectral efficiency parameters. The method further includes updating the background interference level prediction, and selecting revised operating parameters according to the updated background interference level prediction, where the revised operating parameters are selected according to base station operating rules that specify a preference for minimizing changes to UE operating parameters that strongly affect background interference, such as transmission power, frequency band, time slot, spreading code, and such like, thereby minimizing fluctuations of background interference levels and improving predictions of future background interference. The revised operating parameters are then transmitted to the user equipment According to another exemplary embodiment, a system is described for improving the operating efficiency and quality of service in a cellular communications network. The system includes a transmitter and a controller. The transmitter is configured for transmitting operating parameters to user equipment operating within a cell managed by a base station. The controller is configured to predict a level of background interference for a communication channel, where the background interference is due at least in part to signals generated in a neighboring cell, and to provide the transmitter with operating parameters to transmit to user equipment communicating with the base station. The operating parameters can include transmission power, communication frequency, time slot, spreading code, and/or spectral efficiency parameters, and are selected according to the background interference level prediction so as to provide acceptable quality of service for the user equipment while also optimizing use of available bandwidth. The controller is further configured to update the background interference level prediction, and select revised operating parameters according to the updated background interference level prediction, where the revised operating parameters are selected according to base station operating rules that specify a preference for minimizing changes to UE operating parameters that strongly affect background interference, such as transmission power, frequency band, time slot, spreading code, and such like used by the user equipment, thereby improving predictions of future background interference, and minimizing fluctuations of background interference levels. The revised operating parameters are then provided to the transmitter for transmission to the user equipment. According to yet another exemplary embodiment, a non-transitory computer-readable medium is described for improving the operating efficiency and quality of service in a cellular communications network, where the computer-readable medium is storing a computer program that is executable by a machine for operating a base station of a communications cell. The computer program includes executable instructions for determining a prediction of a level of background interference for a communication channel, where the background interference is due at least in part to signals generated in a neighboring cell. The computer program further includes instructions for transmitting operating parameters to user equipment, the operating parameters including at least one of transmission power, communication frequency, time slot, spreading code, and spectral efficiency parameters, the operating parameters being selected based on the background interference level prediction so as to provide acceptable quality of service for the user equipment while also optimizing use of available bandwidth. Additionally, the computer program includes executable instructions for updating the background interference level prediction, and selecting revised operating parameters according to the updated background interference level prediction, where the revised operating parameters are selected according to base station operating rules that specify a preference for minimizing changes to UE operating parameters that strongly affect background interference, such as transmission power, frequency band, time slot, spreading code, and such like, to thereby minimize fluctuations of background interference levels. The revised operating parameters are then transmitted to the user equipment. The features and advantages described herein are not all-inclusive and, in particular, many additional features and advantages will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art in view of the drawings, specification, and claims. Moreover, it should be noted that the language used in the specification has been principally selected for readability and instructional purposes, and not to limit the scope of the inventive subject matter. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings provide visual representations which will be used to more fully describe the representative embodiments disclosed here and can be used by those skilled in the art to better understand them and their inherent advantages. In these drawings, like reference numerals identify corresponding elements, and: FIG. 1 is a simplified diagram showing a plurality of adjacent communication cells according to exemplary embodiments; FIG. 2 is a flow diagram illustrating actions taken by the base station according to an exemplary method embodiment; FIG. 3 is a histogram illustrating a distribution of background interference measurements typical of the prior art; FIG. 4 is a histogram showing a much narrower distribution of background interference values due to implementation of an exemplary embodiment; FIG. 5 is a graph illustrating entry of a new UE into a cell at a low transmission power, and then steady increase of the transmission power to an optimal level; FIG. 6 is a simplified diagram similar to FIG. 1, but including limited direct channels of communication between adjacent base stations; and FIG. 7 is a simplified block diagram of an exemplary system embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION A method and system are described for improving the operating efficiency and quality of service in a cellular communications network. Embodiments improve the accuracy of Signal to Interference and Noise (“SINR”) predictions made by the base stations (“BS's”) by reducing the fluctuation of the background interference, so that current measurements of background interference are good predictors of future levels of background interference. With reference to FIG. 2, method embodiments include predicting future background interference levels 200 and transmitting operating parameters to user equipment in the cell 202. The predictions of background interference are then updated 204, and revised operating parameters are selected according to base station operating rules that specify a preference for making changes primarily or exclusively to those UE operating parameters that have little or no effect on background interference in neighboring cells, for example by minimizing changes to the power levels, frequencies, time slots, and spreading codes used by the user equipment, thereby minimizing fluctuations of background interference levels 206. The revised operating parameters are then transmitted to the user equipment 208. Some operating parameters have a greater effect than others on the background interference experienced in neighboring cells. For example, increasing or decreasing the transmission power of a UE operating at a given frequency will typically have a strong effect on the level of background interference experienced by a nearby UE that is using the same frequency in an adjacent cell. Similarly, changing a UE's transmission frequency may cause it to suddenly interfere with a UE in a neighboring cell with which it did not previously interfere. Changing the time slot and/or spreading code may also strongly affect the background interference in neighboring cells. On the other hand, some operating parameters have little or no effect on background interference in neighboring cells. For example, changing the MCS for a given UE, while holding all other parameters constant will typically have little or no effect on background interference in neighboring cells. Accordingly, if a group of neighboring base stations all revise their operating parameters according to base station operating rules that specify a preference for changing only those parameters that have minimal effect on background interference, then the background interference experienced by the base stations will be more constant, and hence the predictions of future background interference and SINR will be more accurate, allowing selection of more efficient operating parameters. Note that the executable instructions of a computer program as illustrated in FIG. 2 for improving the operating efficiency and quality of service in a cellular communications network can be embodied in any computer readable medium for use by or in connection with an instruction execution system, apparatus, or device, such as a computer based system, processor containing system, or other system that can fetch the instructions from the instruction execution system, apparatus, or device and execute the instructions. In embodiments, predicting the background interference level 200, and updating the prediction 204, can include determining a background interference level for the communication channel and predicting that the background interference level will not change substantially during a subsequent time interval. The background interference level can be determined directly, by measuring the background interference level, and/or indirectly, by evaluating receiver statistics such as bit error rate (“BER”), packet error rate (“PER”), and/or block error rate (“BLER”). A plurality of measurements of the background interference level can be made, and can be formed into a histogram. Semi-persistent scheduling (“SPS”) can be implemented by the base station 102. FIG. 4 is a background interference histogram 400 from a system to which the steps illustrated in FIG. 2 have been applied. Due to the resulting reduction of fluctuations in background interference, the histogram 400 is narrow, thereby allowing a much more accurate and less conservative prediction of the future background interference. With reference to FIG. 5, in some embodiments the base station operating rules further include a preference for introducing new UE's 104 to the cell 100 at a relatively low initial transmit power level 500 and a highly fault-tolerant MCS, and then steadily increasing the transmit power 502 during a plurality of scheduling grant time intervals until it reaches an optimal level 504 with optimal MCS. This approach causes the resulting background interference in neighboring cells 100 to change incrementally over several scheduling grant periods, rather than causing a sudden jump in background interference from one scheduling period to the next. With reference to FIG. 6, if limited direct communication 600 is available between base stations 102, the method can include each base station transmitting to its neighbors 102 information regarding new UE's 104 joining the cell 100, so that the information can be used by the neighboring base stations 102 to improve predictions of future background interference. In some of these embodiments, the information transmitted between base stations 600 further includes information regarding a schedule by which the transmission power of the new UE will be increased, for example according to the approach illustrated in FIG. 5 and discussed above. The information can further include information regarding changes to transmission powers, frequencies, time slots, and/or spreading codes for established UE's in the cell. The base station operating rules can specify a preference for responding whenever possible to changing interference level predictions by instructing user equipment to use different spectral efficiency parameters, because changes to spectral efficiency parameters typically have little or no effect on background interference in neighboring cells. With reference to FIG. 7, system embodiments include a transmitter 700 and a controller 702. The controller is configured to determine a prediction of a level of background interference for a communication channel, where the background interference is due at least in part to signals generated in a neighboring cell. The controller is further configured to provide the transmitter with operating parameters to transmit to user equipment communicating with the base station, the operating parameters including transmission power, communication frequency, time slot, spreading code, and/or spectral efficiency parameters. The operating parameters are selected according to the background interference level prediction so as to provide acceptable quality of service for the user equipment, while also optimizing use of available bandwidth. In addition, the controller is configured to update the background interference level prediction, and to select revised operating parameters according to the updated background interference level prediction, where the revised operating parameters are selected according to base station operating rules that specify a preference for minimizing changes to the power levels, frequencies, time slots, and spreading codes used by the user equipment to thereby minimize fluctuations of background interference levels. The revised operating parameters are then provided to the transmitter for transmission to the user equipment. The controller 702 is an instruction execution machine, apparatus, or device and may comprise one or more of a microprocessor, a digital signal processor, a graphics processing unit, an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a field programmable gate array (FPGA), and the like. The controller 102 may be configured to execute program instructions stored in a memory and/or data storage (both not shown). The memory may include read only memory (ROM) and random access memory (RAM). The data storage may include a flash memory data storage device for reading from and writing to flash memory, a hard disk drive for reading from and writing to a hard disk, a magnetic disk drive for reading from or writing to a removable magnetic disk, and/or an optical disk drive for reading from or writing to a removable optical disk such as a CD ROM, DVD or other optical media. The drives and their associated computer-readable media provide nonvolatile storage of computer readable instructions, data structures, program modules and other data. It is noted that the methods described herein can be embodied in executable instructions stored in a computer readable medium for use by or in connection with an instruction execution machine, apparatus, or device, such as a computer-based or processor-containing machine, apparatus, or device. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that for some embodiments, other types of computer readable media may be used which can store data that is accessible by a computer, such as magnetic cassettes, flash memory cards, digital video disks, Bernoulli cartridges, RAM, ROM, and the like may also be used in the exemplary operating environment. As used here, a “computer-readable medium” can include one or more of any suitable media for storing the executable instructions of a computer program in one or more of an electronic, magnetic, optical, and electromagnetic format, such that the instruction execution machine, system, apparatus, or device can read (or fetch) the instructions from the computer readable medium and execute the instructions for carrying out the described methods. A non-exhaustive list of conventional exemplary computer readable medium includes: a portable computer diskette; a RAM; a ROM; an erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM or flash memory); optical storage devices, including a portable compact disc (CD), a portable digital video disc (DVD), a high definition DVD (HD-DVD™), a BLU-RAY disc; and the like. The controller 702 and transmitter 700 are preferably incorporated into a BS that operates in a networked environment using logical connections to one or more remote nodes (not shown). The remote node may be another BS, a UE, a computer, a server, a router, a peer device or other common network node. The base station may interface with a wireless network and/or a wired network. For example, wireless communications networks can include, but are not limited to, Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA), and Single-Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA). A CDMA network may implement a radio technology such as Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA), Telecommunications Industry Association's (TIA's) CDMA2000®, and the like. The UTRA technology includes Wideband CDMA (WCDMA), and other variants of CDMA. The CDMA2000® technology includes the IS-2000, IS-95, and IS-856 standards from The Electronics Industry Alliance (EIA), and TIA. A TDMA network may implement a radio technology such as Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM). An OFDMA network may implement a radio technology such as Evolved UTRA (E-UTRA), Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB), IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX), IEEE 802.20, Flash-OFDMA, and the like. The UTRA and E-UTRA technologies are part of Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS). 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) and LTE-Advance (LTE-A) are newer releases of the UMTS that use E-UTRA. UTRA, E-UTRA, UMTS, LTE, LTE-A, and GAM are described in documents from an organization called the “3rd Generation Partnership Project” (3GPP). CDMA2000® and UMB are described in documents from an organization called the “3rd Generation Partnership Project 2” (3GPP2). The techniques described herein may be used for the wireless networks and radio access technologies mentioned above, as well as other wireless networks and radio access technologies. Other examples of wireless networks include, for example, a BLUETOOTH network, a wireless personal area network, and a wireless 802.11 local area network (LAN). Examples of wired networks include, for example, a LAN, a fiber optic network, a wired personal area network, a telephony network, and/or a wide area network (WAN). Such networking environments are commonplace in intranets, the Internet, offices, enterprise-wide computer networks and the like. In some embodiments, communication interface 112 may include logic configured to support direct memory access (DMA) transfers between memory 104 and other devices. It should be understood that the arrangement of illustrated in FIG. 7 is but one possible implementation and that other arrangements are possible. It should also be understood that the various system components (and means) defined by the claims, described below, and illustrated in the various block diagrams represent logical components that are configured to perform the functionality described herein. For example, one or more of these system components (and means) can be realized, in whole or in part, by at least some of the components illustrated in the arrangement of hardware device 100. In addition, while at least one of these components are implemented at least partially as an electronic hardware component, and therefore constitutes a machine, the other components may be implemented in software, hardware, or a combination of software and hardware. More particularly, at least one component defined by the claims is implemented at least partially as an electronic hardware component, such as an instruction execution machine (e.g., a processor-based or processor-containing machine) and/or as specialized circuits or circuitry (e.g., discrete logic gates interconnected to perform a specialized function), such as those illustrated in FIG. 7. Other components may be implemented in software, hardware, or a combination of software and hardware. Moreover, some or all of these other components may be combined, some may be omitted altogether, and additional components can be added while still achieving the functionality described herein. Thus, the subject matter described herein can be embodied in many different variations, and all such variations are contemplated to be within the scope of what is claimed. In the description above, the subject matter is described with reference to acts and symbolic representations of operations that are performed by one or more devices, unless indicated otherwise. As such, it will be understood that such acts and operations, which are at times referred to as being computer-executed, include the manipulation by the processing unit of data in a structured form. This manipulation transforms the data or maintains it at locations in the memory system of the computer, which reconfigures or otherwise alters the operation of the device in a manner well understood by those skilled in the art. The data structures where data is maintained are physical locations of the memory that have particular properties defined by the format of the data. However, while the subject matter is being described in the foregoing context, it is not meant to be limiting as those of skill in the art will appreciate that various of the acts and operation described hereinafter may also be implemented in hardware. To facilitate an understanding of the subject matter described, many aspects are described in terms of sequences of actions. At least one of these aspects defined by the claims is performed by an electronic hardware component. For example, it will be recognized that the various actions can be performed by specialized circuits or circuitry, by program instructions being executed by one or more processors, or by a combination of both. The description herein of any sequence of actions is not intended to imply that the specific order described for performing that sequence must be followed. All methods described herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. The use of the terms “a” and “an” and “the” and similar referents in the context of describing the subject matter (particularly in the context of the following claims) are to be construed to cover both the singular and the plural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context. Recitation of ranges of values herein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate value falling within the range, unless otherwise indicated herein, and each separate value is incorporated into the specification as if it were individually recited herein. Furthermore, the foregoing description is for the purpose of illustration only, and not for the purpose of limitation, as the scope of protection sought is defined by the claims as set forth hereinafter together with any equivalents thereof entitled to. The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”) provided herein, is intended merely to better illustrate the subject matter and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the subject matter unless otherwise claimed. The use of the term “based on” and other like phrases indicating a condition for bringing about a result, both in the claims and in the written description, is not intended to foreclose any other conditions that bring about that result. No language in the specification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed element as essential to the practice of the invention as claimed. Preferred embodiments are described herein, including the best mode known to the inventor for carrying out the claimed subject matter. One of ordinary skill in the art should appreciate after learning the teachings related to the claimed subject matter contained in the foregoing description that variations of those preferred embodiments may become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon reading the foregoing description. The inventor intends that the claimed subject matter may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein. Accordingly, this claimed subject matter includes all modifications and equivalents of the subject matter recited in the claims appended hereto as permitted by applicable law. Moreover, any combination of the above-described elements in all possible variations thereof is encompassed unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>With reference to FIG. 1 , cellular networks typically includes a plurality of adjacent cells 100 , each of which is managed by a centralized scheduling device 102 , commonly referred to as a base station (“BS”), which communicates with subscribers 104 that are located within the cell 100 and connected to the BS 102 . The subscribers 104 are commonly referred to as user equipment (“UE”). Each UE transmits and receives data to external networks through the BS, which tightly controls what, when, and how the UE's are allowed to transmit and receive. When a UE sends data to the BS, commonly referred to as an “uplink,” it first requests scheduling resources from the BS, and then waits for its scheduling grant before it actually transmits. The BS allocates certain blocks in time and/or frequency to the UE, and determines the best operating parameters for the UE to use when transmitting. The operating parameters typically include the transmission power, communication frequency, time slot, and spreading code allocated to the UE, as well as instructions regarding spectral efficiency parameters such as which modulation and coding scheme (“MCS”) to use. In addition, the operating parameters may include other parameters that affect the transmission of the signal. The base station selects and updates the operating parameters for all of the UE's in the cell according to a set of base station operating rules, which are configured to balance and optimize various desirable characteristics of the network. These can include network capacity, fairness, Quality of Service (“QoS”), and such like. In particular, the base station must take into account background noise and interference when assigning operating parameters to the UE's. For example, if a certain frequency band has low background interference, the BS may choose to lower the transmit power of the UE assigned to that channel, and/or may instruct the UE to use an efficient but relatively fault intolerant MCS. On the other hand, if the background noise and interference in a certain frequency band is high, and if the BS needs to use that frequency band so as to accommodate all of the UE's in the cell, then the base station may assign a UE to a channel in that frequency band, and instruct the UE to use a relatively higher transmitting power and/or a slower but more fault tolerant MCS. Often, background interference is a major component of the overall background noise and interference. Background interference arises from transmissions that stray into the cell from UE's in adjacent cells. Referring again to FIG. 1 , it is clear that UE's located near cell boundaries can be physically close to each other, even though they are located in different cells. Since the UE signals are transmitted omni-directionally, transmissions from UE's near cell boundaries will stray into neighboring cells. And because UE's in different cells are managed by different base stations, there is a high likelihood that some of these stray signals will interfere with communications in the adjacent cells. Accordingly, a BS typically selects and assigns operating parameters to a UE according to a predicted Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio (SINR) for a selected communication channel. Typically, the BS will make measurements of background interference, or of background interference-plus-noise, and will use these measurements in predicting future interference-plus-noise. These predictions may be based on single measurements, but often a plurality of measurements of background interference-plus-noise are made before each SINR prediction, producing a distribution of interference measurements that can be represented as a histogram, possibly with an approximately Gaussian distribution. The prediction of future interference-plus-noise is then based on an average of the measurements, with a margin added to ensure quality of service, or possibly on the shape and width of the histogram. Once the predicted SINR is determined, appropriate operating parameters are selected and transmitted to the UE's. This process is repeated periodically by making new predictions based on new measurements of the background interference or background interference-plus-noise, updating the operating parameters, and transmitting the updated operating parameters to the UE's. Note that selection of the operating parameters may also be affected by other factors, such as the number of simultaneous users, etc. As noted above, background interference is often significant and much larger than the noise. Unfortunately, background interference in a cell can vary rapidly, as new UE's initiate or cease communications with base stations in neighboring cells, and as the neighboring base stations make changes to the operating parameters of their UE's, often in response to rapid fluctuations in background interference experienced by these neighboring cells. These rapid fluctuations in background interference levels can lead to large variances between the estimated background interference levels, based on measurements made at an earlier time, and the actual background interference levels experienced when the signal arrives at a later time. For example, a typical histogram 300 of background interference measurements in the prior art is shown in FIG. 3 . The histogram 300 is the result of performing a large number of repeated measurements of background interference, and plotting a curve 300 that shows the relative number of measurement results corresponding to each value of background interference. A typical MCS selection algorithm will then choose an expected level of background interference based on the average background interference plus some margin, so as to ensure quality of service. This expected background interference level will be used to calculate an expected SINR, which is then used for selecting the MCS. The curve in FIG. 3 is approximately Gaussian, but other shapes may occur in practice. This broad histogram 300 of the prior art can be divided into two regions 302 , 304 , according to the accuracy of the prediction of background interference. Line 306 represents the background interference prediction that a base station 102 will likely make based on the histogram 300 of previous background interference measurements, which is the average interference level plus some margin. The base station 102 will then calculate an expected SINR from the expected interference level and choose appropriate operating parameters. If the actual background interference is in region 302 when the UE 104 later transmits, ie. is less than the predicted background interference level 306 , and hence the SINR is actually higher than expected, the base station 102 could have successfully chosen operating parameters for UE 104 to obtain higher spectral efficiency. If the actual background interference is in the region 304 when the UE 104 later transmits, ie. is greater than the predicted interference level 306 , and hence the SINR is actually lower than expected, the UE 104 to likely to have a packet error necessitating a packet retransmission. Therefore any deviation of the actual background interference from the predicted background interference causes the base station 102 to allocate non optimal operating parameters to the UE 104 . Accordingly, the quality and efficiency with which a cell is managed depends to a significant extent on the accuracy of the background interference predictions made by its base station. One approach to improving this situation is for the BS to transmit modified operating parameters to a UE shortly after the UE has transmitted one or more times to the BS, where the modified operating parameters are based on a bit error rate, packet error rate, or another error rate experienced during these initial transmissions. However, this approach still suffers from inaccurate predictions of the SINR, due to the very rapid fluctuations of the background interference. Many networks have the ability to operate with Semi-Persistent Scheduling (SPS). SPS occurs when a UE is instructed to use a given set of operating parameters for more than a single transmission. SPS can be advantageous, because most traffic in a cell is not in the form of tiny bursts of data, and so the scheduling overhead to update the operating parameters for each packet could otherwise be needlessly burdensome. SPS can also provide some improvement in the SINR estimates, because the measurements of background interference or background interference-plus-noise can be made over longer periods of time, thereby providing better averaging of the background interference fluctuations. However, even predictions of background interference based on longer averaging periods can be unreliable. Also, it may not be possible to implement SPS in a given network, due to other factors and priorities of the network. For example, many networks include base station operating rules that require that the UE's be “hopped” rapidly between communication frequency bands, so that each of the UE's experiences approximately the same QoS. Of course, if the base stations were able to communicate directly and fully with each other, so that each base station knew in advance what the others were planning to do, then predictions of background interference could be significantly improved. However, such comprehensive inter-BS communication is typically prohibitive. What is needed, therefore, is a method for improving the operating efficiency and quality of service in a cellular communications network by improving the accuracy of the SINR predictions made by the base stations.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Accordingly, a method and system are described for improving the operating efficiency and quality of service in a cellular communications network. Embodiments improve the accuracy of background interference-plus-noise predictions made by the base stations (“BS's”) by reducing the average size and rate of fluctuation of the background interference, so that current measurements of background interference-plus-noise are good predictors of future levels of background interference-plus-noise. Note that background interference is typically the dominant contributor to the overall background interference-plus-noise According to an exemplary embodiment, a method is described that includes determining a prediction of a level of background interference for a communication channel, where the background interference is due at least in part to signals generated in a neighboring cell, and transmitting operating parameters to user equipment communicating with the base station, where the operating parameters are selected according to the background interference level prediction so as to provide acceptable quality of service for the user equipment while also optimizing use of available bandwidth. The operating parameters can include transmission power, communication frequency, time slot, spreading code, and/or spectral efficiency parameters. The method further includes updating the background interference level prediction, and selecting revised operating parameters according to the updated background interference level prediction, where the revised operating parameters are selected according to base station operating rules that specify a preference for minimizing changes to UE operating parameters that strongly affect background interference, such as transmission power, frequency band, time slot, spreading code, and such like, thereby minimizing fluctuations of background interference levels and improving predictions of future background interference. The revised operating parameters are then transmitted to the user equipment According to another exemplary embodiment, a system is described for improving the operating efficiency and quality of service in a cellular communications network. The system includes a transmitter and a controller. The transmitter is configured for transmitting operating parameters to user equipment operating within a cell managed by a base station. The controller is configured to predict a level of background interference for a communication channel, where the background interference is due at least in part to signals generated in a neighboring cell, and to provide the transmitter with operating parameters to transmit to user equipment communicating with the base station. The operating parameters can include transmission power, communication frequency, time slot, spreading code, and/or spectral efficiency parameters, and are selected according to the background interference level prediction so as to provide acceptable quality of service for the user equipment while also optimizing use of available bandwidth. The controller is further configured to update the background interference level prediction, and select revised operating parameters according to the updated background interference level prediction, where the revised operating parameters are selected according to base station operating rules that specify a preference for minimizing changes to UE operating parameters that strongly affect background interference, such as transmission power, frequency band, time slot, spreading code, and such like used by the user equipment, thereby improving predictions of future background interference, and minimizing fluctuations of background interference levels. The revised operating parameters are then provided to the transmitter for transmission to the user equipment. According to yet another exemplary embodiment, a non-transitory computer-readable medium is described for improving the operating efficiency and quality of service in a cellular communications network, where the computer-readable medium is storing a computer program that is executable by a machine for operating a base station of a communications cell. The computer program includes executable instructions for determining a prediction of a level of background interference for a communication channel, where the background interference is due at least in part to signals generated in a neighboring cell. The computer program further includes instructions for transmitting operating parameters to user equipment, the operating parameters including at least one of transmission power, communication frequency, time slot, spreading code, and spectral efficiency parameters, the operating parameters being selected based on the background interference level prediction so as to provide acceptable quality of service for the user equipment while also optimizing use of available bandwidth. Additionally, the computer program includes executable instructions for updating the background interference level prediction, and selecting revised operating parameters according to the updated background interference level prediction, where the revised operating parameters are selected according to base station operating rules that specify a preference for minimizing changes to UE operating parameters that strongly affect background interference, such as transmission power, frequency band, time slot, spreading code, and such like, to thereby minimize fluctuations of background interference levels. The revised operating parameters are then transmitted to the user equipment. The features and advantages described herein are not all-inclusive and, in particular, many additional features and advantages will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art in view of the drawings, specification, and claims. Moreover, it should be noted that the language used in the specification has been principally selected for readability and instructional purposes, and not to limit the scope of the inventive subject matter.

H04W72082

20180205

20180607

84122.0

H04W7208

KHAN, MEHMOOD B

Method And System For Improving Efficiency In A Cellular Communications Network

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04W

PENDING

TECHNIQUES FOR TRANSMITTING OR USING A PULL-IN SIGNAL TO LOCATE A SYNCHRONIZATION CHANNEL

Techniques are described for wireless communication. One method includes searching for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmission. The frequency raster includes a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The method also includes identifying a pull-in signal on the first raster point; determining, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted; and receiving the synchronization channel on the second raster point. Another method includes transmitting the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel.

1. A method for wireless communications at a user equipment (UE), comprising: searching for a synchronization channel on a first synchronization raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions, the frequency raster comprising a plurality of synchronization raster points in a radio frequency spectrum; identifying a pull-in signal on the first synchronization raster point; determining, from the pull-in signal, a next synchronization raster point of the frequency raster to be searched by the UE for the synchronization channel; and receiving the synchronization channel on the next synchronization raster point. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the pull-in signal indicates the next synchronization raster point relative to the first synchronization raster point. 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising: determining, from the pull-in signal, a timing of the synchronization channel. 4. The method of claim 3, further comprising: transitioning to a power saving state after determining the timing of the synchronization channel; and transitioning from the power saving state to an awake state based at least in part on the timing of the synchronization channel. 5. The method of claim 3, wherein the pull-in signal indicates the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the pull-in signal comprises a pull-in primary synchronization channel (PI-PSS) and a pull-in secondary synchronization channel (PI-SSS), and the pull-in signal is identified based at least in part on the PI-PSS. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the PI-PSS has a same duration as a primary synchronization channel (PSS) of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS comprise different sequences. 8. The method of claim 6, wherein the PI-PSS has a same duration and sequence as a primary synchronization signal (PSS) of the synchronization channel; and wherein the PI-SSS has a same duration and sequence as a secondary synchronization signal (SSS) of the synchronization channel. 9. The method of claim 6, wherein the pull-in signal further comprises a pull-in information channel (PITCH) that indicates the next synchronization raster point and has a same structure and coding as a physical broadcast channel (PBCH). 10. The method of claim 1, further comprising: receiving a data burst over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum; wherein the pull-in signal is identified, and the synchronization channel is received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal is identified within the data burst. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the pull-in signal is identified, and the data burst is received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the pull-in signal is identified, and the synchronization channel is received, over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal is identified in at least one of: an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH), a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. 13. A user equipment (UE) for wireless communications, comprising: a processor; memory in electronic communication with the processor; and instructions stored in the memory, wherein the instructions are executable by the processor to: search for a synchronization channel on a first synchronization raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions, the frequency raster comprising a plurality of synchronization raster points in a radio frequency spectrum; identify a pull-in signal on the first synchronization raster point; determine, from the pull-in signal, a next synchronization raster point of the frequency raster to be searched by the UE for the synchronization channel; and receive the synchronization channel on the next synchronization raster point. 14. The UE of claim 13, wherein the pull-in signal comprises a pull-in primary synchronization channel (PI-PSS) and a pull-in secondary synchronization channel (PI-SSS), and the pull-in signal is identified based at least in part on the PI-PSS. 15. The UE of claim 14, wherein the PI-PSS has a same duration and sequence as a primary synchronization signal (PSS) of the synchronization channel; and wherein the PI-SSS has a same duration and sequence as a secondary synchronization signal (SSS) of the synchronization channel. 16. The UE of claim 14, wherein the pull-in signal further comprises a pull-in information channel (PITCH) that indicates the next synchronization raster point and has a same structure and coding as a physical broadcast channel (PBCH). 17. A method for wireless communications at a base station, comprising: transmitting a pull-in signal on a first synchronization raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions, the frequency raster comprising a plurality of synchronization raster points in a radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal signaling a next synchronization raster point of the frequency raster to be searched by a user equipment (UE) for the synchronization channel; and transmitting the synchronization channel on the next synchronization raster point. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the pull-in signal indicates the next synchronization raster point relative to the first synchronization raster point. 19. The method of claim 17, wherein the pull-in signal further indicates a timing of the synchronization channel. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the pull-in signal indicates the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. 21. The method of claim 17, wherein the pull-in signal comprises a pull-in primary synchronization channel (PI-PSS) and a pull-in secondary synchronization channel (PI-SSS). 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the PI-PSS has a same duration as a primary synchronization channel (PSS) of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS comprise different sequences. 23. The method of claim 21, wherein the PI-PSS has a same duration and sequence as a primary synchronization signal (PSS) of the synchronization channel; and wherein the PI-SSS has a same duration and sequence as a secondary synchronization signal (SSS) of the synchronization channel. 24. The method of claim 21, wherein the pull-in signal further comprises a pull-in information channel (PITCH) that indicates the next synchronization raster point and has a same structure and coding as a physical broadcast channel (PBCH). 25. The method of claim 17, wherein the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel are transmitted over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal is transmitted within a data burst for which the base station has gained access to the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the pull-in signal and the data burst are transmitted over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. 27. The method of claim 17, wherein the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel are transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal is transmitted in at least one of: an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH), a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. 28. The method of claim 17, further comprising: transmitting a plurality of instances of the synchronization channel; wherein the pull-in signal and the plurality of instances of the synchronization channel are transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, the pull-in signal is frequency domain multiplexed with an instance of the synchronization channel, and the pull-in signal and the instance of the synchronization channel are transmitted using a same transmission beam. 29. The method of claim 16, further comprising: transmitting at least a second pull-in signal on a raster point of the frequency raster other than the next synchronization raster point, wherein the pull-in signal and the second pull-in signal are staggered in at least one of: frequency, time, or a combination thereof. 30. A base station for wireless communications, comprising: a processor; memory in electronic communication with the processor; and instructions stored in the memory, wherein the instructions are executable by the processor to: transmit a pull-in signal on a first synchronization raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions, the frequency raster comprising a plurality of synchronization raster points in a radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal signaling a next synchronization raster point of the frequency raster to be searched by a user equipment (UE) for the synchronization channel; and transmit the synchronization channel on the next synchronization raster point.

CROSS REFERENCES The present Application for Patent is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/828,009 by Sun et al., entitled “Techniques for Transmitting or Using a Pull-In Signal to Locate a Synchronization Channel,” filed Nov. 30, 2017, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/429,582 by SUN et al., entitled “Techniques For Transmitting or Using A Pull-In Signal to Locate A Synchronization Channel,” filed Dec. 2, 2016, assigned to the assignee hereof. BACKGROUND Field of the Disclosure The present disclosure, for example, relates to wireless communication systems, and more particularly to techniques for transmitting or using a pull-in signal to locate a synchronization channel. Description of Related Art Wireless communication systems are widely deployed to provide various types of communication content such as voice, video, packet data, messaging, broadcast, and so on. These systems may be multiple-access systems capable of supporting communication with multiple users by sharing the available system resources (e.g., time, frequency, and power). Examples of such multiple-access systems include code-division multiple access (CDMA) systems, time-division multiple access (TDMA) systems, frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) systems, and orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) systems. A wireless multiple-access communication system may include a number of network access devices, each simultaneously supporting communication for multiple communication devices, otherwise known as user equipment (UEs). In a Long-Term Evolution (LTE) or LTE-Advanced (LTE-A) network, a network access device may take the form of a base station, with a set of one or more base stations defining an eNodeB (eNB). In a next generation, 5G, or new radio (NR) network, a network access device may take the form of a smart radio head (RH) or access node controller (ANC), with a set of smart radio heads in communication with an ANC defining a gNodeB (gNB). A network access device may communicate with a set of UEs on downlink channels (e.g., for transmissions from a network access device to a UE) and uplink channels (e.g., for transmissions from a UE to a network access device). At times, a UE may need to perform an initial access (or initial acquisition) procedure to gain access to a wireless network. As part of the initial access procedure, the UE may search for a synchronization channel transmitted by a network access device of the wireless network. The synchronization channel may be transmitted at an unknown time on an unknown frequency, and thus, the UE may blindly search for the synchronization channel at various time and frequency locations. In some cases, the frequency locations may be limited to a discrete set of raster points (frequencies) of a known frequency raster. SUMMARY Blindly searching for a synchronization channel takes time, is inefficient, and can increase a UE's initial acquisition time (or average initial acquisition time). To decrease a UE's synchronization channel search time, and thereby decrease the UE's initial acquisition time (or average initial acquisition time), a network access device may transmit pull-in signals on one or more raster points of a frequency raster. A pull-in signal may contain information that assists a UE in locating a network access device's synchronization channel transmissions and may indicate, for example, a raster point or timing of a next instance of a synchronization channel transmitted by the network access device. A UE that searches for a synchronization channel on a raster point that does not contain a synchronization channel transmission may identify a pull-in signal on the raster point. The UE may then determine, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point on which a synchronization channel is transmitted, and may search for the synchronization channel on the raster point on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. When the pull-in signal also contains timing information for the synchronization channel, the UE may transition to a power saving state after determining the timing of the synchronization channel, and may transition from the power saving state to an awake state based at least in part on the timing of the synchronization channel. In one example, a method for wireless communication at a wireless device is described. The method may include searching for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The method may also include identifying a pull-in signal on the first raster point; determining, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted; and receiving the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the method, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the method may include determining, from the pull-in signal, a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the method may include transitioning to a power saving state after determining the timing of the synchronization channel, and transitioning from the power saving state to an awake state based at least in part on the timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a pull-in primary synchronization channel (PI-PSS) and a pull-in secondary synchronization channel (PI-SSS), and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on the PI-PSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a primary synchronization channel (PSS) of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a pull-in information channel (PITCH) that indicates the second raster point. In some examples of the method, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on matching the PI-PSS and the PI-SSS to a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify the pull-in signal. In some examples, the method may include receiving a data burst over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the synchronization channel may be received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be identified within the data burst. In some examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the data burst may be received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the synchronization channel may be received, over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be identified in at least one of an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH), a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In one example, an apparatus for wireless communication at a wireless device is described. The apparatus may include means for searching for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The apparatus may also include means for identifying a pull-in signal on the first raster point; means for determining, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted; and means for receiving the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the apparatus may include means for determining, from the pull-in signal, a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the apparatus may include means for transitioning to a power saving state after determining the timing of the synchronization channel, and means for transitioning from the power saving state to an awake state based at least in part on the timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on the PI-PSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on matching the PI-PSS and the PI-SSS to a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify the pull-in signal. In some examples, the apparatus may include means for receiving a data burst over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the synchronization channel may be received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal is identified within the data burst. In some examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the data burst may be received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the synchronization channel may be received, over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be identified in at least one of an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In one example, another apparatus for wireless communication at a wireless device is described. The apparatus may include a processor, memory in electronic communication with the processor, and instructions stored in the memory. The instructions may be executable by the processor to search for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The instructions may also be executable by the processor to identify a pull-in signal on the first raster point; to determine, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted; and to receive the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the instructions may be executable by the processor to determine, from the pull-in signal, a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the instructions may be executable by the processor to transition to a power saving state after determining the timing of the synchronization channel, and to transition from the power saving state to an awake state based at least in part on the timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on the PI-PSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on matching the PI-PSS and the PI-SSS to a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify the pull-in signal. In some examples, the instructions may be executable by the processor to receive a data burst over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the synchronization channel may be received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be identified within the data burst. In some examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the data burst may be received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the synchronization channel may be received, over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be identified in at least one of an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In one example, a computer program product including a non-transitory computer-readable medium is described. The non-transitory computer-readable medium may include instructions to search for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The non-transitory computer-readable medium may also include instructions to identify a pull-in signal on the first raster point; instructions to determine, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted; and instructions to receive the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the computer program product, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the non-transitory computer-readable medium may include instructions to determine, from the pull-in signal, a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the non-transitory computer-readable medium may include instructions to transition to a power saving state after determining the timing of the synchronization channel, and instructions to transition from the power saving state to an awake state based at least in part on the timing of the synchronization channel. In one example, another method for wireless communication at a wireless device is described. The method may include transmitting a pull-in signal on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may indicate a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. The method may also include transmitting the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the method, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS that match a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be transmitted within a data burst for which the wireless device has gained access to the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the data burst may be transmitted over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples of the method, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be transmitted in at least one of an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In some examples, the method may include transmitting a plurality of instances of the synchronization channel. In these examples, the pull-in signal and the plurality of instances of the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, the pull-in signal may be frequency domain multiplexed with an instance of the synchronization channel, and the pull-in signal and the instance of the synchronization channel may be transmitted using a same transmission beam. In some examples, the method may include transmitting at least a second pull-in signal on a raster point of the frequency raster other than the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the second pull-in signal may be staggered in at least one of: frequency, time, or a combination thereof. In one example, another apparatus for wireless communication at a wireless device is described. The apparatus may include means for transmitting a pull-in signal on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may indicate a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. The apparatus may also include means for transmitting the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS that match a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be transmitted within a data burst for which the wireless device has gained access to the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the data burst may be transmitted over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be transmitted in at least one of an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In some examples, the apparatus may include means for transmitting a plurality of instances of the synchronization channel. In these examples, the pull-in signal and the plurality of instances of the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, the pull-in signal may be frequency domain multiplexed with an instance of the synchronization channel, and the pull-in signal and the instance of the synchronization channel may be transmitted using a same transmission beam. In some examples, the apparatus may include means for transmitting at least a second pull-in signal on a raster point of the frequency raster other than the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the second pull-in signal may be staggered in at least one of frequency, time, or a combination thereof. In one example, another apparatus for wireless communication at a wireless device is described. The apparatus may include a processor, memory in electronic communication with the processor, and instructions stored in the memory. The instructions may be executable by the processor to transmit a pull-in signal on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may indicate a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. The instructions may also be executable by the processor to transmit the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS that match a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be transmitted within a data burst for which the wireless device has gained access to the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the data burst may be transmitted over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be transmitted in at least one of an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In some examples, the instructions may be executable by the processor to transmit a plurality of instances of the synchronization channel. In these examples, the pull-in signal and the plurality of instances of the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, the pull-in signal may be frequency domain multiplexed with an instance of the synchronization channel, and the pull-in signal and the instance of the synchronization channel may be transmitted using a same transmission beam. In some examples, the instructions may be executable by the processor to transmit at least a second pull-in signal on a raster point of the frequency raster other than the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the second pull-in signal may be staggered in at least one of frequency, time, or a combination thereof. In one example, another computer program product including a non-transitory computer-readable medium is described. The non-transitory computer-readable medium may include instructions to transmit a pull-in signal on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may indicate a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. The non-transitory computer-readable medium may also include instructions to transmit the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the non-transitory computer-readable medium, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. The foregoing has outlined rather broadly the techniques and technical advantages of examples according to the disclosure in order that the detailed description that follows may be better understood. Additional techniques and advantages will be described hereinafter. The conception and specific examples disclosed may be readily utilized as a basis for modifying or designing other structures for carrying out the same purposes of the present disclosure. Such equivalent constructions do not depart from the scope of the appended claims. Characteristics of the concepts disclosed herein, both their organization and method of operation, together with associated advantages will be better understood from the following description when considered in connection with the accompanying figures. Each of the figures is provided for the purpose of illustration and description, and not as a definition of the limits of the claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A further understanding of the nature and advantages of the present disclosure may be realized by reference to the following drawings. In the appended figures, similar components or functions may have the same reference label. Further, various components of the same type may be distinguished by following the reference label by a dash and a second label that distinguishes among the similar components. If just the first reference label is used in the specification, the description is applicable to any one of the similar components having the same first reference label irrespective of the second reference label. FIG. 1 shows an example of a wireless communication system, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; FIG. 2 illustrates a transmission of a synchronization channel with respect to time and frequency, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; FIG. 3 illustrates a transmission of pull-in signals and a synchronization channel with respect to time and frequency, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; FIG. 4 illustrates a transmission of pull-in signals and a synchronization channel with respect to time and frequency, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; FIG. 5 shows an example structure of a pull-in signal, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; FIG. 6 shows a block diagram of an apparatus for use in wireless communication, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; FIG. 7 shows a block diagram of a wireless communication manager for use in wireless communication, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; FIG. 8 shows a block diagram of an apparatus for use in wireless communication, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; FIG. 9 shows a block diagram of a wireless communication manager for use in wireless communication, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; FIG. 10 shows a block diagram of a UE for use in wireless communication, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; FIG. 11 shows a block diagram of a network access device for use in wireless communication, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; FIG. 12 is a flow chart illustrating an example of a method for wireless communication at a wireless device (e.g., a UE), in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; FIG. 13 is a flow chart illustrating an example of a method for wireless communication at a wireless device (e.g., a UE), in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; FIG. 14 is a flow chart illustrating an example of a method for wireless communication at a wireless device (e.g., a UE), in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; FIG. 15 is a flow chart illustrating an example of a method for wireless communication at a wireless device (e.g., a network access device), in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure; and FIG. 16 is a flow chart illustrating an example of a method for wireless communication at a wireless device (e.g., a network access device), in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present disclosure describes techniques for transmitting or using a pull-in signal to locate a synchronization channel. In a legacy LTE network, a synchronization channel is transmitted every 5 milliseconds (ms). A UE may search for the synchronization channel to collect information needed to access the LTE network. In a LTE unlicensed (LTE-U) network, a synchronization channel may be transmitted every 40 ms. The transmission period of the synchronization channel is longer to be coexistence friendly with Wi-Fi networks. As a result, the initial acquisition time can be longer for a UE that performs an initial access procedure for a LTE-U network (e.g., the UE needs to monitor a raster point longer to test all timing hypotheses for synchronization channel transmission). To potentially decrease a UE's initial acquisition time, a network access device may transmit instances of a synchronization channel within data bursts for which the network access device has already gained access to a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In some wireless networks, such as a next generation, 5G, or NR network, there may be a reduced number of raster points in the frequency raster that indicates the possible raster points on which a synchronization channel may be transmitted (i.e., the set of raster points that a UE may have to search before locating a synchronization channel). This may reduce the UE's initial acquisition time (or average initial acquisition time). For a NR shared spectrum (NR-SS) network, the same frequency raster used for a NR network may be used, but similarly to a LTE-U network, the transmission period of the synchronization channel may be longer (i.e., synchronization channel transmissions may be more sparse). Further, in a NR-SS millimeter wave (mmWave) network, synchronization channel transmissions may be beamformed, thereby complicating a UE's synchronization channel search efforts and possibly increasing the UE's initial acquisition time (or average initial acquisition time). A network access device may transmit pull-in signals to assist a UE in quickly locating a synchronization channel transmitted by the network access device, thereby decreasing the UE's initial acquisition time (or average initial acquisition time). The following description provides examples, and is not limiting of the scope, applicability, or examples set forth in the claims. Changes may be made in the function and arrangement of elements discussed without departing from the scope of the disclosure. Various examples may omit, substitute, or add various procedures or components as appropriate. For instance, the methods described may be performed in an order different from that described, and various operations may be added, omitted, or combined. Also, features described with respect to some examples may be combined in some other examples. FIG. 1 shows an example of a wireless communication system 100, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. The wireless communication system 100 may include network access devices 105 (e.g., gNBs 105-a, ANCs 105-b, and/or RHs 105-c), UEs 115, and a core network 130. The core network 130 may provide user authentication, access authorization, tracking, Internet Protocol (IP) connectivity, and other access, routing, or mobility functions. At least some of the network access devices 105 (e.g., gNBs 105-a or ANCs 105-b) may interface with the core network 130 through backhaul links 132 (e.g., S1, S2, etc.) and may perform radio configuration and scheduling for communication with the UEs 115. In various examples, the ANCs 105-b may communicate, either directly or indirectly (e.g., through core network 130), with each other over backhaul links 134 (e.g., X1, X2, etc.), which may be wired or wireless communication links. Each ANC 105-b may also communicate with a number of UEs 115 through a number of smart radio heads (e.g., RHs 105-c). In an alternative configuration of the wireless communication system 100, the functionality of an ANC 105-b may be provided by a RH 105-c or distributed across the RHs 105-c of an gNB 105-a. In another alternative configuration of the wireless communication system 100 (e.g., an LTE/LTE-A configuration), the RHs 105-c may be replaced with base stations, the ANCs 105-b may be replaced by base station controllers (or links to the core network 130), and the gNBs 105-a may be replaced by eNBs. In some examples, the wireless communication system 100 may include a mix of RHs 105-c, base stations, and/or other network access devices 105 for receiving/transmitting communications according to different radio access technologies (RATs) (e.g., LTE/LTE-A, 5G, Wi-Fi, etc.). A macro cell may cover a relatively large geographic area (e.g., several kilometers in radius) and may allow unrestricted access by UEs 115 with service subscriptions with a network provider. A small cell may include a lower-powered radio head or base station, as compared with a macro cell, and may operate in the same or different frequency band(s) as macro cells. Small cells may include pico cells, femto cells, and micro cells according to various examples. A pico cell may cover a relatively smaller geographic area and may allow unrestricted access by UEs 115 with service subscriptions with a network provider. A femto cell also may cover a relatively small geographic area (e.g., a home) and may provide restricted access by UEs 115 having an association with the femto cell (e.g., UEs in a closed subscriber group (CSG), UEs for users in the home, and the like). A gNB for a macro cell may be referred to as a macro gNB. A gNB for a small cell may be referred to as a small cell gNB, a pico gNB, a femto gNB or a home gNB. A gNB may support one or multiple (e.g., two, three, four, and the like) cells (e.g., component carriers). The wireless communication system 100 may support synchronous or asynchronous operation. For synchronous operation, the gNBs 105-a and/or RHs 105-c may have similar frame timing, and transmissions from different gNBs 105-a and/or RHs 105-c may be approximately aligned in time. For asynchronous operation, the gNBs 105-a and/or RHs 105-c may have different frame timings, and transmissions from different gNBs 105-a and/or RHs 105-c may not be aligned in time. The techniques described herein may be used for either synchronous or asynchronous operations. The communication networks that may accommodate some of the various disclosed examples may be packet-based networks that operate according to a layered protocol stack. In the user plane, communications at the bearer or Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) layer may be IP-based. A Radio Link Control (RLC) layer may in some cases perform packet segmentation and reassembly to communicate over logical channels. A Medium Access Control (MAC) layer may perform priority handling and multiplexing of logical channels into transport channels. The MAC layer may also use Hybrid ARQ (HARD) to provide retransmission at the MAC layer to improve link efficiency. In the control plane, the Radio Resource Control (RRC) protocol layer may provide establishment, configuration, and maintenance of an RRC connection between a UE 115 and a RH 105-c, ANC 105-b, or core network 130 supporting radio bearers for user plane data. At the Physical (PHY) layer, transport channels may be mapped to physical channels. The UEs 115 may be dispersed throughout the wireless communication system 100, and each UE 115 may be stationary or mobile. A UE 115 may also include or be referred to by those skilled in the art as a mobile station, a subscriber station, a mobile unit, a subscriber unit, a wireless unit, a remote unit, a mobile device, a wireless device, a wireless communications device, a remote device, a mobile subscriber station, an access terminal, a mobile terminal, a wireless terminal, a remote terminal, a handset, a user agent, a mobile client, a client, or some other suitable terminology. A UE 115 may be a cellular phone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a wireless modem, a wireless communication device, a handheld device, a tablet computer, a laptop computer, a cordless phone, a wireless local loop (WLL) station, an Internet of Everything (IoE) device, etc. A UE 115 may be able to communicate with various types of network access devices 105 (e.g., gNBs 105-a, RHs 105-c, eNBs, base stations, access points, macro gNBs, small cell gNBs, relay base stations, and the like. A UE 115 may also be able to communicate directly with other UEs 115 (e.g., using a peer-to-peer (P2P) protocol). The communication links 125 shown in wireless communication system 100 may include uplinks (ULs) from a UE 115 to a RH 105-c, and/or downlinks (DLs), from a RH 105-c to a UE 115. The downlinks may also be called forward links, while the uplinks may also be called reverse links. Control information and data may be multiplexed on an uplink or downlink according to various techniques. Control information and data may be multiplexed on an uplink or downlink, for example, using TDM techniques, FDM techniques, or hybrid TDM-FDM techniques. Each communication link 125 may include one or more carriers, where each carrier may be a signal made up of multiple sub-carriers (e.g., waveform signals of different frequencies) modulated according to one or more radio access technologies. Each modulated signal may be sent on a different sub-carrier and may carry control information (e.g., reference signals, control channels, etc.), overhead information, user data, etc. The communication links 125 may transmit bidirectional communications using Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) techniques (e.g., using paired spectrum resources) or Time Division Duplexing techniques (e.g., using unpaired spectrum resources). Frame structures for FDD (e.g., frame structure type 1) and TDD (e.g., frame structure type 2) may be defined. In some examples of the wireless communication system 100, network access devices 105 (e.g., RHs 105-c) and UEs 115 may include multiple antennas for employing antenna diversity schemes to improve communication quality and reliability between network access devices 105 and UEs 115. Additionally or alternatively, network access devices and UEs 115 may employ multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) techniques that may take advantage of multi-path environments to transmit multiple spatial layers carrying the same or different coded data. In some cases, signal processing techniques such as beamforming (i.e., directional transmission) may be used with MIMO techniques to coherently combine signal energies and overcome the path loss in specific beam directions. Precoding (e.g., weighting transmissions on different paths or layers, or from different antennas) may be used in conjunction with MIMO or beamforming techniques. In some examples, the wireless communication system 100 may support operation over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum (e.g., a radio frequency spectrum licensed to particular users for particular uses) or a contention-based radio frequency spectrum (e.g., a radio frequency spectrum that is available for Wi-Fi use, a radio frequency spectrum that is available for use by different radio access technologies, or a radio frequency spectrum that is available for use by multiple MNOs in an equally shared or prioritized manner). In some examples, the wireless communication system 100 may support operation over a sub-6 GHz radio frequency spectrum (e.g., a LTE/LTE-A radio frequency spectrum or a Wi-Fi radio frequency spectrum) or a mmWave radio frequency spectrum. Before transmitting over a channel (or cell) of a contention-based radio frequency spectrum, a UE 115 may contend for access to the channel using a Listen-Before-Talk (LBT) procedure. Depending on the outcome of the LBT procedure, the UE 115 may or may not be able to transmit over the channel. When the UE 115 determines the channel may be used (e.g., when the UE 115 determines the energy on the channel is below a threshold and “clear”), the UE 115 may transmit over the channel. The wireless communication system 100 may support operation on multiple cells or carriers, a feature which may be referred to as carrier aggregation (CA) or multi-carrier operation. A carrier may also be referred to as a component carrier (CC), a layer, a channel, etc. The terms “carrier,” “component carrier,” “cell,” and “channel” may be used interchangeably herein. A UE 115 may be configured with multiple downlink CCs and one or more uplink CCs for carrier aggregation. Carrier aggregation may be used with both FDD and TDD component carriers. At times, a UE 115 may perform an initial access (or initial acquisition) procedure with a network access device 105. When performing the initial access procedure, the UE 115 may search for a synchronization channel transmitted by the network access device 105. The synchronization channel may include information synchronizing the UE 115 with the network access device 105, so that the UE 115 may communicate with the network access device 105. In accordance with techniques described in the present disclosure, a network access device 105 may transmit pull-in signals that enable UEs 115 to locate the network access device's synchronization channel more quickly. In some examples, a UE 115 may include a wireless communication manager 140. The wireless communication manager 140 may be used by the UE 115 to search for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The wireless communication manager 140 may also be used by the UE 115 to identify a pull-in signal on the first raster point, to determine, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted, and to receive the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples, a network access device 105 may include a wireless communication manager 150. The wireless communication manager 150 may be used by the network access device 105 to transmit a pull-in signal on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may indicate a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. The wireless communication manager 150 may also be used by the network access device 105 to transmit the synchronization channel on the second raster point. FIG. 2 illustrates a transmission of a synchronization channel with respect to time and frequency, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. More specifically, FIG. 2 illustrates periodic transmission of a synchronization channel 205. By way of example, the periodically transmitted synchronization channel 205 may include a first instance of the synchronization channel 205-a, a second instance of the synchronization channel 205-b, and a third instance of the synchronization channel 205-c. In some examples, a network (or network access device) may identify a frequency raster 210 for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster 210 may include a plurality of raster points 215 (e.g., frequency sub-bands or frequency tones) from which the network (or network access device) may select a raster point (or points) on which to transmit a synchronization channel 205. By way of example, the frequency raster 210 is shown to include a first raster point 215-a, a second raster point 215-b, a third raster point 215-c, and a fourth raster point 215-d. The network (or network access device) may also select a timing of the synchronization channel 205. In some examples, and as shown in FIG. 2, the network (or network access device) may select a semi-static raster point and timing, including a time interval, for periodic transmission of a synchronization channel 205. In other examples, the network (or network access device) may dynamically select one or more raster points and timings for synchronization channel transmissions, and may or may not transmit a synchronization channel periodically. A UE may be configured with the details of the frequency raster 210 prior to accessing the network including the network access device, and may blindly search for the synchronization channel 205 on one or more of the raster points 215 of the frequency raster 210. In one example, the UE may begin searching for the synchronization channel 205 on the first raster point 215-a. After searching for the synchronization channel 205 on the first raster point 215-a for a predetermined time period 220-a (e.g., a time period that is long enough to test all synchronization channel timing hypotheses), and not finding the synchronization channel 205, the UE may continue searching for the synchronization channel 205 on the second raster point 215-b. After searching for the synchronization channel 205 on the second raster point 215-b for a predetermined time period 220-b, and not finding the synchronization channel 205, the UE may continue searching for the synchronization channel 205 on the third raster point 215-c. After searching for the synchronization channel 205 on the third raster point 215-c for part of a predetermined time period 220-c, the UE may locate the third instance of the synchronization channel 205-c, and may obtain (from the third instance of the synchronization channel 205-c) synchronization information for accessing the network through the network access device. Although the frequency raster 210 may limit the frequencies that a UE needs to search for a synchronization channel, blindly searching the raster points 215 of the frequency raster 210 for synchronization channel transmissions can increase a UE's initial acquisition time (or average initial acquisition time) and may be inefficient. As the number of raster points in a frequency raster increases, so too is a UE's initial acquisition time (or average initial acquisition time) increased. When the frequency raster includes raster points in a contention-based radio frequency spectrum, a UE's initial acquisition time (or average initial acquisition time) may also be increased by channel access delays (e.g., LBT procedures that are performed without gaining access to the shared radio frequency spectrum). When the frequency raster includes raster points in a mmWave channel, a UE's initial acquisition time (or average initial acquisition time) may also be increased as a result of multiple beamforming hypotheses that the UE needs to test. As shown in FIG. 2, some instances of the synchronization channel 205 may be transmitted during a data burst to a UE (e.g., the first instance of the synchronization channel 205-a may be transmitted during a PDSCH 225 transmitted to UE0). Other instances of the synchronization channel 205 (e.g., the second instance of the synchronization channel 205-b and the third instance of the synchronization channel 205-c) may be transmitted outside data bursts. FIG. 3 illustrates a transmission of pull-in signals and a synchronization channel with respect to time and frequency, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. More specifically, FIG. 3 illustrates periodic transmission of a synchronization channel 305. By way of example, the periodically transmitted synchronization channel 305 may include a first instance of the synchronization channel 305-a, a second instance of the synchronization channel 305-b, and a third instance of the synchronization channel 305-c. In some examples, a network (or network access device) may identify a frequency raster 310 for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster 310 may include a plurality of raster points 315 (e.g., frequency sub-bands or frequency tones) from which the network (or network access device) may select a raster point (or points) on which to transmit a synchronization channel 305. By way of example, the frequency raster 310 is shown to include a first raster point 315-a, a second raster point 315-b, a third raster point 315-c, and a fourth raster point 315-d. The network (or network access device) may also select a timing of the synchronization channel 305. In some examples, and as shown in FIG. 3, the network (or network access device) may select a semi-static raster point and timing, including a time interval, for periodic transmission of a synchronization channel 305. In other examples, the network (or network access device) may dynamically select one or more raster points and timings for synchronization channel transmissions, and may or may not transmit a synchronization channel periodically. In addition to selecting the parameters of the synchronization channel 305, and transmitting the synchronization channel 305, the network (or network access device) may select parameters (e.g., one or more raster points 315 or timings) for transmitting one or more pull-in signals 330. By way of example, FIG. 3 shows transmissions of pull-in signals 330 on each raster point 315 but for the raster point 315 on which the synchronization channel 305 is transmitted. FIG. 3 also shows transmissions of pull-in signals 330 in each time period 320 of a plurality of time periods 320. However, transmissions of pull-in signals 330 are limited to raster points 315 included within data bursts transmitted to UEs (e.g., a first PDSCH 325-a transmitted to UE0, a second PDSCH 325-b transmitted to UE1, a third PDSCH 325-c transmitted to UE2, and a fourth PDSCH 325-d transmitted to UE3). In alternative examples, pull-in signals 330 may be transmitted on fewer raster points. Pull-in signals may also or alternatively be transmitted in fewer than all time periods 320, and/or within or outside data bursts transmitted to UEs. In some examples, a pull-in signal 330 may include a waveform similar to the waveform of a synchronization channel 305, so that a pull-in signal 330 may be identified using the same search component(s) and algorithm(s) used to search for the synchronization channel transmissions. In some examples, a pull-in signal 330 may indicate a location of the synchronization channel 305 (e.g., a location of a next instance of the synchronization channel), and may be associated with less overhead and a lower cost than a synchronization channel transmission. A pull-in signal 330 may indicate a location of a synchronization channel 305. In some examples, a pull-in signal 330 may indicate a raster point on which the synchronization channel 305 is transmitted. In some examples, a raster point may be indicated relative to a raster point on which the pull-in signal 330 is transmitted (e.g., as an offset). In some examples, a pull-in signal may also indicate a timing of the synchronization channel 305 (e.g., a timing of a next instance of the synchronization channel 305). In some examples, a timing of the synchronization channel 305 may be indicated relative to a timing of the pull-in signal 330. A UE may be configured with the details of the frequency raster 310 prior to accessing the network including the network access device, and may blindly search for the synchronization channel 305 on one or more of the raster points 315 of the frequency raster 310. In one example, the UE may begin searching for the synchronization channel 305 on the first raster point 315-a. After searching for the synchronization channel 305 on the first raster point 315-a for a part of a predetermined time period 320-a (e.g., a time period that is long enough to test all synchronization channel timing hypotheses), the UE may identify a pull-in signal 330, and may determine, from the pull-in signal 330, a raster point on which the synchronization channel 305 is transmitted. In some examples, the UE may also determine, from the pull-in signal 330, a timing of the synchronization channel 305. When the pull-in signal 330 indicates a raster point but not a timing of the synchronization channel 305, the UE may search for the synchronization channel 305 on the indicated raster point during a next predetermined time period 320-b. When the pull-in signal 330 indicates a timing of the synchronization channel 305, the UE may transition to a power saving state after determining the timing of the synchronization channel 305, and may transition from the power saving state to an awake state based at least in part on the timing of the synchronization channel 305. When a pull-in signal 330 is transmitted in a contention-based radio frequency spectrum (e.g., a sub-6 GHz contention-based radio frequency spectrum or a mmWave contention-based radio frequency spectrum), the pull-in signal 330 may be transmitted within a data burst transmitted to a UE, on a raster point and during a time period for which a network access device has gained access to the contention-based radio frequency spectrum for the purpose of transmitting the data burst. In this manner, a network access device may not have to perform a LBT procedure just to transmit a pull-in signal 330. When a pull-in signal 330 is transmitted in a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, the pull-in signal 330 may be transmitted inside or outside a data burst, without incurring the overhead or delay of performing a LBT procedure. When transmissions are made in a mmWave radio frequency spectrum, the transmissions may be beamformed. Thus, when a pull-in signal 330 is transmitted within a data burst in a mmWave contention-based radio frequency spectrum, the pull-in signal 330 may be beamformed using a same transmission beam used for the data burst. This may limit opportunistic use of the pull-in signal 330 to UEs configured to communicate on the same transmission beam used for the data burst (or to UEs that scan for the transmission beam on which the pull-in signal 330 is transmitted). A pull-in signal 330 may also be transmitted using a same transmission beam as a data burst that includes the pull-in signal 330 in other scenarios in which transmissions are beamformed. When a pull-in signal 330 is transmitted in a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, (e.g., a sub-6 GHz contention-based radio frequency spectrum or a mmWave contention-based radio frequency spectrum), the pull-in signal 330 may be transmitted, for example, in an empty downlink data resource (e.g., a downlink data resource not included in a downlink grant to a UE for receiving a PDSCH), an empty control resource (e.g., a resource not occupied by control subbands), a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by a PDSCH, or a combination thereof. Transmitting a pull-in signal 330 in an empty downlink data resource may avoid a need to puncture a PDSCH or rate-match around the pull-in signal 330, but may interfere with PDSCH transmissions of other network access devices (e.g., cause bursty interference for the PDSCH transmissions of the other network access devices). Transmitting a pull-in signal 330 in an empty control resource may not cause bursty interference for the PDSCH transmissions of other network access devices. When transmitting a pull-in signal 330 in a resource that punctures a PDSCH, or in a resource that is rate-matched around by a PDSCH, an indication of the pull-in signal's location may need to be provided to UEs. The indication of the pull-in signal's location may be provided, for example, in a RRC configuration or in downlink control information (DCI). When transmissions made in a radio frequency spectrum (e.g., a mmWave radio frequency spectrum) are beamformed, a pull-in signal 330 may be frequency domain multiplexed with an instance of the synchronization channel 305, and the pull-in signal 330 and synchronization channel 305 may be transmitted at the same time using the same transmission beam. FIG. 4 illustrates a transmission of pull-in signals and a synchronization channel with respect to time and frequency, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. More specifically, FIG. 4 illustrates periodic transmission of a synchronization channel 405. By way of example, the periodically transmitted synchronization channel 405 may include a first instance of the synchronization channel 405-a, a second instance of the synchronization channel 405-b, and a third instance of the synchronization channel 405-c. In some examples, a network (or network access device) may identify a frequency raster 410 for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster 410 may include a plurality of raster points 415 (e.g., frequency sub-bands or frequency tones) from which the network (or network access device) may select a raster point (or points) on which to transmit a synchronization channel 405. By way of example, the frequency raster 410 is shown to include a first raster point 415-a, a second raster point 415-b, a third raster point 415-c, a fourth raster point 415-d, a fifth raster point 415-e, a sixth raster point 415-f, and a seventh raster point 415-g. The network (or network access device) may also select a timing of the synchronization channel 405. In some examples, and as shown in FIG. 4, the network (or network access device) may select a semi-static raster point and timing, including a time interval, for periodic transmission of a synchronization channel 405. In other examples, the network (or network access device) may dynamically select one or more raster points and timings for synchronization channel transmissions, and may or may not transmit a synchronization channel periodically. In addition to selecting the parameters of the synchronization channel 405, and transmitting the synchronization channel 405, the network (or network access device) may select parameters (e.g., one or more raster points 415 or timings) for transmitting one or more pull-in signals 430. By way of example, FIG. 4 shows transmissions of pull-in signals 430 on some raster points 415, but not other raster points 415. FIG. 4 also shows transmissions of pull-in signals 430 in each time period 420 of a plurality of time periods 420. In alternative examples, pull-in signals 430 may be transmitted on more or fewer raster points. Pull-in signals may also or alternatively be transmitted in fewer than all time periods 420. In FIG. 4, instances of the pull-in signal 430 may be transmitted so that the pull-in signals 430 are staggered in time (as well as frequency). Pull-in signals 430 may be staggered in time when the bandwidth of the pull-in signals 430 is greater than a raster point spacing (i.e., the raster step size). For example, when the raster point spacing is 1.8 MHz, but the bandwidth of the synchronization channel 405 is 5 MHz, a 5 MHz pull-in signals may not be transmitted at the same time without frequency overlap, but may be triggered without frequency overlap when transmitted at staggered transmission times (e.g., the pull-in signals 430 may be time domain multiplexed instead of frequency domain multiplexed). FIG. 5 shows an example structure 500 of a pull-in signal 505, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. The structure 500 may include a PI-PSS 510, a PI-SSS 515, and an optional PIICH 520, and in some examples may be configured to be identified using the same search component(s) and algorithm(s) used to search for a synchronization channel transmissions. In some examples, the PI-PSS 510 may have a same duration (or length) as a PSS of a synchronization channel, but may include a different sequence when compared to a PSS. A UE may use a same cross-correlator to identify (or detect) a PSS and the PI-PSS 510, but may cross-correlate the PI-PSS 510 to a different known sequence (e.g., a sequence reserved for indicating a pull-in signal). In some examples, the PI-SSS 515 may not carry any information, but may include a fixed known sequence that a UE may use as a phase reference to demodulate/decode the PIICH 520. In some examples, the PIICH 520 may be similar to a physical broadcast channel (PBCH) (e.g., the PIICH 520 may have a same structure, coding, etc. as a PBCH), and may carry information about the location of a synchronization channel. In some examples, the PI-PSS 510 and PI-SSS 515 may be configured to match a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify a pull-in signal. In these examples, the PI-SSS 515 may also be used (by a UE) as a phase reference to demodulate/decode the PIICH 520, which may carry information about the location of a synchronization channel. Alternatively, the combination of PI-PSS 510 and PI-SSS 515 may match one of a plurality of combinations of PSS and SSS reserved to identify different synchronization channel locations. FIG. 6 shows a block diagram 600 of an apparatus 615 for use in wireless communication, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. The apparatus 615 may be an example of aspects of one or more of the UEs described with reference to FIG. 1. The apparatus 615 may also be or include a processor. The apparatus 615 may include a receiver 610, a wireless communication manager 620, or a transmitter 630. Each of these components may be in communication with each other. The components of the apparatus 615 may, individually or collectively, be implemented using one or more application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) adapted to perform some or all of the applicable functions in hardware. Alternatively, the functions may be performed by one or more other processing units (or cores), on one or more integrated circuits. In some other examples, other types of integrated circuits may be used (e.g., Structured/Platform ASICs, Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), a System-on-Chip (SoC), and/or other types of Semi-Custom ICs), which may be programmed in any manner known in the art. The functions of each component may also be implemented, in whole or in part, with instructions embodied in a memory, formatted to be executed by one or more general or application-specific processors. In some examples, the receiver 610 may include at least one radio frequency (RF) receiver, such as at least one RF receiver operable to receive transmissions over one or more radio frequency spectrum bands. In some examples, the one or more radio frequency spectrum bands may be used for communicating as described with reference to FIG. 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. The receiver 610 may be used to receive various types of data or control signals (i.e., transmissions) over one or more communication links of a wireless communication system, such as one or more communication links of the wireless communication system 100 described with reference to FIG. 1. In some examples, the transmitter 630 may include at least one RF transmitter, such as at least one RF transmitter operable to transmit over one or more radio frequency spectrum bands. In some examples, the one or more radio frequency spectrum bands may be used for communicating as described with reference to FIG. 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. The transmitter 630 may be used to transmit various types of data or control signals (i.e., transmissions) over one or more communication links of a wireless communication system, such as one or more communication links of the wireless communication system 100 described with reference to FIG. 1. In some examples, the wireless communication manager 620 may be used to manage one or more aspects of wireless communication for the apparatus 615. In some examples, part of the wireless communication manager 620 may be incorporated into or shared with the receiver 610 or the transmitter 630. In some examples, the wireless communication manager 620 may include a synchronization channel search manager 635, a pull-in signal identifier 640, a synchronization channel locator 645, or a synchronization manager 650. The synchronization channel search manager 635 may be used to search for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The pull-in signal identifier 640 may be used to identify a pull-in signal on the first raster point. The synchronization channel locator 645 may be used to determine, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. The synchronization manager 650 may be used to receive the synchronization channel on the second raster point. FIG. 7 shows a block diagram 700 of a wireless communication manager 720 for use in wireless communication, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. The wireless communication manager 720 may be an example of aspects of the wireless communication manager described with reference to FIG. 6. The components of the wireless communication manager 720 may, individually or collectively, be implemented using one or more ASICs adapted to perform some or all of the applicable functions in hardware. Alternatively, the functions may be performed by one or more other processing units (or cores), on one or more integrated circuits. In some other examples, other types of integrated circuits may be used (e.g., Structured/Platform ASICs, FPGAs, a SoC, and/or other types of Semi-Custom ICs), which may be programmed in any manner known in the art. The functions of each component may also be implemented, in whole or in part, with instructions embodied in a memory, formatted to be executed by one or more general or application-specific processors. In some examples, the wireless communication manager 720 may be used to manage one or more aspects of wireless communication for a wireless device, such as one of the UEs or apparatuses described with reference to FIG. 1 or 6. In some examples, part of the wireless communication manager 720 may be incorporated into or shared with a receiver or a transmitter (e.g., the receiver 610 or the transmitter 630 described with reference to FIG. 6). In some examples, the wireless communication manager 720 may include a synchronization channel search manager 735, a pull-in signal identifier 740, a synchronization channel locator 745, a synchronization manager 750, a power manager 755, or a data reception manager 760. The synchronization channel search manager 735 may be used to search for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The radio frequency spectrum may include a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum or a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. The pull-in signal identifier 740 may be used to identify a pull-in signal on the first raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on the PI-PSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may further include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on matching the PI-PSS and the PI-SSS to a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify a pull-in signal. The synchronization channel locator 745 may be used to determine, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. The synchronization channel locator 745 may also be used to determine, from the pull-in signal, a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. The synchronization manager 750 may be used to receive the synchronization channel on the second raster point. The power manager 755 may be used to transition to a power saving state after (and if) the synchronization channel locator 745 determines the timing of the synchronization channel. The power manager 755 may also be used to transition from the power saving state to an awake state based at least in part on the timing of the synchronization channel. The data reception manager 760 may be used to receive a data burst over the radio frequency spectrum. The radio frequency spectrum over which the data burst is received may include a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum or a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In some examples, the pull-in signal identifier 740 may identify the pull-in signal within the received data burst. In some examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the data burst may be received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples of the wireless communication manager 720, the pull-in signal may be identified using the pull-in signal identifier 740, and the synchronization channel may be received using the synchronization manager 750, over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, for example, in an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. FIG. 8 shows a block diagram 800 of an apparatus 805 for use in wireless communication, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. The apparatus 805 may be an example of aspects of one or more of the network access devices described with reference to FIG. 1. The apparatus 805 may also be or include a processor. The apparatus 805 may include a receiver 810, a wireless communication manager 820, or a transmitter 830. Each of these components may be in communication with each other. The components of the apparatus 805 may, individually or collectively, be implemented using one or more ASICs adapted to perform some or all of the applicable functions in hardware. Alternatively, the functions may be performed by one or more other processing units (or cores), on one or more integrated circuits. In some other examples, other types of integrated circuits may be used (e.g., Structured/Platform ASICs, FPGAs, a SoC, and/or other types of Semi-Custom ICs), which may be programmed in any manner known in the art. The functions of each component may also be implemented, in whole or in part, with instructions embodied in a memory, formatted to be executed by one or more general or application-specific processors. In some examples, the receiver 810 may include at least one RF receiver, such as at least one RF receiver operable to receive transmissions over one or more radio frequency spectrum bands. In some examples, the one or more radio frequency spectrum bands may be used for communicating as described with reference to FIG. 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. The receiver 810 may be used to receive various types of data or control signals (i.e., transmissions) over one or more communication links of a wireless communication system, such as one or more communication links of the wireless communication system 100 described with reference to FIG. 1. In some examples, the transmitter 830 may include at least one RF transmitter, such as at least one RF transmitter operable to transmit over one or more radio frequency spectrum bands. In some examples, the one or more radio frequency spectrum bands may be used for communicating as described with reference to FIG. 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. The transmitter 830 may be used to transmit various types of data or control signals (i.e., transmissions) over one or more communication links of a wireless communication system, such as one or more communication links of the wireless communication system 100 described with reference to FIG. 1. In some examples, the wireless communication manager 820 may be used to manage one or more aspects of wireless communication for the apparatus 805. In some examples, part of the wireless communication manager 820 may be incorporated into or shared with the receiver 810 or the transmitter 830. In some examples, the wireless communication manager 820 may include a pull-in signal transmission manager 835 or a synchronization channel transmission manager 840. The pull-in signal transmission manager 835 may be used to transmit a pull-in signal on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The pull-in signal may indicate a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. The synchronization channel transmission manager 840 may be used to transmit the synchronization channel on the second raster point. FIG. 9 shows a block diagram 900 of a wireless communication manager 920 for use in wireless communication, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. The wireless communication manager 920 may be an example of aspects of the wireless communication manager described with reference to FIG. 8. The components of the wireless communication manager 920 may, individually or collectively, be implemented using one or more ASICs adapted to perform some or all of the applicable functions in hardware. Alternatively, the functions may be performed by one or more other processing units (or cores), on one or more integrated circuits. In some other examples, other types of integrated circuits may be used (e.g., Structured/Platform ASICs, FPGAs, a SoC, and/or other types of Semi-Custom ICs), which may be programmed in any manner known in the art. The functions of each component may also be implemented, in whole or in part, with instructions embodied in a memory, formatted to be executed by one or more general or application-specific processors. In some examples, the wireless communication manager 920 may be used to manage one or more aspects of wireless communication for a wireless device, such as one of the network access devices or apparatuses described with reference to FIG. 1 or 8. In some examples, part of the wireless communication manager 920 may be incorporated into or shared with a receiver or a transmitter (e.g., the receiver 810 or the transmitter 830 described with reference to FIG. 8). In some examples, the wireless communication manager 920 may include a pull-in signal transmission manager 935, a synchronization channel transmission manager 940, a control channel transmission manager 945, or a data channel transmission manager 950. The pull-in signal transmission manager 935 may be used to transmit a pull-in signal on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The pull-in signal may indicate a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may further indicate a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may further include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS that match a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify a pull-in signal. In some examples of the wireless communication manager 920, the pull-in signal transmission manager 935 may be used to transmit at least a second pull-in signal on at least one raster point of the frequency raster. In some examples, the at least one raster point may include a raster point of the frequency raster other than the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the second pull-in signal may be staggered in frequency, time, or a combination thereof. The synchronization channel transmission manager 940 may be used to transmit the synchronization channel on the second raster point. The control channel transmission manager 945 may be used to transmit a data burst, PDSCH, or another downlink data channel. The data channel transmission manager 950 may be used to transmit a physical downlink control channel (PDCCH) or another downlink control channel. In some examples of the wireless communication manager 920, the pull-in signal transmission manager 935 and the synchronization channel transmission manager 940 may be used to respectively transmit the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be transmitted within a data burst for which the wireless device has gained access to the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the data burst may be transmitted over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples of the wireless communication manager 920, the pull-in signal transmission manager 935 and the synchronization channel transmission manager 940 may be used to respectively transmit the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be transmitted, for example, in an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In some examples of the wireless communication manager 920, the synchronization channel transmission manager 940 may be used to transmit a plurality of instances of the synchronization channel, and the pull-in signal and the plurality of instances of the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be frequency domain multiplexed with an instance of the synchronization channel, and the pull-in signal and the instance of the synchronization channel may be transmitted using a same transmission beam. FIG. 10 shows a block diagram 1000 of a UE 1015 for use in wireless communication, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. The UE 1015 may be included or be part of a personal computer (e.g., a laptop computer, a netbook computer, a tablet computer, etc.), a cellular telephone, a PDA, a DVR, an internet appliance, a gaming console, an e-reader, etc. The UE 1015 may, in some examples, have an internal power supply (not shown), such as a small battery, to facilitate mobile operation. In some examples, the UE 1015 may be an example of aspects of one or more of the UEs described with reference to FIG. 1, or aspects of the apparatus described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. The UE 1015 may be configured to implement at least some of the UE or apparatus techniques and functions described with reference to FIG. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7. The UE 1015 may include a UE processor 1010, a UE memory 1020, at least one UE transceiver (represented by UE transceiver(s) 1030), at least one UE antenna (represented by UE antenna(s) 1040), or a UE wireless communication manager 1050. Each of these components may be in communication with each other, directly or indirectly, over one or more buses 1035. The UE memory 1020 may include random access memory (RAM) or read-only memory (ROM). The UE memory 1020 may store computer-readable, computer-executable code 1025 containing instructions that are configured to, when executed, cause the UE processor 1010 to perform various functions described herein related to wireless communication, including, for example, searching for a synchronization channel, identifying a pull-in signal, determining a location of the synchronization channel based at least in part on the pull-in signal, etc. Alternatively, the computer-executable code 1025 may not be directly executable by the UE processor 1010 but be configured to cause the UE 1015 (e.g., when compiled and executed) to perform various of the functions described herein. The UE processor 1010 may include an intelligent hardware device, e.g., a central processing unit (CPU), a microcontroller, an ASIC, etc. The UE processor 1010 may process information received through the UE transceiver(s) 1030 or information to be sent to the UE transceiver(s) 1030 for transmission through the UE antenna(s) 1040. The UE processor 1010 may handle, alone or in connection with the UE wireless communication manager 1050, various aspects of communicating over (or managing communications over) a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum or a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. The UE transceiver(s) 1030 may include a modem configured to modulate packets and provide the modulated packets to the UE antenna(s) 1040 for transmission, and to demodulate packets received from the UE antenna(s) 1040. The UE transceiver(s) 1030 may, in some examples, be implemented as one or more UE transmitters and one or more separate UE receivers. The UE transceiver(s) 1030 may support communications in the non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum or the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. The UE transceiver(s) 1030 may be configured to communicate bi-directionally, via the UE antenna(s) 1040, with one or more network access devices or apparatuses, such as one or more of the network access devices described with reference to FIG. 1, or one or more of the apparatuses described with reference to FIG. 6. While the UE 1015 may include a single UE antenna, there may be examples in which the UE 1015 may include multiple UE antennas 1040. The UE wireless communication manager 1050 may be configured to perform or control some or all of the UE or apparatus techniques or functions described with reference to FIG. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 related to wireless communication over the non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum or the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. The UE wireless communication manager 1050 may include a UE non-contention-based RF spectrum manager 1055 configured to handle communications in the non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and a UE contention-based RF spectrum manager 1060 configured to handle communications in the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. The UE wireless communication manager 1050, or portions of it, may include a processor, or some or all of the functions of the UE wireless communication manager 1050 may be performed by the UE processor 1010 or in connection with the UE processor 1010. In some examples, the UE wireless communication manager 1050 may be an example of the wireless communication manager described with reference to FIG. 1, 6, or 7. FIG. 11 shows a block diagram 1100 of a network access device 1105 for use in wireless communication, in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. In some examples, the network access device 1105 may be an example of one or more aspects of the network access devices described with reference to FIG. 1, or aspects of the apparatus described with reference to FIG. 8. The network access device 1105 may be configured to implement or facilitate at least some of the network access device, base station, or apparatus techniques and functions described with reference to FIG. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, or 9. The network access device 1105 may include a network access device processor 1110, a network access device memory 1120, at least one network access device transceiver (represented by network access device transceiver(s) 1150), at least one network access device antenna (represented by network access device antenna(s) 1155), or a network access device wireless communication manager 1160. The network access device 1105 may also include one or more of a network access device communicator 1130 or a network communicator 1140. Each of these components may be in communication with each other, directly or indirectly, over one or more buses 1135. The network access device memory 1120 may include RAM or ROM. The network access device memory 1120 may store computer-readable, computer-executable code 1125 containing instructions that are configured to, when executed, cause the network access device processor 1110 to perform various functions described herein related to wireless communication, including, for example, transmitting a pull-in signal, transmitting a synchronization channel, etc. Alternatively, the computer-executable code 1125 may not be directly executable by the network access device processor 1110 but be configured to cause the network access device 1105 (e.g., when compiled and executed) to perform various of the functions described herein. The network access device processor 1110 may include an intelligent hardware device, e.g., a CPU, a microcontroller, an ASIC, etc. The network access device processor 1110 may process information received through the network access device transceiver(s) 1150, the network access device communicator 1130, or the network communicator 1140. The network access device processor 1110 may also process information to be sent to the transceiver(s) 1150 for transmission through the antenna(s) 1155, to the network access device communicator 1130, for transmission to one or more other network access devices (e.g., network access device 1105-a and/or network access device 1105-b), or to the network communicator 1140 for transmission to a core network 1145, which may be an example of one or more aspects of the core network 130 described with reference to FIG. 1. The network access device processor 1110 may handle, alone or in connection with the network access device wireless communication manager 1160, various aspects of communicating over (or managing communications over) a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum or a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. The network access device transceiver(s) 1150 may include a modem configured to modulate packets and provide the modulated packets to the network access device antenna(s) 1155 for transmission, and to demodulate packets received from the network access device antenna(s) 1155. The network access device transceiver(s) 1150 may, in some examples, be implemented as one or more network access device transmitters and one or more separate network access device receivers. The network access device transceiver(s) 1150 may support communications in the non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum or the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. The network access device transceiver(s) 1150 may be configured to communicate bi-directionally, via the network access device antenna(s) 1155, with one or more UEs or apparatuses, such as one or more of the UEs described with reference to FIG. 1 or 10, or the apparatus described with reference to FIG. 6. The network access device 1105 may, for example, include multiple network access device antennas 1155 (e.g., an antenna array). The network access device 1105 may communicate with the core network 1145 through the network communicator 1140. The network access device 1105 may also communicate with other network access devices, such as the network access device 1105-a and/or the network access device 1105-b, using the network access device communicator 1130. The network access device wireless communication manager 1160 may be configured to perform or control some or all of the techniques or functions described with reference to FIG. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, or 9 related to wireless communication over the non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum or the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. The network access device wireless communication manager 1160 may include a network access device non-contention-based RF spectrum manager 1165 configured to handle communications in the non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and a network access device contention-based RF spectrum manager 1170 configured to handle communications in the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. The network access device wireless communication manager 1160, or portions of it, may include a processor, or some or all of the functions of the network access device wireless communication manager 1160 may be performed by the network access device processor 1110 or in connection with the network access device processor 1110. In some examples, the network access device wireless communication manager 1160 may be an example of the wireless communication manager described with reference to FIG. 1, 8, or 9. FIG. 12 is a flow chart illustrating an example of a method 1200 for wireless communication at a wireless device (e.g., a UE), in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. For clarity, the method 1200 is described below with reference to aspects of one or more of the UEs described with reference to FIG. 1 or 10, aspects of the apparatus described with reference to FIG. 6, or aspects of one or more of the wireless communication managers described with reference to FIG. 1, 6, 7, or 10. In some examples, a wireless device may execute one or more sets of codes to control the functional elements of the wireless device to perform the functions described below. Additionally or alternatively, the wireless device may perform one or more of the functions described below using special-purpose hardware. At block 1205, the method 1200 may include searching for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1205 may be performed using the synchronization channel search manager 635 or 735 described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. At block 1210, the method 1200 may include identifying a pull-in signal on the first raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on the PI-PSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may further include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on matching the PI-PSS and the PI-SSS to a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify a pull-in signal. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1210 may be performed using the pull-in signal identifier 640 or 740 described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. At block 1215, the method 1200 may include determining, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1215 may be performed using the synchronization channel locator 645 or 745 described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. At block 1220, the method 1200 may include receiving the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1220 may be performed using the synchronization manager 650 or 750 described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. In some examples of the method 1200, the pull-in signal may be identified (at block 1210), and the synchronization channel may be received (at block 1220), over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, for example, in an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. FIG. 13 is a flow chart illustrating an example of a method 1300 for wireless communication at a wireless device (e.g., a UE), in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. For clarity, the method 1300 is described below with reference to aspects of one or more of the UEs described with reference to FIG. 1 or 10, aspects of the apparatus described with reference to FIG. 6, or aspects of one or more of the wireless communication managers described with reference to FIG. 1, 6, 7, or 10. In some examples, a wireless device may execute one or more sets of codes to control the functional elements of the wireless device to perform the functions described below. Additionally or alternatively, the wireless device may perform one or more of the functions described below using special-purpose hardware. At block 1305, the method 1300 may include searching for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1305 may be performed using the synchronization channel search manager 635 or 735 described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. At block 1310, the method 1300 may include identifying a pull-in signal on the first raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on the PI-PSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may further include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on matching the PI-PSS and the PI-SSS to a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify a pull-in signal. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1310 may be performed using the pull-in signal identifier 640 or 740 described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. At block 1315, the method 1300 may include determining, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1315 may be performed using the synchronization channel locator 645 or 745 described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. At block 1320, the method 1300 may include determining, from the pull-in signal, a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1320 may be performed using the synchronization channel locator 645 or 745 described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. At block 1325, the method 1300 may include transitioning to a power saving state after determining the timing of the synchronization channel. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1325 may be performed using the power manager 755 described with reference to FIG. 7. At block 1330, the method 1300 may include transitioning from the power saving state to an awake state based at least in part on the timing of the synchronization channel. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1330 may be performed using the power manager 755 described with reference to FIG. 7. At block 1335, the method 1300 may include receiving the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1335 may be performed using the synchronization manager 650 or 750 described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. In some examples of the method 1300, the pull-in signal may be identified (at block 1310), and the synchronization channel may be received (at block 1335), over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, for example, in an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. FIG. 14 is a flow chart illustrating an example of a method 1400 for wireless communication at a wireless device (e.g., a UE), in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. For clarity, the method 1400 is described below with reference to aspects of one or more of the UEs described with reference to FIG. 1 or 10, aspects of the apparatus described with reference to FIG. 6, or aspects of one or more of the wireless communication managers described with reference to FIG. 1, 6, 7, or 10. In some examples, a wireless device may execute one or more sets of codes to control the functional elements of the wireless device to perform the functions described below. Additionally or alternatively, the wireless device may perform one or more of the functions described below using special-purpose hardware. At block 1405, the method 1400 may include searching for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1405 may be performed using the synchronization channel search manager 635 or 735 described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. At block 1410, the method 1400 may include receiving a data burst over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1410 may be performed using the data reception manager 760 described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. At block 1415, the method 1400 may include identifying a pull-in signal on the first raster point, within the data burst. In some examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the data burst may be received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on the PI-PSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may further include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on matching the PI-PSS and the PI-SSS to a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify a pull-in signal. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1415 may be performed using the pull-in signal identifier 640 or 740 described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. At block 1420, the method 1400 may include determining, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1420 may be performed using the synchronization channel locator 645 or 745 described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. At block 1425, the method 1400 may include receiving the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1425 may be performed using the synchronization manager 650 or 750 described with reference to FIG. 6 or 7. FIG. 15 is a flow chart illustrating an example of a method 1500 for wireless communication at a wireless device (e.g., a network access device), in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. For clarity, the method 1500 is described below with reference to aspects of one or more of the network access devices described with reference to FIG. 1 or 11, aspects of the apparatus described with reference to FIG. 8, or aspects of one or more of the wireless communication managers described with reference to FIG. 1, 8, 9, or 11. In some examples, a wireless device may execute one or more sets of codes to control the functional elements of the wireless device to perform the functions described below. Additionally or alternatively, the wireless device may perform one or more of the functions described below using special-purpose hardware. At block 1505, the method 1500 may include transmitting a pull-in signal on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The pull-in signal may indicate a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may further indicate a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may further include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS that match a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify a pull-in signal. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1505 may be performed using the pull-in signal transmission manager 835 or 935 described with reference to FIG. 8 or 9. At block 1510, the method 1500 may include transmitting the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1510 may be performed using the synchronization channel transmission manager 840 or 940 described with reference to FIG. 8 or 9. In some examples of the method 1500, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be transmitted within a data burst for which the wireless device has gained access to the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the data burst may be transmitted over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In certain examples, the data burst may be transmitted using the data channel transmission manager 950 described with reference to FIG. 9. In some examples of the method 1500, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be transmitted, for example, in an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In certain examples, the PDSCH (or another downlink data channel) may be transmitted using the data channel transmission manager 950 described with reference to FIG. 9, or a PDCCH (or another downlink control channel) may be transmitted using the control channel transmission manager 945 described with reference to FIG. 9. In some examples, the method 1500 may include transmitting a plurality of instances of the synchronization channel, and the pull-in signal and the plurality of instances of the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be frequency domain multiplexed with an instance of the synchronization channel, and the pull-in signal and the instance of the synchronization channel may be transmitted using a same transmission beam. FIG. 16 is a flow chart illustrating an example of a method 1600 for wireless communication at a wireless device (e.g., a network access device), in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. For clarity, the method 1600 is described below with reference to aspects of one or more of the network access devices described with reference to FIG. 1 or 11, aspects of the apparatus described with reference to FIG. 8, or aspects of one or more of the wireless communication managers described with reference to FIG. 1, 8, 9, or 11. In some examples, a wireless device may execute one or more sets of codes to control the functional elements of the wireless device to perform the functions described below. Additionally or alternatively, the wireless device may perform one or more of the functions described below using special-purpose hardware. At block 1605, the method 1600 may include transmitting a pull-in signal on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The pull-in signal may indicate a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may further indicate a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may further include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS that match a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify a pull-in signal. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1605 may be performed using the pull-in signal transmission manager 835 or 935 described with reference to FIG. 8 or 9. At block 1610, the method 1600 may transmitting at least a second pull-in signal on at least one raster point of the frequency raster. In some examples, the at least one raster point may include a raster point of the frequency raster other than the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the second pull-in signal may be staggered in frequency, time, or a combination thereof. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1610 may be performed using the pull-in signal transmission manager 835 or 935 described with reference to FIG. 8 or 9. At block 1615, the method 1600 may include transmitting the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In certain examples, the operation(s) at block 1615 may be performed using the synchronization channel transmission manager 840 or 940 described with reference to FIG. 8 or 9. In some examples of the method 1600, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be transmitted within a data burst for which the wireless device has gained access to the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the data burst may be transmitted over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples of the method 1600, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be transmitted, for example, in an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In some examples, the method 1600 may include transmitting a plurality of instances of the synchronization channel, and the pull-in signal and the plurality of instances of the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be frequency domain multiplexed with an instance of the synchronization channel, and the pull-in signal and the instance of the synchronization channel may be transmitted using a same transmission beam. The methods 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500, and 1600 described with reference to FIGS. 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16 are examples of implementations of techniques described in the present disclosure. The operations of the method 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500, or 1600 may be rearranged, combined with other operations of the same or different methods, or otherwise modified, such that other implementations are possible. Operations may also be added to the method 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500, or 1600. Techniques described herein may be used for various wireless communication systems such as CDMA, TDMA, FDMA, OFDMA, SC-FDMA, and other systems. The terms “system” and “network” are often used interchangeably. A CDMA system may implement a radio technology such as CDMA2000, Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA), etc. CDMA2000 covers IS-2000, IS-95, and IS-856 standards. IS-2000 Releases 0 and A may be referred to as CDMA2000 1×, 1×, etc. IS-856 (TIA-856) may be referred to as CDMA2000 1×EV-DO, High Rate Packet Data (HRPD), etc. UTRA includes Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) and other variants of CDMA. A TDMA system may implement a radio technology such as Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM). An OFDMA system may implement a radio technology such as Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB), Evolved UTRA (E-UTRA), IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX), IEEE 802.20, Flash-OFDM™, etc. UTRA and E-UTRA are part of Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS). 3GPP LTE and LTE-A are new releases of UMTS that use E-UTRA. UTRA, E-UTRA, UMTS, LTE, LTE-A, and GSM are described in documents from an organization named 3GPP. CDMA2000 and UMB are described in documents from an organization named “3rd Generation Partnership Project 2” (3GPP2). The techniques described herein may be used for the systems and radio technologies mentioned above as well as other systems and radio technologies, including cellular (e.g., LTE) communications over an unlicensed radio frequency spectrum band. The description above, however, describes an LTE/LTE-A system for purposes of example, and LTE terminology is used in much of the description above, although the techniques are applicable beyond LTE/LTE-A applications. The detailed description set forth above in connection with the appended drawings describes examples and does not represent all of the examples that may be implemented or that are within the scope of the claims. The terms “example” and “exemplary,” when used in this description, mean “serving as an example, instance, or illustration,” and not “preferred” or “advantageous over other examples.” The detailed description includes specific details for the purpose of providing an understanding of the described techniques. These techniques, however, may be practiced without these specific details. In some instances, well-known structures and apparatuses are shown in block diagram form in order to avoid obscuring the concepts of the described examples. Information and signals may be represented using any of a variety of different technologies and techniques. For example, data, instructions, commands, information, signals, bits, symbols, and chips that may be referenced throughout the above description may be represented by voltages, currents, electromagnetic waves, magnetic fields or particles, optical fields or particles, or any combination thereof. The various illustrative blocks and components described in connection with the disclosure herein may be implemented or performed with a general-purpose processor, a digital signal processor (DSP), an ASIC, an FPGA or other programmable logic device, discrete gate or transistor logic, discrete hardware components, or any combination thereof designed to perform the functions described herein. A general-purpose processor may be a microprocessor, but in the alternative, the processor may be any conventional processor, controller, microcontroller, or state machine. A processor may also be implemented as a combination of computing devices, e.g., a combination of a DSP and a microprocessor, multiple microprocessors, one or more microprocessors in conjunction with a DSP core, or any other such configuration. The functions described herein may be implemented in hardware, software executed by a processor, firmware, or any combination thereof. If implemented in software executed by a processor, the functions may be stored on or transmitted over as one or more instructions or code on a computer-readable medium. Other examples and implementations are within the scope and spirit of the disclosure and appended claims. For example, due to the nature of software, functions described above can be implemented using software executed by a processor, hardware, firmware, hardwiring, or combinations of any of these. Components implementing functions may also be physically located at various positions, including being distributed such that portions of functions are implemented at different physical locations. As used herein, including in the claims, the term “or,” when used in a list of two or more items, means that any one of the listed items can be employed by itself, or any combination of two or more of the listed items can be employed. For example, if a composition is described as containing components A, B, or C, the composition can contain A alone; B alone; C alone; A and B in combination; A and C in combination; B and C in combination; or A, B, and C in combination. Also, as used herein, including in the claims, “or” as used in a list of items (for example, a list of items prefaced by a phrase such as “at least one of” or “one or more of”) indicates a disjunctive list such that, for example, a list of “at least one of A, B, or C” means A or B or C or AB or AC or BC or ABC (i.e., A and B and C). Computer-readable media includes both non-transitory computer storage media and communication media including any medium that facilitates transfer of a computer program from one place to another. A non-transitory storage medium may be any available medium that can be accessed by a general purpose or special purpose computer. By way of example, and not limitation, non-transitory computer-readable media can include RAM, ROM, electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM), compact disk (CD) ROM or other optical disk storage, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other non-transitory medium that can be used to carry or store desired program code means in the form of instructions or data structures and that can be accessed by a general-purpose or special-purpose computer, or a general-purpose or special-purpose processor. Also, any connection is properly termed a computer-readable medium. For example, if the software is transmitted from a website, server, or other remote source using a coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, twisted pair, digital subscriber line (DSL), or wireless technologies such as infrared, radio, and microwave, then the coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, twisted pair, DSL, or wireless technologies such as infrared, radio, and microwave are included in the definition of medium. Disk and disc, as used herein, include CD, laser disc, optical disc, digital versatile disc (DVD), floppy disk and Blu-ray disc where disks usually reproduce data magnetically, while discs reproduce data optically with lasers. Combinations of the above are also included within the scope of computer-readable media. The previous description of the disclosure is provided to enable a person skilled in the art to make or use the disclosure. Various modifications to the disclosure will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art, and the generic principles defined herein may be applied to other variations without departing from the scope of the disclosure. Thus, the disclosure is not to be limited to the examples and designs described herein but is to be accorded the broadest scope consistent with the principles and novel techniques disclosed herein.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Blindly searching for a synchronization channel takes time, is inefficient, and can increase a UE's initial acquisition time (or average initial acquisition time). To decrease a UE's synchronization channel search time, and thereby decrease the UE's initial acquisition time (or average initial acquisition time), a network access device may transmit pull-in signals on one or more raster points of a frequency raster. A pull-in signal may contain information that assists a UE in locating a network access device's synchronization channel transmissions and may indicate, for example, a raster point or timing of a next instance of a synchronization channel transmitted by the network access device. A UE that searches for a synchronization channel on a raster point that does not contain a synchronization channel transmission may identify a pull-in signal on the raster point. The UE may then determine, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point on which a synchronization channel is transmitted, and may search for the synchronization channel on the raster point on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. When the pull-in signal also contains timing information for the synchronization channel, the UE may transition to a power saving state after determining the timing of the synchronization channel, and may transition from the power saving state to an awake state based at least in part on the timing of the synchronization channel. In one example, a method for wireless communication at a wireless device is described. The method may include searching for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The method may also include identifying a pull-in signal on the first raster point; determining, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted; and receiving the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the method, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the method may include determining, from the pull-in signal, a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the method may include transitioning to a power saving state after determining the timing of the synchronization channel, and transitioning from the power saving state to an awake state based at least in part on the timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a pull-in primary synchronization channel (PI-PSS) and a pull-in secondary synchronization channel (PI-SSS), and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on the PI-PSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a primary synchronization channel (PSS) of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a pull-in information channel (PITCH) that indicates the second raster point. In some examples of the method, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on matching the PI-PSS and the PI-SSS to a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify the pull-in signal. In some examples, the method may include receiving a data burst over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the synchronization channel may be received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be identified within the data burst. In some examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the data burst may be received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the synchronization channel may be received, over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be identified in at least one of an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH), a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In one example, an apparatus for wireless communication at a wireless device is described. The apparatus may include means for searching for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The apparatus may also include means for identifying a pull-in signal on the first raster point; means for determining, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted; and means for receiving the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the apparatus may include means for determining, from the pull-in signal, a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the apparatus may include means for transitioning to a power saving state after determining the timing of the synchronization channel, and means for transitioning from the power saving state to an awake state based at least in part on the timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on the PI-PSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on matching the PI-PSS and the PI-SSS to a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify the pull-in signal. In some examples, the apparatus may include means for receiving a data burst over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the synchronization channel may be received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal is identified within the data burst. In some examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the data burst may be received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the synchronization channel may be received, over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be identified in at least one of an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In one example, another apparatus for wireless communication at a wireless device is described. The apparatus may include a processor, memory in electronic communication with the processor, and instructions stored in the memory. The instructions may be executable by the processor to search for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The instructions may also be executable by the processor to identify a pull-in signal on the first raster point; to determine, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted; and to receive the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the instructions may be executable by the processor to determine, from the pull-in signal, a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the instructions may be executable by the processor to transition to a power saving state after determining the timing of the synchronization channel, and to transition from the power saving state to an awake state based at least in part on the timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on the PI-PSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS, and the pull-in signal may be identified based at least in part on matching the PI-PSS and the PI-SSS to a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify the pull-in signal. In some examples, the instructions may be executable by the processor to receive a data burst over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In these examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the synchronization channel may be received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be identified within the data burst. In some examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the data burst may be received, over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples, the pull-in signal may be identified, and the synchronization channel may be received, over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be identified in at least one of an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In one example, a computer program product including a non-transitory computer-readable medium is described. The non-transitory computer-readable medium may include instructions to search for a synchronization channel on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum. The non-transitory computer-readable medium may also include instructions to identify a pull-in signal on the first raster point; instructions to determine, from the pull-in signal, a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted; and instructions to receive the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the computer program product, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the non-transitory computer-readable medium may include instructions to determine, from the pull-in signal, a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the non-transitory computer-readable medium may include instructions to transition to a power saving state after determining the timing of the synchronization channel, and instructions to transition from the power saving state to an awake state based at least in part on the timing of the synchronization channel. In one example, another method for wireless communication at a wireless device is described. The method may include transmitting a pull-in signal on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may indicate a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. The method may also include transmitting the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the method, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS that match a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be transmitted within a data burst for which the wireless device has gained access to the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the data burst may be transmitted over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples of the method, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be transmitted in at least one of an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In some examples, the method may include transmitting a plurality of instances of the synchronization channel. In these examples, the pull-in signal and the plurality of instances of the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, the pull-in signal may be frequency domain multiplexed with an instance of the synchronization channel, and the pull-in signal and the instance of the synchronization channel may be transmitted using a same transmission beam. In some examples, the method may include transmitting at least a second pull-in signal on a raster point of the frequency raster other than the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the second pull-in signal may be staggered in at least one of: frequency, time, or a combination thereof. In one example, another apparatus for wireless communication at a wireless device is described. The apparatus may include means for transmitting a pull-in signal on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may indicate a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. The apparatus may also include means for transmitting the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS that match a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be transmitted within a data burst for which the wireless device has gained access to the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the data burst may be transmitted over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be transmitted in at least one of an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In some examples, the apparatus may include means for transmitting a plurality of instances of the synchronization channel. In these examples, the pull-in signal and the plurality of instances of the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, the pull-in signal may be frequency domain multiplexed with an instance of the synchronization channel, and the pull-in signal and the instance of the synchronization channel may be transmitted using a same transmission beam. In some examples, the apparatus may include means for transmitting at least a second pull-in signal on a raster point of the frequency raster other than the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the second pull-in signal may be staggered in at least one of frequency, time, or a combination thereof. In one example, another apparatus for wireless communication at a wireless device is described. The apparatus may include a processor, memory in electronic communication with the processor, and instructions stored in the memory. The instructions may be executable by the processor to transmit a pull-in signal on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may indicate a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. The instructions may also be executable by the processor to transmit the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS. In some examples, the PI-PSS may have a same duration as a PSS of the synchronization channel, and the PI-PSS and the PSS may include different sequences. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PIICH that indicates the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may include a PI-PSS and a PI-SSS that match a combination of PSS and SSS reserved to identify the pull-in signal. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be transmitted within a data burst for which the wireless device has gained access to the contention-based radio frequency spectrum. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the data burst may be transmitted over the contention-based radio frequency spectrum on a same transmission beam. In some examples of the apparatus, the pull-in signal and the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may be transmitted in at least one of an empty downlink data resource, an empty control resource, a resource that punctures a PDSCH, a resource that is rate-matched around by the PDSCH, or a combination thereof. In some examples, the instructions may be executable by the processor to transmit a plurality of instances of the synchronization channel. In these examples, the pull-in signal and the plurality of instances of the synchronization channel may be transmitted over a non-contention-based radio frequency spectrum, the pull-in signal may be frequency domain multiplexed with an instance of the synchronization channel, and the pull-in signal and the instance of the synchronization channel may be transmitted using a same transmission beam. In some examples, the instructions may be executable by the processor to transmit at least a second pull-in signal on a raster point of the frequency raster other than the second raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal and the second pull-in signal may be staggered in at least one of frequency, time, or a combination thereof. In one example, another computer program product including a non-transitory computer-readable medium is described. The non-transitory computer-readable medium may include instructions to transmit a pull-in signal on a first raster point of a frequency raster identified for synchronization channel transmissions. The frequency raster may include a plurality of raster points in a radio frequency spectrum, and the pull-in signal may indicate a second raster point of the frequency raster on which the synchronization channel is transmitted. The non-transitory computer-readable medium may also include instructions to transmit the synchronization channel on the second raster point. In some examples of the non-transitory computer-readable medium, the pull-in signal may indicate the second raster point relative to the first raster point. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate a timing of the synchronization channel. In some examples, the pull-in signal may indicate the timing of the synchronization channel relative to a second timing of the pull-in signal. The foregoing has outlined rather broadly the techniques and technical advantages of examples according to the disclosure in order that the detailed description that follows may be better understood. Additional techniques and advantages will be described hereinafter. The conception and specific examples disclosed may be readily utilized as a basis for modifying or designing other structures for carrying out the same purposes of the present disclosure. Such equivalent constructions do not depart from the scope of the appended claims. Characteristics of the concepts disclosed herein, both their organization and method of operation, together with associated advantages will be better understood from the following description when considered in connection with the accompanying figures. Each of the figures is provided for the purpose of illustration and description, and not as a definition of the limits of the claims.

H04J110073

20180207

20180614

62307.0

H04J1100

KAMARA, MOHAMED A

TECHNIQUES FOR TRANSMITTING OR USING A PULL-IN SIGNAL TO LOCATE A SYNCHRONIZATION CHANNEL

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04J

PENDING

DISPLAY APPARATUS AND VIDEO PROCESSING APPARATUS

While presenting on a display apparatus videos of high picture quality obtained from portable video processing apparatuses such as a camera and a cellular, it is possible to communicate with the Internet and/or a home network. A display apparatus includes a first radio communication unit capable of receiving video information by radio from an external video processing apparatus, a second radio communication unit capable of connecting by radio to a network, and a control unit for controlling assignment of connection by radio transmission for each of the first and second radio communication units. The control unit assigns connection of the first radio communication unit with higher priority and controls the assignment of the transmission rate such that the transmission rate between the first radio communication unit and the external video processing apparatus is more than that between the second radio communication unit and the network.

1. A display apparatus, comprising: a first radio communication circuit configured to receive digital video information by a radio from an external video processing apparatus; a second radio communication circuit configured to connect to an internet or a home network by radio, and receive digital information; and a controller, wherein the controller is configured to control each of the first and second radio communication circuits such that the first radio communication circuit receives digital video information from the external video processing apparatus and the second radio communication circuit connects to the internet or the home network simultaneously, wherein the controller is further configured to control assignment between the first radio communication circuit and the external video processing apparatus, and assignment between the second radio communication circuit and the internet or the home network, and wherein the controller is further configured to control the assignment such that the assignment between the first radio communication circuit and the external video processing apparatus is more than the assignment between the second radio communication circuit and the internet or the home network. 2. The display apparatus of claim 1, wherein the controller is further configured to control the assignment upon an indication to receive video information by using the first radio communication circuit from the video processing apparatus while acquiring information from the Internet by use of the second radio communication circuit. 3. The display apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first radio communication circuit and the second radio communication circuit are different from each other in frequency bandwidth. 4. The display apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first radio communication circuit and the second radio communication circuit are different from each other in modulation/demodulation method. 5. The display apparatus of claim 1, wherein the controller is further configured to assign connection of the first radio communication circuit with higher priority. 6. The display apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a detection circuit configured to detect a state of a transmission path, wherein a demodulation method in the first or second radio communication circuit is controlled according to a result of detection conducted by the detection circuit. 7. A video processing apparatus, comprising: a first radio communication circuit configured to transmit digital video information by radio to an external apparatus; a second radio communication circuit configured to connect to an internet or a home network, and receive digital information; and a controller, wherein the controller is configured to control each of the first and second radio communication circuits such that the first radio communication circuit transmits digital video information to the external apparatus and the second radio communication circuit connects to the internet or the home network simultaneously, wherein the controller is further configured to control assignment between the first radio communication circuit and the external apparatus, and assignment between the second radio communication circuit and the internet or the home network, and wherein the controller is further configured to control the assignment such that the assignment between the first radio communication circuit and the external apparatus is more than the assignment between the second radio communication circuit and the internet or the home network. 8. The video processing apparatus of claim 7, wherein the controller is configured to control the assignment when a user issues an indication to transmit video information by using the first radio communication circuit to the external apparatus while acquiring information from the Internet by use of the second radio communication circuit. 9. The video processing apparatus of claim 7, wherein the first radio communication circuit and the second radio communication circuit are different from each other in frequency bandwidth. 10. The video processing apparatus of claim 7, wherein the first radio communication circuit and the second radio communication circuit are different from each other in modulation/demodulation method. 11. The video processing apparatus of claim 7, wherein the controller is configured to assign connection of the first radio communication circuit with higher priority. 12. The video processing apparatus of claim 7, further comprising a detection circuit configured to detect a state of a transmission path, wherein a demodulation method in the first or second radio communication circuit is controlled according to a result of detection conducted by the detection circuit. 13. A method for displaying via a display apparatus, the method comprising: receiving, via a first radio communication circuit, digital video information by radio from an external video processing apparatus; connecting, via a second radio communication circuit, to an internet or a home network through the external video processing apparatus by radio; receiving digital information; controlling each of the first and second radio communication circuits; receiving, via the first radio communication circuit, digital video information from the external video processing apparatus and connecting to the internet or the home network simultaneously; controlling assignment between the first radio communication circuit and the external video processing apparatus; controlling assignment between the second radio communication circuit and the internet or the home network; and controlling the assignment such that the assignment between the first radio communication circuit and the external video processing apparatus is more than the assignment between the second radio communication circuit and the internet or the home network. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the first radio communication circuit and the second radio communication circuit are different from each other in frequency bandwidth. 15. The method of claim 13, wherein the first radio communication circuit and the second radio communication circuit are different from each other in modulation/demodulation method. 16. The method of claim 13, further comprising assigning connection of the first radio communication circuit with a higher priority. 17. The method of claim 13, further comprising detecting a state of a transmission path; and controlling according to a result of detection conducted by the detection circuit. 18. A method for video processing, the method comprising: transmitting, via a first radio communication circuit, digital video information by radio to an external apparatus; connecting, via a second radio communication circuit, to an internet or a home network; receiving digital information; controlling each of the first and second radio communication circuits such that the first radio communication circuit transmits digital video information to the external apparatus and the second radio communication circuit connects to the internet or the home network simultaneously; controlling assignment between the first radio communication circuit and the external apparatus, and assignment between the second radio communication circuit and the internet or the home network; controlling the assignment such that the assignment between the first radio communication circuit and the external apparatus is more than the assignment between the second radio communication circuit and the internet or the home network. 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the first radio communication circuit and the second radio communication circuit are different from each other in frequency bandwidth. 20. The method of claim 18, wherein the first radio communication circuit and the second radio communication circuit are different from each other in modulation/demodulation method.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/208,886, filed on Jul. 13, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/260,410, filed on Oct. 29, 2008 (now, U.S. Pat. No. 9,420,212), which claims priority to Japanese Patent Application No. 2007-306750, filed on Nov. 28, 2007, the contents of all of which are hereby incorporated by reference into this application. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a technique to establish connections between a plurality of apparatuses and networks by radio. To connect a video processing apparatus to a video display apparatus as another video processing apparatus to view videos, there has been employed a method to establish analog connections therebetween to transmit video and audio signals. However, as digital apparatuses have been widely spread, there is employed, to prevent picture quality deterioration and to protect copyright of contents to be viewed, a method in which digital connections are established between the apparatuses and video and audio signals are encrypted to be transmitted therebetween. High Definition Digital Multimedia Interface (HDMI) is known as an example of an interface for digital transmission. According to the HDMI, the base band signal and the audio signal of high definition are time-division multiplexed and the resultant signal is encrypted through HDCP for transmission thereof. A conventional technique in which digitized video and audio signals are multiplexed for transmission as above is described in, for example, JP-A-2007-202115. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to the HDMI, which is developed on assumption of uses for connections between apparatuses installed in a house of a family, consideration has not been given to connections with the internet and a network in the family or a home network while viewing high-quality videos. It is therefore an object of the present invention, devised to overcome the difficulty, to provide a technique wherein while presenting on a display apparatus videos of high picture quality obtained from portable video processing apparatuses such as a camera and a cellular phone, it is possible to communicate with the internet and/or a home network. According to one aspect of the resent invention, there is provided a display apparatus including a first radio communication unit capable of receiving video information by radio from an external video processing apparatus, a second radio communication unit capable of connecting by radio to a network, and a connection assignment control unit for controlling assignment of connection by radio transmission for each of the first and second radio communication units. The control unit assigns connection of the first radio communication unit with higher priority and controls the assignment of the transmission rate, for example, such that the transmission rate between the first radio communication unit and the external video processing apparatus is more than the transmission rate between the second radio communication unit and the network. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a video processing apparatus including a first radio communication unit capable of transmitting video information by radio to an external display apparatus, a second radio communication unit capable of connecting by radio to a network, and a connection assignment control unit for controlling assignment of connection by radio transmission for each of the first and second radio communication units. The control unit assigns connection of the first radio communication unit with higher priority and controls the assignment of the transmission rate, for example, such that the transmission rate between the first radio communication unit and the external video display apparatus is more than the transmission rate between the second radio communication unit and the network. In the display apparatus constructed as above, the first radio communication unit can communicate video information of high picture quality with an external video processing apparatus. The second radio communication unit can connect by radio to the internet and a home network. The controller controls the transmission rate of the radio transmitter module to be assigned to the first radio communication unit and can change the transmission rate of the radio transmitter module to be assigned to the second radio communication unit. It is possible for the controller to determine and to control the radio transmission rates to be assigned to the first and second radio communication units. The controller controls the operation such that the assignment to the first radio communication module to conduct transmission to receive video information from an external video processing apparatus is carried out with higher priority. Therefore, it is possible that video information of high picture quality is continuously fed from the video processing apparatus to the video information apparatus as well as information is transmitted from the internet and a home network. There can be hence provided a video display apparatus having high serviceability. According to the present invention, it is possible to communicate with a network while displaying videos of high picture quality obtained by a video processing apparatus. Other objects, features and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the following description of the embodiments of the invention taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram showing an example of an embodiment of a video processing apparatus 100 according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing an example of an embodiment of a video display apparatus 200 according to the present invention; FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing another example of an embodiment of a video display apparatus 200 according to the present invention; FIG. 4 is a diagram showing an example of a radio modulator and demodulator or modem of the video processing apparatus 100; FIG. 5 is a block diagram showing an example of a system in which two video processing apparatuses are wirelessly connected to each other; FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing another example of a system in which two video processing apparatuses are wirelessly connected to each other; FIG. 7 is a diagram showing an example of structure of the HDMI; FIG. 8 is a diagram showing an example of a radio modem of the video display apparatus; FIG. 9 shows a diagram showing an example of transmission parameters of a radio modem in the embodiment; FIG. 10 is a diagram showing connections between the video processing apparatus 100 and the video display apparatus 200 in the embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 11 is a diagram showing an example of assignment of bands in another example of a radio modem shown in FIGS. 4 and 8. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the drawings, description will be given of an embodiment according to the present invention. First Embodiment FIG. 10 shows an embodiment of the present invention. In this example, the system includes two video processing apparatuses, i.e., a video processing apparatus 100 which is, for example, a portable video processing apparatus capable of receiving a digital broadcast signal via a base station antenna for cellular phones or a broadcast transmission tower and a video display apparatus 200 such as a tuner capable of receiving a digital broadcast signal from a broadcast transmission tower. These apparatuses are connected, for example, via a bidirectional interface 10 to each other. Resultantly, a video signal of high picture quality and other information items and signals can be bidirectionally communicated therebetween. On the other hand, between a terminal 134 of the video processing apparatus 100 and a terminal 202 of the video display apparatus 200, signals from the internet and a home network are communicated by radio. The frequency bands used for the transmission between the terminals 134 and 202 are limited to predetermined frequency bands. This increases the radio wave resource efficiency and prevents the problem of interference with other apparatuses. In the embodiment, the portable video processing apparatus 100 is specifically, for example, a digital camera, a video camera, a cellular phone, a game machine, or a personal media player. FIG. 1 shows a concrete example of the video processing apparatus 100 employed in the first embodiment of the present invention. This is a specific configuration of the apparatus 100 shown in FIG. 10. In FIG. 1, an imaging device 110 receives a moving or still picture supplied via an optical system to convert the picture into en electric signal. To transmit a moving picture, a compression circuit 111 employs a compression method, e.g., Moving Picture Experts Group 2 (MPEG2), MPEG4, or AVC/H.264. To transmit a still picture, the compression circuit 111 employs a compression method, e.g., Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG). The compression circuit 111 efficiently bit-compresses the received image. A microphone 112 converts sound into an electric signal. A compression circuit 113 uses a compression method such as an MPEG audio to efficiently bit-compress the received audio signal. A multiplexer circuit 116 receives the bit-compressed video and audio signals from the compression circuits 111 and 113 and various information items from a microprocessor 115. By use of the information items, the multiplexer 116 multiplexes the signals according to a predetermined format. When a still picture is shot, the audio signal is not obtained in an ordinary case. However, it is also possible to multiplex an audio signal in synchronism with the still picture shooting operation. The information items from the microprocessor 115 include, for example, positional information (horizontal positions, vertical positions on the right, and vertical positions on the left), date, and exposure information at shooting. In FIG. 1, the multiplexed signal from the multiplexer 116 is fed via an encryption/decryption circuit 140 to be stored in a storage 130. The storage 130 may be, for example, a hard disk device, an optical disk device, or a semiconductor memory device. The type of the storage 130 may be determined according to, for example, a storage capacity, a size of the storage 130, easiness of removing a storage medium, and/or a price of the storage 130 according to necessity. It is also possible to store the multiplexed signal via a signal processing circuit 124 and a memory interface 120 in a memory 121. When information is shot by a particular person, copyright of the information belongs to the person. Hence, ordinarily, such information is not required to be encrypted for the storage thereof. However, the storage medium having stored information by the storage 130 may be lost. It will be more safe if the multiplexed signal from the multiplexer 116 is once encrypted by the encryption/decryption circuit 140 to be stored in the storage 130 or the memory 121. The video processing apparatus 100 may also support the use of a removable memory or include a cellular phone function or a radio Local Area Network (LAN) function. The memory interface 120 is an interface for a removable memory 121. When video and audio contents of still and moving pictures are recorded by another apparatus in the memory 121 and the memory 121 is connected to the interface 120, the contents can be recorded via the signal processing circuit 124 and the encryption/decryption circuit 140 into the storage 130. In this situation, the signal processing circuit 124 checks to determine whether or not the copyright of the contents recorded in the memory 121 is protected and whether or not the duplication thereof is prohibited. According to the detected condition, the encryption/decryption circuit 140 encrypts the contents and moves the encrypted contents in the storage 130. Similarly, audio and video contents of still and moving pictures are received as inputs by a radio interface 122. The contents are stored via the signal processing circuit 124 and the encryption/decryption circuit 140 in the storage 130. Also, according to conditions of the copyright protection and the replication restriction, the contents are encrypted by the encryption/decryption circuit 140, as required. When it is desired to reproduce a content stored in the storage 130 to view the reproduced content, the user selects the content by an input key or a remote control, not shown. The selected content is read from the storage 130 to be decoded by the encryption/decryption circuit 140 and is then separated by a demultiplexer circuit 141 into an audio signal and a video signal. When a broadcast program is received by a broadcast receiver 180, the encrypted signal encrypted for the broadcast is decrypted by the encryption/decryption circuit 140. If encryption is required to store the signal, the signal is accordingly encrypted by the circuit 140 to be stored in the storage 130 and the memory 121. To immediately view the received broadcast program in real time, the signal is separated by the demultiplexer 141 into a video signal and an audio signal. The separated and compressed video signal is decompressed by a decompression circuit 142 to be fed to a signal processing circuit 150. The circuit 150 conducts a scanning-line conversion for the video signal on the basis of the number of scanning lines of a display 160 to output the resultant video signal to the display 160. The separated and compressed audio signal is decompressed by a decompression circuit 143 to be delivered to an audio output device 161. Since the video processing apparatus 100 includes the display 160 and the audio output device 161, it is possible to immediately view the broadcast program without externally connecting any video display apparatus. In a situation wherein the period of time required for the decompression varies between the video and audio signals and/or a time difference exists between the video display and the audio output due to presence or absence of the scanning-line conversion, if the audio signal is advanced in time relative to the video signal, the user particularly perceives an uncomfortable feeling. To overcome the difficulty, the audio signal is delayed, for example, in the decompression processing, namely, a lip-sync operation is carried out. This removes the uncomfortable feeling due to the difference in time between the video and audio signals. Description will now be given of a situation wherein the video processing apparatus 100 is employed as a cellular phone. For example, a voice of a conversation is inputted to the audio input/output section 126 to produce an electric signal. For the signal, a telephone signal processing circuit 125 executes predetermined signal processing and modulation processing. The resultant signal is transmitted via an antenna, not shown, to a base station of the cellular phone. An audio signal sent from the base station is received by an antenna, not shown, to be fed to the telephone signal processing circuit 125. For the signal, the circuit 125 executes predetermined signal processing and demodulation processing. The resultant signal is fed to the audio I/O section 126 to be reproduced as a voice. The video processing apparatus 100 can also receive a content of a moving picture transmitted from the base station of the cellular phone. The content is received by an antenna, not shown, to be delivered via the telephone signal processing circuit 125 to the signal processing circuit 124. The content is similarly processed as above by the encryption/decryption circuit 140. The resultant signal of the content is fed to a display and an audio output unit incorporated in the video processing apparatus 100 to be viewed/listened by the user. The content thus processed may also be fed via a terminal 101, a connection cable 10, and a terminal 201 to an external video display apparatus 200 to be displayed on a large-sized screen. While viewing the content, it is possible to record the content in a recording medium incorporated in the video processing apparatus 100 or a recording medium, e.g., a memory 121 connected thereto, for example, to view the content later. The memory 121 may also be used as a recording medium to record a movie and the like. Similarly, a program broadcast from a broadcast transmission tower is received by a broadcast receiver 180 of the video processing apparatus 100 to be viewed by the apparatus 100 or to be stored in a recording medium, not shown, incorporated in the apparatus 100 or a recording medium, e.g., the memory 121 connected thereto. Also, the content may be fed via the terminal 101, the cable 10, and the terminal 201 to the video display apparatus 200 to be viewed by the user. In addition, by installing an imaging device 110 and a microphone 112 in the video processing apparatus 100, still and moving pictures can be shot together with audios and can be stored in an incorporated recording medium, not shown, and/or the memory 121. The videos and audios stored in the recording medium and/or the memory 121 may be fed via the terminal 101 to the video display apparatus 200 to be enjoyed by the user. When the user views video and audio signals by use of the external video display apparatus 200, the apparatus 200 confirms scanning lines which the apparatus 200 can support. If the scanning lines match those of the video signals to be displayed, the signals are immediately outputted in real time. Otherwise, the scanning lines of the video signals are converted by a signal processing circuit 150 into the required scanning lines to be fed to a multiplexer circuit 170. In the circuit 170, the video signals are multiplexed on the time axis, with the audio signals processed by a signal processing circuit 151. The circuit 151 compresses the audio signals on the time axis during a period corresponding to the blanking period of the video signals and conducts a time adjusting operation to carry out the lip-sync operation according to the necessity. The video and audio signals multiplexed by the multiplexer circuit 170 are delivered to an encryption circuit 171. For the signals, the circuit 171 carries out encryption for the transmission of the signals between the video processing apparatus 100 and the video display apparatus 200 and outputs the resultant signals via a video interface circuit 131, a transmission rate assignment controller 1001, and the terminal 101 to the video display apparatus 200. On the other hand, the terminal 134 is connected to a network such as the internet as described above and is used to wirelessly communicate videos and other information items obtained from the network by use of a radio modem circuit 1003. The information from the network is demodulated by the circuit 1003 to be fed via the transmission rate assignment controller 1001 to an interface circuit 133 and is delivered therefrom to a microprocessor 115. The microprocessor 115 determines the type of the information from the network. If the information is, for example, a video stream compressed in a predetermined format, the microprocessor 115 feeds the video stream to the demultiplexer circuit 141 and the decompression circuit 143. For the video stream, the circuits 141 and 143 conduct processing as described above. The resultant signals are presented on the display 160. According to necessity, the audio information obtained from the network is reproduced by the audio output device 161. If the information from the network is an update program of an application program or an Operating System (OS), the microprocessor 115 executes addition and storage processing for new software or executes update processing for the associated program. Although the processing of the network information is executed by the microprocessor 115 to process video information in the embodiment, it is also possible to arrange a microprocessor to dedicatedly process the network information. The controller 132 controls the transmission rate assignment control circuit 1001 on the basis of time control information of the video signal to variably control the transmission rate of the radio modem circuit 1002. At the same time, the controller 132 variably controls the transmission rate of the radio modem circuit 1003 for radio communication with a network such as the Internet. According to the embodiment, in the assignment of the transmission rate to the demodulation circuits 1001 and 1002, the controller 132 gives preference to the demodulation circuit 1001. In other words, the transmission rate of the demodulation circuit 1001 is more than that of the modem circuit 1002. Hence, within the limited range of bands for the radio transmission, the modem 1002 can transmit video information without deteriorating the video quality of the video information having high picture quality. The band of radio signals from the terminal 101 and that of radio signals from the terminal 134 are fixed. Therefore, if the band of signals from the terminal 101 is expanded, that of signals from the terminal 134 narrows to slightly lower the communication speed of the network. However, this rarely influences the system operation since information regarding the network is less frequently exchanged as compared with video information sent from the video processing apparatus 100. When the signal from the terminal 101 is to be stored in the destination thereof, the compressed signal is transmitted without decompressing the signal. In the operation, the encryption/decryption circuit 140 delivers the compressed signal to the encryption circuit 171. The circuit 171 conducts predetermined encryption for the signal and then outputs the resultant signal via the video interface circuit 131, the transmission rate assignment controller 1001, and the terminal 101. Also in this situation, the control circuit 132 variably controls the transmission rate of the radio modem 1002 in association with the time control information of the video signal. As a result, the radio modem 1002 can send the video information without deteriorating the video quality of the video information having high picture quality. In the description above, the video and audio signals obtained from the imaging device 110 and the microphone 112 and the contents inputted from the memory 121 and the radio interface 122 are once stored in the storage 130 to be thereafter reproduced. However, if the storing of the signals and the contents are not required or are immediately viewed, the signals and the contents are demultiplexed by the demultiplexer 141 without conducting the encryption and decryption for the storage by the encryption/decryption circuit 140. Resultantly, the videos and audios can be enjoyed by use of the display 160 and the audio output device 161 of the video processing apparatus 100. Also, it is possible to enjoy the videos and audios by a receiver externally connected via the wired interface circuit 131 to the apparatus 100. Description will now be specifically given of one technical aspect of the embodiment, namely, the transmission rate assignment control circuit 1001 and the radio demodulation circuits 1002 and 1003. The modem circuits 1002 and 1003 conduct demodulation through Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). In the example, the modem 1002 is a first radio communication unit which wirelessly sends video information and audio information to the external video display apparatus 200 and which receives data and information by radio therefrom. The modem 1002 is connected via the transmission rate assignment controller 1001 to the interface circuit 131 which communicates with the video display apparatus 200. On the other hand, the modem 1003 is a second radio communication unit which connects to (accesses) a network, e.g., the Internet or a home network to wirelessly communicate various information including video signals, audio signals, and data therewith. The modem 1003 is connected via the transmission rate assignment controller 1001 to the interface circuit 133 for networks. The controller 1001 variably controls, according to a control signal from the controller 132, the transmission rates respectively of the modems 1002 and 1003 by variably setting the modulation/demodulation methods, the frequency bands, and the number of carriers respectively for the modems 1002 and 1003. In short, the controller 132 controls distribution of the radio transmission rate of each modem by controlling the transmission rate assignment controller 1001. As a specific example of operation in which the transmission rate is controlled by changing parameters including the demodulation method and the frequency band, FIG. 9 shows the difference in the transmission rate between two schemes. According to the embodiment, the controller 132 and the transmission rate assignment controller 1001 control the radio transmission assignment such that the radio transmission rate of the modem 1002 to send the video information of high picture quality by radio to the video display apparatus 200 takes precedence over the radio transmission rate of the modem 1003 to connect to a network for communication. That is, the radio transmission rate of the modem 1002 is more than that of the modem 1003. For example, in a situation wherein the modem 1002 transmits video information to the display apparatus 200 and the modem 1003 simultaneously connects to the Internet to receive Internet information, the controller 132 controls the operation to continuously supply videos with high picture quality to the user, specifically, to set the transmission scheme of the modem 1002 to, for example, “scheme 1” shown in FIG. 9. For the radio modem 1003, the controller 132 sets the transmission scheme thereof to “scheme 2” of FIG. 9. As can be seen from FIG. 9, the transmission capacity of scheme 1 is 17 Megabits per second (Mbps) which is more than three times that of scheme 2 (5 Mbps). As above, in the limited transmission capacity for radio transmission, a higher transmission rate is assigned to the communication with the display apparatus 200 in the embodiment. It is hence possible that the user continuously views videos with high picture quality on the display apparatus 100. Naturally, the variable control of the transmission rate is not limited to the example shown in FIG. 9. The controller 132 and the transmission rate assignment controller 1001 may variably control the radio transmission assignment to the modems 1002 and 1003 in response to an indication from the user. For example, in a situation wherein the user issues an indication to transmit video information by radio via the modem 1002 to the display apparatus 200 while acquiring information from the Internet according to scheme 1 of FIG. 9 by use of the modem 1003, the controller 132 outputs a control signal to the assignment controller 1001 such that the transmission scheme of the modem 1003 is changed from scheme 1 to scheme 2 of FIG. 9 and that of the modem 1002 is set to scheme 1 of FIG. 9 conduct communications. The transmission rate of the modem 1002 may be variably changed according to fineness or precision of the video information sent from the modem 1002 to the display apparatus 200. For example, if the fineness of the video information is altered from SD (640×480) to HD (1980×1080), the controller 132 instructs the assignment controller 1001 to heighten the transmission rate of the modem circuit 1002. It is preferable in the operation that the transmission rate of the modem 1003 is lowered in association with the variable control of the transmission rate of the modem 1002. The transmission rates of the radio modems 1002 and 1003 may also be variably controlled by a communication technique using a plurality of antennas such as a Multi-Input Multi-Output (MIMO) scheme. Referring next to FIG. 4, description will be given of other examples of the transmission rate assignment controller and the radio modem. FIG. 4 shows only part of the system associated with the transmission rate assignment control. In FIG. 4, the same functional constituent components as those of FIG. 1 are assigned with the same reference numerals. In FIG. 4, radio modem circuits 5001 to 5004 are modems having respective fixed transmission capacity values and differ from each other only in the frequency band for transmission. The modems 5001 to 5004 respectively have bands A to D as shown in FIG. 11. Terminals 101 and 5005 to 5007 are input terminals to receive signals and are arranged respectively for radio modems 5001 to 5004. In operation, the modems 5001 to 5004 may be appropriately combined with each other. For example, according to necessity, the modems 5001 and 5002 are employed to transmit video information and the modems 5003 and 5004 are utilized to communicate with the network such as the Internet. That is, while the interface circuit 131 wirelessly transmits video information and audio information via the modems 5001 and 5002 to the video display apparatus 200, the interface circuit 133 conducts communication via the modems 5003 and 5004 with the network. In a situation wherein a wide band is required to transmit video information of high picture quality (e.g., video information of HD resolution), the modems 5001 to 5003 are assigned to send video information and only the modem 5004 is assigned to communicate with the network such as the Internet. Specifically, the interface circuit 131 transmits video and audio information by radio via the modems 5001 to 5003 to the display apparatus 200, and the interface circuit 133 communicates with the network via the modem 5004. As a result, video information of high picture quality can be continuously transmitted and it is also possible to communicate with the Internet. Particularly, the broadcast signal is required to be presented by synchronizing the time information sent from the broadcasting station with that on the receiver side. According to the present invention, the time information can be appropriately controlled without deteriorating the quality of the video information. FIG. 2 shows a specific configuration of the video display apparatus 200 of FIG. 10. In FIGS. 2 and 10, the same constituent components are assigned with the same reference numerals and detailed description thereof will be avoided. Description will be given of a situation wherein an uncompressed baseband signal of a moving picture is inputted via the terminal 201. The signal from the external video processing apparatus 100 thus received via the terminal 201 is demodulated by a radio modem circuit 2015 to be supplied via a transmission rate assignment controller 2017 and an input/output interface circuit 2011 to a decryption circuit 211. In operation, a controller 2013 drives the assignment controller 2017 to vary the transmission rate of the modem 2015 according to that of the video information delivered from the video processing apparatus 100. Resultantly, an input/output interface circuit 2011 can receive the video information of high picture quality at preset timing. The decryption circuit 211 is associated with encryption by the encryption circuit 171 shown in FIG. 1 and decrypts a signal encrypted by the circuit 171. The decrypted signal is fed to a demultiplexer circuit 250, and then video and audio signals obtained from the demultiplexer 250 are inputted to signal processing circuits 251 and 252, respectively. For the received video signal, the circuit 251 conducts a scanning-line conversion and a resolution conversion according to the number of pixels displayable by a display 260. The circuit 252 decompresses on the time axis the audio signal which is compressed and multiplexed on the time axis by use of the blanking of the video signal. According to necessity, the circuit 252 carries out the lip-sync operation and the sound quality adjustment. Signals outputted respectively from the circuits 251 and 252 are inputted respectively to a display 260 and an audio input/output unit 270 to be viewed by the user. Description will now be given of operation when a compressed moving-picture signal is received via the terminal 201. This operation aims at storing the moving-picture signal in a storage 230 incorporated in the apparatus 200. The signal received from the terminal 201 is delivered via the wired input/output interface circuit 2011 to the decryption circuit 211. The circuit 211 corresponds to the encryption circuit 171 shown in FIG. 2 and decrypts a signal encrypted by the circuit 171. The decrypted signal is inputted to an encryption/decryption circuit 240. The circuit 240 reads copy control information of the content to be stored and encrypts the content for the storage thereof according to the information. The encrypted signal is stored in the storage 230 in the compressed state. In a situation wherein the user views the compressed signal received via the terminal 201 while storing the signal in the storage, a signal corresponding to a compressed signal decrypted by the encryption/decryption circuit 211 is fed from the encryption/decryption circuit 240 to a demultiplexer circuit 241. In the circuit 241, the signal is separated into a compressed video signal and a compressed audio signal. The separated video and audio signals are decompressed respectively by decompression circuits 242 and 243 to baseband signals to be respectively supplied to the signal processing circuits 251 and 252. Signals outputted respectively therefrom are delivered respectively to the display and the audio output unit 270 to be viewed by the user. When a content stored in the storage 230 is reproduced to be viewed by the user, information items such as titles of the contents stored in the storage 230 are presented on the display 260. When the user selects one of the contents, a signal of the selected content is fed from the storage 230 to the encryption/decryption circuit 240. The circuit 240 decrypts the encrypted signal of the content to input the resultant signal to the demultiplexer 241. The signal of the content is thereafter similarly processed as described above to be viewed by the user. It is possible to similarly reproduce contents stored in a memory 221. As in the reproduction of contents stored in the storage 230, the user selects one of the contents stored in a memory 221 to view the content. The selected content is transferred via a memory interface 220 and a signal processing circuit 224 to the encryption/decryption circuit 240. Specifically, the circuit 224 executes processing necessary to read the content from the memory 221 to input compressed and multiplexed video and audio signals of the content to the circuit 240. Subsequent signal processing is similar to the processing executed after the content is read from the storage 230. As in the operation to store a content in the storage 230, it is possible to store the content in the memory 221. Although detailed description of the associated processing will be avoided, the content encrypted by the encryption/decryption circuit 240 is stored via the signal processing circuit 224 and the memory interface 220 into the memory 221. To view or to store a content transmitted by radio, the system executes processing in a similar way. A compressed content received by radio is fed via a radio interface 222 and the signal processing circuit 224 to the encryption/decryption circuit 240. The circuit 240 decrypts the signal encrypted for the radio transmission. Subsequent processing is similar to the processing executed at reproduction of the signal from the storage 230. When an uncompressed baseband signal is received from the terminal 201 or 202, the content can be efficiently stored in the storage 230 and the memory 221. Description will be given of operation in this situation. The content inputted from the terminal 201 is transferred via the input/output interface 2011, the decryption circuit 211 and the demultiplexer circuit 250 to be separated into a video signal and an audio signal. The video and audio signals thus separated are fed via a replication control circuit 280 to compression circuits 281 and 282. The circuit 280 reads, from the content, multiplexed replication control information to determine whether or not replication of the content is allowed. As the control information, a bit may be assigned to a designated field. Or, by using electronic watermark, the information may be superimposed onto video or audio information. Information inputted from the network to the terminal 202 is also processed in a similar fashion as above. The compression circuit 281 compresses the video signal by use of a compression scheme, e.g., MPEG2, MPEG4, or AVC/H.264. The compression circuit 282 compresses the audio signal according to a compression scheme, e.g., MPEG Audio. The compressed video and audio signals are inputted to a multiplexer circuit 283 to be multiplexed. The multiplexed signal is fed to the encryption/decryption circuit 240 to be thereafter similarly stored in the storage 230 and/or the memory 221. As a result, the content can be efficiently recorded therein for a long period of time according to copyright information. On the other hand, the signal from a network such as the Internet received via the terminal 202 is demodulated by a radio modem circuit 2016 to be supplied via a transmission rate assignment controller circuit 2017 and an input/output interface circuit 2012 to a microprocessor 279. The type of information of the video information from the network is determined. If the information is, for example, a video stream compressed in a predetermined format, the system transfers the information to demultiplexer circuit 241 and the decompression circuits 242 and 243. After the information is processed by these circuits in a similar way as described above, an image of the information is presented on the display 260. According to necessity, audio information obtained from the network is reproduced by the audio output unit 261. If the information from the network is an update program for an application program, an operating system OS, or the like, the microprocessor 279 adds and stores new software and/or updates an associated program. It is also possible that the function of the microprocessor 279 is installed in the controller 2013 to configure one unified module including the microprocessor 279 and the controller 2013. In the operation, the controller 2013 controls the transmission rate assignment controller 2017 to vary the transmission rate of the radio modem 2015 in association with the transmission rate of the video information received from the video processing apparatus 100. Since the transmission rate of the radio modem 2015 to receive the video information from the apparatus 100 takes precedence over that of the modem 2016 in the transmission rate assignment, the transmission rate of the modem 2016 is lower than that of the modem 2015. In the embodiment as described above, the transmission rate of the modem 2015 to receive the video information from the apparatus 100 is higher than that of the modem 2016 to communicate with the network. Therefore, within the limited range of bands for the radio transmission, it is possible to obtain the high-quality video information from the external video processing apparatus 100 without deteriorating the video quality. The band of radio signals received by the terminal 201 and that of radio signals inputted to the terminal 202 are fixed. Hence, if the band of signals from the terminal 201 is expanded, that of signals from the terminal 202 narrows. This slightly lowers the communication speed of the network. However, this rarely influences the system operation since information regarding the network is less frequently exchanged as compared with video information sent from the video processing apparatus 100. Next, description will be specifically given of one technical aspect of the embodiment, namely, the transmission rate assignment controller 2017 and the radio modems 2015 and 2016. The modems 2015 and 2016 carry out OFDM modulation/demodulation. In the example, the modem 2015 is a first radio communication unit which wirelessly receives video information and audio information from the external video processing apparatus 100 and which sends data and information by radio to the apparatus 100. The modem 2015 is connected via the transmission rate assignment controller 2017 to the interface circuit 2011 which communicates with the video display apparatus 200. On the other hand, the modem 2016 is a second radio communication unit which connects to (accesses) a network, e.g., the Internet or a home network to wirelessly communicate various information including video signals, audio signals, and data with the network. The modem 2016 is connected via the transmission rate assignment controller 2017 to the interface circuit 2012 for networks. The controller 2017 variably controls, according to a control signal from the controller 2013, the transmission rates respectively of the modems 2015 and 2016 by variably designating the modulation/demodulation methods, the frequency bands, and the number of carriers respectively for the modems 2015 and 2016. In other words, the controller 2013 controls distribution of the radio transmission rate of each modem by controlling the transmission rate assignment controller 2017. As a specific example of operation in which the transmission rate is controlled by changing parameters including the demodulation method and the frequency band, FIG. 9 shows the difference in the transmission rate between two schemes. In the embodiment, the controller 2013 and the transmission rate assignment controller 2017 control the radio transmission rate assignment so that the radio transmission rate of the modem 2015 to receive the video information of high picture quality by radio from the external video processing apparatus 100 takes precedence over the radio transmission rate of the modem 2016 to connect to a network for communication. In short, the radio transmission rate of the modem 2015 is more than that of the modem 2016. For example, in a situation wherein the modem 2015 receives video information from the video processing apparatus 100 and the modem 2016 simultaneously connects to the Internet to receive Internet information, the controller 2013 controls the operation to continuously provide videos with high picture quality to the user, specifically, to set the transmission scheme of the modem 2015 to, for example, “scheme 1” shown in FIG. 9. For the radio modem 2016, the controller 2013 sets the transmission scheme thereof to “scheme 2” shown in FIG. 9. As can be seen from FIG. 9, the transmission capacity of scheme 1 is 17 Mbps which is more than three times that of scheme 2 (5 Mbps). Hence, in the limited transmission capacity for radio transmission, a higher transmission rate is assigned to the communication with the video processing apparatus 100 in the embodiment. It is therefore possible that the user continuously watches videos with high picture quality on the display apparatus 100. Naturally, the variable control of the transmission rate is not limited to the example shown in FIG. 9. The controller 2013 and the transmission rate assignment controller 2017 may control the radio transmission assignment to the modems 2015 and 2016 in response to an indication from the user. For example, in a situation wherein the user issues an indication to receive video information by radio via the modem 2015 from the video processing apparatus 100 while acquiring information from the Internet according to scheme 1 of FIG. 9 by use of the modem 2016, the controller 2013 outputs a control signal to the assignment controller 2017 such that the transmission scheme of the modem 2016 is changed from scheme 1 to scheme 2 of FIG. 9 and that of the modem 2015 is set to scheme 1 of FIG. 9. The transmission rate of the modem 2015 may be changed according to precision of the video information which is sent from the video processing apparatus 100 to be received by the modem 2015. For example, the precision of the video information above is changed from SD (640×480) to HD (1980×1080), the controller 2013 instructs the assignment controller 2017 to heighten the transmission rate of the modem circuit 2015. It is preferable in the operation that the transmission rate of the modem 2016 is lowered in association with the variable control of the transmission rate of the modem 2015. The transmission rates of the radio modems 2015 and 2016 may also be variably controlled by a communication technique using a plurality of antennas such as the MIMO scheme. Referring next to FIG. 8, description will be given of other examples of the transmission rate assignment controller and the radio modem. FIG. 8 shows only part of the system associated with the transmission rate assignment control. In FIG. 8, the same functional constituent components as those of FIG. 1 are assigned with the same reference numerals. In FIG. 8, a transmission rate assignment controller 9005 operates in a similar way as the transmission rate assignment controller 1001 described above and assigns transmission rates respectively to radio modems 9010 to 9013 according to an instruction from the controller 2013. The modem circuits 9010 to 9013 are modems having respective fixed transmission capacity values and differ from each other only in the frequency band for transmission. The modems 9010 to 9013 respectively have bands A to D as shown in FIG. 11. Terminals 9006 and 9007 are input terminals to receive signals and are arranged respectively for radio modems 9010 to 9013. In operation, the modems 9010 to 9013 may be appropriately combined with each other. For example, under supervision of the assignment controller 9005, the modems 9010 and 9011 are employed to transmit video information and the modems 9012 and 9013 are utilized for communication with the network such as the Internet depending on cases. That is, while the interface circuit 2011 transmits by radio video information and audio information via the modems 9010 and 9011 to the video display apparatus 200, the interface circuit 2012 communicates via the modems 9012 and 9013 with the network. In a situation wherein a wide band is required to receive video information of high picture quality (e.g., video information of HD resolution) from the video processing apparatus 100, the modems 9010 to 9012 are allocated to transmit video information and only the modem 9013 is allocated to communicate with the network such as the Internet. That is, the interface circuit 2011 transmits video and audio information by radio via the modems 9010 to 9012 to the video display apparatus 200, and the interface circuit 2012 communicates with the network via the modem 9013. Resultantly, video information of high picture quality can be continuously transmitted and it is also possible to communicate with the Internet. In particular, the broadcast signal is required to be presented by synchronizing the time information sent from the broadcasting station with that on the receiver side. According to the embodiment, the time information can be appropriately controlled without deteriorating the quality of the video information. Description will now be given supplementally of the High Definition Digital Multimedia Interface (HDMI). FIG. 7 shows an example the HDMI configuration mainly including a transmission side and a reception side. The transmission side includes a transmitter section 1601 and a transmission controller section 1603 to control the transmitter section 1601. The transmitter section 1601 encodes a video signal (Y, Pb, Pr) and an audio signal to output resultant signals to a receiver section 1604. Also, the transmitter section 1601 includes a TMDS encoder circuit 1602 which converts the video signal (Y, Pb, Pr) and the audio signal respectively into serial video data and serial audio data. On the other hand, the reception side includes a receiver section 1604 and a reception controller section 1606 to control the receiver section 1604. The receiver section 1604 receives the video data and the audio data from the transmitter section 1601 and conducts a TMDS decoding operation for the data by a TMDS decoder circuit 1605 to thereby reproduce baseband video data and baseband audio data. A CEC line 1607 is an apparatus control line to transmit a control signal for apparatuses. Display specification information known as “DDC” is transmitted via a DDC line 1608. The reception side transmits to the transmission side a Hot Plug Detect (HPD) signal 1609 indicating that a connection is established between apparatuses of the transmission and reception sides. To conduct transmission according to the HDMI standard, apparatuses mutually recognize in a procedure as follows. A physical address is obtained via the DDC line. The physical address is an identification number to discriminate an associated apparatus. By use of a CEC bus for bidirectional connection, a logical address is obtained for bidirectional communication of each apparatus. The logical address is identification information defining a category of each apparatus, e.g., a display or a recording apparatus. FIG. 5 is a diagram to supplementally explain a radio interface 11 between the video processing apparatus 100 and the video display apparatus 200. In FIG. 5, the apparatuses 100 and 200 are almost the same as those described in conjunction with, for example, FIG. 1. To simplify explanation, for the constituent components of the apparatus 100, only the radio interface circuit 133 is shown in FIG. 8 and the other constituent components are not shown. For the constituent components of the display apparatus 200, only the radio input/output interface circuit 2012 is shown and the other constituent components are not shown. The interface circuits 133 and 2012 are bidirectional interfaces. In FIG. 5, a channel between antennas 81 and 84 and a channel between antennas 82 and 85 are channels to bidirectionally transmit a video signal, an audio signal, and control signals indicating copyright protection and a replication restriction condition of contents. On the other hand, a channel between antennas 83 and 86 is disposed to transmit an inter-apparatus control signal. Bit selection circuits 811 and 812 receive the video signal, the audio signal, the control signals indicating copyright protection and a replication restriction condition of contents, and the inter-apparatus control signal. In the demodulation, the QPSK demodulation scheme is more resistive against transmission errors as compared with the 64QAM demodulation scheme. For the transmission efficiency, the 64QAM demodulation scheme is superior to the QPSK demodulation scheme. Description will now be given of a situation wherein a video signal, an audio signal, and control signals indicating copyright protection and a replication restriction condition of contents are fed from the video processing apparatus 100 to the video display apparatus 200. Assume in the operation that the transmission direction from the apparatus 100 to the apparatus 200 is an uplink direction and the transmission direction from the apparatus 200 to the apparatus 100 is an downlink direction. To transmit information, the video processing apparatus 100 determines, by a carrier detector circuit, not shown, a state of an associated transmission path, i.e., whether or not the channel is reserved for another apparatus. In the carrier detection, a check is made to determine whether or not a carrier is detected in a predetermined frequency band for a predetermined period of time. If it is detected by the detector that the channel is occupied by another apparatus, the check is again carried out after a lapse of a predetermined period of time to determine whether or not an available channel is present. If such available channel is present, the condition is notified to the microprocessor 115 of the video processing apparatus 100. The microprocessor 115 outputs from a QPSK modem circuit 803 a channel use request signal as an inter-apparatus control signal to secure the channel use right. Thereafter, the microprocessor 115 sends a transmission request signal to a bit selection circuit 811. An error control circuit 843 adds an error control bit for error detection and correction to the transmission request signal and then transfers the signal to the QPSK modem 803. The modem 803 conducts a QPSK modulation for the signal to resultantly transmit a radio signal via the antenna 83 to the display apparatus 200. The apparatus 200 then receives the radio signal by the antenna 86, carries out a QPSK demodulation for the signal by a QPSK modem 806, conducts error detection and correction control for the demodulated signal by an error control circuit 847 to produce an inter-apparatus control signal, and delivers the signal to the bit selection circuit 812. The microprocessor in the video display apparatus 200 decodes the inter-apparatus control signal and receives the transmission request signal from the video processing apparatus 100 together with apparatus category information regarding the apparatus 100 (information to identify a category indicating whether the associated apparatus is a display apparatus or a recording apparatus) and an apparatus identification number of the apparatus 100. An image to urge the user to determine whether or not a connection is established to the video processing apparatus 100 is presented on a display screen of the display apparatus 200. In response thereto, the user indicates allowance for the connection by using an input device such as a remote controller of the display apparatus 200. Thereafter, between the apparatuses 100 and 200, the apparatus category information and the identification number to identify each of the apparatuses are communicated to exchange information to observe the copyright protection and the replication restriction condition of the content. If there does not exist any problem, it is allowed that the apparatuses 100 and 200 are connected to each other. In a situation wherein the connection is meaningless, for example, each of the apparatuses 100 and 200 is an input or output dedicated unit or the copyright protection or the replication restriction condition of the content is not observed, the connecting operation is interrupted and an indication of the condition is displayed on the apparatuses 100 and 200. Description will now be given of a situation wherein the copyright protection and the replication restriction condition of the content are observed. By using the video signal, the audio signal, and the control signal indicating the copyright protection and the replication restriction condition of the contents associated with the video and audio signals which are inputted to an interface circuit 172, two bits are selected from the Most-Significant Byte (MSB) of the video signal so that error detection and correction control bits are added thereto by an error control circuit 841 and the resultant signal is fed to a QPSK modem circuit 801. The modem circuit 801 conducts a QPSK modulation for the signal and then transmits an associated radio signal from the antenna 81. To the remaining third to eighth bits, an error control circuit 842 adds error detection and correction control bits to send the resultant signal to a 64QAM modem circuit 802. The modem 802 carries out a 64QAM modulation for the signal and resultantly transmits a radio signal from the antenna 82. In the video display apparatus 200, a QPSK modem circuit 804 conducts a QPSK demodulation for the signal received via the antenna 84 and an error control circuit 845 carries out error control for the resultant signal to output two high-order bits of the video signal to the bit control circuit 812. For the remaining signals received via the antenna 85, a 64QAM modem circuit 805 conducts a 64QAM demodulation. For the resultant signal, an error control circuit 846 carries out error control to output the obtained signal to the bit control circuit 812. Description will now be given of the inter-apparatus control signal. When an inter-apparatus control signal is sent in a downlink direction, i.e., from the video display apparatus 200 to the video processing apparatus 100, the signal is fed from the bit selection circuit 812 via the error control circuit 847 to the QPSK modem circuit 806 to be demodulated. The demodulated signal is delivered from the antenna 86. The video processing apparatus 100 receives the signal by the antenna 83 to send the signal to the QPSK modem circuit 803. For the signal, the circuit 803 conducts a QPSK demodulation. For the demodulated signal, an error detection and correction is carried out by the error control circuit 843 to feed the resultant signal to the bit selection circuit 811. Conversely, when an inter-apparatus control signal is transmitted in an uplink direction, i.e., from the video processing apparatus 100 to the video display apparatus 200, the signal is fed from the bit selection circuit 811 via the error control circuit 843 to the QPSK modem circuit 803 to be modulated. The modulated signal is outputted from the antenna 83. The display apparatus 200 receives the signal by the antenna 86. For the signal, the modem 806 conducts a QPSK demodulation. For the demodulated signal, the error control circuit 847 conducts an error detection and correction to send the resultant signal to the bit selection circuit 812. By virtue of the operation, there is obtained an advantage that for the inter-apparatus control signal which is important to construct the system, an erroneous operation is less frequently occurs even in a noisy environment. In the configuration of the embodiment, for two high-order bits of the digital signal, there can be conducted the transmission highly resistive against noise with a relatively low transmission rate. That is, by using the fact that higher order bits of a video signal more strongly affect the picture quality, two bits are taken out from the video signal in order of MSB and a transmission path using the QPSK modulation is allocated to the information of these two bits, to thereby preventing deterioration of the picture quality. In a system in which the audio information is more important than the video information, the transmission path using the QPSK modulation may be allocated to important bits, e.g., two high-order bits of the audio signal. When a human perceives an image on a screen, a higher-frequency is less influential as compared with a lower-frequency component for the frequency component in the horizontal direction of the screen and that in the vertical direction thereof. For a moving object on the screen, it is likely that the human eyes cannot appropriately follow a high-speed movement of the object. By using these tendencies, it is also possible that in the horizontal direction of the screen, the signal is subdivided into a lower-frequency component and a higher-frequency component so that the QPSK modulation is used for the lower-frequency component and the 64QAM modulation is employed for the higher-frequency component. As a result, within the limited transmission bands, the noise resistivity can be increased for important information and the overall transmission capacity is secured. Similarly, it is possible that in the vertical direction of the screen, the signal is subdivided into a lower-frequency component and a higher-frequency component so that the QPSK modulation is used for the lower-frequency component and the 64QAM modulation is employed for the higher-frequency component. Resultantly, within the limited transmission bands, it is possible to heighten the noise resistivity for important information and the overall transmission capacity is secured. Additionally, by combining the operation for the frequency component in the horizontal direction of the screen with that for the frequency component in the vertical direction of the screen, the noise resistivity can be strengthened for desired important information. In the description above, the error control circuits 841 to 843 add the error control information items to the bits inputted respectively thereto. However, it is also possible that the bits inputted to the circuits 841 to 843 are collectively treated as one word to add error control information to the word. This advantageously leads to a simplified configuration of the error control circuits. Although detailed description has not been given of the encryption in the embodiment shown in FIG. 5, it is possible to execute the processing as shown in FIG. 6 by combining the encryption circuit 171 with the interface circuit 172. FIG. 6 shows an example of the configuration to carry out the encryption in the system of FIG. 5. The system shown in FIG. 6 includes encryption/decryption circuits 821 to 826, interface circuits 830 and 831 including encryption, and error control circuits 841 to 847. In the example of FIG. 6, the bit selection circuit 811 selects predetermined bits as in the example shown in FIG. 5. For the respective bits, the error control circuits 841 and 842 conduct error control. For the resultant signals, the encryption/decryption circuits 821 and 822 respectively carry out encryption. The obtained signals are inputted respectively to the QPSK modem circuit 801 and the 64QAM modem circuit 802 to be demodulated. The signals demodulated respectively by the circuits 801 and 802 are delivered to the encryption/decryption circuits 824 and 825 to be decrypted. The decrypted signals are fed to the bit selection circuit 812 and are therein bit-combined with each other. As a result, the signal processing can be executed according to importance of signals to possibly suppress errors in the processing of more important information. Hence, the signals of information can be efficiently transmitted without deteriorating the picture quality. It is also possible to further increase transmission efficiency by combining lossless coding with the encryption/decryption circuits 821 to 826. For example, in the example of FIG. 6, before executing the encryption processing in the encryption/decryption circuits 821 to 823, the number of bits to be transmitted is reduced, for example, by use of reversible arithmetic codes based on a statistic property. In the video display apparatus 200, the received signals are decrypted by the encryption/decryption circuits 824 to 826. Thereafter, the reversible codes corresponding to the circuits 821 to 823 are decoded to be fed to the error control circuits 845 to 846 for the error detection and correction thereof. The obtained signals are fed to the bit selection circuit 812 to be bit-combined with each other. Since the transmission rate of the information to be transmitted can be lowered by combining the reversible codes as above, the signal can be more efficiently transmitted. Description will be supplementally given of the encryption. By using AES128 bit encryption in all encryption circuits for the encryption, it is possible to conduct the encryption with high safety for the protection of contents. Moreover, if the AES128 bit encryption is employed for the content encryption circuit 821 and the Data Encryption Standard (DES) encryption is used for the other encryption circuits, there can be easily constructed a system in which the protection of important contents and the processing efficiency are appropriately achieved. It is also possible to construct a system in which a changeover operation is conducted between the baseband signal transmission and the compressed signal transmission in response to an inter-apparatus control signal. With the configuration, to transmit a compressed signal according to, for example, a content protection request, the error resistivity is enhanced on the transmission path by transmitting the signal using the QPSK modulation. To transmit the baseband signal, the transmission efficiency is increased by using the 64QAM modulation. The operations of the video processing apparatus 100 and the video display apparatus 200 in FIG. 6 are basically similar to those of the apparatuses 100 and 200 shown in FIG. 5. To transmit a signal, the video processing apparatus 100 determines the state of an associated transmission path, specifically, detects by a carrier detection circuit, not shown, whether or not the channel to be used is occupied by another apparatus. In the carrier detection, a check is made to determined whether or not a carrier is detected in a predetermined frequency band for a predetermined period of time. If it is detected by the detector that the channel is occupied by another apparatus, the check is again carried out after a lapse of a predetermined period of time to determine whether or not an available channel is present. If such available channel is present, the condition is notified to the microprocessor 115 of the video processing apparatus 100. The microprocessor 115 outputs from the QPSK modem circuit 803 a channel use request signal as an inter-apparatus control signal to secure the channel use right. Thereafter, the microprocessor 115 sends a transmission request signal to a bit selection circuit 811. The error control circuit 843 adds error control bits for error detection and correction to the transmission request signal which is in turn encrypted by an encryption/decryption circuit 823 and then transferred to the QPSK modem 803. The modem 803 conducts a QPSK modulation for the signal to resultantly transmit a radio signal via the antenna 83 to the display apparatus 200. The apparatus 200 then receives the radio signal by the antenna 86, carries out a QPSK demodulation for the signal by the modem 806, and decrypts the signal by the encryption/decryption circuit 826. For the demodulated signal, the error control circuit 847 conducts error detection and correction control to produce an inter-apparatus control signal and delivers the signal to the bit selection circuit 812. The microprocessor in the video display apparatus 200 decodes the inter-apparatus control signal and receives the transmission request signal from the video processing apparatus 100 together with apparatus category information regarding the apparatus 100 (information to identify a category indicating whether the associated apparatus is a display apparatus or a recording apparatus) and an apparatus identification number of the apparatus 100. An image to urge the user to determine whether or not a connection is established to the video processing apparatus 100 is presented on a display screen of the display apparatus 200. In response thereto, the user indicates allowance for the connection by use of an input device such as a remote control of the display apparatus 200. Thereafter, between the apparatuses 100 and 200, the apparatus category information and the identification number to identify each of the apparatuses are communicated to exchange information to observe the copyright protection and the replication restriction condition of the content. If there does not exist any problem, it is allowed that the apparatuses 100 and 200 are connected to each other. In a situation wherein the connection is meaningless, for example, each of the apparatuses 100 and 200 is an input or output dedicated unit or the copyright protection or the replication restriction condition of the content is not observed, the connecting operation is interrupted and the status is displayed on the apparatuses 100 and 200. As above, in a situation wherein the copyright protection and the replication restriction condition of the content are observed, the connection is established to transmit video and audio signals from the video processing apparatus 100 to the video display apparatus 200. Second Embodiment FIG. 3 shows a second embodiment of the present invention and is another configuration of the video display apparatus 200 shown in FIG. 1. The configuration of FIG. 3 is partially equal to that of FIG. 2. The same constituent components are assigned with the same reference numerals, and detailed description thereof will be avoided. The apparatus 200 of FIG. 3 includes a decryption circuit 212, encryption/decryption circuits 245 and 290, compression/transcoding circuits 291 and 292, and copy control circuit 293 which is a multiplexing circuit. In the embodiment of FIG. 3, when a baseband signal is inputted via the terminal 201 or 202, the system operates in almost the same way as for the embodiment shown in FIG. 2. Each of the compression/transcoding circuits 291 and 292 operates as a compression circuit for the baseband signal. When a compressed signal is inputted from the terminal 201 or 202, the signal is fed via the input/output interface 210 to the encryption/decryption circuit 212 to be decrypted. The signal is then delivered to the demultiplexer circuit 250 to be separated into a compressed video signal and a compressed audio signal. These signals are inputted to the replication control circuit 290, which determines allowance or rejection of replication of the signals based on information indicating a replication restriction condition. If the replication is allowed, the bit rates of the compressed video and audio signals are lowered by the compression/transcoding circuits 291 and 292 by using, for example, a compression method having high compression efficiency according to necessity. Output signals from the circuits 291 and 292 are multiplexed by the multiplexer circuit 293 to be inputted to the encryption/decryption circuit 245. In this situation, if the replication is allowed by the replication control circuit 290, the circuit 245 encrypts the input signal for the storage thereof to store the encrypted signals in the storage 230 and/or the memory 221. To reproduce the stored signal, the circuit 245 decrypts the signal read from the storage 230 or the memory 221, and the decrypted signal is separated by the demultiplexer circuit 241 into a video signal and an audio signal. Thereafter, these signals are processed in almost the same way as described above and the user resultantly enjoys the image and the sound. In a situation wherein the user enjoys the image and the sound while storing the signal in the storage 230 or the memory 221, the signal from the multiplexer 293 is delivered via the encryption/decryption circuit 245 to the demultiplexer 241 to be processed almost in the same way as above. In this case, it is possible to confirm the picture quality of the transcoded signal. To enjoy the image and the sound without storing the signal, the signal is fed from the decryption circuit 212 via the circuit 245 to the demultiplexer 241 to be separated into a video signal and an audio signal. Thereafter, the signals are processed in substantially the same way as described above. According to the embodiment of FIG. 3, also in a situation wherein a compressed signal is inputted thereto, by conducting the transcoding for the signal, the signal can be efficiently stored with a high compression ratio. Although the signal processing is carried out by use of circuits such as the compression circuits 111 and 113 in the embodiment, the circuits may be implemented by software means. In this situation, there can also be obtained similar advantages. According to the present invention, the signal processing may be accomplished in any appropriate fashion, that is, the present invention does not particularly limit how to implement the signal processing. It should be further understood by those skilled in the art that although the foregoing description has been made on embodiments of the invention, the invention is not limited thereto and various changes and modifications may be made without departing from the spirit of the invention and the scope of the appended claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a technique to establish connections between a plurality of apparatuses and networks by radio. To connect a video processing apparatus to a video display apparatus as another video processing apparatus to view videos, there has been employed a method to establish analog connections therebetween to transmit video and audio signals. However, as digital apparatuses have been widely spread, there is employed, to prevent picture quality deterioration and to protect copyright of contents to be viewed, a method in which digital connections are established between the apparatuses and video and audio signals are encrypted to be transmitted therebetween. High Definition Digital Multimedia Interface (HDMI) is known as an example of an interface for digital transmission. According to the HDMI, the base band signal and the audio signal of high definition are time-division multiplexed and the resultant signal is encrypted through HDCP for transmission thereof. A conventional technique in which digitized video and audio signals are multiplexed for transmission as above is described in, for example, JP-A-2007-202115.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to the HDMI, which is developed on assumption of uses for connections between apparatuses installed in a house of a family, consideration has not been given to connections with the internet and a network in the family or a home network while viewing high-quality videos. It is therefore an object of the present invention, devised to overcome the difficulty, to provide a technique wherein while presenting on a display apparatus videos of high picture quality obtained from portable video processing apparatuses such as a camera and a cellular phone, it is possible to communicate with the internet and/or a home network. According to one aspect of the resent invention, there is provided a display apparatus including a first radio communication unit capable of receiving video information by radio from an external video processing apparatus, a second radio communication unit capable of connecting by radio to a network, and a connection assignment control unit for controlling assignment of connection by radio transmission for each of the first and second radio communication units. The control unit assigns connection of the first radio communication unit with higher priority and controls the assignment of the transmission rate, for example, such that the transmission rate between the first radio communication unit and the external video processing apparatus is more than the transmission rate between the second radio communication unit and the network. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a video processing apparatus including a first radio communication unit capable of transmitting video information by radio to an external display apparatus, a second radio communication unit capable of connecting by radio to a network, and a connection assignment control unit for controlling assignment of connection by radio transmission for each of the first and second radio communication units. The control unit assigns connection of the first radio communication unit with higher priority and controls the assignment of the transmission rate, for example, such that the transmission rate between the first radio communication unit and the external video display apparatus is more than the transmission rate between the second radio communication unit and the network. In the display apparatus constructed as above, the first radio communication unit can communicate video information of high picture quality with an external video processing apparatus. The second radio communication unit can connect by radio to the internet and a home network. The controller controls the transmission rate of the radio transmitter module to be assigned to the first radio communication unit and can change the transmission rate of the radio transmitter module to be assigned to the second radio communication unit. It is possible for the controller to determine and to control the radio transmission rates to be assigned to the first and second radio communication units. The controller controls the operation such that the assignment to the first radio communication module to conduct transmission to receive video information from an external video processing apparatus is carried out with higher priority. Therefore, it is possible that video information of high picture quality is continuously fed from the video processing apparatus to the video information apparatus as well as information is transmitted from the internet and a home network. There can be hence provided a video display apparatus having high serviceability. According to the present invention, it is possible to communicate with a network while displaying videos of high picture quality obtained by a video processing apparatus. Other objects, features and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the following description of the embodiments of the invention taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

H04N2143637

20180207

20180614

59841.0

H04N214363

DAGNEW, MEKONNEN D

DISPLAY APPARATUS AND VIDEO PROCESSING APPARATUS

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04N

PENDING

CATV ENTRY ADAPTER AND METHOD FOR PREVENTING INTERFERENCE WITH EMTA EQUIPMENT FROM MOCA SIGNALS

A community access or cable television (CATV) entry adapter interfaces to a CATV network and serves as a hub in a Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA) network. MoCA signals communicated between active ports of the entry adapter are rejected by MoCA frequency rejection filters to avoid interfering with the functionality of an eMTA subscriber device connected to a passive port of the entry adapter, without interfering with the passage of CATV upstream and downstream active and passive signals.

1. An entry adapter, comprising: an entry port configured to be electrically connected to a cable television (CATV) network such that the entry port is configured to receive downstream CATV signals from the CATV network and provide upstream CATV signals to the CATV network; a first splitter electrically connected to the entry port, the first splitter having a first output and a second output; a second splitter having a plurality of output ports; a first port; a plurality of second ports, each of the plurality of second ports being electrically connected to a respective one of the plurality of outputs of the second splitter; a first signal path extending between the first output of the first splitter and the first port; and a second signal path extending between the second output of the first splitter and the second splitter; and a frequency rejection device electrically connected to the second splitter and the second signal path, wherein: the plurality of second ports are configured to receive multimedia over coaxial alliance (MoCA) signals from subscriber devices electrically connected thereto; the second splitter is configured to communicate the MoCA signals between the plurality of second ports; and the frequency rejection device is configured to at least partially prevent the MoCA signals from being transmitted from the second ports to the second signal path. 2. The entry adapter of claim 1, further comprising a second frequency rejection device positioned in the first signal path, wherein the second frequency rejection device is configured to at least partially prevent the MoCA signals from reaching the first port. 3. The entry adapter of claim 2, further comprising a third frequency rejection device positioned between the first splitter and the entry port, wherein the second frequency rejection device is configured to at least partially prevent the MoCA signals from being transmitted from the first splitter to the entry port. 4. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the first port is configured to be connected to an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA) device. 5. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the frequency rejection device comprises a low pass filter configured to block signals having frequencies above about 1125 MHz. 6. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the downstream CATV signals are in a frequency range of between about 54 MHz and about 1002 MHz, the upstream CATV signals are in a frequency range of between about 5 MHz and about 42 MHz, and the MoCA signals are in a frequency range of between about 1125 MHz and 1675 MHz. 7. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the second signal path comprises one or more powered signal conditioning components, and wherein the first signal path is free from powered signal conditioning components. 8. The entry adapter of claim 1, wherein the second signal path comprises an upstream path and a downstream path, the upstream path and the downstream path being prevented from communicating with one another. 9. The entry adapter of claim 8, wherein: the upstream path comprises a CATV upstream filter configured to block at least the CATV downstream signals, and an amplifier electrically connected to the CATV upstream filter; and the downstream path comprises a CATV downstream filter configured to block at least the CATV upstream signals. 10. An entry adapter, comprising: entry port means for connecting to a cable television (CATV) network to receive downstream CATV signals from the CATV network and provide upstream CATV signals to the CATV network; first splitter means for providing the CATV downstream signals to a first output and a second output, for receiving the upstream CATV signals at the first and second outputs, and for combining the upstream CATV signals received at the first and second outputs; first port means for connecting to a subscriber device; second port means for connecting to a plurality of multimedia over coaxial alliance (MoCA) enable devices, for receiving MoCA signals from the MoCA enabled devices, and for providing the MoCA signals to the MoCA enable devices, the second port means comprising a plurality of second ports; first signal path means for transmitting the upstream and downstream CATV signals between the first output of the first splitter means and the first port means; second signal path means for transmitting the upstream and downstream CATV signals to and from the second output of the first splitter means; second splitter means for receiving the downstream CATV signals from the first signal path means, providing the downstream CATV signals to a plurality of outputs connected to the second port means, and communicating the MoCA signals received from one of the first ports with one or more others of the first ports; and frequency rejection means for blocking the MoCA signals, the frequency rejection means being positioned electrically between the second splitter means and the second signal path. 11. The entry adapter of claim 10, wherein the subscriber device comprises an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA) device. 12. The entry adapter of claim 10, wherein the frequency rejection means comprises a low pass filter configured to block frequencies above about 1125 MHz. 13. The entry adapter of claim 10, wherein the second signal path means comprises one or more powered signal conditioning components, and wherein the first signal path means is free from powered signal conditioning components. 14. The entry adapter of claim 10, wherein the downstream CATV signals are in a frequency range of between about 54 MHz and about 1002 MHz, the upstream CATV signals are in a frequency range of between about 5 MHz and about 42 MHz, and the MoCA signals are in a frequency range of between about 1125 MHz and 1675 MHz. 15. The entry adapter of claim 10, further comprising second frequency rejection means for blocking MoCA signals, the second frequency rejection means being positioned electrically between the first splitter and the entry port. 16. The entry adapter of claim 15, further comprising third frequency rejection means for blocking MoCA signals, the third frequency rejection means being positioned in the first signal path. 17. The entry adapter of claim 10, wherein the second signal path means comprises an upstream path and a downstream path, the upstream path and the downstream path being prevented from communicating with one another. 18. The entry adapter of claim 10, wherein: the upstream signal path comprises a CATV upstream filter configured to block at least the CATV downstream signals, and an amplifier connected to the CATV upstream filter; and the downstream signal path comprises a CATV downstream filter configured to block at least the CATV upstream signals. 19. An entry adapter, comprising: an entry port configured to be electrically connected to a cable television (CATV) network such that the entry port is configured to receive downstream CATV signals from the CATV network and provide upstream CATV signals to the CATV network; a first splitter electrically connected to the entry port, the first splitter having a first output and a second output; a second splitter having a plurality of output ports; a passive port; a plurality of active ports, each of the plurality of active ports being electrically connected to a respective one of the plurality of outputs of the second splitter; a passive signal path extending between the first output of the first splitter and the passive port, wherein the passive signal path is free from powered signal conditioning components; and an active signal path extending between the second output of the first splitter and the second splitter, the active signal path comprising an upstream signal path and a downstream signal path, the upstream signal path and the downstream signal path being prevented from communicating with one another, the upstream signal path comprising a CATV upstream filter configured to block at least the CATV downstream signals, and an amplifier connected to the CATV upstream filter, and the downstream signal path comprising a CATV downstream filter configured to block at least the CATV upstream signals; and a frequency rejection device electrically connected to the second splitter and the active signal path, wherein: the plurality of active ports are configured to receive multimedia over coaxial alliance (MoCA) signals from subscriber devices electrically connected thereto; the second splitter is configured to communicate the MoCA signals between the plurality of active ports; and the frequency rejection device is configured to at least partially prevent the MoCA signals from being transmitted from the active ports to the active signal path. 20. The entry port of claim 19, wherein the active signal path extends from the first splitter to the frequency rejection device, and wherein the passive signal path extends from the first splitter to the passive port.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This is a continuation in part of the invention described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/255,008, filed Oct. 21, 2008 by the same inventors herein, titled Multi-Port Entry Adapter, Hub and Method for Interfacing a CATV Network and a MoCA Network. The invention described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/255,008 is assigned to the assignee hereof. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to community access or cable television (CATV) networks and to Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA) in-home entertainment networks. More particularly, the present invention relates to a new and improved CATV entry adapter which conducts CATV downstream and upstream signals between the CATV network and subscriber equipment connected to the entry adapter and MoCA signals between MoCA-enabled devices connected to the entry adapter, while simultaneously preventing the MoCA signals from interfering with the proper functionality of an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA) device, such as a “lifeline” telephone which is also connected to the entry adapter. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION CATV networks use an infrastructure of interconnected coaxial cables, signal splitters and combiners, repeating amplifiers, filters, trunk lines, cable taps, drop lines and other signal-conducting devices to supply and distribute high frequency “downstream” signals from a main signal distribution facility, known as a “headend,” to the premises (homes and offices) of CATV subscribers. The downstream signals operate the subscriber equipment, such as television sets, telephone sets and computers. In addition, most CATV networks also transmit “upstream” signals from the subscriber equipment back to the headend of the CATV network. For example, the subscriber uses a set top box to select programs for display on the television set. As another example, two-way communication is essential when using a personal computer connected through the CATV infrastructure to the public Internet. As a further example, voice over Internet protocol (VOIP) telephone sets use the CATV infrastructure and the public Internet as the communication medium for transmitting two-way telephone conversations. To permit simultaneous communication of upstream and downstream CATV signals and the interoperability of the subscriber equipment and the equipment associated with the CATV network infrastructure outside of subscriber premises, the downstream and upstream signals are confined to two different frequency bands. The downstream frequency band is within the range of 54-1002 megahertz (MHz) and the upstream frequency band is within the range of 5-42 MHz, in most CATV networks. The downstream signals are delivered from the CATV network infrastructure to the subscriber premises at a CATV entry adapter, which is also commonly referred to as an entry device, terminal adapter or a drop amplifier. The entry adapter is a multi-port device which connects at an entry port to a CATV drop cable from the CATV network infrastructure and which connects at a multiplicity of other distribution ports to coaxial cables which extend throughout the subscriber premises to a cable outlet. Each cable outlet is available to be connected to subscriber equipment. Typically, most homes have coaxial cables extending to cable outlets in almost every room, because different types of subscriber equipment may be used in different rooms. For example, television sets, computers and telephone sets are commonly used in many different rooms of a home or office. The multiple distribution ports of the entry adapter deliver the downstream signals to each cable outlet and conduct the upstream signals from the subscriber equipment through the entry adapter to the drop cable and the CATV infrastructure. In addition to television sets, computers and telephones, a relatively large number of other entertainment and multimedia devices are available for use in homes. For example, a digital video recorder (DVR) is used to record broadcast programming, still photography and moving pictures in a memory medium so that the content can be replayed on a display or television set at a later time selected by the user. As another example, computer games are also played at displays or on television sets. Such computer games may be those obtained over the Internet from the CATV network or from media played on play-back devices connected to displays or television sets. As a further example, receivers of satellite-broadcast signals may be distributed for viewing or listening throughout the home. These types of devices, including the more-conventional television sets, telephone sets and devices connected to the Internet by the CATV network, are generically referred to as multimedia devices. The desire to use multimedia devices at multiple different locations within the home or subscriber premises has led to the creation of the Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA). MoCA has developed specifications for products to create an in-home entertainment network for interconnecting presently-known and future multimedia devices. A MoCA in-home network uses the subscriber premise or in-home coaxial cable infrastructure originally established for distribution of CATV signals within the subscriber premises, principally because that coaxial cable infrastructure already exists in most homes and is capable of carrying much more information than is carried in the CATV frequency bands. A MoCA network is established by connecting MoCA-enabled or MoCA interface devices at the cable outlets in the rooms of the subscriber premises. These MoCA interface devices implement a MoCA communication protocol which encapsulates the signals normally used by the multimedia devices within MoCA signal packets and then communicates the MoCA signal packets between other MoCA interfaces devices connected at other cable outlets. The receiving MoCA interface device removes the encapsulated multimedia signals from the MoCA signal packets, and delivers the multimedia signals to the connected display, computer or other multimedia device from which the content is presented to the user. Each MoCA-enabled device is capable of communicating with every other MoCA-enabled device in the in-home or subscriber premises MoCA network to deliver the multimedia content throughout the home or subscriber premises. The multimedia content that is available from one multimedia device can be displayed, played or otherwise used at a different location within the home, without having to physically relocate the originating multimedia device from one location to another within the subscriber premises. The communication of multimedia content is considered beneficial in more fully utilizing the multimedia devices present in modern homes. Since the operation of the subscriber premises MoCA network must occur simultaneously with the operation of the CATV services, the MoCA signals utilize a frequency range different from the frequency ranges of the CATV upstream and downstream signals. The typical MoCA frequency band is 1125-1525 MHz. This so-called D band of MoCA signals is divided into eight different frequency ranges, D1-D8, and these eight different D frequency ranges are used to assure communication between the selected MoCA-enabled devices. For example, the D-1 band at 1125-1175 MHz may be used to communicate CATV television programming content between a MoCA interface device associated with a set-top box in a main room of the house and another MoCA interface device connected to a television set in bedroom of the house, while a MoCA interface device connected to a computer gaming multimedia device in a basement room of the house simultaneously communicates computer game content over the D-6 band at 1375-1425 MHz to another MoCA interface device associated with a computer located in a recreation room of the house. The MoCA frequency band also includes other frequency ranges, but the D band is of major relevance because of its principal use in establishing connections between the MoCA interface devices. Although using the subscriber premises coaxial cable infrastructure as the communication medium substantially simplifies the implementation of the MoCA network, there are certain disadvantages to doing so. The MoCA signals have the capability of passing through the CATV entry device and entering the CATV network infrastructure where those MoCA signals may then pass through a drop cable and enter another subscriber's premises. The presence of the MoCA signals at an adjoining subscriber's premises compromises the privacy and security of the information originally intended to be confined only within the original subscriber premises. The MoCA signals from the original subscriber premises which enter through the CATV network to another subscriber premises also have the potential to adversely affect the performance of a MoCA network in the other subscriber premises. The conflict of MoCA signals from the original and other subscriber premises may cause the MoCA interface devices to malfunction or not operate properly. CATV networks are subject to adverse influences from so-called ingress noise which enters the CATV network from external sources, located at the subscriber premises. The typical range of ingress noise is in the frequency band of 0-15 MHz, but can also exist in other upstream or downstream frequencies. Ingress noise mitigation devices have been developed to suppress or reduce ingress noise from the subscriber premises in the 0-42 MHz frequency band, but the 1125-1525 MHz signals in the MoCA frequency range are considerably outside the range of the normal ingress noise. Therefore, typical ingress noise suppression devices are ineffectual in inhibiting MoCA signals. MoCA signals, residing outside of the CATV signal frequency bands of 5-42 MHz and 54-1002 MHz, may constitute another source of noise for the CATV network. Separate MoCA frequency rejection filters have been developed for external connection to CATV entry adapters, in an effort to keep the MoCA frequency signals confined to the subscriber premises. However, the use of such devices is subject to unauthorized removal, tampering, negligence in original installation, and physical exposure which could lead to premature failure or malfunction. Problems also arise because the CATV network and the in-home cable infrastructure were originally intended for the distribution of CATV signals. The typical in-home cable infrastructure uses signal splitters to divide a single CATV downstream signal into multiple CATV downstream signals and to combine multiple CATV upstream signals into a single CATV upstream signal. The CATV entry adapter was not originally intended to communicate MoCA signals between its active ports, as is necessary to achieve MoCA signal communication in the MoCA network. To implement the MoCA network, the MoCA signals must traverse or “jump” between separate signal component legs of a signal splitter/combiner which are connected to the multiple active ports. This signal traversal is referred to as “splitter jumping.” The typical signal splitter has a high degree of signal rejection or isolation between its separate signal component legs. When the MoCA signals jump or traverse between the separate signal component legs of the splitter, the degree of signal rejection or isolation greatly attenuates the strength of the MoCA signals. The physical MoCA signal communication paths are also variable because of unpredictable differences in the in-home cable infrastructure. The MoCA communication protocol recognizes the possibility of variable strength MoCA signals and provides a capability to boost the strength of MoCA signals to compensate for the variable strength of the MoCA signals that would otherwise be communicated between MoCA-enabled devices. The strength or power of the MoCA signals can be substantially greater than the strength or power of the CATV signals communicated within the subscriber premises. The higher power MoCA signals may result from the MoCA devices compensating for reduced signal strength by boosting the strength or power of the transmitted MoCA signals, or from the simple fact that the MoCA signals traverse a considerably shorter signal path within the subscriber premises MoCA network compared to the considerably longer signal path which CATV downstream signals traverse over the CATV network infrastructure. Consequently, the MoCA signals have the capability of adversely affecting the proper functionality of CATV subscriber equipment. One example of the significant negative impact from MoCA signals occurs in a CATV entry adapter of the type which has both a passive signal distribution port and multiple active signal distribution ports. Such a CATV entry adapter supplies a passive CATV downstream signal to the passive port and receives a passive CATV upstream signal from the eMTA device connected to the passive port. The CATV entry adapter also supplies active CATV downstream signals to each of its multiple active ports and receives active CATV upstream signals from each of its multiple active ports. Such an entry adapter includes a splitter which divides the CATV downstream signals into passive signals and active signals. The passive signals are conducted through the entry adapter without amplification, conditioning or modification before they are delivered from the passive port to subscriber equipment. The active signals are usually conducted through a forward path amplifier, where the amplifier amplifies the strength of the CATV downstream signals, or modifies or conditions some characteristic of those CATV signals, before delivering them from the active ports to the active subscriber equipment. Most subscriber equipment benefits from amplified CATV downstream signals. The majority of ports on a CATV entry adapter are active ports. Usually only one passive port is provided for each entry adapter. The subscriber equipment connected to the passive port of the entry adapter is an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA) device, typically a “lifeline” telephone set. An eMTA device combines a cable modem and analog telephone adapter. The cable modem provides a data interface for communicating Internet protocol packets to and from the CATV network, and an analog telephone adapter provides a voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) interface for the analog telephone set. The eMTA device converts between analog voice signals and packets. A lifeline telephone is a well known example of an eMTA device. The passive signals conducted through the entry adapter do not undergo amplification, conditioning or modification in the entry adapter before they are delivered from the passive port to passive eMTA subscriber equipment. In general, the passive signals are intended to remain available and useful in emergency conditions. The functionality of a lifeline telephone set can not depend on the proper functionality of an amplifier or other active signal conditioner in the passive signal path. Consequently, the passive CATV downstream signals received by the eMTA lifeline telephone device have relatively low power, compared to the power of the MoCA signals communicated between the MoCA devices connected to the active ports of the entry adapter. The entry adapter includes an upstream bandpass filter which conducts the CATV upstream signals in the 5-42 MHz frequency band and a downstream bandpass filter which conducts the CATV downstream signals in the 54-1002 MHz frequency band. Although the CATV upstream and downstream bandpass filters are intended to substantially reject signals outside of their bandpass frequencies, the substantially higher power MoCA signals in the 1125-1525 MHz frequency band have the capability of bleeding through typical CATV upstream and downstream bandpass filters with sufficient strength to rival or predominate over the strength of the CATV downstream passive signals delivered from the passive port to the eMTA subscriber equipment. The MoCA signals are noise to the eMTA subscriber equipment, and the eMTA subscriber equipment does not function in response to MoCA signals. However, the strength of the MoCA signals can constitute such a significant noise level as to overwhelm or overdrive the eMTA device and thereby degrade or interfere with its functionality to the point where reliable communication cannot be achieved. It is for this reason that CATV entry adapters which also serve as part of the MoCA network are subject to requirements for MoCA signal isolation or rejection at the passive port compared to the active and entry ports of the entry adapter. At the present time, passive port isolation of approximately 60 dB is considered desirable. The problem of the power from MoCA signals interfering with the proper functionality of eMTA subscriber equipment connected to the passive port of a CATV entry adapter only occurs with respect to subscriber equipment which is not MoCA-enabled. MoCA-enabled subscriber equipment is intended to operate in response to MoCA signals, and as a result, has the capability of rejecting unwanted MoCA signals when also operating in response to CATV downstream and upstream signals. At the present time, most passive subscriber equipment is not MoCA enabled. Consequently, the problem of the MoCA signals inhibiting the proper functionality of passive subscriber equipment is significant in CATV entry adapters which also conduct MoCA signals in a subscriber premises MoCA network. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a CATV entry adapter which beneficially contributes to the establishment of a MoCA in-home network without degrading the quality of the signals and service provided to and from eMTA subscriber equipment. The CATV entry adapter of the present invention effectively eliminates an interfering effect of MoCA signals at its passive port, thereby avoiding the problem of the MoCA signals interfering with the proper functionality of the eMTA subscriber equipment connected to the passive port. The present invention permits eMTA subscriber equipment which is not MoCA-enabled to be used effectively when the CATV entry adapter functions as a hub for communicating MoCA signals between MoCA enabled devices connected to active ports of the entry adapter. Non-MoCA enabled subscriber equipment may therefore be used effectively without additional cost to the subscriber when a MoCA network is established in the subscriber premises. The CATV entry adapter also enhances the strength of the MoCA signals communicated in the MoCA network. To achieve these and other improvements, one aspect of the invention relates to a CATV entry adapter having an entry port for communicating CATV downstream and upstream signals with a CATV network and also having a passive distribution port and a plurality of active distribution ports for communicating CATV downstream and upstream signals to subscriber equipment at a subscriber premises. The passive port is adapted to be connected to eMTA subscriber equipment. The active ports are adapted to be connected to CATV subscriber equipment and to MoCA-enabled subscriber equipment in a MoCA network at the subscriber's premises. The plurality of active ports also communicate MoCA signals between the MoCA-enabled subscriber equipment connected to the active ports in a subscriber premises MoCA network. A first bidirectional splitter/combiner of the entry adapter has a common terminal connected to the entry port to communicate the CATV downstream and upstream signals with the CATV network. The first splitter/combiner also has first and second separate signal component legs. The first splitter/combiner splits CATV downstream signals into split CATV downstream signals and supplies each split CATV downstream signal to the first and second signal component legs. The first splitter/combiner creates a single combined upstream signal from each upstream signal received at the first and second signal component legs and supplies the combined upstream signal to the common terminal. A passive signal communication path extends between the first signal component leg of the first splitter/combiner and the passive port. The passive signal communication path conducts passive signals between the passive port and the first signal component leg of the first splitter/combiner. An active signal communication path extends from the second signal component leg of the first splitter/combiner to conduct active signals to and from the second signal component leg of the first splitter/combiner. A second bidirectional splitter/combiner has a common terminal and a plurality of separate signal component legs. Each signal component leg is connected to an active port. The second splitter/combiner splits each signal received at its common terminal into split signals and supplies each split signal to each of the signal component legs. The second splitter/combiner also creates a combined active signal from each CATV upstream signal and MoCA signal received at each signal component leg and supplies the combined active signal to its common terminal. The second splitter/combiner performs signal splitting and signal combining on CATV downstream signals, CATV upstream signals and MoCA signals. A first MoCA frequency rejection filter is connected between the active signal communication path and the second splitter/combiner. The first MoCA frequency rejection filter rejects a significant majority of the power from MoCA signals present at the common terminal of the second splitter/combiner and passes the CATV upstream and downstream signals communicated to and from the active ports without substantial attenuation. One additional aspect of the CATV entry adapter involves the first MoCA frequency rejection filter reflecting power from MoCA signals received from the common terminal of the second splitter/combiner back to the common terminal of the second splitter/combiner, and the second splitter/combiner supplying the MoCA signals reflected from the first MoCA frequency rejection filter as split reflected MoCA signals to the signal component legs of the second splitter/combiner, thereby increasing the efficiency and power of the MoCA signal distribution among the active ports of the entry adapter. The reflected MoCA signals add power to the MoCA signals which traverse or jump between signal component legs of the signal splitter/combiner. Another additional aspect of the CATV entry adapter involves a second MoCA frequency rejection filter connected in the passive signal communication path between the first signal component leg of the first splitter/combiner and the passive port. The second MoCA frequency rejection filter rejects a significant majority of the power from MoCA signals present at the first signal component leg of the first splitter/combiner, thereby eliminating or reducing the effects of MoCA signals on the eMTA subscriber equipment connected to the passive port and preserving the quality of the CATV upstream and downstream signals communicated to and from the eMTA subscriber equipment connected to the passive port. A further additional aspect of the CATV entry adapter involves a third MoCA frequency rejection filter connected between the common terminal of the first splitter/combiner and the entry port. The third MoCA frequency rejection filter rejects a significant majority of the power from MoCA signals present at the common terminal of the first splitter/combiner and passes the CATV upstream and downstream signals communicated to and from the entry port without substantial attenuation. The third MoCA signal frequency rejection filter inhibits conduction of MoCA signals from the subscriber premises MoCA network onto the CATV network and inhibits conduction of spurious MoCA signals from the CATV network into the MoCA network at the subscriber premises. Another aspect of the invention which involves a method of preventing MoCA signals communicated between MoCA-enabled subscriber devices connected to a CATV entry adapter in a MoCA network from interfering with communications from an eMTA subscriber device connected by the CATV entry adapter to a CATV network. The method comprises connecting the eMTA subscriber device to a passive port of the entry adapter, communicating passive CATV downstream and upstream signals between the CATV network and the eMTA subscriber device through the entry adapter and the passive port, connecting each MoCA-enabled subscriber device to one of a plurality of active ports of the entry adapter, communicating MoCA signals through the entry adapter and the active ports between the MoCA-enabled subscriber devices in the MoCA network, splitting CATV downstream signals received from the CATV network within the entry adapter into split CATV downstream signals and supplying one split CATV downstream signal to the passive port and supplying the other split CATV downstream signal to the active ports, combining CATV upstream signals received from the passive and active ports within the entry adapter into a CATV combined upstream signal and supplying the CATV combined upstream signal from the entry adapter to the CATV network, combining CATV upstream signals and MoCA signals received from the active ports within the entry adapter into a combined active signal, rejecting a significant majority of the power from MoCA signals within the combined active signal by supplying the combined active signal to a first MoCA frequency rejection filter within the entry adapter, and passing the CATV downstream and upstream signals within the combined active signal through the first MoCA frequency rejection filter without substantial attenuation. One additional aspect of the method involves reflecting split reflected MoCA signals from the first MoCA frequency rejection filter to the active ports. The power of the split reflected MoCA signals and the power of MoCA signals that traverse between the active ports are added together to enhance the power of the MoCA signals conducted from the active ports to the MoCA-enabled subscriber equipment in the subscriber premises MoCA network. Another additional aspect of the method involves rejecting a significant majority of the power of any MoCA signals from the combined active signal otherwise conducted to the passive port by supplying the combined active signal to a second MoCA frequency rejection filter within the entry adapter, and passing the CATV downstream and upstream signals communicated with the passive port through the second MoCA frequency rejection filter without substantial attenuation. A further additional aspect of the method involves rejecting with a third MoCA frequency rejection filter within the entry adapter a significant majority of the power from MoCA signals that would otherwise be conducted from the entry adapter to the CATV network and that would otherwise be conducted from the CATV network into the entry adapter without substantially attenuating the CATV upstream and downstream signals communicated to and from the entry adapter. A more complete appreciation of the present invention, as well as the manner in which the present invention achieves the above and other improvements, can be obtained by reference to the following detailed description of presently preferred embodiments taken in connection with the accompanying drawings, which are briefly summarized below, and by reference to the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a plurality of CATV entry adapters which incorporate the present invention, some of which are shown interconnecting a CATV network and an MoCA in-home network located at subscriber premises. FIG. 2 is a generalized perspective view of one CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 1 in a subscriber premises, connected to the MoCA network and to active and passive subscriber equipment shown in block diagram form. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of functional components of the CATV entry adapter shown in FIG. 2, shown connected to the CATV network, to the passive subscriber equipment, and to active subscriber equipment forming nodes of the MoCA network. DETAILED DESCRIPTION A community access television or cable television (CATV) entry adapter 10 which incorporates the present invention is shown generally in FIG. 1. The CATV entry adapter 10 is located at or in a CATV subscriber's premises 12 and forms a part of a conventional MoCA in-home entertainment network 14. Multimedia devices 16 are interconnected by the MoCA network 14 in the subscriber premises 12. The multimedia devices 16 communicate multimedia content or MoCA signals between one another using the MoCA network 14. The MoCA network 14 is formed in part by the preexisting coaxial cable infrastructure (represented generally by coaxial cables 18) present in the subscriber premises 12. Examples of multimedia devices 16 are digital video recorders, computers, data modems, computer game playing devices, television sets, television set-top boxes, and other audio and visual entertainment devices. In general, the multimedia devices 16 constitute active subscriber equipment. The CATV entry adapter 10 is also a part of a conventional CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter delivers CATV content or signals from the CATV network 20 to subscriber equipment at the subscriber premises 12. In addition to the multimedia devices 16, the subscriber equipment may also include other devices which do not operate as a part of the MoCA network 14 but which are intended to function as a result of connection to the CATV network 20. Examples of subscriber equipment which are normally not part of the MoCA network 14 are eMTA devices 21 which are exemplified by a voice modem 46 and connected telephone set 48. The CATV entry adapter 10 has beneficial characteristics which allow it to function in multiple roles simultaneously in both the MoCA network 14 and in the CATV network 20, thereby benefiting both the MoCA network 14 and the CATV network 20. The CATV entry adapter 10 functions as a hub in the MoCA network 14, to effectively transfer or distribute MoCA signals between the multimedia devices 16. The CATV entry adapter 10 also functions in a conventional role as an interface between the CATV network 20 and the subscriber equipment located at the subscriber premises, thereby facilitating CATV service to the subscriber. In addition, the CATV entry adapter 10 effectively prevents MoCA signals from the MoCA network 14 from interfering with and degrading the functionality and performance of the eMTA device 21, thereby assuring that the intended functionality of the connected eMTA device will be maintained even though a MoCA network 14 is connected to and interacts with the entry adapter 10. These and other improvements and functions are described in greater detail below. The CATV network 20 shown in FIG. 1 has a typical topology. Downstream signals 22 originate from programming sources at a headend 24 of the CATV network 20, and are conducted to the CATV entry adapter 10 in a sequential path through a main trunk cable 26, a signal splitter/combiner 28, secondary trunk cables 30, another signal splitter/combiner 32, distribution cable branches 34, cable taps 36, and drop cables 38. Upstream signals 40 are delivered from the CATV entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20, and are conducted to the headend 24 in a reverse sequence. Interspersed at appropriate locations within the topology of the CATV network 20 are conventional repeater amplifiers 42, which amplify both the downstream signals 22 and the upstream signals 40. Conventional repeater amplifiers may also be included in the cable taps 36. The cable taps 36 and signal splitter/combiners 28 and 32 divide a single downstream signal into multiple separate downstream signals, and combine multiple upstream signals into a single upstream signal. The CATV entry adapter 10 receives the downstream signals 22 from the CATV network 20 at a CATV network connection or entry port 44. Passive downstream signals are conducted through the CATV entry adapter 10 to the eMTA device 21 without amplification, enhancement, modification or other substantial conditioning. Passive downstream signals are delivered from a passive port 45 to passive subscriber equipment, i.e. the eMTA device 21 represented by the voice modem 46 connected to the telephone set 48. Active downstream signals are amplified, filtered, modified, enhanced or otherwise conditioned by power-consuming active electronic circuit components within the CATV entry adapter 10, such as an amplifier, for example. The active downstream signals are divided into multiple copies, and a copy is delivered from each of a plurality of active ports, collectively referenced at 49 (but individually referenced at 50, 52, 54 and 56 in FIG. 2). The active downstream signals are delivered to active subscriber equipment located at the subscriber premises 12. Typically, the active subscriber equipment will be the multimedia devices 16 connected as part of the MoCA network 14. However, an active subscriber device does not have to be MoCA-enabled. An example of a non-MoCA-enabled active subscriber device is a television set directly connected to an active port of the CATV entry adapter without the use of a MoCA interface. In this example, the non-MoCA-enabled television set would not be a part of the MoCA network 14. The CATV subscriber equipment typically generates upstream signals 40 (FIG. 2) and delivers them to the CATV entry adapter 10 for delivery to the CATV network 20. The upstream signals 40 may be passive upstream signals generated by the eMTA device 21, or the upstream signals 40 may be active upstream signals generated by active subscriber equipment or multimedia devices 16, as exemplified by set-top boxes connected to television sets (neither shown). Set top boxes allow the subscriber/viewer to make programming and viewing selections. More details concerning the CATV entry device are shown in FIG. 2. The CATV entry adapter 10 includes a housing 58 which encloses internal electronic circuit components (shown in FIG. 3). A mounting flange 60 surrounds the housing 58 and holes 62 in the flange 60 allow attachment of the CATV entry adapter 10 to a support structure at the subscriber premises. Electrical power for the active components of the CATV entry adapter 10 is supplied from a conventional DC power supply 66 connected to a dedicated power input port 68. Alternatively, electrical power can be supplied through a conventional power inserter (not shown) that is connected to one of the active ports 50, 52, 54 or 56. The power inserter allows relatively low voltage DC power to be conducted through the same active port that also conducts high-frequency signals. Use of a conventional power inserter eliminates the need for a separate dedicated power supply port 68, or provides an alternative port through which electrical power can also be applied. The power supply 66 or the power supplied from the power inserter is typically derived from a conventional wall outlet (not shown) within the subscriber premises. The CATV network 20 is connected to the CATV network connection entry port 44 of the CATV entry adapter 10. The ports 44, 45, 50, 52, 54, 56 and 68 are each preferably formed by a conventional female coaxial cable connector which is mechanically connected to the housing 58 and which is electrically connected to internal components of the CATV entry adapter 10. Coaxial cables 18 from the subscriber premises cable infrastructure and the drop cables 38 (FIG. 1) are connected to the CATV entry adapter 10 by mechanically connecting the corresponding mating male coaxial cable connectors (not shown) on these coaxial cables to the female coaxial cable connectors forming the ports 44, 45, 50, 52, 54, 56 and 68. One CATV entry adapter 10 is located at each subscriber premises. The number of active and passive ports 45, 50, 52, 54 and 56 is dictated by the number of coaxial cables 18 which are routed throughout the subscriber premises. Although the CATV entry adapter 10 shown in FIG. 2 includes seven ports, other entry adapters may have a larger or smaller number of ports. The number and routing of the coaxial cables 18 within the subscriber premises constitute the in-home or subscriber premise cable infrastructure that is used by the MoCA network 14 (FIG. 1). Since the CATV service provider provides the CATV entry adapter 10 for use by each CATV subscriber, it is advantageous to reduce the number of different configurations of CATV entry adapters that subscribers may require. Doing so offers economies of scale in mass production, reduces the opportunity for errors in installation, allows the subscriber to expand and change the in-home cable infrastructure, and reduces inventory costs, among other things. Incorporating functionality in the CATV entry adapter 10 to give it the capability of functioning as a hub in the MoCA network 14 (FIG. 1) also promotes economies of scale, error reduction, expansion capability, versatility and reduction in inventory cost. With the improvements described below, the CATV entry adapter 10 permits the effective use of both eMTA devices 21 and multimedia devices 16 connected in a MoCA network 14, without degrading or compromising the intended functionality of a connected eMTA device 21. Each of the coaxial cables 18 of the in-home cable infrastructure terminates at a cable outlet 70. Those coaxial cables 18 which are not currently in use are preferably terminated with an appropriate termination resistor (not shown) located at the cable outlet 70 of these coaxial cables 18. In most cases however, the cable outlet 70 of the coaxial cable 72 is connected to a MoCA interface device 72 to which a separate multimedia device 16 is connected. Each MoCA interface device 72 is conventional and contains a controller (not shown) which is programmed with the necessary functionality to implement the MoCA communication protocol. Each MoCA interface device 72 is connected between the cable outlet 70 and a multimedia device 16. When the multimedia device 16 creates output signals, those output signals are encapsulated or otherwise embodied in MoCA signals created by the MoCA interface device 72, and then those MoCA signals are transmitted by one MoCA interface device 72 through the coaxial cables 18 of the in-home cable infrastructure, through the CATV entry adapter 10 acting as a MoCA network hub, and to another receiving MoCA interface device 72 in the MoCA network 14 at the subscriber premises. The receiving MoCA interface device 72 extracts the original output signals that were originally encapsulated or otherwise embodied in the MoCA signals, and the receiving MoCA interface device 72 supplies those original output signals to the multimedia device 16 to which the receiving MoCA interface device 72 is attached. The receiving MoCA interface device 72 may send administrative signals back to the original transmitting MoCA interface device 72 to confirm receipt of the MoCA signals and otherwise provide information, such as signal strength. In this manner, MoCA signals which contain the multimedia content from one multimedia device 16 are communicated through the MoCA network 14 (FIG. 1) to another MoCA-enabled multimedia device 16 for use at its location. Functioning in this manner, and in terms of the conventional terminology used in the field of networks, the MoCA interface device 72 and the multimedia device 16 form one node 74 of the MoCA network 14. MoCA signals are communicated in the described manner between the different MoCA nodes 74 of the MoCA network 14. Although the MoCA interface device is 72 are shown as separate from the multimedia devices 16, each MoCA interface device 72 is typically incorporated within or as an integral part of each MoCA-enabled multimedia device 16. However, for those multimedia devices 16 which do not include a built-in MoCA interface device 72, a separate MoCA-enabled device 72 is connected to the multimedia device 16 to thereby allow it to participate as a node in the MoCA network 14. The internal functional components of the CATV entry adapter 10 are shown in FIG. 3. Those internal circuit components include a first conventional bi-directional signal splitter/combiner 76 which splits the downstream signals 22 from the CATV network 20 received at a common terminal from the entry port 44. The downstream signals 22 are split into passive CATV downstream signals 78 at one separate signal component leg 77 and into active CATV downstream signals 80 at another separate signal component leg 81. The passive downstream signals 78 are conducted in a passive signal communication path 79 directly to and through the passive port 45 to the eMTA device 21. Passive upstream signals 82 are created by the eMTA device 21 and are conducted through the passive port 45 through the passive signal communication path 79 to the signal splitter/combiner 76 to become upstream signals 40 in the CATV network 20. The passive signal communication path 79 for the passive signals in the CATV entry adapter 10 contains no power-consuming active electronic components that might fail or malfunction, thereby enhancing the reliability of CATV passive communications. The passive signal communication path 79 is intended to be as reliable as possible since it is used in emergency and critical circumstances. A “lifeline” telephone communication capability established by the voice modem 46 and telephone set 48 (FIG. 1) is one example of an eMTA device 21. The active CATV downstream signals 80 from the other separate signal component leg 81 of the splitter/combiner 76 are conducted to a first CATV downstream frequency bandpass filter 84 in an active downstream signal communication path 85. The downstream filter 84 passes signals having frequencies in the CATV downstream frequency range of 54-1002 MHz, and rejects signals having frequencies in other ranges. The downstream signals passed by the filter 84 are amplified by an amplifier 86 and then supplied to a second CATV downstream frequency bandpass filter 88, both of which are also part of the active downstream signal communication path 85. The amplified and further filtered active CATV downstream signals are then conducted to a MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 having a conventional construction. The function of the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 is to reject signals in the MoCA frequency range of 1125-1525 MHz by not conducting those signals through the filter 90. Signals in frequency ranges outside of the MoCA frequency band of 1125-1525 MHz are passed through the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90. The CATV downstream signals are in the 54-1002 MHz frequency range, so the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 readily passes the CATV downstream signals. After passing through the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90, the CATV downstream signals in the frequency range of 54-1002 MHz are applied to a common terminal of a second conventional bidirectional splitter/combiner 94. The splitter/combiner 94 splits or divides those signals into four identical downstream signals, each of which has approximately one-fourth of the power or signal strength of the downstream signal initially applied to the splitter/combiner 94. Each of the split signals is delivered from one of four separate signal component legs 91, 92, 93 and 95 of the splitter/combiner 94. The four split signals from the signal component legs 91, 92, 93 and 95 of the splitter/combiner 94 are applied at the active ports 50, 52, 54 and 56 of the CATV entry adapter 10, respectively. Although four active ports 50, 52, 54 and 56 are shown, more active ports are achieved by use of a splitter/combiner with a different number of signal component legs, or by use of multiple cascaded splitters/combiners, to derive the desired number of split signals to be applied to all of the active ports of the entry adapter 10. To the extent that the multimedia devices 16 connected through the coaxial cables 18 to the active ports respond to the CATV downstream signals available at the active ports 50, 52, 54 and 56, each MoCA interface device 72 passes those downstream signals directly to the multimedia device 16. The MoCA interface device 72 does not modify or otherwise influence CATV downstream signals passing through it. In those cases where the multimedia device 16 is capable of sending CATV upstream signals 96, those CATV upstream signals 96 are likewise passed through the MoCA interface device 72 without change or influence and are then conducted through the cable outlet 70, the coaxial cable 18 and the active ports 50, 52, 54 or 56 to the splitter/combiner 94. The splitter/combiner 94 combines all CATV upstream signals 96 and supplies those signals as combined active upstream signals 96 to the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90. Since the CATV upstream signals 96 are within the frequency band of 5-42 MHz and are outside of the 1125-1525 MHz MoCA frequency band, the CATV upstream signals 96 are passed upstream by MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 into an active signal communication path 99. The combined active upstream signals 96 from the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 are supplied to a first CATV upstream frequency bandpass filter 98 of the active upstream signal communication path 99. The filter 98 passes signals having frequencies in the CATV upstream frequency range of 5-42 MHz, and rejects signals having frequencies in other ranges. The CATV upstream signals passed by the filter 96 are then supplied to an ingress noise mitigation circuit 100. The ingress noise mitigation circuit 100 suppresses ingress noise in the range of 0-42 MHz that may have originated from noise sources within the subscriber premises. Use of the ingress noise mitigation circuit 100 is optional in the CATV entry adapter 10, but if employed, the noise mitigation circuit 100 is preferably employed in the form described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/250,227, filed Oct. 13, 2008, and titled Ingress Noise Inhibiting Network Interface Device and Method for Cable Television Networks, which is assigned to the assignee hereof. The CATV upstream signals leaving the ingress noise mitigation circuit 100 are then applied to a second CATV upstream frequency bandpass filter 102. The second CATV upstream frequency bandpass filter 102 is also optional for use. The second upstream bandpass filter 102 may not be necessary if the first upstream bandpass filter 98 provides sufficient frequency filtering characteristics and the ingress noise mitigation circuit 100 is not used. The second upstream bandpass filter 102 may also be eliminated under certain circumstances, even when the ingress noise mitigation circuit 100 is used. The ingress noise mitigation circuit 100 and the second CATV upstream bandpass filter 102 are also part of the active upstream signal communication path 99. The active upstream signals from the active upstream signal communication path 99 are supplied to the signal component leg 81 of the splitter/combiner 76. The passive upstream signals 82 from the passive signal communication path 79 are supplied to the signal component leg 77 of the splitter/combiner 76. The splitter/combiner 76 combines the signals supplied to its signal component legs and 77 and 81 to form a single combined upstream signal 40. The MoCA network 14 exists between and through the active ports 50, 52, 54 and 56, as is shown in FIG. 3. Ideally, the MoCA signals in the MoCA network 14 should be confined to paths between the MoCA interface devices 72 through the cable outlets 70, the coaxial cables 18, the active ports 50, 52, 54 and 56, and the splitter/combiner 94. When the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 has sufficient size and capacity to effectively suppress and reject substantially all of the power or strength of the MoCA signals present at the common terminal of the splitter/combiner 94, the MoCA signals will be confined in this ideal manner. However, a MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 which has the capability to effectively suppress and reject substantially all the power of the MoCA signals is relatively costly, will require a large number of components to fabricate thereby making its manufacture more difficult and expensive, and will require substantially greater manufacturing effort to tune to achieve effective MoCA frequency rejection in connection with establishing the bandpass characteristics of the CATV downstream and upstream filters 84, 88, 98, and 102. The interrelated nature of the filters 90, 84, 88, 98 and 102 in the single entry adapter 10 makes the proper operation of each filter depend on the proper operation of all of the other filters. Tuning all of the filters therefore becomes an expensive, repetitive, and time-consuming iterative activity. In general, without substantial suppression of the MoCA signals by the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90, MoCA signals having enough strength to adversely influence the proper functionality of the eMTA device 21 may bleed or otherwise propagate through the circuitry of the active communication paths 85 and 99 and interact with the passive CATV upstream and downstream signals 82 and 78 in the passive communication path 79. The strength of the MoCA signals which propagate in this manner may be sufficient to corrupt the information contained in the passive CATV signals 78 and 82, and thereby compromise or prevent the proper functionality of the eMTA device 21. The strength of the MoCA signals which propagate in this manner may also be sufficient to overwhelm certain transmitters and receivers within the eMTA device 21, which will also compromise or prevent its proper functionality. If only a single MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 is utilized in the entry adapter 10, that single MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 must have the singular capacity of rejecting or isolating the MoCA signals from the CATV signals within the entry adapter 10 and confining the MoCA signals to the MoCA network 14. At the present time, it is expected that approximately 60 dB will be the required minimum isolation capacity to prevent the MoCA frequency signals from adversely influencing the proper functionality of the eMTA device 21. Manufacturing a single MoCA frequency rejection filter having a 60 dB isolation capacity is complex, expensive and time-consuming. A relatively large number of component parts are required to create a rejection filter of this capacity. The components must be assembled and then tuned under circumstances where tuning the MoCA frequency rejection filter will usually be influenced by the tuning of the CATV bandpass filters 84, 88, 98 and 102. To avoid the cost and complexity of manufacturing and tuning a single MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 having sufficient capacity to reject all MoCA signals and prevent them from entering the signal communication paths 85 and 99 of the entry adapter, one or more additional MoCA frequency rejection filters 104 and 108 is incorporated in the entry adapter 10. In this circumstance, the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 is not required to reject the entire strength of the MoCA signals, but instead has a capacity which is sufficient to reject the substantial majority of the strength of the MoCA signals. The remaining portion of the MoCA signal strength is rejected by one or both of the additional MoCA frequency rejection filters 104 and 108. The second MoCA frequency rejection filter 104 is connected in the passive communication path 79. The second MoCA frequency rejection filter 104 rejects the residual MoCA signals that pass through the first MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 into the active downstream and upstream communication paths 85 and 99. Residual MoCA signals are therefore prevented from interacting with the eMTA device 21 due to the MoCA frequency rejection capability of the second MoCA frequency rejection filter 104. The second MoCA frequency rejection filter 104 does not influence the passive downstream signals supplied to the eMTA device 21 or the passive upstream signal supplied from the eMTA device, because the rejection capability of the second rejection filter 104 applies only to signals in the 1125-1525 MHz range and the CATV passive downstream and upstream signals occupy entirely different frequency ranges of 5-42 MHz and 52-1002 MHz. The third MoCA frequency rejection filter 108 is connected between the common terminal of the splitter/combiner 76 and the CATV network entry port 44. The third MoCA frequency rejection filter 108 rejects the residual MoCA signals which have bled through the first MoCA frequency rejection filter 90, the active signal communication paths 85 and 99 and the splitter/combiner 76, thereby preventing those residual MoCA signals from reaching the CATV network 20. Without the MoCA rejection filter 108, as understood from FIG. 1, the residual MoCA signals from one CATV entry adapter 10 could traverse the drop cables 38 to the cable tap 36, and from the cable tap through another drop cable 38 of that cable tap 36 to another CATV entry adapter 10 of a different CATV subscriber. Preventing the residual MoCA signals from reaching an adjacent subscriber premises is important in securing the privacy of the communications within the MoCA network 14 of the original CATV subscriber and from preventing interference with the proper functionality of the MoCA network of a different CATV subscriber. From a similar perspective, the third MoCA rejection filter 108 also prevents residual MoCA signals present on the CATV network 20 from the MoCA network of another CATV subscriber from entering the CATV entry adapter 10 at the entry port 44 and contributing to problems with proper passive signal communication to and from the eMTA device 21. Thus, the third MoCA frequency rejection filter 108 prevents MoCA signals from escaping from the entry adapter 10 to the CATV network 20 and prevents MoCA signals present on the CATV network 20 from entering the entry adapter 10. By dividing the MoCA frequency rejection functionality among multiple MoCA frequency rejection filters 90, 104 and 108, each of the MoCA frequency rejection filters can have a smaller capacity. The smaller capacity makes the MoCA frequency rejection filters less costly and complex to manufacture. The reduced rejection capacity does not involve as much interaction with the CATV bandpass filters, thereby reducing the difficulty of tuning the smaller capacity filters. Smaller capacity MoCA frequency rejection filters require fewer components and less manufacturing effort. In general, dividing the MoCA frequency rejection functionality among multiple MoCA frequency rejection filters simplifies the manufacturing and achieves equal or better MoCA frequency rejection performance than that obtained by a more complex single MoCA rejection filter 90. Preferably, the combination of MoCA frequency rejection filters achieves at least 60 dB of isolation between the passive port 45 and any one of the active ports 50, 52, 54 and 56 and the entry port 44. This degree of isolation is achieved by sizing the MoCA frequency rejection filters 90, 104 and 108 to achieve the desired 60 dB of signal isolation. The preferred approach is to size each of the three MoCA frequency rejection filters 90, 104 and 108 to have at least 30 dB of isolation individually, because the effect of multiple filters is additive. In addition to the benefits of rejecting the MoCA signals in the CATV signal paths, the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 also contributes to the strength of the MoCA signals communicated in the MoCA network 14. The rejection capability of the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 is achieved in part by reflecting MoCA signals, rather than by absorbing the power or strength of the MoCA signals. The MoCA signals reflected from the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 pass directly downstream through the splitter/combiner 94. Although the strength of the reflected MoCA signals is divided by the splitter/combiner 94, the strength of the split reflected MoCA signals at the signal component legs 91, 92, 93 and 95 adds to the strength of the MoCA signals present at the signal component legs 91, 92, 93 and 95. Without the additive effect from the split reflected MoCA signals, the strength of the MoCA signals available at the signal component legs 91, 92, 93 and 95 depends entirely upon splitter jumping. As discussed above, splitter jumping involves a substantial signal attenuation, thus substantially reducing the MoCA signal strength at the ports 50, 52, 54 and 56. By adding the effect of the split MoCA signals reflected from the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90, the MoCA signals available from the signal component legs 91, 92, 93 and 95 to be communicated to the MoCA interface devices 72 is substantially enhanced by the signal reflection characteristics of the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90. The enhanced signal strength of the MoCA signals created by the reflections from the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90 also contributes to reducing the strength of the MoCA signals which bleed through the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90. As discussed above, the MoCA communication protocol has a capability of communicating information describing the received signal strength between the transmitting and receiving MoCA interface devices. A low signal strength will result in the transmitting MoCA interface device increasing the strength of the transmitted signal. Without the additive effect from the split reflected MoCA signals at the signal component legs 91, 92, 93 and 95, the signal strength received by the receiving MoCA interface device would be substantially attenuated because of the splitter jumping of the MoCA signal between the signal component legs of the splitter/combiner 94. The diminished signal strength would be communicated to the transmitting MoCA interface device, and the transmitting MoCA interface device would respond by increasing the strength of the transmitted MoCA signals. The increased strength of the transmitted MoCA signals would not be as effectively rejected by the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90, thereby permitting more residual MoCA signal strength to bleed through into the CATV signal communication paths of the entry adapter. However, by enhancing the MoCA signal strength at the signal component legs 91, 92, 93 and 95 due to the additive effect of the MoCA signals reflected from the MoCA frequency rejection filter 90, the signal strength of the transmitted MoCA signals is lower, resulting in less MoCA signal bleed-through and less required MoCA signal rejection to obtain proper functionality of the eMTA device 21. The second MoCA frequency rejection filter 104 is important when the third MoCA frequency rejection filter 108 is connected to the CATV entry port 44 of the CATV entry adapter 10. Some portion of the residual bleed-through MoCA signals is reflected from the third MoCA frequency rejection filter 108, and those rejected residual MoCA signals pass through the splitter/combiner 76 to the passive communication path 79. Consequently, including the third MoCA frequency rejection filter 108 at the CATV entry port 44 enhances the strength or power of the residual MoCA frequencies conducted into the passive communication path 79 due to signal reflection. The CATV entry adapter 10 beneficially contributes to the quality of service available from the CATV network 20 and from the MoCA network 14. The proper functionality of an eMTA device 21 at the subscriber premises is sustained even when the eMTA device 21 is not MoCA-enabled and a MoCA network is established with the entry adapter 21. The MoCA frequency rejection filter(s) suppress(es) those residual MoCA signals which bleed from the MoCA network into the passive CATV signal communication path, thereby preserving the intended functionality of lifeline or another eMTA device connected to the entry adapter 10. The CATV entry adapter 10 is fully functional as a MoCA network hub to communicate adequate strength MoCA signals between all MoCA interface devices and multimedia devices, while simultaneously preserving the intended CATV functionality. The CATV entry adapter also prevents or greatly inhibits MoCA signals from reaching the CATV network, thereby avoiding a compromise in the privacy and security of the MoCA content which is expected to be maintained only within the MoCA network of the subscriber premises. Similarly, the CATV entry adapter also prevents or greatly inhibits MoCA signals present on the CATV network 20 from entering the adapter and interfering with the proper functionality of the subscriber equipment connected to the entry adapter. The advantageous functionality of the CATV entry adapter is obtained within the housing of the CATV entry adapter, thereby shielding that desirable functionality from unauthorized tampering, negligence in installation, and physical exposure. The multi-functional aspects of the CATV entry adapter allow it to be used in many situations, thereby increasing its economies of scale and use and facilitating greater convenience in installation by the CATV service provider. The CATV entry adapter 10 allows subscribers more flexibility in expanding and changing both their CATV subscriber equipment and their MoCA network and multimedia devices. The significance of these and other improvements and advantages will become apparent upon gaining a full appreciation of the present invention. Preferred embodiments of the invention and many of its improvements have been described above with a degree of particularity. The detailed description is of preferred examples of implementing the invention. The details of the description are not necessarily intended to limit the scope of the invention. The scope of the invention is defined by the following claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>CATV networks use an infrastructure of interconnected coaxial cables, signal splitters and combiners, repeating amplifiers, filters, trunk lines, cable taps, drop lines and other signal-conducting devices to supply and distribute high frequency “downstream” signals from a main signal distribution facility, known as a “headend,” to the premises (homes and offices) of CATV subscribers. The downstream signals operate the subscriber equipment, such as television sets, telephone sets and computers. In addition, most CATV networks also transmit “upstream” signals from the subscriber equipment back to the headend of the CATV network. For example, the subscriber uses a set top box to select programs for display on the television set. As another example, two-way communication is essential when using a personal computer connected through the CATV infrastructure to the public Internet. As a further example, voice over Internet protocol (VOIP) telephone sets use the CATV infrastructure and the public Internet as the communication medium for transmitting two-way telephone conversations. To permit simultaneous communication of upstream and downstream CATV signals and the interoperability of the subscriber equipment and the equipment associated with the CATV network infrastructure outside of subscriber premises, the downstream and upstream signals are confined to two different frequency bands. The downstream frequency band is within the range of 54-1002 megahertz (MHz) and the upstream frequency band is within the range of 5-42 MHz, in most CATV networks. The downstream signals are delivered from the CATV network infrastructure to the subscriber premises at a CATV entry adapter, which is also commonly referred to as an entry device, terminal adapter or a drop amplifier. The entry adapter is a multi-port device which connects at an entry port to a CATV drop cable from the CATV network infrastructure and which connects at a multiplicity of other distribution ports to coaxial cables which extend throughout the subscriber premises to a cable outlet. Each cable outlet is available to be connected to subscriber equipment. Typically, most homes have coaxial cables extending to cable outlets in almost every room, because different types of subscriber equipment may be used in different rooms. For example, television sets, computers and telephone sets are commonly used in many different rooms of a home or office. The multiple distribution ports of the entry adapter deliver the downstream signals to each cable outlet and conduct the upstream signals from the subscriber equipment through the entry adapter to the drop cable and the CATV infrastructure. In addition to television sets, computers and telephones, a relatively large number of other entertainment and multimedia devices are available for use in homes. For example, a digital video recorder (DVR) is used to record broadcast programming, still photography and moving pictures in a memory medium so that the content can be replayed on a display or television set at a later time selected by the user. As another example, computer games are also played at displays or on television sets. Such computer games may be those obtained over the Internet from the CATV network or from media played on play-back devices connected to displays or television sets. As a further example, receivers of satellite-broadcast signals may be distributed for viewing or listening throughout the home. These types of devices, including the more-conventional television sets, telephone sets and devices connected to the Internet by the CATV network, are generically referred to as multimedia devices. The desire to use multimedia devices at multiple different locations within the home or subscriber premises has led to the creation of the Multimedia over Coax Alliance (MoCA). MoCA has developed specifications for products to create an in-home entertainment network for interconnecting presently-known and future multimedia devices. A MoCA in-home network uses the subscriber premise or in-home coaxial cable infrastructure originally established for distribution of CATV signals within the subscriber premises, principally because that coaxial cable infrastructure already exists in most homes and is capable of carrying much more information than is carried in the CATV frequency bands. A MoCA network is established by connecting MoCA-enabled or MoCA interface devices at the cable outlets in the rooms of the subscriber premises. These MoCA interface devices implement a MoCA communication protocol which encapsulates the signals normally used by the multimedia devices within MoCA signal packets and then communicates the MoCA signal packets between other MoCA interfaces devices connected at other cable outlets. The receiving MoCA interface device removes the encapsulated multimedia signals from the MoCA signal packets, and delivers the multimedia signals to the connected display, computer or other multimedia device from which the content is presented to the user. Each MoCA-enabled device is capable of communicating with every other MoCA-enabled device in the in-home or subscriber premises MoCA network to deliver the multimedia content throughout the home or subscriber premises. The multimedia content that is available from one multimedia device can be displayed, played or otherwise used at a different location within the home, without having to physically relocate the originating multimedia device from one location to another within the subscriber premises. The communication of multimedia content is considered beneficial in more fully utilizing the multimedia devices present in modern homes. Since the operation of the subscriber premises MoCA network must occur simultaneously with the operation of the CATV services, the MoCA signals utilize a frequency range different from the frequency ranges of the CATV upstream and downstream signals. The typical MoCA frequency band is 1125-1525 MHz. This so-called D band of MoCA signals is divided into eight different frequency ranges, D1-D8, and these eight different D frequency ranges are used to assure communication between the selected MoCA-enabled devices. For example, the D-1 band at 1125-1175 MHz may be used to communicate CATV television programming content between a MoCA interface device associated with a set-top box in a main room of the house and another MoCA interface device connected to a television set in bedroom of the house, while a MoCA interface device connected to a computer gaming multimedia device in a basement room of the house simultaneously communicates computer game content over the D-6 band at 1375-1425 MHz to another MoCA interface device associated with a computer located in a recreation room of the house. The MoCA frequency band also includes other frequency ranges, but the D band is of major relevance because of its principal use in establishing connections between the MoCA interface devices. Although using the subscriber premises coaxial cable infrastructure as the communication medium substantially simplifies the implementation of the MoCA network, there are certain disadvantages to doing so. The MoCA signals have the capability of passing through the CATV entry device and entering the CATV network infrastructure where those MoCA signals may then pass through a drop cable and enter another subscriber's premises. The presence of the MoCA signals at an adjoining subscriber's premises compromises the privacy and security of the information originally intended to be confined only within the original subscriber premises. The MoCA signals from the original subscriber premises which enter through the CATV network to another subscriber premises also have the potential to adversely affect the performance of a MoCA network in the other subscriber premises. The conflict of MoCA signals from the original and other subscriber premises may cause the MoCA interface devices to malfunction or not operate properly. CATV networks are subject to adverse influences from so-called ingress noise which enters the CATV network from external sources, located at the subscriber premises. The typical range of ingress noise is in the frequency band of 0-15 MHz, but can also exist in other upstream or downstream frequencies. Ingress noise mitigation devices have been developed to suppress or reduce ingress noise from the subscriber premises in the 0-42 MHz frequency band, but the 1125-1525 MHz signals in the MoCA frequency range are considerably outside the range of the normal ingress noise. Therefore, typical ingress noise suppression devices are ineffectual in inhibiting MoCA signals. MoCA signals, residing outside of the CATV signal frequency bands of 5-42 MHz and 54-1002 MHz, may constitute another source of noise for the CATV network. Separate MoCA frequency rejection filters have been developed for external connection to CATV entry adapters, in an effort to keep the MoCA frequency signals confined to the subscriber premises. However, the use of such devices is subject to unauthorized removal, tampering, negligence in original installation, and physical exposure which could lead to premature failure or malfunction. Problems also arise because the CATV network and the in-home cable infrastructure were originally intended for the distribution of CATV signals. The typical in-home cable infrastructure uses signal splitters to divide a single CATV downstream signal into multiple CATV downstream signals and to combine multiple CATV upstream signals into a single CATV upstream signal. The CATV entry adapter was not originally intended to communicate MoCA signals between its active ports, as is necessary to achieve MoCA signal communication in the MoCA network. To implement the MoCA network, the MoCA signals must traverse or “jump” between separate signal component legs of a signal splitter/combiner which are connected to the multiple active ports. This signal traversal is referred to as “splitter jumping.” The typical signal splitter has a high degree of signal rejection or isolation between its separate signal component legs. When the MoCA signals jump or traverse between the separate signal component legs of the splitter, the degree of signal rejection or isolation greatly attenuates the strength of the MoCA signals. The physical MoCA signal communication paths are also variable because of unpredictable differences in the in-home cable infrastructure. The MoCA communication protocol recognizes the possibility of variable strength MoCA signals and provides a capability to boost the strength of MoCA signals to compensate for the variable strength of the MoCA signals that would otherwise be communicated between MoCA-enabled devices. The strength or power of the MoCA signals can be substantially greater than the strength or power of the CATV signals communicated within the subscriber premises. The higher power MoCA signals may result from the MoCA devices compensating for reduced signal strength by boosting the strength or power of the transmitted MoCA signals, or from the simple fact that the MoCA signals traverse a considerably shorter signal path within the subscriber premises MoCA network compared to the considerably longer signal path which CATV downstream signals traverse over the CATV network infrastructure. Consequently, the MoCA signals have the capability of adversely affecting the proper functionality of CATV subscriber equipment. One example of the significant negative impact from MoCA signals occurs in a CATV entry adapter of the type which has both a passive signal distribution port and multiple active signal distribution ports. Such a CATV entry adapter supplies a passive CATV downstream signal to the passive port and receives a passive CATV upstream signal from the eMTA device connected to the passive port. The CATV entry adapter also supplies active CATV downstream signals to each of its multiple active ports and receives active CATV upstream signals from each of its multiple active ports. Such an entry adapter includes a splitter which divides the CATV downstream signals into passive signals and active signals. The passive signals are conducted through the entry adapter without amplification, conditioning or modification before they are delivered from the passive port to subscriber equipment. The active signals are usually conducted through a forward path amplifier, where the amplifier amplifies the strength of the CATV downstream signals, or modifies or conditions some characteristic of those CATV signals, before delivering them from the active ports to the active subscriber equipment. Most subscriber equipment benefits from amplified CATV downstream signals. The majority of ports on a CATV entry adapter are active ports. Usually only one passive port is provided for each entry adapter. The subscriber equipment connected to the passive port of the entry adapter is an embedded multimedia terminal adapter (eMTA) device, typically a “lifeline” telephone set. An eMTA device combines a cable modem and analog telephone adapter. The cable modem provides a data interface for communicating Internet protocol packets to and from the CATV network, and an analog telephone adapter provides a voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) interface for the analog telephone set. The eMTA device converts between analog voice signals and packets. A lifeline telephone is a well known example of an eMTA device. The passive signals conducted through the entry adapter do not undergo amplification, conditioning or modification in the entry adapter before they are delivered from the passive port to passive eMTA subscriber equipment. In general, the passive signals are intended to remain available and useful in emergency conditions. The functionality of a lifeline telephone set can not depend on the proper functionality of an amplifier or other active signal conditioner in the passive signal path. Consequently, the passive CATV downstream signals received by the eMTA lifeline telephone device have relatively low power, compared to the power of the MoCA signals communicated between the MoCA devices connected to the active ports of the entry adapter. The entry adapter includes an upstream bandpass filter which conducts the CATV upstream signals in the 5-42 MHz frequency band and a downstream bandpass filter which conducts the CATV downstream signals in the 54-1002 MHz frequency band. Although the CATV upstream and downstream bandpass filters are intended to substantially reject signals outside of their bandpass frequencies, the substantially higher power MoCA signals in the 1125-1525 MHz frequency band have the capability of bleeding through typical CATV upstream and downstream bandpass filters with sufficient strength to rival or predominate over the strength of the CATV downstream passive signals delivered from the passive port to the eMTA subscriber equipment. The MoCA signals are noise to the eMTA subscriber equipment, and the eMTA subscriber equipment does not function in response to MoCA signals. However, the strength of the MoCA signals can constitute such a significant noise level as to overwhelm or overdrive the eMTA device and thereby degrade or interfere with its functionality to the point where reliable communication cannot be achieved. It is for this reason that CATV entry adapters which also serve as part of the MoCA network are subject to requirements for MoCA signal isolation or rejection at the passive port compared to the active and entry ports of the entry adapter. At the present time, passive port isolation of approximately 60 dB is considered desirable. The problem of the power from MoCA signals interfering with the proper functionality of eMTA subscriber equipment connected to the passive port of a CATV entry adapter only occurs with respect to subscriber equipment which is not MoCA-enabled. MoCA-enabled subscriber equipment is intended to operate in response to MoCA signals, and as a result, has the capability of rejecting unwanted MoCA signals when also operating in response to CATV downstream and upstream signals. At the present time, most passive subscriber equipment is not MoCA enabled. Consequently, the problem of the MoCA signals inhibiting the proper functionality of passive subscriber equipment is significant in CATV entry adapters which also conduct MoCA signals in a subscriber premises MoCA network.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a CATV entry adapter which beneficially contributes to the establishment of a MoCA in-home network without degrading the quality of the signals and service provided to and from eMTA subscriber equipment. The CATV entry adapter of the present invention effectively eliminates an interfering effect of MoCA signals at its passive port, thereby avoiding the problem of the MoCA signals interfering with the proper functionality of the eMTA subscriber equipment connected to the passive port. The present invention permits eMTA subscriber equipment which is not MoCA-enabled to be used effectively when the CATV entry adapter functions as a hub for communicating MoCA signals between MoCA enabled devices connected to active ports of the entry adapter. Non-MoCA enabled subscriber equipment may therefore be used effectively without additional cost to the subscriber when a MoCA network is established in the subscriber premises. The CATV entry adapter also enhances the strength of the MoCA signals communicated in the MoCA network. To achieve these and other improvements, one aspect of the invention relates to a CATV entry adapter having an entry port for communicating CATV downstream and upstream signals with a CATV network and also having a passive distribution port and a plurality of active distribution ports for communicating CATV downstream and upstream signals to subscriber equipment at a subscriber premises. The passive port is adapted to be connected to eMTA subscriber equipment. The active ports are adapted to be connected to CATV subscriber equipment and to MoCA-enabled subscriber equipment in a MoCA network at the subscriber's premises. The plurality of active ports also communicate MoCA signals between the MoCA-enabled subscriber equipment connected to the active ports in a subscriber premises MoCA network. A first bidirectional splitter/combiner of the entry adapter has a common terminal connected to the entry port to communicate the CATV downstream and upstream signals with the CATV network. The first splitter/combiner also has first and second separate signal component legs. The first splitter/combiner splits CATV downstream signals into split CATV downstream signals and supplies each split CATV downstream signal to the first and second signal component legs. The first splitter/combiner creates a single combined upstream signal from each upstream signal received at the first and second signal component legs and supplies the combined upstream signal to the common terminal. A passive signal communication path extends between the first signal component leg of the first splitter/combiner and the passive port. The passive signal communication path conducts passive signals between the passive port and the first signal component leg of the first splitter/combiner. An active signal communication path extends from the second signal component leg of the first splitter/combiner to conduct active signals to and from the second signal component leg of the first splitter/combiner. A second bidirectional splitter/combiner has a common terminal and a plurality of separate signal component legs. Each signal component leg is connected to an active port. The second splitter/combiner splits each signal received at its common terminal into split signals and supplies each split signal to each of the signal component legs. The second splitter/combiner also creates a combined active signal from each CATV upstream signal and MoCA signal received at each signal component leg and supplies the combined active signal to its common terminal. The second splitter/combiner performs signal splitting and signal combining on CATV downstream signals, CATV upstream signals and MoCA signals. A first MoCA frequency rejection filter is connected between the active signal communication path and the second splitter/combiner. The first MoCA frequency rejection filter rejects a significant majority of the power from MoCA signals present at the common terminal of the second splitter/combiner and passes the CATV upstream and downstream signals communicated to and from the active ports without substantial attenuation. One additional aspect of the CATV entry adapter involves the first MoCA frequency rejection filter reflecting power from MoCA signals received from the common terminal of the second splitter/combiner back to the common terminal of the second splitter/combiner, and the second splitter/combiner supplying the MoCA signals reflected from the first MoCA frequency rejection filter as split reflected MoCA signals to the signal component legs of the second splitter/combiner, thereby increasing the efficiency and power of the MoCA signal distribution among the active ports of the entry adapter. The reflected MoCA signals add power to the MoCA signals which traverse or jump between signal component legs of the signal splitter/combiner. Another additional aspect of the CATV entry adapter involves a second MoCA frequency rejection filter connected in the passive signal communication path between the first signal component leg of the first splitter/combiner and the passive port. The second MoCA frequency rejection filter rejects a significant majority of the power from MoCA signals present at the first signal component leg of the first splitter/combiner, thereby eliminating or reducing the effects of MoCA signals on the eMTA subscriber equipment connected to the passive port and preserving the quality of the CATV upstream and downstream signals communicated to and from the eMTA subscriber equipment connected to the passive port. A further additional aspect of the CATV entry adapter involves a third MoCA frequency rejection filter connected between the common terminal of the first splitter/combiner and the entry port. The third MoCA frequency rejection filter rejects a significant majority of the power from MoCA signals present at the common terminal of the first splitter/combiner and passes the CATV upstream and downstream signals communicated to and from the entry port without substantial attenuation. The third MoCA signal frequency rejection filter inhibits conduction of MoCA signals from the subscriber premises MoCA network onto the CATV network and inhibits conduction of spurious MoCA signals from the CATV network into the MoCA network at the subscriber premises. Another aspect of the invention which involves a method of preventing MoCA signals communicated between MoCA-enabled subscriber devices connected to a CATV entry adapter in a MoCA network from interfering with communications from an eMTA subscriber device connected by the CATV entry adapter to a CATV network. The method comprises connecting the eMTA subscriber device to a passive port of the entry adapter, communicating passive CATV downstream and upstream signals between the CATV network and the eMTA subscriber device through the entry adapter and the passive port, connecting each MoCA-enabled subscriber device to one of a plurality of active ports of the entry adapter, communicating MoCA signals through the entry adapter and the active ports between the MoCA-enabled subscriber devices in the MoCA network, splitting CATV downstream signals received from the CATV network within the entry adapter into split CATV downstream signals and supplying one split CATV downstream signal to the passive port and supplying the other split CATV downstream signal to the active ports, combining CATV upstream signals received from the passive and active ports within the entry adapter into a CATV combined upstream signal and supplying the CATV combined upstream signal from the entry adapter to the CATV network, combining CATV upstream signals and MoCA signals received from the active ports within the entry adapter into a combined active signal, rejecting a significant majority of the power from MoCA signals within the combined active signal by supplying the combined active signal to a first MoCA frequency rejection filter within the entry adapter, and passing the CATV downstream and upstream signals within the combined active signal through the first MoCA frequency rejection filter without substantial attenuation. One additional aspect of the method involves reflecting split reflected MoCA signals from the first MoCA frequency rejection filter to the active ports. The power of the split reflected MoCA signals and the power of MoCA signals that traverse between the active ports are added together to enhance the power of the MoCA signals conducted from the active ports to the MoCA-enabled subscriber equipment in the subscriber premises MoCA network. Another additional aspect of the method involves rejecting a significant majority of the power of any MoCA signals from the combined active signal otherwise conducted to the passive port by supplying the combined active signal to a second MoCA frequency rejection filter within the entry adapter, and passing the CATV downstream and upstream signals communicated with the passive port through the second MoCA frequency rejection filter without substantial attenuation. A further additional aspect of the method involves rejecting with a third MoCA frequency rejection filter within the entry adapter a significant majority of the power from MoCA signals that would otherwise be conducted from the entry adapter to the CATV network and that would otherwise be conducted from the CATV network into the entry adapter without substantially attenuating the CATV upstream and downstream signals communicated to and from the entry adapter. A more complete appreciation of the present invention, as well as the manner in which the present invention achieves the above and other improvements, can be obtained by reference to the following detailed description of presently preferred embodiments taken in connection with the accompanying drawings, which are briefly summarized below, and by reference to the appended claims.

H04N2143615

20180208

20180614

88957.0

H04N21436

DUBASKY, GIGI L

ENTRY ADAPTER FOR COMMUNICATING EXTERNAL SIGNALS TO AN INTERNAL NETWORK AND COMMUNICATING CLIENT SIGNALS IN THE CLIENT NETWORK

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04N

PENDING

VAGINAL INSERTED ESTRADIOL PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS

In one aspect, compositions and methods for the treatment of vulvovaginal atrophy (VVA) are provided. In one embodiment, the method comprises administering an estrogen to a subject having VVA by inserting a dosage form comprising a liquid pharmaceutical composition.

1. A method for treating one or more symptoms of vulvovaginal atrophy (VVA) comprising: administering an estrogen to a subject having VVA by inserting a dosage form comprising a liquid pharmaceutical composition comprising an estrogen and instructing the subject that the subject may be ambulatory immediately after administration of the composition; wherein administration of the composition results in an improvement in one or more clinical parameters in the subject within two weeks from the first administration, wherein the parameters are selected from the group consisting of an increase in the percentage of vaginal superficial cells, a decrease in the percentage of vaginal parabasal cells, a decrease in vaginal pH, and a decrease in the severity of moderate to severe symptoms of dyspareunia. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more symptoms of VVA are selected from the group consisting of vaginal dryness, vaginal odor, vaginal or vulvar irritation, dysuria, dyspareunia, vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity, vaginal soreness with urinary frequency and urgency, urinary discomfort, incontinence, and increased vaginal pH. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the dosage form is a capsule. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the dosage form is a soft gelatin capsule. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the composition contains about 4 μg to about 25 μg of solubilized estradiol. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein administration of the composition results in an increase in the percentage of vaginal superficial cells within two weeks from the first administration. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein administration of the composition results in a decrease in the percentage of vaginal parabasal cells within two weeks from the first administration. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein administration of the composition results in a decrease in vaginal pH within two weeks from the first administration. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein administration of the composition results in a decrease in the severity of moderate to severe symptoms of dyspareunia within two weeks from the first administration. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the administration is conducted daily for two weeks, and twice weekly thereafter. 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more symptoms of VVA are due to menopause.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/372,385, filed Dec. 7, 2016, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/521,230, filed Oct. 22, 2014, and which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Pat. Appl. No. 62/264,309, filed Dec. 7, 2015; U.S. Provisional Pat. Appl. No. 62/296,552, filed Feb. 17, 2016; U.S. Provisional Pat. Appl. No. 62/324,838, filed Apr. 19, 2016; U.S. Provisional Pat. Appl. No. 62/329,940, filed Apr. 29, 2016; and U.S. Provisional Pat. Appl. No. 62/348,820, filed Jun. 10, 2016; which applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This application is directed to pharmaceutical compositions, methods, and devices related to hormone replacement therapy. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Postmenopausal women frequently suffer from atrophic vaginitis or vulvar and vaginal atrophy (hereinafter “vulvovaginal atrophy” or “VVA”) with symptoms including, for example, vaginal dryness, vaginal odor, vaginal or vulvar irritation or itching, dysuria (pain, burning, or stinging when urinating), dyspareunia (vaginal pain associated with sexual activity), or vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Other symptoms include soreness; with urinary frequency and urgency; urinary discomfort and incontinence also occurring (“estrogen-deficient urinary state(s)”). One symptom of vaginal atrophy is an increased vaginal pH, which creates an environment more susceptible to infections. The mucosal epithelium of the VVA patients also reported to show signs of severe atrophy and upon cytological examination accompanied by an increased number of the parabasal cells and a reduced number of superficial cells. Each of these VVA-related states manifest symptoms associated with decreased estrogenization of the vulvovaginal tissue, and can even occur in women treated with oral administration of an estrogen-based pharmaceutical drug product. Although VVA is most common with menopausal women, it can occur at any time in a woman's life cycle. VVA symptoms also interfere with sexual activity and satisfaction. Women with female sexual dysfunction (FSD) are almost 4 times more likely to have VVA than those without FSD. Estrogen treatment has proven to be very successful in controlling menopausal symptoms, including VVA and FSD. Several studies have shown that the symptoms connected with vaginal atrophy are often relieved by estrogen treatment given either systemically or topically. The existing treatments have numerous problems, for example compliance issues with patients not completing or continuing treatment due to the problems associated with the form of treatment. Accordingly, there remains a need in the art for treatments for VVA and FSD that overcome these limitations. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Disclosed herein is, among other things, a new soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition and dosage form containing solubilized estradiol for the treatment of VVA. The soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition has been designed to mitigate common limitations found with other vaginal forms of estradiol. The soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition eases vaginal administration, provides improved safety of insertion, minimizes vaginal discharge following administration, and provides a more effective dosage form having improved efficacy, safety and patient compliance. According to various aspects and embodiments of this disclosure, a soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition as a treatment for post-menopausal women suffering with moderate to severe symptoms of VVA is provided. Provided herein is a suppository comprising: a) a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; and b) a solubilizing agent comprising a medium chain oil. In some embodiments, the suppository includes about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. For example, the suppository can include about 1 μg to about 10 μg of estradiol; and about 10 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the estradiol is solubilized. In some embodiments, the medium chain oil includes at least one C6-C12 fatty acid or a glycol, monoglyceride, diglyceride, or triglyceride ester thereof. In some embodiments, the solubilizing agent includes at least one ester selected from the group consisting of: an ester of caproic fatty acid, an ester of caprylic fatty acid, an ester of capric fatty acid, and combinations thereof. For example, the solubilizing agent can include a caprylic/capric triglyceride. In some embodiments, the suppository further includes a capsule. For example, the capsule can be a soft gelatin capsule. Also provided herein is a suppository comprising: a) a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; b) a caprylic/capric triglyceride; c) a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate; and d) a soft gelatin capsule. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 19 pg*hr/mL to about 29 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 75 pg*hr/mL to about 112 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 9 pg*hr/mL to about 14 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 43 pg*hr/mL to about 65 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 416 pg*hr/mL to about 613 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 3598 pg*hr/mL to about 5291 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 12 pg*hr/mL to about 18 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 42 pg*hr/mL to about 63 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estradiol of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 7 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 20 pg*hr/mL to about 31 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone of about 4 hrs to about 8 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 10 pg*hr/mL to about 16 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 56 pg*hr/mL to about 84 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T.) of estrone sulfate of about 4 hrs to about 7 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 8 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 16 pg*hr/mL to about 26 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estradiol of about 0.25 hrs to about 2 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 1 pg*hr/mL to about 3 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 8 pg*hr/mL to about 13 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone of about 1 hrs to about 4 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 7 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 22 pg*hr/mL to about 34 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone sulfate of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. Also provided herein is a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol that is less than about 30 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol that is less than about 18 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 112 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 63 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone that is less than about 14 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone that is less than about 7 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 65 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 31 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 613 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 16 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 5291 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 84 pg*hr/mL. Further provided herein is a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to the proximal region of the vagina of a patient provides a therapeutically effective concentration of estradiol over 24 hours in the proximal region of the vagina. This disclosure also provides a method of treating an estrogen-deficient state, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a suppository as provided herein. In some embodiments, a method of treating vulvovaginal atrophy is provided, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a suppository as provided herein. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein, treatment includes reducing the severity of one or more symptoms selected from the group consisting of: vaginal dryness, dyspareunia, vaginal or vulvar irritation, vaginal or vulvar burning, vaginal or vulvar itching, dysuria, and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein treatment includes reducing the vaginal pH of the patient. For example, treatment includes reducing the vaginal pH of the patient to a pH of less than about 5.0. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein treatment includes a change in cell composition of the patient. For example, the change in cell composition includes reducing the number of parabasal vaginal cells or increasing the number of superficial vaginal cells. In some embodiments, the number of parabasal vaginal cells in the patient are reduced by at least about 35% (e.g., at least about 50%). In some embodiments, the number of superficial vaginal cells are increased by at least about 5% (e.g., at least about 35%). Further provided herein is a method for reducing vaginal discharge following administration of a suppository, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a suppository provided herein, wherein the vaginal discharge following administration of the suppository is compared to the vaginal discharge following administration of a reference drug. Also provided herein is a method for treating female sexual dysfunction in a female subject in need thereof. The method includes administering to the subject a vaginal suppository as described herein. In some embodiments, the method includes administering to the subject a vaginal suppository comprising: (a) a pharmaceutical composition comprising: a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; a caprylic/capric triglyceride; a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate; and (b) a soft gelatin capsule; wherein the vaginal suppository includes from about 1 microgram to about 25 micrograms of estradiol; wherein estradiol is the only active hormone in the vaginal suppository. In some embodiments, the vaginal suppository does not include a hydrophilic gel-forming bioadhesive agent in the solubilizing agent. In some embodiments, treating female sexual dysfunction includes increasing the subject's desire, arousal, lubrication, satisfaction, and or/orgasms. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above-mentioned features and objects of the this disclosure will become more apparent with reference to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein like reference numerals denote like elements and in which: FIG. 1 is a flow diagram illustrating a process in accordance with various embodiments of the invention; FIG. 2 illustrates a suppository in accordance with various embodiments of the invention; FIG. 3 is a linear plot of mean plasma estradiol—baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=34); FIG. 4 is a semi-logarithmic plot of mean plasma estradiol—baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=34); FIG. 5 is a linear plot of mean plasma estrone—baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=33); FIG. 6 is a semi-logarithmic plot of mean plasma estrone—baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=33); FIG. 7 is a linear plot of mean plasma estrone sulfate—baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=24); and FIG. 8 is a semi-logarithmic plot of mean plasma estrone sulfate—baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=24). FIG. 9 is a study schematic diagram. FIG. 10 shows the percentage change in superficial cells at 12 weeks compared to placebo. FIG. 11 shows the percentage change in superficial cells at week 2, week 6, week 8, and week 12 compared to placebo. FIG. 12 shows percentage change in superficial cells per dose for each of week 2, week 6, week 8, and week 12 compared to placebo. FIG. 13 shows the percentage change in parabasal cells at 12 weeks compared to placebo. FIG. 14 shows the percentage change in parabasal cells at week 2, week 6, week 8, and week 12 compared to placebo. FIG. 15 shows the percentage change in parabasal cells per dose for each of week 2, week 6, week 8, and week 12 compared to placebo FIG. 16 shows the percentage change in pH at 12 weeks compared to placebo. FIG. 17 shows the percentage change in pH at week 2, week 6, week 8, and week 12 compared to placebo. FIG. 18 shows the percentage change in pH per dose for each of week 2, week 6, week 8, and week 12 compared to placebo. FIG. 19A shows the change in visual assessments from baseline to week 12 in vaginal color in a modified itent to treat (MITT) population. FIG. 19B shows the change in visual assessments from baseline to week 12 in vaginal epithelial integrity in a modified itent to treat (MITT) population. FIG. 19C shows the change in visual assessments from baseline to week 12 in vaginal epithelial thickness a modified itent to treat (MITT) population. FIG. 19D shows the change in visual assessments from baseline to week 12 in vaginal secretions in a modified itent to treat (MITT) population. FIG. 20A shows the correlation between the total sum of four visual assessments and dyspareunia at week 12 in an intent to treat (ITT) population. FIG. 20B shows the correlation between the total sum of four visual assessments and vaginal dryness at week 12 in an intent to treat (ITT) population. FIG. 21 shows baseline adjusted estradiol serum concentration (pg/mL) assessed on Day 1 (squares) and Week 12 (diamonds) for four treatment artms. FIG. 22 shows baseline adjusted estradiol serum concentration (pg/mL) assessed on Day 14 (squares) and Week 12 (diamonds) for four treatment artms. FIG. 23 shows estradiol plasma levels measured in subjects following a supine period after administration of the estradiol formulation, compared with plasma levels measured in subjects following an ambulatory period after administration of the estradiol formulation. FIG. 24 shows mean change from baseline in Total FSFI score at Week 12. FIG. 25A shows the mean change from baseline to week 12 in the individual FSFI lubrication score. FIG. 25B shows the mean change from baseline to week 12 in the individual FSFI arousal score. FIG. 25C shows the mean change from baseline to week 12 in the individual FSFI satisfaction score. FIG. 25D shows the mean change from baseline to week 12 in the individual FSFI desire score. FIG. 25E shows the mean change from baseline to week 12 in the individual FSFI orgasm score. FIG. 26A shows an estradiol softgel capsule held with the larger end between the fingers. FIG. 26B shows insertion of an estradiol softgel capsule in a reclining position. The softgel is inserted into the lower third of the vagina with the smaller end up. FIG. 26C shows insertion of an estradiol softgel capsule in a standing position. The softgel is inserted into the lower third of the vagina with the smaller end up. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In the following detailed description of embodiments of this disclosure, reference is made to the accompanying drawings in which like references indicate similar elements, and in which is shown by way of illustration specific embodiments in which this disclosure may be practiced. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice this disclosure, and it is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and that other changes may be made without departing from the scope of the this disclosure. The following detailed description is, therefore, not to be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of this disclosure is defined only by the appended claims. As used in this disclosure, the term “or” shall be understood to be defined as a logical disjunction (i.e., and/or) and shall not indicate an exclusive disjunction unless expressly indicated as such with the terms “either,” “unless,” “alternatively,” and words of similar effect. I. DEFINITIONS The term “active pharmaceutical ingredient” (“API”) as used herein, means the active compound(s) used in formulating a drug product. The term “co-administered” as used herein, means that two or more drug products are administered simultaneously or sequentially on the same or different days. The term “drug product” as used herein means at least one active pharmaceutical ingredient in combination with at least one excipient and provided in unit dosage form. The term “area under the curve” (“AUC”) refers to the area under the curve defined by changes in the blood concentration of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (e.g., estradiol or progesterone), or a metabolite of the active pharmaceutical ingredient, over time following the administration of a dose of the active pharmaceutical ingredient. “AUC0-∞” is the area under the concentration-time curve extrapolated to infinity following the administration of a dose. “AUC0-t” is the area under the concentration-time curve from time zero to time t following the administration of a dose, wherein t is the last time point with a measurable concentration. The term “Cmax” refers to the maximum value of blood concentration shown on the curve that represents changes in blood concentrations of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (e.g., progesterone or estradiol), or a metabolite of the active pharmaceutical ingredient, over time. The term “Tmax” refers to the time that it takes for the blood concentration an active pharmaceutical ingredient (e.g., estradiol or progesterone), or a metabolite of the active pharmaceutical ingredient, to reach the maximum value. The term “bioavailability,” which has the meaning defined in 21 C.F.R. § 320.1(a), refers to the rate and extent to which an API or active ingredient or active moiety is absorbed from a drug product and becomes available at the site of action. For example, bioavailability can be measured as the amount of API in the blood (serum or plasma) as a function of time. Pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters such as AUC, Cmax, or Tmax may be used to measure and assess bioavailability. For drug products that are not intended to be absorbed into the bloodstream, bioavailability may be assessed by measurements intended to reflect the rate and extent to which the API or active ingredient or active moiety becomes available at the site of action. The term “bioequivalent,” which has the meaning defined in 21 C.F.R. § 320.1(e), refers to the absence of a significant difference in the rate and extent to which the API or active ingredient or active moiety in pharmaceutical equivalents or pharmaceutical alternatives becomes available at the site of drug action when administered at the same molar dose under similar conditions in an appropriately designed study. Where there is an intentional difference in rate (e.g., in certain extended release dosage forms), certain pharmaceutical equivalents or alternatives may be considered bioequivalent if there is no significant difference in the extent to which the active ingredient or moiety from each product becomes available at the site of drug action. This applies only if the difference in the rate at which the active ingredient or moiety becomes available at the site of drug action is intentional and is reflected in the proposed labeling, is not essential to the attainment of effective body drug concentrations on chronic use, and is considered medically insignificant for the drug. In practice, two products are considered bioequivalent if the 90% confidence interval of the AUC, Cmax, or optionally Tmax is within 80.00% to 125.00%. The term “bio-identical,” “body-identical,” or “natural” used in conjunction with the hormones disclosed herein, means hormones that match the chemical structure and effect of those that occur naturally or endogenously in the human body. An exemplary natural estrogen is estradiol. The term “bio-identical hormone” or “body-identical hormone” refers to an active pharmaceutical ingredient that is structurally identical to a hormone naturally or endogenously found in the human body (e.g., estradiol and progesterone). The term “estradiol” refers to (17β)-estra-1,3,5(10)-triene-3,17-diol. Estradiol is also interchangeably called 17β-estradiol, oestradiol, or E2, and is found endogenously in the human body. As used herein, estradiol refers to the bio-identical or body-identical form of estradiol found in the human body having the structure: Estradiol is supplied in an anhydrous or hemi-hydrate form. For the purposes of this disclosure, the anhydrous form or the hemihydrate form can be substituted for the other by accounting for the water or lack of water according to well-known and understood techniques. The term “solubilized estradiol” means that the estradiol or a portion thereof is solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent(s) or the formulations disclosed herein. Solubilized estradiol may include estradiol that is about 80% solubilized, about 85% solubilized, about 90% solubilized, about 95% solubilized, about 96% solubilized, about 97% solubilized, about 98% solubilized, about 99% solubilized or about 100% solubilized. In some embodiments, the estradiol is “fully solubilized” with all or substantially all of the estradiol being solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent. Fully solubilized estradiol may include estradiol that is about 97% solubilized, about 98% solubilized, about 99% solubilized or about 100% solubilized. Solubility can be expressed as a mass fraction (% w/w, which is also referred to as wt %). The term “progesterone” refers to pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione. Progesterone is also interchangeably called P4 and is found endogenously in the human body. As used herein, progesterone refers to the bio-identical or body-identical form of progesterone found in the human body having the structure: The term “solubilized progesterone” means that the progesterone or a portion thereof is solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent(s) or the formulations disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the progesterone is “partially solubilized” with a portion of the progesterone being solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent and a portion of the progesterone being suspended in the solubilizing agent. Partially solubilized progesterone may include progesterone that is about 1% solubilized, about 5% solubilized, about 10% solubilized, about 15% solubilized, about 20% solubilized, about 30% solubilized, about 40% solubilized, about 50% solubilized, about 60% solubilized, about 70% solubilized, about 80% solubilized, about 85% solubilized, about 90% solubilized or about 95% solubilized. In other embodiments, the progesterone is “fully solubilized” with all or substantially all of the progesterone being solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent. Fully solubilized progesterone may include progesterone that is about 97% solubilized, about 98% solubilized, about 99% solubilized or about 100% solubilized. Solubility can be expressed as a mass fraction (% w/w, which is also referred to as wt %). The terms “micronized progesterone” and “micronized estradiol,” as used herein, include micronized progesterone and micronized estradiol having an X50 particle size value below about 15 microns or having an X90 particle size value below about 25 microns. The term “X50” means that one-half of the particles in a sample are smaller in diameter than a given number. For example, micronized progesterone having an X50 of 5 microns means that, for a given sample of micronized progesterone, one-half of the particles have a diameter of less than 5 microns. Similarly, the term “X90” means that ninety percent (90%) of the particles in a sample are smaller in diameter than a given number. The term “glyceride” is an ester of glycerol (1,2,3-propanetriol) with acyl radicals of fatty acids and is also known as an acylglycerol. If only one position of the glycerol molecule is esterified with a fatty acid, a “monoglyceride” or “monoacylglycerol” is produced; if two positions are esterified, a “diglyceride” or “diacylglycerol” is produced; and if all three positions of the glycerol are esterified with fatty acids, a “triglyceride” or “triacylglycerol” is produced. A glyceride is “simple” if all esterified positions contain the same fatty acid; whereas a glyceride is “mixed” if the esterified positions contained different fatty acids. The carbons of the glycerol backbone are designated sn-1, sn-2 and sn-3, with sn-2 being in the middle carbon and sn-1 and sn-3 being the end carbons of the glycerol backbone. The term “solubilizing agent” refers to an agent or combination of agents that solubilize an active pharmaceutical ingredient (e.g., estradiol or progesterone). For example and without limitation, suitable solubilizing agents include medium chain oils and other solvents and co-solvents that solubilize or dissolve an active pharmaceutical ingredient to a desirable extent. Solubilizing agents suitable for use in the formulations disclosed herein are pharmaceutical grade solubilizing agents (e.g., pharmaceutical grade medium chain oils). It will be understood by those of skill in the art that other excipients or components can be added to or mixed with the solubilizing agent to enhance the properties or performance of the solubilizing agent or resulting formulation. Examples of such excipients include, but are not limited to, surfactants, emulsifiers, thickeners, colorants, flavoring agents, etc. In some embodiments, the solubilizing agent is a medium chain oil and, in some other embodiments, the medium chain oil is combined with a co-solvent(s) or other excipient(s). The term “medium chain” is used to describe the aliphatic chain length of fatty acid containing molecules. “Medium chain” specifically refers to fatty acids, fatty acid esters, or fatty acid derivatives that contain fatty acid aliphatic tails or carbon chains that contain 6 (C6) to 14 (C14) carbon atoms, 8 (C8) to 12 (C12) carbon atoms, or 8 (C8) to 10 (C10) carbon atoms. The terms “medium chain fatty acid” and “medium chain fatty acid derivative” are used to describe fatty acids or fatty acid derivatives with aliphatic tails (i.e., carbon chains) having 6 to 14 carbon atoms. Fatty acids consist of an unbranched or branched aliphatic tail attached to a carboxylic acid functional group. Fatty acid derivatives include, for example, fatty acid esters and fatty acid containing molecules, including, without limitation, mono-, di- and triglycerides that include components derived from fatty acids. Fatty acid derivatives also include fatty acid esters of ethylene or propylene glycol. The aliphatic tails can be saturated or unsaturated (i.e., having one or more double bonds between carbon atoms). In some embodiments, the aliphatic tails are saturated (i.e., no double bonds between carbon atoms). Medium chain fatty acids or medium chain fatty acid derivatives include those with aliphatic tails having 6-14 carbons, including those that are C6-C14, C6-C12, C8-C14, C8-C12, C6-C10, C8-C10, or others. Examples of medium chain fatty acids include, without limitation, caproic acid, caprylic acid, capric acid, lauric acid, myristic acid, and derivatives thereof. The term “oil,” as used herein, refers to any pharmaceutically acceptable oil, especially medium chain oils, and specifically excluding peanut oil, that can suspend or solubilize bioidentical progesterone or estradiol, including starting materials or precursors thereof, including micronized progesterone or micronized estradiol as described herein. The term “medium chain oil” refers to an oil wherein the composition of the fatty acid fraction of the oil is substantially medium chain (i.e., C6 to C14) fatty acids, i.e., the composition profile of fatty acids in the oil is substantially medium chain. As used herein, “substantially” means that between 20% and 100% (inclusive of the upper and lower limits) of the fatty acid fraction of the oil is made up of medium chain fatty acids, i.e., fatty acids with aliphatic tails (i.e., carbon chains) having 6 to 14 carbons. In some embodiments, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 85%, about 90% or about 95% of the fatty acid fraction of the oil is made up of medium chain fatty acids. As used herein, “predominantly” means that greater than or equal to 50% of the fatty acid fraction of the oil is made up of medium-chain fatty acids, i.e., fatty acids with aliphatic carbon chains having 6 to 14 carbon atoms. Those of skill in the art that will readily appreciate that the terms “alkyl content” or “alkyl distribution” of an oil can be used in place of the term “fatty acid fraction” of an oil in characterizing a given oil or solubilizing agent, and these terms are used interchangeable herein. As such, medium chain oils suitable for use in the formulations disclosed herein include medium chain oils wherein the fatty acid fraction of the oil is substantially medium chain fatty acids, or medium chain oils wherein the alkyl content or alkyl distribution of the oil is substantially medium chain alkyls (C6-C12 alkyls). It will be understood by those of skill in the art that the medium chain oils suitable for use in the formulations disclosed herein are pharmaceutical grade (e.g., pharmaceutical grade medium chain oils). Examples of medium chain oils include, for example and without limitation, medium chain fatty acids, medium chain fatty acid esters of glycerol (e.g., for example, mono-, di-, and triglycerides), medium chain fatty acid esters of propylene glycol, medium chain fatty acid derivatives of polyethylene glycol, and combinations thereof. The term “ECN” or “equivalent carbon number” means the sum of the number of carbon atoms in the fatty acid chains of an oil, and can be used to characterize an oil as, for example, a medium chain oil or a long-chain oil. For example, tripalmitin (tripalmitic glycerol), which is a simple triglyceride containing three fatty acid chains of 16 carbon atoms, has an ECN of 3×16=48. Conversely, a triglyceride with an ECN=40 may have “mixed” fatty acid chain lengths of 8, 16 and 16; 10, 14 and 16; 8, 14 and 18; etc. Naturally occurring oils are frequently “mixed” with respect to specific fatty acids, but tend not to contain both long chain fatty acids and medium chain fatty acids in the same glycerol backbone. Thus, triglycerides with ECN's of 21-42 typically contain predominantly medium chain fatty acids; while triglycerides with ECN's of greater than 43 typically contain predominantly long chain fatty acids. For example, the ECN of corn oil triglyceride in the USP would be in the range of 51-54. Medium chain diglycerides with ECN's of 12-28 will often contain predominanty medium chain fatty chains, while diglycerides with ECN's of 32 or greater will typically contain predominanty long chain fatty acid tails. Monoglycerides will have an ECN that matches the chain length of the sole fatty acid chain. Thus, monoglyceride ECN's in the range of 6-14 contain mainly medium chain fatty acids, and monoglycerides with ECN's 16 or greater will contain mainly long chain fatty acids. The average ECN of a medium chain triglyceride oil is typically 21-42. For example, as listed in the US Pharmacopeia (USP), medium chain triglycerides have the following composition as the exemplary oil set forth in the table below: Fatty-acid Tail Length % of oil Exemplary Oil 6 ≤2.0 2.0 8 50.0-80.0 70.0 10 20.0-50.0 25.0 12 ≤3.0 2.0 14 ≤1.0 1.0 and would have an average ECN of 3*[(6*0.02)+(8*0.70)+(10*0.25)+(12*0.02)+(14*0.01)]=25.8. The ECN of the exemplary medium chain triglycerides oil can also be expressed as a range (per the ranges set forth in the USP) of 24.9-27.0. For oils that have mixed mono-, di-, and triglycerides, or single and double fatty acid glycols, the ECN of the entire oil can be determined by calculating the ECN of each individual component (e.g., C8 monoglycerides, C8 diglycerides, C10 monoglycerides, and C10 monoglycerides) and taking the sum of the relative percentage of the component multiplied by the ECN normalized to a monoglyceride for each component. For example, the oil having C8 and C10 mono- and diglycerides shown in the table below has an ECN of 8.3, and is thus a medium chain oil. ECN as % of oil ECN as % of oil Fatty-acid Chain (chain length) × normalized to Length % of oil (% in oil) monoglyceride C8 monoglyceride 47 8 × 0.47 = 3.76 3.76 C10 monoglyceride 8 10 × 0.08 = 0.8 0.8 C8 diglyceride 38 2 × (8 × 0.38) = 6.08 6.08/2 = 3.04 C10 diglyceride 7 2 × (10 × 0.07) = 1.4 1.4/2 = 0.7 OIL ECN 8.3 (normalized to monoglycerides) Expressed differently, ECN can be calculated as each chain length in the composition multiplied by its relative percentage in the oil: (8*0.85)+(10*0.15)=8.3. The term “excipients,” as used herein, refers to non-API ingredients such as solubilizing agents, anti-oxidants, oils, lubricants, and others used in formulating pharmaceutical products. The term “patient” or “subject” refers to an individual to whom the pharmaceutical composition is administered. The term “pharmaceutical composition” refers to a pharmaceutical composition comprising at least a solubilizing agent and estradiol. As used herein, pharmaceutical compositions are delivered, for example via suppository (i.e., vaginal suppository), or absorbed vaginally. The term “progestin” means any natural or man-made substance that has pharmacological properties similar to progesterone. The terms “treat,” “treating,” and “treatment” refer to any indicia of success in the treatment or amelioration of an injury, disease, or condition, including any objective or subjective parameter such as abatement; remission; diminishing of symptoms or making the injury, disease, or condition more tolerable to the patient; slowing in the rate of degeneration or decline; or improving a patient's physical or mental well-being. The treatment or amelioration of symptoms can be based on objective or subject parameters, including the results of a physical examination, neuropsychiatric examinations, or psychiatric evaluation. The terms “atrophic vaginitis,” “vulvovaginal atrophy,” “vaginal atrophy,” and “VVA” are used herein interchangeably. The molecular morphology of VVA is well known in the medical field. As used herein, “sexual dysfunction” refers to a condition having one or more symptoms of difficulty during any one or more stages. The dysfunction can prevent an individual from enjoying sexual activity. Non-limiting examples of symptoms of sexual dysfunction include: reduced sexual desire, reduced sexual pleasure, reduced sexual arousal and excitement, aversion to and avoidance of genital sexual contact, inability to attain or maintain arousal, and persistent or recurrent delay of, or absence of orgasm. Sexual dysfunction may be lifelong (no effective performance ever) or acquired (after a period of normal function); generalized or limited to certain situations or certain partners; and total or partial. As used herein, “sexual desire” refers to the frequency of wanting to engage in sexual activity and/or the frequency of engaging in sexual activity as perceived by the individual. Sexual desire can be expressed, for example, in one or more cognitive activities, including the frequency of sexual thoughts, the extent of enjoyment of movies, books, music, etc. having sexual content and/or the extent of enjoyment or pleasure of thinking and fantasizing about sex as perceived by the individual. As used herein, “sexual arousal” refers to the frequency of becoming sexually aroused, how readily sexual arousal occurs and/or if arousal is maintained, as perceived by the individual. Psychologically, arousal can include factors such as increased desire for sexual activity and excitement related to sexual activity. Physiologically, arousal can include increased blood flow to the genitals, causing clitoral engorgement, as well as vaginal lubrication. As used herein, “lubrication” refers to wetness in and around the vagina before, during, or after sexual activity. Increasing lubrication can include increasing the frequency of lubrication; decreasing the difficulty of becoming lubricated; and/or decreasing the difficulty in maintaining lubrication. As used herein, “satisfaction” refers to one or more positive emotions (e.g., contentment, fulfillment, gratification, and the like) related to a sexual activity or sexual relationship. Satisfaction can include, for example, satisfaction with occurrence of sexual arousal or orgasm, satisfaction with the amount of closeness with a partner, and satisfaction with overall sex life. As used herein, “orgasm” refers to the highest point of sexual excitement characterized by a subjective experience of intense pleasure marked normally by vaginal contractions in females. Increasing orgasm can include increasing the frequency, duration, and/or intensity of orgasms in a subject. Increasing orgasm can also include decreasing the difficulty of reaching orgasm. II. INTRODUCTION Provided herein are pharmaceutical compositions comprising solubilized estradiol designed to be absorbed vaginally. The pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are designed to be absorbed and have their therapeutic effect locally, e.g., in vaginal or surrounding tissue. Further disclosed herein are data demonstrating efficacy of the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed, as well as methods relating to the pharmaceutical compositions. Generally, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are useful in VVA, dyspareunia, and other indications caused by decrease or lack of estrogen. Additional aspects and embodiments of this disclosure include: providing increased patient ease of use while potentially minimizing certain side effects from inappropriate insertion, minimizing incidence of vulvovaginal mycotic infection compared to incidence of vulvovaginal mycotic infection due to usage of other vaginally applied estradiol products; and, improved side effect profile (e.g., pruritus) compared to, for example, VAGIFEM® (estradiol vaginal tablets, Novo Nordisk; Princeton, N.J.). III. PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS Functionality According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are alcohol-free or substantially alcohol-free. The pharmaceutical compositions offer provide for improved patient compliance because of improvements over the prior offering. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are encapsulated in soft gelatin capsules, which improve comfort during use. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are substantially liquid, which are more readily absorbed in the vaginal tissue, and also are dispersed over a larger surface area of the vaginal tissue. Estradiol According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are for vaginal insertion in a single or multiple unit dosage form. According to embodiments, the estradiol in the pharmaceutical compositions is at least about: 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% solubilized. According to embodiments and where the estradiol is not 100% solubilized, the remaining estradiol is present in a micronized (crystalline) form that is absorbable by the body and retains biological functionality, either in its micronized form or in another form which the micronized form is converted to after administration. According to embodiments, all or some of the estradiol is solubilized in a solubilizing agent during manufacturing process. According to embodiments, all or some of the estradiol is solubilized following administration (e.g., the micronized portion where the estradiol is not 100% solubilized is solubilized in a body fluid after administration). According to embodiments, because the estradiol is solubilized, the solubilizing agents taught herein, with or without additional excipients other than the solubilizing agents, are liquid or semi-solid. To the extent the estradiol is not fully solubilized at the time of administration/insertion, the estradiol should be substantially solubilized at a body temperature (average of 37° C.) and, generally, at the pH of the vagina (ranges from 3.8 to 4.5 in healthy patients; or 4.6 to 6.5 in VVA patients). According to embodiments, the estradiol can be added to the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein as estradiol, estradiol hemihydrate, or other grade estradiol forms used in pharmaceutical compositions or formulations. According to embodiments, estradiol dosage strengths vary. Estradiol (or estradiol hemihydrate, for example, to the extent the water content of the estradiol hemihydrate is accounted for) dosage strength of is from at least about 1 microgram (μg or μg) to at least about 50 μg. Specific dosage embodiments contain at least about: 1 μg, 2 μg, 3 μg, 4 μg, 5 μg, 6 μg, 7 μg, 8 μg, 9 μg, 10 μg, 11 μg, 12 μg, 13 μg, 14 μg, 15 μg, 16 μg, 17 μg, 18 μg, 19 μg, 20 μg, 21 μg, 22 μg, 23 μg, 24 μg, 25 μg, 26 μg, 27 μg, 28 μg, 29 μg, 30 μg, 31 μg, 32 μtg, 33 μg, 34 μg, 35 μg, 36 μg, 37 μg, 38 μg, 39 μg, 40 μg, 41 μg, 42 μg, 43 μg, 44 μg, 45 μg, 46 μg, 47 μg, 48 μg, 49 μg, or 50 μg estradiol. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions contain at least about 2.5 μg; 4 μg 6.25 μg, 7.5 μg, 12.5 μg, 18.75 μg of estradiol. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions contain from about 1 μg to about 10 μg, from 3 μg to 7 μg, from about 7.5 μg to 12.5 μg, from about 10 μg to about 25 μg, about 1 μg, about 2.5 μg, from about 23.5 μg to 27.5 μg, from about 7.5 μg to 22.5 μg, from 10 μg to 25 μg of estradiol. The lowest clinically effective dose of estradiol is used for treatment of VVA and other indications set forth herein. In some embodiments, the estradiol dosage is about 4 μg. In one embodiment, the estradiol dosage is about 10 μg. In another embodiment, the estradiol dosage is about 25 μg. Solvent System According to embodiments, the solvent system that solubilizes the estradiol are medium chain fatty acid based solvents, together with other excipients. According to embodiments, the solvent system includes non-toxic, pharmaceutically acceptable solvents, co-solvents, surfactants, and other excipients suitable for vaginal delivery or absorption. According to embodiments, oils having medium chain fatty acids as a majority component are used as solubilizing agents to solubilize estradiol. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agents comprise medium chain fatty acid esters (e.g., esters of glycerol, ethylene glycol, or propylene glycol) or mixtures thereof. According to embodiments, the medium chain fatty acids comprise chain lengths from C6 to C14. According to embodiments the medium chain fatty acids comprise chain lengths from C6 to C12. According to embodiments the medium chain fatty acids substantially comprise chain lengths from C8-C10. ECN's for medium chain oils will be in the range of 21-42 for triglycerides, 12-28 for diglycerides, and 6-14 for monoglycerides. According to embodiments, the medium chain fatty acids are saturated. According to embodiments, the medium chain fatty acids are predominantly saturated, i.e., greater than about 60% or greater than about 75% saturated. According to embodiments, estradiol is soluble in the solubilizing agent at room temperature, although it may be desirable to warm certain solubilizing agents during manufacture to improve viscosity. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent is liquid at between room temperature and about 50° C., at or below 50° C., at or below 40° C., or at or below 30° C. According to embodiments, the solubility of estradiol in the medium chain oil, medium chain fatty acid, or solubilizing agent (or oil/surfactant) is at least about 0.01 wt %, 0.02 wt %, 0.05 wt %, 0.06 wt %, 0.08 wt %, 0.1 wt %, 0.2 wt %, 0.3 wt %, 0.4 wt %, 0.5 wt %, 0.6 wt %, 0.7 wt %, 0.8 wt %, 0.9 wt %, 1.0 wt %, or higher. According to embodiments, medium chain solubilizing agents include, for example and without limitation saturated medium chain fatty acids: caproic acid (C6), enanthic acid (C7), caprylic acid (C8), pelargonic acid (C9), capric acid (C10), undecylic acid (C11), lauric acid (C12), tridecylic acid (C13), or myristic acid (C14). According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent includes oils made of these free medium chain fatty acids, oils of medium chain fatty acid esters of glycerin, propylene glycol, or ethylene glycol, or combinations thereof. These examples comprise predominantly saturated medium chain fatty acids (i.e., greater than 50% of the fatty acids are medium chain saturated fatty acids). According to embodiments, predominantly C6 to C12 saturated fatty acids are contemplated. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent is selected from at least one of a solvent or co-solvent. According to embodiments, glycerin based solubilizing agents include: mono-, di-, or triglycerides and combinations and derivatives thereof. Exemplary glycerin based solubilizing agents include MIGLYOLs®, which are caprylic/capric triglycerides (SASOL Germany GMBH, Hamburg). MIGLYOLs includes MIGLYOL 810 (caprylic/capric triglyceride), MIGLYOL 812 (caprylic/capric triglyceride), MIGLYOL 816 (caprylic/capric triglyceride), and MIGLYOL 829 (caprylic/capric/succinic triglyceride). Other caprylic/capric triglyceride solubilizing agents are likewise contemplated, including, for example: caproic/caprylic/capric/lauric triglycerides; caprylic/capric/linoleic triglycerides; caprylic/capric/succinic triglycerides. According to embodiments, CAPMUL MCM, medium chain mono- and di-glycerides, is the solubilizing agent. Other and triglycerides of fractionated vegetable fatty acids, and combinations or derivatives thereof can be the solubilizing agent, according to embodiments. For example, the solubilizing agent can be 1,2,3-propanetriol (glycerol, glycerin, glycerine) esters of saturated coconut and palm kernel oil and derivatives thereof. Ethylene and propylene glycols (which include polyethylene and polypropylene glycols) solubilizing agents include: glyceryl mono- and di-caprylates; propylene glycol monocaprylate (e.g., CAPMUL® PG-8 (the CAPMUL brands are owned by ABITEC, Columbus, Ohio)); propylene glycol monocaprate (e.g., CAPMUL PG-10); propylene glycol mono- and dicaprylates; propylene glycol mono- and dicaprate; diethylene glycol mono ester (e.g., TRANSCUTOL®, 2-(2-ethoxyethoxy)ethanol, GATTEFOSSÉ SAS); and diethylene glycol monoethyl ether. Other combinations of mono- and di-esters of propylene glycol or ethylene glycol are expressly contemplated are the solubilizing agent. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent includes combinations of mono- and di-propylene and ethylene glycols and mono-, di-, and triglyceride combinations. According to embodiments, polyethylene glycol glyceride (GELUCIRE®, GATTEFOSSÉ SAS, Saint-Priest, France) can be used herein as the solubilizing agent or as a surfactant. For example, GELUCIRE 44/14 (PEG-32 glyceryl laurate EP), a medium chain fatty acid esters of polyethylene glycol, is a polyethylene glycol glyceride composed of mono-, di- and triglycerides and mono- and diesters of polyethylene glycol. According to embodiments, commercially available fatty acid glycerol and glycol ester solubilizing agents are often prepared from natural oils and therefore may comprise components in addition to the fatty acid esters that predominantly comprise and characterize the solubilizing agent. Such other components may be, e.g., other fatty acid mono-, di-, and triglycerides; fatty acid mono- and diester ethylene or propylene glycols, free glycerols or glycols, or free fatty acids, for example. In some embodiments, when an oil/solubilizing agent is described herein as a saturated C8 fatty acid mono- or diester of glycerol, the predominant component of the oil, i.e., >50 wt % (e.g., >75 wt %, >85 wt % or >90 wt %) is caprylic monoglycerides and caprylic diglycerides. For example, the Technical Data Sheet by ABITEC for CAPMUL MCM C8 describes CAPMUL MCM C8 as being composed of mono and diglycerides of medium chain fatty acids (mainly caprylic) and describes the alkyl content as ≤1% C6, ≥95% C8, ≤5% C10, and ≤1.5% C12 and higher. For example, MIGLYOL 812 is a solubilizing agent that is generally described as a C8-C10 triglyceride because the fatty acid composition is at least about 80% triglyceride esters of caprylic acid (C8) and capric acid (C10). However, it also includes small amounts of other fatty acids, e.g., less than about 5% of caproic acid (C6), lauric acid (C12), and myristic acid (C14). The product information sheet for various MIGLYOLs illustrate the various fatty acid components as follows: Tests 810 812 818 829 840 Caproic acid (C6:0) max. 2.0 max. 2.0 max. 2 max. 2 max. 2 Caprylic acid (C8:0) 65.0-80.0 50.0-65.0 45-65 45-55 65-80 Capric acid (C10:0) 20.0-35.0 30.0-45.0 30-45 30-40 20-35 Lauric acid (C12:0) max. 2 max. 2 max. 3 max. 3 max. 2 Myristic acid (C14:0) max. 1.0 max. 1.0 max. 1 max. 1 max. 1 Linoleic acid (C18:2) — — 2-5 — — Succinic acid — — — 15-20 — ECN 25.5-26.4 26.1-27 26.52-28.56 26-27.6 25.5-26.4 According to embodiments, anionic or non-ionic surfactants may be used in pharmaceutical compositions containing solubilized estradiol. Ratios of solubilizing agent(s) to surfactant(s) vary depending upon the respective solubilizing agent(s) and the respective surfactant(s) and the desired physical characteristics of the resultant pharmaceutical composition. For example and without limitation, CAPMUL MCM and a non-ionic surfactant may be used at ratios including 65:35, 70:30, 75:25, 80:20, 85:15 and 90:10. Other non-limiting examples include: CAPMUL MCM and GELUCIRE 39/01 used in ratios including, for example and without limitation, 6:4, 7:3, and 8:2; CAPMUL MCM and GELUCIRE 43/01 used in ratios including, for example and without limitation, 7:3, and 8:2; CAPMUL MCM and GELUCIRE 50/13 used in ratios including, for example and without limitation, 7:3, and 8:2, and 9:1. Other Excipients According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further includes a surfactant. The surfactant can be a nonionic surfactant, cationic surfactant, anionic surfactant, or mixtures thereof. Suitable surfactants include, for example, water-insoluble surfactants having a hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) value less than 12 and water-soluble surfactants having a HLB value greater than 12. Surfactants that have a high HLB and hydrophilicity, aid the formation of oil-water droplets. The surfactants are amphiphilic in nature and are capable of dissolving or solubilizing relatively high amounts of hydrophobic drug compounds. Non-limiting examples, include, Tween, Dimethylacetamide (DMA), Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), Ethanol, Glycerin, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), PEG 300, PEG 400, Poloxamer 407, Propylene glycol, Phospholipids, Hydrogenated soy phosphatidylcholine (HSPC), Distearoylphosphatidylglycerol (DSPG), L-α-dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC), L-α-dimyristoylphosphatidylglycerol (DMPG), Polyoxyl 35 castor oil (CREMOPHOR EL, CREMOPHOR ELP), Polyoxyl 40 hydrogenated castor oil (Cremophor RH 40), Polyoxyl 60 hydrogenated castor oil (CREMOPHOR RH 60), Polysorbate 20 (TWEEN 20), Polysorbate 80 (TWEEN 80), d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS), Solutol HS-15, Sorbitan monooleate (SPAN 20), PEG 300 caprylic/capric glycerides (SOFTIGEN 767), PEG 400 caprylic/capric glycerides (LABRASOL), PEG 300 oleic glycerides (LABRAFIL M-1944CS), Polyoxyl 35 Castor oil (ETOCAS 35), Glyceryl Caprylate (Mono- and Diglycerides) (IMWITOR), PEG 300 linoleic glycerides (LABRAFIL M-2125CS), Polyoxyl 8 stearate (PEG 400 monosterate), Polyoxyl 40 stearate (PEG 1750 monosterate), and combinations thereof. Additionally, suitable surfactants include, for example, polyoxyethylene derivative of sorbitan monolaurate such as polysorbate, caprylcaproyl macrogol glycerides, polyglycolyzed glycerides, and the like. According to embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant is selected from one or more of glycerol and polyethylene glycol esters of long chain fatty acids, for example, lauroyl macrogol-32 glycerides or lauroyl polyoxyl-32 glycerides, commercially available as GELUCIRE, including, for example, GELUCIRE 39/01 (glycerol esters of saturated C12-C18 fatty acids), GELUCIRE 43/01 (hard fat NF/JPE) and GELUCIRE 50/13 (stearoyl macrogol-32 glycerides EP, stearoyl polyoxyl-32 glycerides NF, stearoyl polyoxylglycerides (USA FDA IIG)). These surfactants may be used at concentrations greater than about 0.01%, and typically in various amounts of about 0.01%-10.0%, 10.1%-20%, and 20.1%-30%. In some embodiments, surfactants may be used at concentrations of about 1% to about 10% (e.g., about 1% to about 5%, about 2% to about 4%, about 3% to about 8%). According to embodiments, non-ionic surfactants include, for example and without limitation: one or more of oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid. According to embodiments, non-ionic surfactants comprise polyethylene sorbitol esters, including polysorbate 80, which is commercially available under the trademark TWEEN® 80 (polysorbate 80) (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.). Polysorbate 80 includes approximately 60%-70% oleic acid with the remainder comprising primarily linoleic acids, palmitic acids, and stearic acids. Polysorbate 80 may be used in amounts ranging from about 5 to 50%, and according to embodiments, about 30% of the pharmaceutical composition total mass. According to embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant includes PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate, which are available commercially as TEFOSE® 63 (GATTEFOSSÉ SAS, Saint-Priest, France), which can be used with, for example, CAPMUL MCM having ratios of MCM to TEFOSE 63 of, for example, 8:2 or 9:1. According to embodiments, other solubilizing agents/non-ionic surfactants combinations include, for example, MIGLYOL 812:GELUCIRE 50/13 or MIGLYOL 812:TEFOSE 63. According to embodiments, the surfactant can be an anionic surfactant, for example: ammonium lauryl sulfate, dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate, perfluoro-octane sulfonic acid, potassium lauryl sulfate, or sodium stearate. Cationic surfactants are also contemplated. According to embodiments, non-ionic or anionic surfactants can be used alone with at least one solubilizing agent or can be used in combination with other surfactants. Accordingly, such surfactants, or any other excipient as set forth herein, may be used to solubilize estradiol. The combination of solubilizing agent, surfactant, and other excipients should be designed whereby the estradiol is absorbed into the vaginal tissue. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition will result in minimal vaginal discharge. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further includes at least one thickening agent. Generally, a thickening agent is added when the viscosity of the pharmaceutical composition results less than desirable absorption. According to embodiments, the surfactant(s) disclosed herein may also provide thickening of the pharmaceutical composition that, upon release, will aid the estradiol in being absorbed by the vaginal mucosa while minimizing vaginal discharge. Examples of thickening agents include: hard fats; propylene glycol; a mixture of hard fat EP/NF/JPE, glyceryl ricinoleate, ethoxylated fatty alcohols (ceteth-20, steareth-20) EP/NF (available as OVUCIRE® 3460, GATTEFOSSÉ, Saint-Priest, France); a mixture of hard fat EP/NF/JPE, glycerol monooleate (type 40) EP/NF (OVUCIRE WL 3264; a mixture of hard fat EP/NF/JPE, glyceryl monooleate (type 40) EP/NF (OVUCIRE WL 2944); a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 stearate, ethylene glycol palmitostearate, and PEG-32 stearate; TEFOSE 63 or a similarproduct; and a mixture of various hard fats (WITEPSOL®' Sasol Germany GmbH, Hamburg, Germany). Other thickening agents such as the alginates, certain gums such as xanthan gums, agar-agar, iota carrageenans, kappa carrageenans, etc. Several other compounds can act as thickening agents like gelatin, and polymers like HPMC, PVC, and CMC. According to embodiments, the viscosity of pharmaceutical compositions in accordance with various embodiments may comprise from about 50 cps to about 1000 cps at 25° C. A person of ordinary skill in the art will readily understand and select from suitable thickening agents. According to embodiments, the thickening agent is a non-ionic surfactant. For example, polyethylene glycol saturated or unsaturated fatty acid ester or diester is the non-ionic surfactant thickening agent. In embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant includes a polyethylene glycol long chain (C16-C20) fatty acid ester and further includes an ethylene glycol long chain fatty acid ester, such as PEG-fatty acid esters or diesters of saturated or unsaturated C16-C18 fatty acids, e.g., oleic, lauric, palmitic, and stearic acids. In embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant includes a polyethylene glycol long chain saturated fatty acid ester and further includes an ethylene glycol long chain saturated fatty acid ester, such as PEG- and ethylene glycol-fatty acid esters of saturated C16-C18 fatty acids, e.g., palmitic and stearic acids. Such non-ionic surfactant can comprise PEG-6 stearate, ethylene glycol palmitostearate, and PEG-32 stearate, such as but not limited to TEFOSE 63. According to embodiments, TEFOSE 63 is used to provide additional viscosity and/or spreadability in the vagina so as to retard flow of the composition out of the vagina. While the pharmaceutical composition remains liquid, the viscosity of such a pharmaceutical composition causes the liquid to remain in the API absorption area whereby the pharmaceutical composition is substantially absorbed by the tissue. Suprisingly, the addition of an excipient to increase the viscosity and/or spreadability of the pharmaceutical compositions herein allows the administration of a pharmaceutical composition that is liquid at body temperature but does not excessively discharge from the vagina when the patient is standing, which allows the patients to be ambulatory after administration of the pharmaceutical compositions. According to embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant used as a thickening agent is not hydrophilic and has good emulsion properties. An illustrative example of such surfactant is TEFOSE 63, which has a hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) value of about 9-10. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further includes one or more mucoadherent agents to improve vaginal absorption of the estradiol by, for example, increasing the viscosity of of the pharmaceutical composition whereby flow out of the vagina is retarded. According to other embodiments, alone or in addition to changes in viscosity, the mucoadhesive agent causes the pharmaceutical composition to adhere to the vaginal tissue chemically or mechanically. For example, a mucoadherent agent can be present to aid the pharmaceutical composition with adherence to the mucosa upon activation with water. According to embodiments, polycarbophil is the mucoadherent agent. According to embodiments, other mucoadherent agents include, for example and without limitation: poly (ethylene oxide) polymers having a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 900,000; chitosans; carbopols including polymers of acrylic acid crosslinked with allyl sucrose or allyl pentaerythritol; polymers of acrylic acid and C10-C30 alkyl acrylate crosslinked with allyl pentaerythritol; carbomer homopolymer or copolymer that contains a block copolymer of polyethylene glycol and a long chain alkyl acid ester; and the like. According to embodiments, various hydrophilic polymers and hydrogels may be used as the mucoadherent agent. According to certain embodiments, the polymers or hydrogels can swell in response to contact with vaginal tissue or secretions, enhancing moisturizing and mucoadherent effects. The selection and amount of hydrophilic polymer may be based on the selection and amount of solubilizing agent. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes a hydrophilic polymer but optionally excludes a gelling agent. In embodiments having a hydrogel, from about 5% to about 10% of the total mass may comprise the hydrophilic polymer. In further embodiments, hydrogels may be employed. A hydrogel may comprise chitosan, which swell in response to contact with water. In various embodiments, a cream pharmaceutical composition may comprise PEG-90M. In some embodiments, a mucoadherent agent is present in the pharmaceutical formulation, in the soft gel capsule, or both. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions include one or more thermoreversible gels, typically of the hydrophilic nature including for example and without limitation, hydrophilic sucrose and other saccharide-based monomers (U.S. Pat. No. 6,018,033, which is incorporated by reference). According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further includes a lubricant. In some embodiments, a lubricant can be present to aid in formulation of a dosage form. For example, a lubricant may be added to ensure that capsules or tablets do not stick to one another during processing or upon storage. Any suitable lubricant may be used. For example, lecithin, which is a mixture of phospholipids, is the lubricant. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further includes an antioxidant. Any suitable anti-oxidant may be used. For example, butylated hydroxytoluene, butylated hydroxyanisole, and Vitamin E TPGS. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes about 20% to about 80% solubilizing agent by weight, about 0.1% to about 5% lubricant by weight, and about 0.01% to about 0.1% antioxidant by weight. The choice of excipient will depend on factors such as, for example, the effect of the excipient on solubility and stability. Additional excipients used in various embodiments may include colorants and preservatives. Examples of colorants include FD&C colors (e.g., blue No. 1 and Red No. 40), D&C colors (e.g., Yellow No. 10), and opacifiers (e.g., Titanium dioxide). According to embodiments, colorants, comprise about 0.1% to about 2% of the pharmaceutical composition by weight. According to embodiments, preservatives in the pharmaceutical composition comprise methyl and propyl paraben, in a ratio of about 10:1, and at a proportion of about 0.005% and 0.05% by weight. Generally, the solubilizing agents, excipients, other additives used in the pharmaceutical compositions described herein, are non-toxic, pharmaceutically acceptable, compatible with each other, and maintain stability of the pharmaceutical composition and the various components with respect to each other. Additionally, the combination of various components that comprise the pharmaceutical compositions will maintain will result in the desired therapeutic effect when administered to a subject. Solubility of Estradiol According to embodiments, solubilizing agents comprising mixtures of medium chain fatty acid glycerides, e.g., C6-C12, C8-C12, or C8-C10 fatty acid mono- and diglycerides or mono-, di-, and triglycerides dissolve estradiol. As illustrated in the Examples, good results were obtained with solubilizing agents that are predominantly a mixture of C8-C10 saturated fatty acid mono- and diglycerides, or medium chain triglycerides (e.g., MIGLYOL 810 or 812). Longer chain glycerides appear to be not as well suited for dissolution of estradiol. A solubilizing agent comprising propylene glycol monocaprylate (e.g., CAPRYOL) and 2-(2-Ethoxyethoxy)ethanol (e.g., TRANSCUTOL) solubilized estradiol well. IV. MANUFACTURE OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITION According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is prepared via blending estradiol with a pharmaceutically acceptable solubilizing agent, including for example and without limitation, at least one medium chain fatty acid such as medium chain fatty acids consisting of at least one mono-, di-, or triglyceride, or derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition also includes at least one glycol or derivatives thereof or combinations thereof or combinations of at least one glyceride and glycol. The glycol(s) may be used as solubilizing agents or to adjust viscosity and, thus, may be considered thickening agents, as discussed further herein. Optionally added are other excipients including, for example and without limitation, anti-oxidants, lubricants, and the like. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes sufficient solubilizing agent to fully solubilize the estradiol. It is expressly understood, however, the other volumes of solubilizing agent can be used depending on the level of estradiol solubilization desired. Persons of ordinary skill in the art will know and understand how to determine the volume of solubilizing agent and other excipients depending on the desired percent of estradiol to be solubilized in the pharmaceutical composition. In illustrative embodiments, GELUCIRE 44/14 (lauroyl macrogol-32 glycerides EP, lauroyl polyoxyl-32 glycerides NF, lauroyl polyoxylglycerides (USA FDA IIG)) is heated to about 65° C. and CAPMUL MCM is heated to about 40° C. to facilitate mixing of the oil and non-ionic surfactant, although such heating is not necessary to dissolve the estradiol. Specific Examples disclosed herein provide additional principles and embodiments illustrating the manufactures of the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein. V. DELIVERY VEHICLE Generally, the pharmaceutical compositions described herein delivered intravaginally inside of a delivery vehicle, for example a capsule. According to embodiments, the capsules are soft capsules made of materials well known in the pharmaceutical arts, for example, gelatin. However, according to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is integral with the pharmaceutical composition (i.e., the pharmaceutical composition is the delivery vehicle). In such embodiments the pharmaceutical compositions is a gel, cream, ointment, tablet, or other preparation that is directly applied and absorbed vaginally. According to embodiments, the capsules do not contain one or more of the following: a hydrophilic gel-forming bioadhesive agent, a lipophilic agent, a gelling agent for the lipophilic agent, and/or a hydrodispersible agent. According to embodiments, the capsules do not contain a hydrophilic gel-forming bioadhesive agent selected from: carboxyvinylic acid, hydroxypropylcellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, gelatin, xanthan gum, guar gum, aluminum silicate, and mixtures thereof. According to embodiments, the capsules do not contain a lipophilic agent selected from: a liquid triglyceride, a solid triglyceride (with a melting point of about 35° C.), carnauba wax, cocoa butter, and mixtures thereof. According to embodiments, the capsules do not contain a hydrophobic colloidal silica gelling agent. According to embodiments, the capsules do not contain a hydrodispersible agent selected from: polyoxyethylene glycol, polyoxyethylene glycol 7-glyceryl-cocoate, and mixtures thereof. In some embodiments, the estradiol is formulated as a liquid composition consisting of a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; a caprylic/capric triglyceride; and a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate. In such embodiments, a hydrophilic gel-forming bioadhesive agent in the liquid composition. In some such embodiments, the liquid composition is contained with a gelatin capsule as described herein. In some such embodiments, the capsule comprises gelatin and optionally one or more further components selected from the group consisting of gelatin, hydrolyzed gelatin, sorbitol-sorbitan solution, water, glycerin, titanium dioxide, FD&C Red #40, ethanol, ethyl acetate, propylene glycol, polyvinyl acetate phthalate, isopropyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, and ammonium hydroxide. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is designed for ease of insertion. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is sized whereby it can be comfortably inserted into the vagina. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is prepared in a variety of geometries. For example, the delivery vehicle is shaped as a tear drop, a cone with frustoconical end, a cylinder, a cylinder with larger “cap” portion, or other shapes suitable for and that ease insertion into the vagina. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is used in connection with an applicator. According to other embodiments, the delivery vehicle is inserted digitally. According to embodiments, a method for the treatment of VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), is provided wherein a composition for the treatment of VVA is digitally insert approximately two inches into the vagina or in the third of the vagina closest to the opening of the vagina and results in at least one of: improved compliance compared to other products for the treatment of VVA; improved user experience compared to other products for the treatment of VVA; and statistically significantly improved symptoms of VVA, compared to placebo or baseline within one of two, four, six, eight, ten, or twelve or more weeks after initiation of administration. According to embodiments, a method for the treatment of VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), is provided wherein a delivery vehicle containing a composition for the treatment of VVA and a tear drop shape as disclosed herein is insert approximately two inches into the vagina or in the third of the vagina closest to the opening of the vagina and results in at least one of: improved compliance compared to other products for the treatment of VVA; improved user experience compared to other products for the treatment of VVA; and statistically significantly improved symptoms of VVA, compared to placebo or baseline within one of two, four, six, eight, ten, or twelve or more weeks after initiation of administration. With reference to FIG. 2, delivery vehicle 200 includes pharmaceutical composition 202 and capsule 204. Width 208 represents the thickness of capsule 204, for example about 0.108 inches. The distance from one end of delivery vehicle 200 to another is represented by distance 206, for example about 0.690 inches. The size of delivery vehicle 200 may also be described by the arc swept by a radius of a given length. For example, arc 210, which is defined by the exterior of gelatin 204, is an arc swept by a radius of about 0.189 inches. Arc 212, which is defined by the interior of capsule 204, is an arc swept by a radius of about 0.0938 inches. Arc 214, which is defined by the exterior of gelatin 204 opposite arc 210, is an arc swept by a radius of about 0.108 inches. Suitable capsules of other dimensions may be provided. According to embodiments, capsule 204 has dimensions the same as or similar to the ratios as provided above relative to each other. In some embodiment, the gelatin capsule further comprises one or more components selected from the group consisting of hydrolyzed gelatin, sorbitol-sorbitan solution, water, glycerin, titanium dioxide, FD&C Red #40, ethanol, ethyl acetate, propylene glycol, polyvinyl acetate phthalate, isopropyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, and ammonium hydroxide. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is designed to remaining in the vagina until the pharmaceutical compositions are released. According to embodiments, delivery vehicle dissolves intravaginally and is absorbed into the vaginal tissue with the pharmaceutical composition, which minimizes vaginal discharge. In such embodiments, delivery mechanism is made from constituents that are non-toxic, for example, gelatin. Design Factors for Vaginally Inserted Pharmaceutical Compositions According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is designed to maximize favorable characteristics that lead to patient compliance (patients that discontinue treatment prior to completion of the prescribed course of therapy), without sacrificing efficacy. Favorable characteristics include, for example, lack of or reduction of irritation relative to other hormone replacement pessaries, lack of or reduction in vaginal discharge of the pharmaceutical composition and delivery vehicle relative to other hormone replacement pessaries, lack of or reduction of pharmaceutical composition or delivery vehicle residue inside the vagina, ease of administration compared to other hormone replacement pessaries, or improved efficacy of drug product relative to otherwise similar pharmaceutical compositions. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is non-irritating or minimizes irritation. Patient irritation includes pain, pruritus (itching), soreness, excessive discharge, swelling, or other similar conditions. Patient irritation results in poor compliance. Non-irritating or reduced irritation pharmaceutical compositions are measured relative to competing hormone pessaries, including tablets, creams, or other intravaginal estrogen delivery forms. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions does not result in systemic exposure (e.g., blood circulation of estradiol), which improves safety. According to other embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein result in significantly reduced systemic exposure (e.g., blood circulation of estradiol) when compared to other vaginally administered drugs on the market for the treatment of VVA. In certain embodiments, the administration of the pharmaceutical composition provides a mean concentration (Cave) value below 20.6 pg/mL on Day 1 of the treatment, and/or a Cave value below 19.4 pg/mL on Day 14 of the treatment, and/or a Cave value below 11.5 pg/mL on Day 83 of the treatment. In certain embodiments, the administration of the pharmaceutical composition provides a mean concentration (Cave) value below 10 pg/mL on Day 1 of the treatment, and/or a Cave value below 7.3 pg/mL on Day 14 of the treatment, and/or a Cave value below 5.5 pg/mL on Day 83 of the treatment. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition does not leave residue inside the vagina. Rather, the pharmaceutical composition and delivery vehicle are substantially absorbed or dispersed without resulting in unabsorbed residue or unpleasant sensations of non-absorbed or non-dispersed drug product. Measurement of lack of residue is relative to other vaginally inserted products or can be measured objectively with inspection of the vaginal tissues. For example, certain other vaginally inserted products contain starch which can result in greater discharge from the vagina following administration than. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions provided herein provide a lower amount, duration, or frequency of discharge following administration compared to other vaginally inserted products (e.g., compressed tablets). According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition improves vaginal discharge compared to other pessaries, including pessaries that deliver hormones. Ideally, vaginal discharge is eliminated, minimized, or improved compared to competing products. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are inserted digitally. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are digitally inserted approximately two inches into the vagina without a need for an applicator. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are designed to be also inserted with an applicator, if desired. According to some embodiments, because the site of VVA is in the proximal region of the vagina (towards the vaginal opening), the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are designed to be inserted in the proximal portion of the vagina. Through extensive experimentation, various medium chain fatty acid esters of glycerol and propylene glycol demonstrated one or more favorable characteristics for development as a human drug product. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent was selected from at least one of a solvent or co-solvent. Suitable solvents and co-solvents include any mono-, di- or triglyceride and glycols, and combinations thereof. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is delivered via a gelatin capsule delivery vehicle. According to these embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is a liquid pharmaceutical composition. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is a soft capsule, for example a soft gelatin capsule. Thus, the pharmaceutical composition of such embodiments is encapsulated in the soft gelatin capsule or other soft capsule. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes estradiol that is at least about 80% solubilized in a solubilizing agent comprising one or more C6 to C14 medium chain fatty acid mono-, di-, or triglycerides and, optionally, a thickening agent. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes estradiol that is at least about 80% solubilized one or more C6 to C12 medium chain fatty acid mono-, di-, or triglycerides, e.g., one or more C6 to C14 triglycerides, e.g., one or more C6 to C12 triglycerides, such as one or more C8-C10 triglycerides. These embodiments specifically contemplate the estradiol being at least 80% solubilized. These embodiments specifically contemplate the estradiol being at least 90% solubilized. These embodiments specifically contemplate the estradiol being at least 95% solubilized. These embodiments specifically contemplate the estradiol being fully solubilized. As noted above, liquid pharmaceutical compositions are liquid at room temperature or at body temperature. For example, in some embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition provided herein is a liquid formulation contained within a soft gel capsule. Gels, hard fats, or other solid forms that are not liquid at room or body temperature are less desirable in embodiments of the pharmaceutical composition that are liquid. The thickening agent serves to increase viscosity, e.g., up to about 10,000 cP (10,000 mPa-s), typically to no more than about 5000 cP, and more typically to between about 50 and 1000 cP. In embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant, e.g., GELUCIRE or TEFOSE, may be solid at room temperature and require melting to effectively mix with the solubilizing agent. However, in these embodiments, the resultant pharmaceutical composition remains liquid, albeit with greater viscosity, not solid. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes estradiol, the medium chain solubilizing agent, and the thickening agent as the ingredients delivered via a soft capsule delivery vehicle. Other ingredients, e.g., colorants, antioxidants, preservatives, or other ingredients may be included as well. However, the addition of other ingredients should be in amounts that do not materially change the solubility of the estradiol, the pharmacokinetics of the pharmaceutical composition, or efficacy of the pharmaceutical composition. Other factors that should be considered when adjusting the ingredients of the pharmaceutical composition include the irritation, vaginal discharge, intravaginal residue, and other relevant factors, for example those that would lead to reduced patient compliance. Other contemplated ingredients include: oils or fatty acid esters, lecithin, mucoadherent agents, gelling agents, dispersing agents, or the like. VI. METHODS According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein can be used for the treatment of VVA, including the treatment of at least one VVA symptom including: vaginal dryness, vaginal or vulvar irritation or itching, dysuria, dyspareunia, and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity, among others. According to embodiments the methods of treatment are generally applicable to females. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein can be used for the treatment of estrogen-deficient urinary states. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein can be used for the treatment of dyspareunia, or vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. According to embodiments, treatment of the VVA, estrogen-deficient urinary states, and dyspareunia and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity occurs by administering the pharmaceutical compositions intravaginally. According to embodiments where the delivery vehicle is a capsule, the patient obtains the capsule and inserts the capsule into the vagina, where the capsule dissolves and the pharmaceutical composition is released into the vagina where it is absorbed into the vaginal tissue. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is completely absorbed into the vaginal tissue. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is substantially absorbed into the vaginal tissue (e.g., at least about 80% by weight, at least about 85% by weight, at least about 90% by weight, at least about 95% by weight, at least about 97% by weight, at least about 98% by weight, or at least about 99% by weight of the composition is absorbed). According to embodiments, the capsule is inserted about two inches into the vagina, however the depth of insertion is generally any depth that allows for adsorption of substantially all of the pharmaceutical composition. According to embodiments, the capsule can also be applied using an applicator that deposits the capsule at an appropriate vaginal depth as disclosed herein. According to embodiments, the capsule is insert into the lower third of the vagina (i.e., the third closest to the vaginal opening). According to embodiments, the softgel capsule can be held with the larger end between the fingers as shown in FIG. 26A. The subject will select a position that is most comfortable (e.g., a reclining position as shown in FIG. 26B or a standing position as shown in FIG. 26C), and the subject will insert the softgel into the lower third of the vagina with the smaller end up. The softgel capsule will dissolve rapidly. The softgel can be inserted at any time of day and normal activities can be immediately resumed. According to embodiments, the same time of day for all insertions of of the softgel is used. According to embodiments where the pharmaceutical composition is a cream, gel, ointment, or other similar preparation, the pharmaceutical composition is applied digitally, as is well known and understood in the art. Upon release of the pharmaceutical composition in the vagina, estradiol is locally absorbed. For example, following administration of the suppository to the proximal region of the vagina of a patient provides a therapeutically effective concentration of estradiol over 24 hours in the proximal region of the vagina. According to embodiments, the timing of administration of the pharmaceutical composition of this disclosure may be conducted by any safe means as prescribed by an attending physician. According to embodiments, a patient will administer the pharmaceutical composition (e.g., a capsule) intravaginally each day for 14 days, then twice weekly thereafter. In some such embodiments, the doses administered during the twice weekly dosing period are administered approximately 3-4 days apart. Typically, doses administered during the twice weekly dosing period do not exceed more than twice in a seven day period. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are vaginally administered with co-administration of an orally administered estrogen-based (or progestin-based or progestin- and estrogen-based) pharmaceutical drug product, or patch, cream, gel, spray, transdermal delivery system or other parenterally-administered estrogen-based pharmaceutical drug product, each of which can include natural, bio-similar, or synthetic or other derived estrogens or progestins. According to embodiments, modulation of circulating estrogen levels provided via the administration of the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein, if any, are not intended to be additive to any co-administered estrogen product and its associated circulating blood levels. According to other embodiments, co-administrated estrogen products are intended to have an additive effect as would be determined by the patient physician. According to embodiments, a method for estrogenizing vaginal tissue is provided. The method includes administration of a (i.e., a suppository) or dosage as described herein. Estrogenized vaginal tissue is typically characterized by one or more of the following properties: the presence clear secretions on vaginal walls; rogation and elasticity of the vaginal walls; intact vaginal epithelium; and pink tissue color. In contrast, de-estrogenized vaginal is characterized by decreased or absent secretions; smooth tissue with fewer or no rugae; bleeding of the vaginal surface; development of petechiae (i.e., pinpoint, round spots on the skin due to bleeding, appearing red, brown, or purple); and pale or transparent tissues. Accordingly, estrogenizing vaginal tissue according to the method disclosed herein can include, increasing the level of vaginal secretions in a subject; increasing the number of vaginal rugae in the subject; and/or decreasing bleeding or petechiae in the subject. According to embodiments, a method for estrogenizing vaginal tissue is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estradiol Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for estrogenizing vaginal tissue is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estrone Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for estrogenizing the labia majora and labia minora (collectively “labia”) is provided as described herein. Generally, the pharmaceutical composition is inserted digitally into the vagina approximately two inches or inserted into the third of the vagina closest to the vaginal opening as shown in FIGS. 26A, 26B, and 26C. The gelatin capsule containing the pharmaceutical composition dissolves, ruptures, or otherwise releases the pharmaceutical composition into the vagina, whereby the lower third of the vagina and labia are both reestrogenized. According to some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is a liquid that partially flows to the labia and directly reestrogenizes the labia. According to embodiments, a method for estrogenizing the vulva is provided as described herein. Generally, the pharmaceutical composition is inserted digitally into the vagina approximately two inches or inserted into the third of the vagina closest to the vaginal opening as shown in FIGS. 26A, 26B, and 26C. The gelatin capsule containing the pharmaceutical composition dissolves, ruptures, or otherwise releases the pharmaceutical composition into the vagina, whereby the lower third of the vagina and vulva are both reestrogenized. According to some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is a liquid that partially flows to the vulval tissue and directly reestrogenizes the vulva. According to embodiments, a method for treating vaginal dryness is provided. The method includes administration of a soft gel vaginal estradiol formulation (i.e., a suppository) or dosage as described herein. Treating vaginal dryness according to the method disclosed herein can include, decreasing the severity of vaginal dryness by 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99%. The decrease in severity can be obtained following 2 weeks of treatment, or 6 weeks of treatment, or 8 weeks of treatment, or 12 weeks of treatment. In some embodiments, vaginal dryness is assessed using a severity scale, ranging from 0 to 4 points wherein 0 indicates no dryness, 1 indicates mild dryness, 2 indicates moderate dryness, and 3 indicates severe dryness. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes decreasing the severity of dryness after two weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.5-point decrease to a 1.25-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes decreasing the severity of dryness after six weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.75-point decrease to a 1.5-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes decreasing the severity of dryness after eight weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.9-point decrease to a 1.5-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes decreasing the severity of dryness after twelve weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.9-point decrease to a 1.5-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes administering a suppository so as to provide an estradiol Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating vaginal dryness is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estrone Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation is provided. The method includes administration of a soft gel vaginal estradiol formulation (i.e., a suppository) or dosage as described herein. Treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation according to the method disclosed herein can include, decreasing the severity of vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation by 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99%. The decrease in severity can be obtained following 2 weeks of treatment, or 6 weeks of treatment, or 8 weeks of treatment, or 12 weeks of treatment. In some embodiments, vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation is assessed using a severity scale, ranging from 0 to 4 points wherein 0 indicates no itching or irritation, 1 indicates mild itching or irritation, 2 indicates moderate itching or irritation, and 3 indicates severe itching or irritation. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subj ect, to 1, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes decreasing the severity of itching/irritation after two weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.3-point decrease to a 0.6-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes decreasing the severity of itching/irritation after six weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.5-point decrease to a 0.7-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes decreasing the severity of itching/irritation after eight weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.5-point decrease to a 0.8-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes decreasing the severity of itching/irritation after twelve weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.5-point decrease to a 1.0-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes administering a suppository so as to provide an estradiol Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estrone Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating dyspareunia is provided. The method includes administration of a suppository or dosage as described herein. Treating dyspareunia according to the method disclosed herein can include, decreasing the severity of dyspareunia by 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99%. The decrease in severity can be obtained following 2 weeks of treatment, or 6 weeks of treatment, or 8 weeks of treatment, or 12 weeks of treatment. In some embodiments, dyspareunia is assessed using a severity scale, ranging from 0 to 4 points wherein 0 indicates no pain associated with sexual activity (with vaginal penetration), 1 indicates mild pain associated with sexual activity (with vaginal penetration), 2 indicates moderate pain associated with sexual activity (with vaginal penetration), and 3 indicates severe pain associated with sexual activity (with vaginal penetration). In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes decreasing the severity of dyspareunia after two weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.9-point decrease to a 1.1-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes decreasing the severity of dyspareunia after six weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 1.3-point decrease to a 1.5-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes decreasing the severity of dyspareunia after eight weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 1.5-point decrease to a 1.8-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes decreasing the severity of dyspareunia after twelve weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 1.5-point decrease to a 1.8-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes administering a suppository so as to provide an estradiol Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating dyspareunia is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estrone Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating urinary tract infections is provided. As used herein the term “urinary tract infection” refers to an infection of the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra by a microorganism such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Klebsiella sp., Enterobacter sp., or Proteus sp. The method for treating urinary tract infections generally includes administering a soft gel vaginal estradiol formulation (i.e., a suppository) as described herein. According to certain embodiments, the method further includes decreasing urethral discomfort, frequency or urination, hematuria, dysuria, and/or stress incontinence. According to certain embodiments, a method for treating urinary tract infections is provided, the method including administering a suppository as described herein and decreasing vaginal pH from above 4.5 to between 3.5 and 4.5 (inclusive). The method can be particularly effective for treating urinary tract infections in elderly subjects (e.g., subjects older than 65 years, or older than 75 years, or older than 85 years). According to embodiments, a method for treating urinary tract infections is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estradiol Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating urinary tract infections is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estrone Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating sexual dysfunction is provided. As used herein with respect to female subjects, the term “sexual dysfunction” generally refers to pain or discomfort during sexual intercourse, diminished vaginal lubrication, delayed vaginal engorgement, increased time for arousal, diminished ability to reach orgasm, diminished clitoral sensation, diminished sexual desire, and/or diminished arousal. According to embodiments, a method for treating sexual dysfunction is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estradiol Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating sexual dysfunction is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estrone Cmax or AUC as described herein. Sexual function and dysfunction can be assessed using the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) (see, Rosen R, Brown C, Heiman J, et al. “The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI): A Multidimensional Self-Report Instrument for the Assessment of Female Sexual Function.” Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy 2000. 26: p.191-208). The FSFI is useful for assessing various domains of sexual functioning (e.g. sexual desire, arousal, orgasm, satisfaction and pain). Accordingly, the method for treating sexual dysfunction as provided herein can include administering a vaginal soft gel formulation to a subject and increasing a subject's full-scale FSFI score, FSFI-desire score, FSFI-arousal score, FSFI-lubrication score and/or FSFI-orgasm score. Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) Question Answer Options Q1: Over the past 4 weeks, how often did you feel 5 = Almost always or always sexual desire or interest? 4 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 2 = A few times (less than half the time) 1 = Almost never or never Q2: Over the past 4 weeks, how would you rate your 5 = Very high level (degree) of sexual desire or interest? 4 = High 3 = Moderate 2 = Low 1 = Very low or none at all Q3. Over the past 4 weeks, how often did you feel 0 = No sexual activity sexually aroused (“turned on”) during sexual activity 5 = Almost always or always or intercourse? 4 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 2 = A few times (less than half the time) 1 = Almost never or never Q4. Over the past 4 weeks, how would you rate your 0 = No sexual activity level of sexual arousal (“turn on”) during sexual 5 = Very high activity or intercourse? 4 = High 3 = Moderate 2 = Low 1 = Very low or none at all Q5. Over the past 4 weeks, how confident were you 0 = No sexual activity about becoming sexually aroused during sexual 5 = Very high confidence activity or intercourse? 4 = High confidence 3 = Moderate confidence 2 = Low confidence 1 = Very low or no confidence Q6. Over the past 4 weeks, how often have you been 0 = No sexual activity satisfied with your arousal (excitement) during sexual 5 = Almost always or always activity or intercourse? Response Options 4 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 2 = A few times (less than half the time) 1 = Almost never or never Q7: Over the past 4 weeks, how often did you become 0 = No sexual activity lubricated (“wet”) during sexual activity or 5 = Almost always or always intercourse? 4 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 2 = A few times (less than half the time) 1 = Almost never or never Q8. Over the past 4 weeks, how difficult was it to 0 = No sexual activity become lubricated (“wet”) during sexual activity or 1 = Extremely difficult or impossible intercourse? 2 = Very difficult 3 = Difficult 4 = Slightly difficult 5 = Not difficult Q9: Over the past 4 weeks, how often did you 0 = No sexual activity maintain your lubrication (“wetness”) until completion 5 = Almost always or always of sexual activity or intercourse? 4 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 2 = A few times (less than half the time) 1 = Almost never or never Q10: Over the past 4 weeks, how difficult was it to 0 = No sexual activity maintain your lubrication (“wetness”) until completion 1 = Extremely difficult or impossible of sexual activity or intercourse? 2 = Very difficult 3 = Difficult 4 = Slightly difficult 5 = Not difficult Q11. Over the past 4 weeks, when you had sexual 0 = No sexual activity stimulation or intercourse, how often did you reach 5 = Almost always or always orgasm (climax)? 4 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 2 = A few times (less than half the time) 1 = Almost never or never Q12: Over the past 4 weeks, when you had sexual 0 = No sexual activity stimulation or intercourse, how difficult was it for you 1 = Extremely difficult or impossible to reach orgasm (climax)? 2 = Very difficult 3 = Difficult 4 = Slightly difficult 5 = Not difficult Q13: Over the past 4 weeks, how satisfied were you 0 = No sexual activity with your ability to reach orgasm (climax) during 5 = Very satisfied 4 sexual activity or intercourse? 4 = Moderately satisfied 3 = About equally satisfied and dissatisfied 2 = Moderately dissatisfied 1 = Very dissatisfied Q14: Over the past 4 weeks, how satisfied have you 0 = No sexual activity been with the amount of emotional closeness during 5 = Very satisfied sexual activity between you and your partner? 4 = Moderately satisfied 3 = About equally satisfied and dissatisfied 2 = Moderately dissatisfied 1 = Very dissatisfied Q15: Over the past 4 weeks, how satisfied have you 5 = Very satisfied been with your sexual relationship with your partner? 4 = Moderately satisfied 3 = About equally satisfied and dissatisfied 2 = Moderately dissatisfied 1 = Very dissatisfied Q16: Over the past 4 weeks, how satisfied have you 5 = Very satisfied been with your overall sexual life? 4 = Moderately satisfied 3 = About equally satisfied and dissatisfied 2 = Moderately dissatisfied 1 = Very dissatisfied Q17: Over the past 4 weeks, how often did you 0 = Did not attempt intercourse experience discomfort or pain during vaginal 1 = Almost always or always penetration? 2 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 4 = A few times (less than half the time) 5 = Almost never or never Q18: Over the past 4 weeks, how often did you 0 = Did not attempt intercourse experience discomfort or pain following vaginal 1 = Almost always or always penetration? 2 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 4 = A few times (less than half the time) 5 = Almost never or never Q19. Over the past 4 weeks, how would you rate your 0 = Did not attempt intercourse level (degree) of discomfort or pain during or 1 = Very high following vaginal penetration? 2 = High 3 = Moderate 4 = Low 5 = Very low or none at all FSFI Scoring System Domain Questions Score Range Factor Minimum Maximum Desire 1, 2 1-5 0.6 1.2 6.0 Arousal 3, 4, 5, 6 0-5 0.3 0 6.0 Lubrication 7, 8, 9, 10 0-5 0.3 0 6.0 Orgasm 11, 12, 13 0-5 0.4 0 6.0 Satisfaction 14, 15, 16 0 (or 1)-5 0.4 0.8 6.0 Pain 17, 18, 19 0-5 0.4 0 6.0 Full Scale Score Range: 2.0 36.0 In some embodiments, the method for treating sexual dysfunction includes administering estradiol to the subject and increasing the FSFI-desire score by at least about 20%, or at least about 25%, or at least about 30% as compared to baseline. In some embodiments, the method for treating sexual dysfunction includes administering estradiol to the subject and increasing the FSFI-arousal score by at least about 30%, or at least about 40%, or at least about 50% as compared to baseline. In some embodiments, the method for treating sexual dysfunction includes administering estradiol to the subject and increasing the FSFI-lubrication score by at least about 85%, or at least about 95%, or at least about 115% as compared to baseline. In some embodiments, the method for treating sexual dysfunction includes administering estradiol to the subject and increasing the FSFI-orgasm score by at least about 40%, or at least about 60% as compared to baseline. In some embodiments, the method for treating sexual dysfunction includes administering estradiol to the subject and increasing the total FSFI score by at least about 50%, or at least about 55%, or at least about 70% as compared to baseline. Examples of other metrics for assessment of sexual function include, but are not limited to, Changes in Sexual Function Questionnaire (“CSFQ”; Clayton et al., Psychopharmacol Bull. 33(4):731-45 (1997) and Clayton et al., Psychopharmacol. Bull. 33(4):747-53 (1997)); the Derogatis Interview for Sexual Functioning—Self-Report (“DISF-SR”; Derogatis, J Sex Marital Ther. 23:291-304 (1997)); the Golombok-Rust Inventory of Sexual Satisfaction (“GRISS”; Rust et al., Arch. Sex Behay. 15:157-165 (1986)); the Sexual Function Questionnaire (“SFQ”; Quirk et al., J Womens Health Gend Based Med. 11:277-289 (2002)); and the Arizona Sexual Experience Scale (“ASEX”; McGahuey et al., J Sex Marital Ther. 26:25-40 (2000)), the entire disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. For assessment using a questionnaire, a measure of sexual dysfunction function is increased when the score in the appropriate domain, subscale or subtest is indicative of sexual dysfunction, as established for that questionnaire. For instance, a female's sexual interest is considered reduced, when assessed using the CSFQ, if the subscale for sexual interest score is less than or equal to 9. Conversely, sexual dysfunction is considered improved when the score in the appropriate domain, subscale or subtest is indicative of higher (e.g., normal or desired) sexual function. For a clinician's assessment, sexual dysfunction may be assessed in comparison to a previous point in time for the patient and/or in comparison to a patient's peers with respect to age, gender, sexual experience, and health, or may also be determined via a validated questionnaire administered by the clinician. According to embodiments, the efficacy and safety of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein in the treatment of the symptoms of VVA may be determined. According to embodiments, the size, effect, cytology, histology, and variability of the VVA may be determined using various endpoints to determine efficacy and safety of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein or as otherwise accepted in the art, at present or as further developed. One source of endpoints is with the US Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) published guidelines for treatment of VVA with estradiol. According to embodiments, a method of treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), is provided that allows a subject to be ambulatory immediately or within minutes after a gelatin capsule containing the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are administered. According to embodiments, a gelatin capsule containing a pharmaceutical composition as disclosed herein is administered by digitally inserting the gelatin capsule containing the pharmaceutical composition into the vagina approximately two inches or inserting into the third of the vagina closest to the vaginal opening as shown in FIGS. 26A, 26B, and 26C. According to embodiments, the gelatin capsule adheres to the vaginal tissue and dissolves, ruptures, or otherwise disintegrates soon after being inserted into the vagina thereby releasing the pharmaceutical composition. The pharmaceutical composition spreads onto the vaginal tissue and is rapidly absorbed. According to embodiments, the gelatin capsule is also fully absorbed by the vaginal tissue. According to some embodiments, a viscosity enchancer such as TEFOSE 63 provides increased viscosity to ensure the pharmaceutical composition stays within the desired absorption area, thereby estrogenizing the vagina, labia, and/or vulva. The combination of high viscosity, bioadhesion, and rapid absorption prevents the need for subjects to remain supine after administration to allow the tissue to absorb the estradiol, thereby allowing subjects to be ambulatory immediately or almost immediately after administration. According to embodiments, a method for treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), without causing non-natural discharge (e.g., discharge of a pharmaceutical composition or a component thereof) is provided. According to the method, a soft gelatin capsule is administered containing a liquid pharmaceutical composition that is able to be fully absorbed by the vaginal tissue. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition itself is fully absorbed by the vaginal tissue. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition and gelatin capsule are administered in a volume and size, respectively, that allows a subject's vaginal tissue to fully absorb the pharmaceutical composition. According to embodiments, such absorption will occur contemporaneously with the subject being ambulatory. According to the method, the gelatin capsule and liquid pharmaceutical composition are fully absorved by the vaginal tissue, wherein the only discharge that occurs after estrogenizing the vagina is natural discharge that a woman would have experienced prior to menopause. “Natural” vaginal discharge refers to a small amount of fluid that flows out of the vagina each day, carrying out old cells that have lined the vagina. Natural discharge is usually clear or milky. Non-natural discharge can refer to discharge that is higher in volume than natural discharge, different in color than natural discharge, or different in consistency than natural discharge. Non-natural discharge can also refer to the discharge (e.g., leaking) of a pharmaceutical composition from the vagina. According to embodiments, a method of treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), using a liquid pharmaceutical composition is provided. According to the method, a soft gelatin capsule containing a liquid composition for treating VVA is provided to a subject. The subject inserts the soft gelatin capsule containing the liquid composition for treating VVA into their vagina either digitally or with an applicator, wherein the soft gelatin capsule dissolves, ruptures, or disintegrates and the liquid composition is released into the vagina. According to embodiments, the liquid composition for treating VVA is a pharmaceutical composition disclosed herein. According to embodiments, the subject inserts the gelatin capsule about two inches into the vagina, or in the third of the vagina closest to the vaginal opening. According to embodiments, the subject is ambulatory immediately after or soon after administration. According to embodiments, a method is disclosed herein for treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), comprising improving the symptoms of VVA, compared to placebo or baseline, within two weeks by vaginally administering a composition for the treatment of VVA. One of skill in the art will understand that the improvements can be assessed statistically as described herein, and that any improvement can be a statistically significant improvement. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid pharmaceutical composition as disclosed herein. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid containing from 1 μg to 25 μg of estradiol. According to embodiments, the method of administration is a method disclosed herein, including the insertion method shown in FIGS. 26A, 26B, and 26C. According to embodiments, at the two week point of measurement, the estradiol is not detected systemically when measured using standard pharmaceutical pharmacokinetic parameters, such as AUC and Cmax. According to embodiments, a method is disclosed herein for treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), comprising improving the symptoms of VVA, compared to placebo or baseline, within four weeks by vaginally administering a composition for the treatment of VVA. One of skill in the art will understand that the improvements can be assessed statistically as described herein, and that any improvement can be a statistically significant improvement. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid pharmaceutical composition as disclosed herein. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid containing from 1 μg to 25 μg of estradiol. According to embodiments, the method of administration is a method disclosed herein, including the insertion method shown in FIGS. 26A, 26B, and 26C. According to embodiments, at the two week point of measurement and/or the four week point of measurement, the estradiol is not detected systemically when measured using standard pharmaceutical pharmacokinetic parameters, such as AUC and Cmax. According to embodiments, a method is disclosed herein for treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), comprising improving the symptoms of VVA, compared to placebo or baseline, within eight weeks by vaginally administering a composition for the treatment of VVA. One of skill in the art will understand that the improvements can be assessed statistically as described herein, and that any improvement can be a statistically significant improvement. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid pharmaceutical composition as disclosed herein. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid containing from 1 μg to 25 μg of estradiol. According to embodiments, the method of administration is a method disclosed herein, including the insertion method shown in FIGS. 26A, 26B, and 26C. According to embodiments, at the two week point of measurement and/or the eight week point of measurement, the estradiol is not detected systemically when measured using standard pharmaceutical pharmacokinetic parameters, such as AUC and Cmax. According to embodiments, a method is disclosed herein for treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), comprising improving the symptoms of VVA, compared to placebo or baseline, within ten weeks by vaginally administering a composition for the treatment of VVA. One of skill in the art will understand that the improvements can be assessed statistically as described herein, and that any improvement can be a statistically significant improvement. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid pharmaceutical composition as disclosed herein. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid containing from 1 μg to 25 μg of estradiol. According to embodiments, the method of administration is a method disclosed herein, including the insertion method shown in FIGS. 26A, 26B, and 26C. According to embodiments, at the two week point of measurement and/or the ten week point of measurement, the estradiol is not detected systemically when measured using standard pharmaceutical pharmacokinetic parameters, such as AUC and Cmax. According to embodiments, a method for treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), comprising administering a composition containing estradiol for the treatment of VVA is provided, wherein the method improves the symptoms of VVA, compared with baseline or placebo, in at least one of two weeks, four weeks, six weeks, eight weeks, or twelve weeks, wherein the estradiol is not detected systemically using standard pharmaceutical pharmacokinetic parameters, such as AUC and Cmax. One of skill in the art will understand that the improvements can be assessed statistically as described herein, and that any improvement can be a statistically significant improvement. According to embodiments, the composition containing estradiol is a liquid composition as disclosed herein. According to embodiments, the composition contains 1 μg to 25 μg of estradiol. According to embodiments, a method for reestrogenizing the vagina, labia, or vulva is provided, wherein the method comprises administering a composition containing estradiol for the treatment of VVA, wherein the composition is a liquid containing estradiol or a synthetic estrogen, and wherein the liquid spreads over a surface area of the vagina, labia, or vulva which is larger than the area covered by a solid composition. For example, the liquid can spread over a surface area ranging from about 50 cm2 to about 120 cm2 (e.g., from about 50 cm2 to about 60 cm2; or from about 60 cm2 to about 70 cm2; or from about 70 cm2 to about 80 cm2; or from about 80 cm2 to about 90 cm2; or from about 90 cm2 to about 100 cm2; or from about 100 cm2 to about 110 cm2; or from about 110 cm2 to about 120 cm2; or from about 65 cm2 to about 110 cm2). According to embodiments, the subject inserts a liquid composition into her vagina in a capsule, such as a hard or soft gelatin capsule, that then dissolves, ruptures, disintegrates, or otherwise releases the liquid in the vagina. According to embodiments, the liquid contains at least one of a bio-adhesive or viscosity enhancer to prevent the liquid from discharging from the vagina before the estradiol or synthetic estrogen can be absorbed into the vaginal tissue in a dose sufficient to effect reestrongenization of the vagina. According to embodiments, the vagina will be statistically significantly reestrogenized within two weeks of administration compared to baseline or placebo levels. According to embodiments, the vagina will be statistically significantly reestrogenized within four weeks of administration compared to baseline or placebo levels. According to embodiments, the vagina will be statistically significantly reestrogenized within six weeks of administration compared to baseline or placebo levels. According to embodiments, the vagina will be statistically significantly reestrogenized within eight weeks of administration compared to baseline or placebo levels. According to embodiments, the vagina will be statistically significantly reestrogenized within ten weeks of administration compared to baseline or placebo levels. According to embodiments, the vagina will be statistically significantly reestrogenized within twelve or more weeks of administration compared to baseline or placebo levels. VII. MEASUREMENT OF EFFICACY According to embodiments, administration of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein resulted in treatment of the VVA, as well as improvement of one or more of the associated symptoms. Patients with VVA experience shrinking of the vaginal canal in both length and diameter and the vaginal canal has fewer glycogen-rich vaginal cells to maintain moisture and suppleness. In addition, the vaginal wall can become thin, pale, dry, or sometimes inflamed (atrophic vaginitis). These changes can manifest as a variety of symptoms collectively referred to as VVA. Such symptoms include, without limitations, an increase in vaginal pH; reduction of vaginal epithelial integrity, vaginal secretions, or epithelial surface thickness; pruritus; vaginal dryness; dyspareunia (pain or bleeding during sexual intercourse); urinary tract infections; or a change in vaginal color. According to embodiments, efficacy is measured as a reduction of vulvar and vaginal atrophy in a patient back to premenopausal conditions. According to embodiments, the change is measured as a reduction in the severity of one or more atrophic effects measured at baseline (screening, Day 1) and compared to a measurement taken at Day 15 (end of treatment). Severity of the atrophic effect may be measured using a scale of 0 to 3 where, for example, none=0, mild=1, moderate=2, or severe=3. Such scoring is implemented to evaluate the pre-treatment condition of patients; to determine the appropriate course of a treatment regime; such as dosage, dosing frequency, and duration, among others; and post-treatment outcomes. One of the symptoms of VVA is increased vaginal pH. In further aspects of this disclosure, treatment with the pharmaceutical compositions described herein resulted in a decrease in vaginal pH. A decrease in vaginal pH is measured as a decrease from the vaginal pH at baseline (screening) to the vaginal pH at Day 15, according to embodiments. In some embodiments, a pH of 5 or greater may be associated with VVA. In some embodiments, pH is measured using a pH indicator strip placed against the vaginal wall. In some embodiments, a change in vaginal pH is a change in a patient's vaginal pH to a pH of less than about pH 5.0. In some embodiments, a subject's vaginal pH may be less than about pH 4.9, pH 4.8, pH 4.7, pH 4.6, pH 4.5, pH 4.4, pH 4.3, pH 4.2, pH 4.1, pH 4.0, pH 3.9, pH 3.8, pH 3.7, pH 3.6, or pH 3.5. According to embodiments, treatment with the pharmaceutical compositions described herein resulted in improvements in the vaginal Maturation Index. The Maturation Index is measured as a change in cell composition. According to embodiments and as related to VVA, a change in cell composition is measured as the change in percent of composition or amount of parabasal vaginal cells, intermediate cells, and superficial vaginal cells, such as a change in the composition or amount of parabasal vaginal cells compared with or, relative to, a change in superficial vaginal cells. A subject having VVA symptoms often has an increased number of parabasal cells and a reduced number of superficial cells (e.g., less than about 5%) compared with women who do not suffer from VVA. Conversely, a subject having decreasing VVA symptoms, or as otherwise responding to treatment, may demonstrate an improvement in the Maturation Index, specifically a decrease in the amount of parabasal cells or an increase in the amount of superficial cells compared to baseline (screening). In embodiments, a decrease in parabasal cells is measured as a reduction in the percent of parabasal cells; the percent reduction may be at least about an 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15% or 10% reduction in the number of parabasal cells. In embodiments, a percent reduction may be at least about a 54% reduction in the number of parabasal cells. In embodiments, an increase in superficial cells is measured as an increase in the percent of superficial cells; the percent increase in superficial cells may be at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% increase in the number of superficial cells. In further embodiments, a percent increase may be at least about a 35% increase in the number of superficial cells. In some embodiments, an improvement in the Maturation Index is assessed as a change over time. For example, as a change in cell composition measured at a baseline (screening) at Day 1 compared to the cell composition measured at Day 15. The change in cell composition may also be assessed as a change in the amount of parabasal cells over time, optionally in addition to measuring changes in parabasal cells and superficial cells as described above. Such cells may be obtained from the vaginal mucosal epithelium through routine gynecological examination and examined by means of a vaginal smear. In various further aspects of this disclosure, treatment with the pharmaceutical compositions described herein resulted in any of: an increase in superficial cells; a decrease in parabasal cells; and an increase in intermediate cells. In further aspects of this disclosure, samples may be collected to determine hormone levels, in particular, estradiol levels. In some embodiments, blood samples may be taken from a subject and the level of estradiol measured (pg/mL). In some embodiments, estradiol levels may be measured at 0 hours (for example, at time of first treatment), at 1 hour (for example, post first treatment), at 3 hours, and at 6 hours. In some embodiments, samples may be taken at day 8 (for example, post first treatment) and at day 15 (for example, one day post the last treatment on day 14). In some embodiments, descriptive statistics of plasma estradiol concentrations at each sampling time and observed Cmax and Tmax values may be measured and the AUC calculated. In some embodiments, a suppository can comprise about 25 μg of estradiol. In such cases, administration of the suppository to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, parameters including one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 19 pg*hr/mL to about 29 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 19.55 pg*hr/mL to about 28.75 pg*hr/mL); or 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 75 pg*hr/mL to about 112 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 75.82 pg*hr/mL to about 111.50). In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 9 pg*hr/mL to about 14 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 9.17 pg*hr/mL to about 13.49 pg*hr/mL); and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 43 pg*hr/mL to about 65 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 43.56 pg*hr/mL to about 64.06 pg*hr/mL). In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, provides one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 416 pg*hr/mL to about 613 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 416.53 pg*hr/mL to about 612.55 pg*hr/mL); and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 3598 pg*hr/mL to about 5291 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 3598.04 pg*hr/mL to about 5291.24 pg*hr/mL). In some embodiments, a suppository includes about 25 μg of estradiol. In some such embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, parameters including one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol ranging from about 20.9 pg/mL to about 32.8 pg/mL (e.g., 20.96 pg/mL to about 32.75 pg/mL); 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 104.3 pg*hr/mL to about 163.1 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 104.32 pg*hr/mL to about 163.0 pg*hr/mL); and 3) an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol ranging from about 4.3 pg/mL to about 6.8 pg/mL (e.g., 4.32 pg/mL to about 6.75 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, parameters including one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 26.2 pg/mL; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 130 pg*hr/mL; and 3) an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol of about 5.4 pg/mL, as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, parameters including one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol ranging from about 9.5 pg/mL to about 15.1 pg/mL (e.g., 9.60 pg*hr/mL to about 15.00 pg/mL); 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 67.6 pg*hr/mL to about 105.8 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 67.68 pg*hr/mL to about 105.75 pg*hr/mL); and 3) an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol ranging from about 2.7 pg/mL to about 4.4 pg/mL (e.g., 2.80 pg/mL to about 4.38 pg/mL) of estradiol as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, parameters including one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 12.0 pg/mL; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 84.6 pg*hr/mL; and 3) an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol of about 3.5 pg/mL, as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 158.8 pg/mL to about 248.3 pg/mL (e.g., 158.88 hr/mL to about 248.25 pg*hr/mL); and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates ranging from about 1963.1 pg*hr/mL to about 3067.6 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 1963.20 pg*hr/mL to about 3067.50 pg*hr/mL) as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone conjugates of about 198.6 pg/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates of about 2454 pg*hr/mL as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 173.5 pg*hr/mL to about 271.3 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 173.60 pg*hr/mL to about 271.25 pg*hr/mL; or about 217 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estradiol ranging from about 7.2 pg/mL to about 11.4 pg/mL (e.g., from 7.25 pg/mL to about 11.33 pg/mL; or about 9.06 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 137.5 pg*hr/mL to about 215.1 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 137.60 pg*hr/mL to about 215.00 pg*hr/mL; or about 172 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estradiol ranging from about 5.7 pg/mL to about 9.0 pg/mL (e.g., from 5.72 pg/mL to about 8.94 pg/mL; or about 7.15 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone ranging from about 335.1 pg*hr/mL to about 523.8 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 335.20 pg*hr/mL to about 523.75 pg*hr/mL; or about 419 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone ranging from about 13.9 pg/mL to about 21.9 pg/mL (e.g., from 14.00 pg/mL to about 21.88 pg/mL; or about 17.5 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone ranging from about 343.1 pg*hr/mL to about 536.2 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 343.20 pg*hr/mL to about 536.25 pg*hr/mL; or about 429 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone ranging from about 14.3 pg/mL to about 22.4 pg/mL (e.g., from 14.32 pg/mL to about 22.38 pg/mL; or about 17.9 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates ranging from about 7,300.7 pg*hr/mL to about 11,407.6 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 7,300.80 pg*hr/mL to about 11,407.50 pg*hr/mL; or about 9,126 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 303.9 pg/mL to about 475.1 pg/mL (e.g., from 304.00 pg/mL to about 475.00 pg/mL; or about 380 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates ranging from about 7,943.9 pg*hr/mL to about 12,412.6 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 7,944.00 pg*hr/mL to about 12,412.50 pg*hr/mL; or about 9,930 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 331.1 pg/mL to about 517.4 pg/mL (e.g., from 331.20 pg/mL to about 517.50 pg/mL; or about 414 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, a suppository can comprise about 10 μg of estradiol. In such cases, administration of the suppository to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 12 pg*hr/mL to about 18 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 12.22 pg*hr/mL to about 17.98 pg*hr/mL); 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 42 pg*hr/mL to about 63 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 42.18 pg*hr/mL to about 62.02 pg*hr/mL); and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estradiol of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs (e.g., 1.49 hrs to about 2.19 hrs). In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 7 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 4.38 pg*hr/mL to about 6.44 pg*hr/mL); 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 20 pg*hr/mL to about 31 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 20.60 pg*hr/mL to about 30.30 pg*hr/mL); and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone of about 4 hrs to about 8 hrs (e.g., 4.99 hrs to about 7.34 hrs). In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 10 pg*hr/mL to about 16 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 10.34 pg*hr/mL to about 15.20 pg*hr/mL); 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 56 pg*hr/mL to about 84 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 56.61 pg*hr/mL to about 83.25 pg*hr/mL); and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone sulfate of about 4 hrs to about 7 hrs (e.g., 4.67 hrs to about 6.86 hrs). In some embodiments, a suppository includes about 10 μg of estradiol. In some such embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol ranging from about 4.7 pg/mL to about 7.6 pg/mL (e.g., 4.80 pg*hr/mL to about 7.50 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol ranging from about 2.3 pg*hr/mL to about 3.8 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 2.40 pg*hr/mL to about 3.75 pg*hr/mL) of estradiol as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 6.0 pg/mL, as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 3.0 pg/mL, as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 17.5 pg/mL to about 27.4 pg/mL (e.g., 17.52 pg*hr/mL to about 27.37 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 10.9 pg*hr/mL to about 17.2 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 10.96 pg*hr/mL to about 17.13 pg*hr/mL) of estradiol as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 21.9 pg*hr/mL, as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 13.7 pg*hr/mL, as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol ranging from about 0.6 pg/mL to about 1.1 pg/mL (e.g., 0.64 pg/mL to about 1.0 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol ranging from about 0.1 pg/mL to about 0.3 pg/mL (e.g., 0.16 pg/mL to about 0.25 pg/mL) of estradiol as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol of about 0.8 pg/mL, as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol of about 0.2 pg/mL, as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 72.1 pg/mL to about 112.8 pg/mL (e.g., 72.16 pg/mL to about 112.75 pg/mL); and 2) an average concentration (Cavg) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 6.3 pg/mL to about 10.1 pg/mL (e.g., 6.40 pg/mL to about 10.00 pg/mL) as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone conjugates of about 90.2 pg/mL; and 2) an average concentration (Cavg) of estrone conjugates of about 8.0 pg/mL, as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 110.3 pg*hr/mL to about 172.6 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 110.40 pg*hr/mL to about 172.50 pg*hr/mL; or about 138 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estradiol ranging from about 4.6 pg/mL to about 7.8 pg/mL (e.g., from 4.61 pg/mL to about 7.20 pg/mL; or about 5.76 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 87.9 pg*hr/mL to about 137.4 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 88.00 pg*hr/mL to about 137.50 pg*hr/mL; or about 110 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estradiol ranging from about 3.6 pg/mL to about 5.8 pg/mL (e.g., from 3.67 pg/mL to about 5.74 pg/mL; or about 4.59 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone ranging from about 370.3 pg*hr/mL to about 578.8 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 370.40 pg*hr/mL to about 578.75 pg*hr/mL; or about 463 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone ranging from about 15.4 pg/mL to about 24.2 pg/mL (e.g., from 15.44 pg/mL to about 24.13 pg/mL; or about 19.3 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone ranging from about 371.1 pg*hr/mL to about 580.1 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 371.20 pg*hr/mL to about 580.00 pg*hr/mL; or about 464 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone ranging from about 15.4 pg/mL to about 24.2 pg/mL (e.g., from 15.44 pg/mL to about 24.13 pg/mL; or about 19.3 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates ranging from about 4,745.5 pg*hr/mL to about 7,414.9 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 4,745.60 pg*hr/mL to about 7,415.00 pg*hr/mL; or about 5,932 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 197.5 pg/mL to about 308.8 pg/mL (e.g., from 197.60 pg/mL to about 308.75 pg/mL; or about 247 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates ranging from about 7,182.3 pg*hr/mL to about 11,222.6 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 7,182.40 pg*hr/mL to about 11,222.50 pg*hr/mL; or about 8,978 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 299.1 pg/mL to about 467.6 pg/mL (e.g., from 299.20 pg/mL to about 467.50 pg/mL; or about 374 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, a suppository can comprise about 4 μg of estradiol. In such cases, administration of the suppository to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 8 pg*hr/mL; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 16 pg*hr/mL to about 26 pg*hr/mL; and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estradiol of about 0.25 hrs to about 2 hrs. In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 1 pg*hr/mL to about 3 pg*hr/mL; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 8 pg*hr/mL to about 13 pg*hr/mL; and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone of about 1 hrs to about 4 hrs. In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 7 pg*hr/mL; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 22 pg*hr/mL to about 34 pg*hr/mL; and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone sulfate of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository includes about 4 μg of estradiol. In some such embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol ranging from about 2.0 pg/mL to about 3.3 pg/mL (e.g., 2.08 pg*hr/mL to about 3.25 pg*hr/mL); and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 9.5 pg*hr/mL to about 15.1 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 9.60 pg*hr/mL to about 15.0 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 4 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol ranging from about 1.0 pg*hr/mL to about 1.7 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 1.04 pg*hr/mL to about 1.63 pg*hr/mL) of estradiol, and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 5.7 pg*hr/mL to about 9.1 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 5.76 pg*hr/mL to about 9.0 pg*hr/mL). In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 4 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 2.6 pg/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 12 pg*hr/mL, as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 1.3 pg/mL; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 7.2 pg*hr/mL, as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 4 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 0.3 pg/mL to about 0.5 pg/mL (e.g., 0.32 pg/mL to about 0.5 pg/mL) as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 4 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone conjugates of about 0.4 pg/mL as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 4 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 73.3 pg*hr/mL to about 114.7 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 73.36 pg*hr/mL to about 114.63 pg*hr/mL; or about 91.7 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estradiol ranging from about 3.1 pg/mL to about 4.8 pg/mL (e.g., from 3.14 pg/mL to about 4.90 pg/mL; or about 3.92 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 69.7 pg*hr/mL to about 108.9 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 69.76 pg*hr/mL to about 109.00 pg*hr/mL; or about 87.2 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estradiol ranging from about 2.8 pg/mL to about 4.6 pg/mL (e.g., from 2.90 pg/mL to about 4.54 pg/mL; or about 3.63 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 4 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone ranging from about 231.9 pg*hr/mL to about 362.4 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 232.00 pg*hr/mL to about 362.50 pg*hr/mL; or about 290 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone ranging from about 10.3 pg/mL to about 16.3 pg/mL (e.g., from 10.40 pg/mL to about 16.25 pg/mL; or about 13 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone ranging from about 261.5 pg*hr/mL to about 408.8 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 261.60 pg*hr/mL to about 408.75 pg*hr/mL; or about 327 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone ranging from about 10.8 pg/mL to about 17.1 pg/mL (e.g., from 10.88 pg/mL to about 17.00 pg/mL; or about 13.6 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 4 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates ranging from about 4,062.3 pg*hr/mL to about 6,347.6 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 4,062.40 pg*hr/mL to about 6,347.50 pg*hr/mL; or about 5,078 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 172.7 pg/mL to about 270.1 pg/mL (e.g., from 172.80 pg/mL to about 270.00 pg/mL; or about 216 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates ranging from about 4,138.3 pg*hr/mL to about 6,466.3 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 4,138.40 pg*hr/mL to about 6,466.25 pg*hr/mL; or about 5173 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 172.7 pg/mL to about 270.1 pg/mL (e.g., from 172.80 pg/mL to about 270.00 pg/mL; or about 216 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. A pharmaceutical composition provided herein can result in substantially local delivery of estradiol. For example, plasma concentrations of estradiol, estrone, and estrone sulfate measured in the plasma of a patient following administration of a pharmaceutical composition as provided herein be statistically similar to those measured following administration of a placebo formulation (i.e., a similar formulation lacking the estradiol). Accordingly, in some embodiments, the plasma concentrations of estradiol, estrone, or estrone sulfate measured following administration of a pharmaceutical composition provided herein may be low compared to RLD formulations. In some embodiments, a suppository can include about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. Upon administration the suppository to a patient, a plasma sample from the patient can provide a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol that is less than about 30 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol that is less than about 18 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 112 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 63 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone that is less than about 14 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone that is less than about 7 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 65 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 31 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 613 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 16 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 5291 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 84 pg*hr/mL. In further aspects of this disclosure, capsule disintegration may be determined. In some embodiments, delivery vehicle disintegration or absorption (presence or absence of the delivery vehicle after administration) at day 1 of treatment (for example, at 6 hours post first treatment) and at day 15 (for example, one day post the last treatment on day 14). The pharmaceutical compositions can be formulated as described herein to provide desirable pharmacokinetic parameters in a subject (e.g., a female subject) to whom the composition is administered. In some embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition as described herein produces desirable pharmacokinetic parameters for estradiol in the subject. In some embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition as described herein produces desirable pharmacokinetic parameters for one or more metabolites of estradiol in the subject, for example, estrone or total estrone. Following the administration of a composition comprising estradiol to a subject, the concentration and metabolism of estradiol can be measured in a sample (e.g., a blood, serum, or plasma sample) from the subject. Estradiol is typically converted reversibly to estrone, and both estradiol and estrone can be converted to the metabolite estriol. In postmenopausal women, a significant proportion of circulating estrogens exist as sulfate conjugates, especially estrone sulfate. Thus, estrone can be measured with respect to “estrone” amounts (excluding conjugates such as estrone sulfate) and “total estrone” amounts (including both free, or unconjugated, estrone and conjugated estrone such as estrone sulfate). The pharmaceutical compositions of this disclosure can be characterized for one or more pharmacokinetic parameters of estradiol or a metabolite thereof following administration of the composition to a subject or to a population of subjects. These pharmacokinetic parameters include AUC, Cmax, Cavg, and Tmax. AUC is a determination of the area under the curve (AUC) plotting the blood, serum, or plasma concentration of drug along the ordinate (Y-axis) against time along the abscissa (X-axis). AUCs are well understood, frequently used tools in the pharmaceutical arts and have been extensively described. Cmax is well understood in the art as an abbreviation for the maximum drug concentration in blood, serum, or plasma of a subject. Tmax is well understood in the art as an abbreviation for the time to maximum drug concentration in blood, serum, or plasma of a subject. In some embodiments, one or more pharmacokinetic parameters, e.g., AUC, Cmax, Cavg, or Tmax, is measured for estradiol. In some embodiments, one or more pharmacokinetic parameters, e.g., AUC, Cmax, Cavg, or Tmax, is measured for estrone. In some embodiments, one or more pharmacokinetic parameters, e.g., AUC, Cmax, Cavg, or Tmax, is measured for total estrone. Any pharmacokinetic parameter can be a “corrected” parameter, wherein the parameter is determined as a change over a baseline level. Any of a variety of methods can be used for measuring the levels of estradiol, estrone, or total estrone in a sample, including immunoassays, mass spectrometry (MS), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet fluorescent detection, liquid chromatography in conjunction with mass spectrometry (LC-MS), tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In some embodiments, the levels of estradiol, estrone, or total estrone are measured using a validated LC-MS/MS method. Methods of measuring hormone levels are well described in the literature. Statistical Measurements According to embodiments, pharmacokinetics of the pharmaceutical composition disclosed herein are measured using statistical analysis. According to embodiments, Analysis of Variance (“ANOVA”) or Analysis of CoVariance (“ANCOVA”) are used to evaluate differences between a patient receiving treatment with a pharmaceutical composition comprising an active pharmaceutical composition (for example, a pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol) and a patient receiving treatment with a placebo (for example, the same pharmaceutical composition but without estradiol) or a reference drug. A person of ordinary skill in the art will understand how to perform statistical analysis of the data collected. VIII. EXAMPLES The following examples are of pharmaceutical compositions, delivery vehicles, and combinations thereof. Methods of making are also disclosed. Data generated using the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are also disclosed. Example 1 Pharmaceutical Composition In embodiments, estradiol is procured and combined with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable solubilizing agents. The estradiol is purchased as a pharmaceutical grade ingredient, often as micronized estradiol, although other forms can also be used. In embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes estradiol in a dosage strength of from about 1 μg to about 50 μg. In embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes 10 μg of estradiol. In embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes 25 μg of estradiol. In embodiments, the estradiol is combined with pharmaceutically acceptable solubilizing agents, and, optionally, other excipients, to form a pharmaceutical composition. In embodiments, the solubilizing agent is one or more of CAPMUL MCM, MIGLYOL 812, GELUCIRE 39/01, GELUCIRE 43/01, GELUCIRE 50/13, and TEFOSE 63. GELUCIRE 39/01 and GELUCIRE 43/01 each have an HLB value of 1. GELUCIRE 50/13 has an HLB value of 13. TEFOSE 63 has an HLB value of between 9 and 10. Various combinations of pharmaceutically acceptable solubilizing agents were combined with estradiol and examined as shown in Table 1. Pharmaceutical compositions in Table 1 that were liquid or semisolid at room temperature were tested using a Brookfield viscometer (Brookfield Engineering Laboratories, Middleboro, Mass.) at room temperature. Pharmaceutical compositions appearing in Table 1 that were solid at ambient temperature were tested using a Brookfield viscometer at 37° C. Pharmaceutical compositions appearing in Table 1 that were solid at room temperature were assessed at 37° C. to determine their melting characteristics. The viscosity of the gels can be important during encapsulation of the formulation. For example, in some cases, it is necessary to warm the formulation prior to filing of the gelatin capsules. In addition, the melting characteristics of the composition can have important implications following administration of the formulation into the body. For example, in some embodiments, the formulation will melt at temperatures below about 37° C. Pharmaceutical Composition 11 (Capmul MCM/Tefose 63), for example, did not melt at 37° C. or 41° C. A dispersion assessment of the pharmaceutical compositions appearing in Table 1 was performed. The dispersion assessment was performed by transferring 300 mg of each vehicle system in 100 mL of 37° C. water, without agitation, and observing for mixing characteristics. Results varied from formation of oil drops on the top to separation of phases to uniform, but cloudy dispersions. Generally speaking, it is believed that formulations able to readily disperse in aqueous solution will have better dispersion characteristics upon administration. It was surprisingly found, however, as shown below in Examples 7-9, that formulations that did not readily disperse in aqueous solution (e.g., Formulation 13) and instead formed two phases upon introduction to the aqueous solution were found to be the most effective when administered to the human body. Example 2 Delivery Vehicle In embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is delivered in a gelatin capsule delivery vehicle. The gelatin capsule delivery vehicle includes, for example, gelatin (e.g., Gelatin, NF (150 Bloom, Type B)), hydrolyzed collagen (e.g., GELITA®, GELITA AG, Eberbach, Germany), glycerin, sorbitol special, or other excipients in proportions that are well known and understood by persons of ordinary skill in the art. Sorbitol special may be obtained commercially and may tend to act as a plasticizer and humectant. A variety of delivery vehicles were developed, as show in Table 2, Gels A through F. In Table 2, each delivery vehicle A through F differs in the proportion of one or more components. Each delivery vehicle A through F was prepared at a temperature range from about 45° C. to about 85° C. Each molten delivery vehicle A through F was cast into a film, dried, and cut into strips. The strips were cut into uniform pieces weighing about 0.5 g, with about 0.5 mm thickness. Strips were placed into a USP Type 2 dissolution vessel in either water or pH 4 buffer solution and the time for them to completely dissolve was recorded (see Table 2). Delivery vehicle A had the fastest dissolution in both water and pH 4 buffer solution. Example 3 Pharmaceutical Compositions and Delivery Vehicle Various combinations of the pharmaceutical compositions from Table 1 and from Table 2 were prepared. The combinations are shown in Table 3. TABLE 3 Delivery Trial Pharmaceutical Composition Ratio Batch Size g Vehicle 1 MCM:39/01 8:2 750 A 2 MCM:50/13 8:2 750 A 3 MCM:TEFOSE 63 8:2 750 A 4 MCM:TEFOSE 63 8:2 750 B 5 MIGLYOL 812:TEFOSE 63 9:1 750 A Each aliquot of the pharmaceutical compositions of Table 3 about 300 mg to about 310 mg. Batch size was as listed in Table 3. To encapsulate the vehicle system, each 300 mg to about 310 mg pharmaceutical composition aliquot was encapsulated in about 200 mg of the gelatin capsule delivery vehicle. Thus, for example, in Trial 1, the pharmaceutical composition denoted by MCM:39/01 was encapsulated in gelatin capsule delivery vehicle A for a total encapsulated weight of about 500 mg to about 510 mg. The aliquot size is arbitrary depending on the concentration of the estradiol and the desired gelatin capsule delivery vehicle size. Artisans will readily understand how to adjust the amount of estradiol in the pharmaceutical composition to accommodate a given size of delivery vehicle, when the delivery vehicle encapsulates the pharmaceutical composition. Example 4 Estradiol Solubility In various experiments, solubilizing agents were tested to determine whether they were able to solubilize 2 mg of estradiol for a total pharmaceutical composition weight of 100 mg. The solubilizing agents were considered suitable if estradiol solubility in the solubilizing agent was greater than or equal to about 20 mg/g. Initial solubility was measured by dissolving micronized estradiol into various solubilizing agents until the estradiol was saturated (the estradiol/solubilizing agent equilibrated for three days), filtering the undissolved estradiol, and analyzing the resulting pharmaceutical composition for estradiol concentration by HPLC. TABLE 4 Solubility of Solubilizing Agents Ingredient Solubility (mg/g) PEG 400 105* Propylene Glycol 75* Polysorbate 80 36* TRANSCUTOL HP 141 CAPMUL PG8 31.2 (*denotes literature reference) Example 5 Pharmaceutical Compositions The following pharmaceutical compositions are contemplated. Gel Mass Ingredient % w/w Qty/Batch (kg) Gelatin 150 Bloom Limed Bone, NF 41.00 82.00 Hydrolyzed Gelatin 3.00 6.00 Glycerin 99.7% 6.00 12.00 Sorbitol Special, NF 15.00 30.00 Opatint White G-18006 1.20 2.40 Opatine Red DG-15001 0.06 0.12 Purified Water, USP 33.74 67.48 Total 100.00 200.00 Kg Pharmaceutical Composition 1: 10 μg Estradiol Qty/ Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, USP 0.010 0.003 0.10 g CAPMUL ® MCM, NF (Glyceryl 240.0 79.997 2.40 kg Caprylate/Caprate or Medium Chain Mono- and Diglycerides) GELUCIRE ® 50/13 (stearoyl polyoxyl- 60.0 20.0 600.0 g 32 glycerides NF) Total 300.0 100.0 3.0 kg Pharmaceutical Composition 2: 10 μg Estradiol Qty/ Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, USP 0.010 0.003 0.10 g MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 270.0 89.997 2.70 kg triglyceride) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.0 10.0 300.0 g stearate or ethylene glycol palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 3.00 kg Pharmaceutical Composition 3: 25 μg Estradiol Qty/ Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, USP 0.026* 0.009 0.26 g MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 270.0 89.991 2.70 kg triglyceride) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.02 10.0 300.0 g stearate or ethylene glycol palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 3.00 kg *1.0 mg estradiol is equivalent to 1.03 mg estradiol hemihydrate Pharmaceutical Composition 4: 4 μg Estradiol Qty/ Qty/Batch Capsule (alternate Ingredients (mg) % w/w batch size) Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, 0.0041* 0.001 0.041 g USP (0.615 g) MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 269.99 89.999 2700.0 g triglyceride) (40.50 kg) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.0 10.0 300.0 g stearate or ethylene glycol (4.50 kg) palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 3000.0 g 45.0 kg *1.0 mg estradiol is equivalent to 1.03 mg estradiol hemihydrate Pharmaceutical Composition 5: 10 μg Estradiol Qty/ Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, USP 0.0103* 0.003 1.545 g MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 269.99 89.997 40.5 kg triglyceride) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.0 10.0 4.50 kg stearate or ethylene glycol palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 45.00 kg *1.0 mg estradiol is equivalent to 1.03 mg estradiol hemihydrate Pharmaceutical Composition 6: 25 μg Estradiol Qty/ Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, USP 0.026* 0.009 3.90 g MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 269.97 89.991 40.50 kg triglyceride) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.0 10.0 4.50 kg stearate or ethylene glycol palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 45.00 kg *1.0 mg estradiol is equivalent to 1.03 mg estradiol hemihydrate Pharmaceutical Composition 7: Placebo Qty/ Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, USP 0.00 0.00 0.00 g MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 270.0 90.0 40.5 kg triglyceride) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.0 10.0 4.5 kg stearate or ethylene glycol palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 3000.0 g In the Examples below, TX-004HR is Pharmaceutical Compositions 4, 5, and 6 (TX-004HR 4 μg, TX-004HR 10 μg, and TX-004HR 25 μg) compared to Pharmaceutical Composition 7. Example 6 Process FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of a method making pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol solubilized in CapmulMCM/Gelucire solubilizing agent encapsulated in a soft gelatin delivery vehicle 100. In operation 102, the CapmulMCM is heated to 40° C.±5 ° C. Heating may be accomplished through any suitable means. The heating may be performed in any suitable vessel, such as a stainless steel vessel. Other pharmaceutical compositions can be made using the same general method by substituting various excipients, including the solubilizing agent. In operation 104, GELUCIRE is mixed with the CapmulMCM to form the finished solubilizing agent. As used herein, any form of GELUCIRE may be used in operation 104. For example, one or more of GELUCIRE 39/01, GELUCIRE 43/01, GELUCIRE 50/13 may be used in operation 104. Mixing is performed as would be known to persons of ordinary skill in the art, for example by impeller, agitator, stirrer, or other like devices used to mix pharmaceutical compositions. Operation 104 may be performed under an inert or relatively inert gas atmosphere, such as nitrogen gas. Mixing may be performed in any vessels that are known to persons of ordinary skill in the art, such as a stainless steel vessel or a steel tank. In operation 106 estradiol is mixed into the solubilizing agent. In embodiments, the estradiol in micronized when mixed into the solubilizing agent. In other embodiments, the estradiol added is in a non-micronized form. Mixing may be facilitated by an impeller, agitator, stirrer, or other like devices used to mix pharmaceutical compositions. Operation 106 may be performed under an inert or relatively inert gas atmosphere, such as nitrogen gas. In embodiments, however, the addition of estradiol may be performed prior to operation 104. In that regard, operations 104 and 106 are interchangeable with respect to timing or can be performed contemporaneously with each other. In operation 110, the gelatin delivery vehicle is prepared. Any of the gelatin delivery vehicles described herein may be used in operation 110. In embodiments, gelatin, hydrolyzed collagen, glycerin, and other excipients are combined at a temperature range from about 45° C. to about 85° C. and prepared as a film. Mixing may occur in a steel tank or other container used for preparing gelatin delivery vehicles. Mixing may be facilitated by an impellor, agitator, stirrer, or other devices used to combine the contents of gelatin delivery vehicles. Operation 110 may be performed under an inert or relatively inert gas atmosphere, such as nitrogen gas. In embodiments, the gelatin delivery vehicle mixture is degassed prior to being used to encapsulate the pharmaceutical composition. In operation 112, the gelatin delivery vehicle encapsulates the pharmaceutical composition, according to protocols well known to persons of ordinary skill in the art. In operation 112, a soft gelatin capsule delivery vehicle is prepared by combining the pharmaceutical composition made in operation 106 with the gelatin delivery vehicle made in operation 110. The gelatin may be wrapped around the material, partially or fully encapsulating it or the gelatin can also be injected or otherwise filled with the pharmaceutical composition made in operation 106. In embodiments, operation 112 is completed in a suitable die to provide a desired shape. Vaginal soft gel capsules may be prepared in a variety of geometries. For example, vaginal soft gel capsules may be shaped as a tear drop, a cone with frustoconical end, a cylinder, a cylinder with larger “cap” portion as illustrated in FIG. 2, or other shapes suitable for insertion into the vagina. The resulting pharmaceutical composition encapsulated in the soft gelatin delivery vehicle may be inserted digitally or with an applicator. Example 7 Study of Estradiol Pharmaceutical Composition on the Improvement of Vulvovaginal Atrophy (VVA) The objective of this study was designed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a pharmaceutical composition comprising 10 μg estradiol (i.e., Pharmaceutical Composition 2) in treating moderate to severe symptoms of VVA associated with menopause after 14 days of treatment, and to estimate the effect size and variability of vulvovaginal atrophy endpoints. In addition, the systemic exposure to estradiol from single and multiple doses of the pharmaceutical composition was investigated. This study was a phase 1, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to evaluate safety and efficacy of the pharmaceutical composition in reducing moderate to severe symptoms of vaginal atrophy associated with menopause and to investigate the systemic exposure to estradiol following once daily intravaginal administrations of a pharmaceutical composition for 14 days. Postmenopausal subjects who met the study entry criteria were randomized to one of two treatment groups (pharmaceutical composition or placebo). During the screening period subjects were asked to self-assess the symptoms of VVA, including vaginal dryness, vaginal or vulvar irritation or itching, dysuria, vaginal pain associated with sexual activity, and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Subjects with at least one self-assessed moderate to severe symptom of VVA identified by the subject as being most bothersome to her were eligible to participate in the study. Clinical evaluations were performed at the following time points: Screening Period (up to 28 days); Visit 1—Randomization/Baseline (day 1); Visit 2—Interim (day 8); and Visit 3—End of the treatment (day 15). Eligible subjects were randomized in a 1:1 ratio to receive either pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol 10 μg or a matching placebo vaginal softgel capsule, and self-administered their first dose of study medication at the clinical facility under the supervision of the study personnel. Serial blood samples for monitoring of estradiol level were collected at 0.0, 1.0, 3.0, and 6.0 hours relative to first dose administration on day 1. Subjects remained at the clinical site until completion of the 6-hour blood draw and returned to clinical facility for additional single blood draws for measurement of estradiol concentration on day 8 (before the morning dose) and day 15. Subjects were provided with enough study medication until the next scheduled visit and were instructed to self-administer their assigned study treatment once a day intravaginally at approximately the same time (±1 hour) every morning. Each subject was provided with a diary in which she was required to daily record investigational drug dosing dates and times. Subjects returned to clinical facility on day 8 for interim visit and on day 15 for end of treatment assessments and post study examinations. Capsule disintegration state was assessed by the investigator at day 1 (6 hours post-dose) and day 15. The study involved a screening period of up to 28 days before randomization and treatment period of 14 days. Selection of dosage strength (estradiol 10 μg) and treatment regimen (once daily for two weeks) was based on the FDA findings on safety and efficacy of the RLD. Number of Subjects (Planned and Analyzed) Up to 50 (25 per treatment group) postmenopausal female subjects 40 to 75 years old with symptoms of moderate to severe VVA were randomized. 50 subjects were enrolled, 48 subjects completed the study, and 48 subjects were analyzed. Diagnosis and Main Criteria for Inclusion Fifty female subjects were enrolled in the study. Post-menopausal female subjects 40 to 75 years of age, with a mean age was 62.3 years were enrolled. Subjects' mean weight (kg) was 71.2 kg with a range of 44.5-100 kg. Subjects' mean height (cm) was 162.6 cm with a range of 149.9-175.2 cm, and the mean BMI (kg/m2) was 26.8 kg/m2 with a range of 19-33 kg/m2. Criteria of inclusion in the study included: self-identification of at least one moderate to severe symptom of VVA, for example, vaginal dryness, dyspareunia, vaginal or vulvar irritation, burning, or itching, dysuria, vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity, that was identified by the subject as being most bothersome to her; ≤5% superficial cells on vaginal smear cytology; vaginal pH>5.0; and estradiol level ≤50 pg/mL. Subject who were judged as being in otherwise generally good health on the basis of a pre-study physical examination, clinical laboratory tests, pelvic examination, and mammography were enrolled. Estradiol 10 μg or Placebo, Dose, and Mode of Administration Subjects were randomly assigned (in 1:1 allocation) to self-administer one of the following treatments intravaginally once daily for 14 days: Treatment A: The pharmaceutical composition of Example 5 (Pharmaceutical Composition 2: 10 μg estradiol); or Treatment B: Placebo vaginal softgel capsule, containing the same formulation as Treatment A, except for the 10 μg of estradiol. The estradiol formulation was a tear drop shaped light pink soft gel capsule. Treatment B had the same composition, appearance, and route of administration as the Treatment A, but contained no estradiol. Duration of Treatment The study involved a screening period of up to 28 days before randomization and a treatment period of 14 days. Criteria for Evaluation Efficacy Endpoints: Change from baseline (screening) to day 15 in the Maturation Index (percent of parabasal vaginal cells, superficial vaginal cells, and intermediate vaginal cells) of the vaginal smear. Data for this endpoint are shown in Tables 6-8. Change from baseline (screening) to day 15 in vaginal pH. Data for this endpoint are shown in Table 9. Change from baseline (randomization) to day 15 in severity of the most bothersome symptoms: (1) vaginal dryness; (2) vaginal or vulvar irritation, burning, or itching; (3) dysuria; (4) dyspareunia; (5) vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Data for this endpoint are shown in Tables 13 and 15. Change from baseline (randomization) to day 15 in investigator's assessment of the vaginal mucosa. Data for this endpoint are shown in Tables 18-21. Unless otherwise noted, the efficacy endpoints were measured as a change-from Visit 1—Randomization/Baseline (day 1) to Visit 3—End of the treatment (day 15), except for vaginal bleeding which was expressed as either treatment success or failure. Other endpoints include: Vital signs, weight, changes in physical exam, pelvic and breast exam, and adverse events were evaluated as part of the safety endpoints. Concentration of estradiol at each sampling time. Peak concentration of estradiol on day 1 and sampling time at which peak occurred. Delivery vehicle disintegration to measure the amount of residual delivery vehicle remains in the vagina post treatment. Results from the assessment of plasma concentrations of estradiol are presented in Table 5. TABLE 5 Safety Results: The descriptive statistics for Day 1 plasma estradiol Cmax and Tmax are provided below. Estradiol 10 μg Placebo Cmax Tmax Cmax Tmax N 24 24 26 26 Mean ± SD 30.7 ± 7.47 2.12 ± 1.73 27.5 ± 17.26 4.00 ± 2.68 Geometric 29.9 — 24.7 — Mean Median 29.8 1.00 22.1 6.00 Min, Max 19.7, 52.3 1.00, 6.00 15.1, 90.0 0.00, 6.00 CV % 24.3% 81.3% 62.9% 67.1% Maturation Index Results Vaginal cytology data was collected as vaginal smears from the lateral vaginal walls according to standard procedures to evaluate vaginal cytology at screening and Visit 3—End of treatment (day 15). The change in the Maturation Index was assessed as a change in cell composition measured at Visit 1—Baseline (day 1) compared to the cell composition measured at Visit 3—End of treatment (day 15). The change in percentage of superficial, parabasal, and intermediate cells obtained from the vaginal mucosal epithelium from a vaginal smear was recorded. Results from these assessments are presented in Tables 6, 7, and 8. TABLE 6 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Screening) to Day 15 in the Maturation Index of the Vaginal Smear (Percent Parabasal Cells) Difference Estradiol 10 μg Between vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo P- Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference value Intent-to- N 24 24 — — — Treat Least- −54.4 −4.80 −49.6 (−60.4, −38.8) <0.0001 Squares Mean Mean ± SD −53.8 ± 39.7 −5.4 ± 22.3 — — — Median −60.0 −5.0 — — — Min, Max −100.0, 0.0 −60.0, 60.0 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. TABLE 7 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Screening) to Day 15 in the Maturation Index of the Vaginal Smear (Superficial Cells) Difference Estradiol 10 μg Between vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo P- Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference value Intent-to- N 24 24 — — — Treat Least- 35.2 8.75 26.5 (15.4, 37.6) 0.0002 Squares Mean Mean ± SD 35.2 ± 26.4 8.8 ± 18.7 — — — Median 40.0 0.0 — — — Min, Max 0.0, 80.0 0.0, 90.0 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANOVA with treatment as a fixed effect. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANOVA with treatment as a fixed effect. TABLE 8 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Screening) to Day 15 in the Maturation Index of the Vaginal Smear (Intermediate Cells) Difference Estradiol 10 μg Between vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo P- Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference value2 Intent-to- N 24 24 — — — Treat Least- 18.7 −3.54 22.3 (11.1, 33.5) 0.0017 Squares Mean Mean ± SD 18.5 ± 42.7 −3.3 ± 21.6 — — — Median 22.5 −5.0 — — — Min, Max −60.0, −60.0, 20.0 — — — 100.0 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. Change in pH Results Vaginal pH was measured at Screening and Visit 3—End of treatment (day 15). The pH measurement was obtained by pressing a pH indicator strip against the vaginal wall. The subjects entering the study were required to have a vaginal pH value greater than 5.0 at screening. pH values were recorded on the subject's case report form. The subjects were advised not to have sexual activity and to refrain from using vaginal douching within 24 hours prior to the measurement. Results from these assessments are presented in Table 9. TABLE 9 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Screening) to Day 15 in Vaginal pH Estradiol 10 μg Difference vs. Estradiol Between 90% CI for Placebo P- Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Treatment Means Difference1 value2 Intent-to- N 24 24 — — — Treat Least- −0.974 −0.339 −0.635 (−0.900, −0.368) 0.0002 Squares Mean Mean ± SD −0.917 ± 0.686 −0.396 ± 0.659 — — — Median −1.00 −0.500 — — — Min, Max −2.00, 0.500 −1.50, — — — 0.500 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. Most Bothersome Symptoms Data Subjects were asked to specify the symptom that she identified as the “most bothersome symptom.” During the screening period all of the subjects were provided with a questionnaire to self-assess the symptoms of VVA: (1) vaginal dryness; (2) vaginal or vulvar irritation, burning, or itching; (3) dysuria; (4) dyspareunia; (5) vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Each symptom, with the exception of vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity, was measured on a scale of 0 to 3, where 0=none, 1=mild, 2=moderate, and 3=severe. Vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity was measured in a binary scale: N=no bleeding; Y=bleeding. The subject's responses were recorded. All randomized subjects were also provided a questionnaire to self-assess the symptoms of VVA at Visit 1—Randomization/Baseline (day 1) and at Visit 3—End of the treatment (day 15). Subjects recorded their self-assessments daily in a diary and answers were collected on days 8 and 15 (end of treatment). Pre-dose evaluation results obtained at Visit 1 were considered as baseline data for the statistical analyses. Data from these assessments are presented in Tables 10 and 11. TABLE 10 Baseline Characteristics for Vaginal Atrophy Symptoms (ITT Population) Estradiol 10 μg Estradiol vs. Placebo VVA Symptom Statistics 10 μg Placebo P-value1 Vaginal dryness N of 24 24 — Subjects Mean 2.292 2.375 0.68231 Vaginal or vulvar ir- N of 24 24 — ritation/burning/itching Subjects Mean 0.875 1.333 0.08721 Pain, burning or N of 24 24 — stinging when Subjects urinating Mean 0.583 0.625 0.87681 Vaginal pain asso- N of 12 12 — ciated with sexual Subjects2 activity Mean 2.083 2.333 0.54281 Vaginal bleeding N of 12 12 associated with Subjects2 sexual activity Percent3 25.00 33.33 0.31463 1P-value tor treatment comparison from ANOVA/ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and Baseline as a covariate when appropriate. 2N = number of subjects sexually active at baseline. 3Percent of subjects with bleeding, evaluated using Fisher's Exact Test. TABLE 11 Additional Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Severity of Vaginal Atrophy Symptoms Difference Least-Squares Mean Between Estradiol 10 μg Statistical Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for vs. Placebo Symptom Method1 10 μg Placebo Means Difference2 P-value Vaginal dryness ANCOVA 0.980 0.729 0.251 −0.706, 0.204) 0.3597 Vaginal or vulvar ANCOVA 0.694 0.514 0.180 −0.549, 0.189) 0.4159 Irritation/burning/ itching Pain/Burning/ ANCOVA 0.391 0.359 0.032 −0.263, 0.200) 0.8185 Stinging (Urination) Vaginal pain ANOVA 0.800 0.500 0.300 −1.033, 0.433) 0.4872 associated with sexual activity 1ANOVA model contained a fixed effect for treatment. ANCOVA added baseline as a covariate to the model. 2Confidence interval for the difference between estradiol 10 μg and Placebo treatment least-squares means. Changes to the most bothersome symptom from the baseline was scored according to the evaluation of VVA symptoms generally set forth above. Tables 13 and 14 show a comparison between the pharmaceutical composition 1 and placebo generally for most bothersome symptom and vaginal atrophy symptom. It is noteworthy to point out that these measurement demonstrated a trend of improvement, though not statistically significant, at day 15. TABLE 13 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Severity of the Most Bothersome VVA Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent- N 24 24 — — — to-Treat Least- −1.043 −1.042 −0.002 (−0.497, 0.493) 0.9951 Squares Mean Mean ± SD −1.043 ± 0.928 −1.042 ± 1.08 — — — Median −1.00 −1.00 — — — Min, Max −3.00, 0.00 −3.00, 0.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANOVA with treatment as a fixed effect. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANOVA with treatment as a fixed effect. TABLE 14 Additional Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Severity of Vaginal Atrophy Symptoms Difference Between TX42-004-HR Statistical Least-Squares Mean Treatment 90% CI for vs. Placebo Symptom Method1 TX-12-004-HR Placebo Means Difference2 P-value Dryness ANCOVA −0.980 −0.729 −0.251 (−0.706, 0.204) 0.3597 Irritation ANCOVA −0.694 −0.514 −0.180 (−0.549, 0.189) 0.4159 Pain (Sex) ANOVA −0.800 −0.500 −0.300 (−1.033, 0.433) 0.4872 Pain/Burning/ ANCOVA −0.391 −0.359 −0.032 (−0.263, 0.200) 0.8185 Stinging (Urination) 1ANOVA model contained a fixed effect for treatment. ANCOVA added baseline as a covariate to the model. 2Confidence interval for the difference between TX-12-004-HR and Placebo treatment least-squares means. With respect to the most bothersome symptoms data presented in Tables 13 and 14, the period over which the data was measured is generally considered insufficient to make meaningful conclusions. However, the trends observed as part of this study suggest that the data will show improvement of the most bothersome symptoms when data for a longer time period is collected. The absence or presence of any vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity was also measured as one of the most bothersome symptoms. The data for vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity is reported in Table 15. TABLE 15 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Vaginal Bleeding Associated with Sexual Activity Baseline (Randomization) and Day 15 Summary of Vaginal Bleeding Bleeding/No Bleeding/ No Bleeding/ No Bleeding/ Bleeding Bleeding Bleeding No Bleeding Treatment N* (Success)2 (Failure) (Failure) (NC) Estradiol 10 2 0 0 8 10 μg (100%) Placebo 10 1 3 1 5 (20%) P-Value for 0.1429 — — — Estradiol 10 μg vs. Placebo1 *N = Total number of patients within each treatment group who were sexually active at both Baseline and Day 15 and provided a response at both visits. NC = No Change - not considered in the statistical comparison. 1P-value for treatment comparison from Fisher's Exact Test. 2Percent is based on the number of subjects classified as either a Success or a Failure (N = 2 for estradiol 10 μg; N = 5 for Placebo Estradiol Level/Pharmacokinetics Data In this study, the systemic exposure to estradiol following once daily intravaginal administration of estradiol 10 μg for 14 days was investigated. Descriptive statistics of the plasma estradiol concentrations taken at each sampling time and the observed Cmax and Tmax values were recorded in Tables 16 and 17. No statistically significant difference in the systemic concentration of estradiol 10 μg versus the placebo group was observed, which suggests the estradiol is not carried into the blood stream where it will have a systemic effect. Rather, it remains in localized tissues; the effect of estradiol is therefore believed be local to the location of administration (i.e., the vagina). The lower limits of detection of the assays used to measure the pharmacokinetic data may have affected the measured the accuracy of the PK values presented. Additional PK studies were performed with more accurate assays in Examples 8 and 9. For the purpose of monitoring the estradiol level during the study blood samples were collected at 0.0, 1.0, 3.0, and 6.0 hours relative to dosing on day 1; prior to dosing on day 8; and prior to dosing on day 15. Efforts were made to collect blood samples at their scheduled times. Sample collection and handling procedures for measurement of estradiol blood level was performed according to procedure approved by the sponsor and principal investigator. All baseline and post-treatment plasma estradiol concentrations were determined using a validated bioanalytical (UPLC-MS/MS) methods. These data are shown in Tables 16 and 17. TABLE 16 Descriptive Statistics of Estradiol Concentrations (pg/mL) at Each Sampling Time Sampling Time Pre-dose Day Pre-dose Day Treatment 0 Hour 1 Hour 3 Hours 6 Hours 8 15 Estradiol 10 μg N 24 24 24 24 24 22 Mean ± SD 20.1 ± 5.74 28.7 ± 5.89 25.7 ± 5.71 23.4 ± 7.91 21.4 ± 9.28 23.4 ± 8.72 Median 20.2 28.9 24.7 22.3 20.7 20.7 Min, Max 2.63, 38.3 18.8, 43.9 19.3, 47.5 3.31, 52.3 2.09, 52.2 17.9, 54.7 Placebo N 26 26 26 26 25 24 Mean ± SD 20.5 ± 4.29 21.0 ± 6.14 19.0 ± 5.92 26.9 ± 17.36 29.9 ± 22.51 28.1 ± 16.80 Median 20.8 20.8 20.9 21.7 21.6 21.1 Min, Max 4.03, 29.1 3.19, 41.2 3.15, 26.9 15.1, 90.0 15.0, 116.2 14.7, 81.3 TABLE 17 Descriptive Statistics of Estradiol Cmax and Tmax on Day 1 Estradiol 10 μg Placebo Cmax Tmax Cmax Tmax N 24 24 26 26 Mean ± SD 30.7 ± 7.47 2.12 ± 1.73 27.5 ± 17.26 4.00 ± 2.68 Geometric 29.9 — 24.7 — Mean Median 29.8 1.00 22.1 6.00 Min, Max 19.7, 52.3 1.00, 6.00 15.1, 90.0 0.00, 6.00 CV % 24.3% 81.3% 62.9% 67.1% Assessment of Vaginal Mucosa Data The investigators rated the vaginal mucosal appearance at day 1 (pre-dose) and day 15. Vaginal color, vaginal epithelial integrity, vaginal epithelial surface thickness, and vaginal secretions were evaluated according to the following degrees of severity: none, mild, moderate, or severe using scales 0 to 3, where 0=none, 1=mild, 2=moderate, and 3=severe. Results from these investigators rated assessments are presented in Tables 18, 19, 20, and 21. TABLE 18 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Investigator's Assessment of the Vaginal Mucosa (Assessment of Vaginal Color) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent- N 24 24 — — — to-Treat Least- −0.199 −0.009 −0.191 (−0.434, 0.052) 0.1945 squares Mean Mean ± SD −0.333 ± 0.565 0.125 ± 0.741 Median 0.00 0.00 — — — Min, Max −2.00, 0.00 −1.00, 2.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. TABLE 19 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Investigator's Assessment of the Vaginal Mucosa (Assessment of Vaginal Epithelial Integrity) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent- N 24 24 — — — to-Treat Least- −0.342 0.176 −0.518 (−0.726, −0.311) 0.0001 squares Mean Mean ± SD −0.417 ± 0.584 0.250 ± 0.442 Median 0.00 0.00 — — — Min, Max −1.00, 1.00 0.00, 1.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. TABLE 20 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Investigator's Assessment of the Vaginal Mucosa (Assessment of Vaginal Epithelial Surface Thickness) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent- N 24 24 — — — to-Treat Least- −0.034 −0.133 0.099 (−0.024, 0.221) 0.1820 squares Mean Mean ± SD −0.125 ± 0.338 −0.042 ± 0.550 — — — Median 0.00 0.00 — — — Min, Max −1.00, 0.00 −1.00, 1.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. TABLE 21 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Investigator's Assessment of the Vaginal Mucosa (Assessment of Vaginal Secretions) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent- N 24 24 — — — to-Treat Least- −0.643 −0.274 −0.369 (−0.661, −0.076) 0.0401 squares Mean Mean ± SD −0.792 ± 0.779 −0.125 ± 0.741 — — — Median −1.00 0.00 — — — Min, Max −2.00, 1.00 −2.00, 2.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. Delivery Vehicle Disintegration Data Assessment of capsule disintegration in the vagina (presence or absence) at Day 1 (6 hours after dosing) and Day 15. Results of this assessment is presented in Table 22. TABLE 22 Capsule Disintegration State in the Vagina on Day 1 and Day 15 Estradiol 10 μg Placebo Day 1 Day 15 Day 1 Day 15 No evidence 23 24 26 24 of capsule (95.8%) (100.0%) (100.0%) (92.3%) present Evidence 0 0 0 0 of capsule (0.0%) (0.0%) (0.0%) (0.0%) present Assessment 1 0 0 2 not done (4.2%) (0.0%) (0.0%) (7.7%) Serum hormone level data was collected to measure the serum concentrations of estradiol. These data were used for screening inclusion and were determined using standard clinical chemistry methods. Appropriateness of Measurements The selection of the efficacy measurements used in this study was based on FDA's recommendations for studies of estrogen and estrogen/progestin drug products for the treatment of moderate to severe vasomotor symptoms associated with the menopause and moderate to severe symptoms of vulvar and vaginal atrophy associated with the menopause (Food and Drug Administration, Guidance for Industry, Estrogen and Estrogen/Progestin Drug Products to Treat Vasomotor Symptoms and Vulvar and Vaginal Atrophy Symptoms—Recommendations for Clinical Evaluation. January 2003, hereby incorporated by reference). Standard clinical, laboratory, and statistical procedures were utilized in the trial. All clinical laboratory procedures were generally accepted and met quality standards. Statistical Methods: Efficacy: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate the change from baseline differences between the subjects receiving estradiol 10 μg and placebo capsules for all efficacy endpoints, except for vaginal bleeding, to estimate the effect size and variability of the effect. In some cases, for example, for some vaginal atrophy symptoms, the change from baseline (post dose response) was correlated with the baseline value (p<0.05), so baseline was included as a covariate to adjust for this correlation (Analysis of Covariance, ANCOVA). The 90% confidence intervals on the differences between estradiol 10 μg and placebo endpoint means were determined to evaluate the effect size. The change from baseline in vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity was evaluated in terms of the proportion of subjects who had treatment success or failure. Any subject reporting bleeding at baseline who did not report bleeding at Day 15 was considered to have been successfully treated. Any subject reporting bleeding at day 15 was considered a treatment failure, regardless of whether they reported baseline bleeding or not. Subjects reporting no bleeding at both baseline and day 15 were classified as no-change and were excluded from the statistical evaluation. The difference in the proportion of subjects with success between the two treatment groups was statistically evaluated using Fisher's Exact Test. Results of this difference in proportion are presented in Table 10. Measurements of Treatment Compliance Subjects were required to complete a diary in order to record treatment compliance. Diaries were reviewed for treatment compliance at day 8 and day 15 visits. A total of 45 subjects (21 subjects in the estradiol 10 μg group and 24 subjects in the placebo group) were 100% compliant with the treatment regimen. Due to the investigative nature of the study, no adjustments were made for multiplicity of endpoints. Safety: The frequency and severity of all adverse events were summarized descriptively by treatment group. Results: All forty eight (48) subjects who completed the study were included in the primary efficacy analyses. The results of efficacy analyses are presented throughout Tables 5, 6, and 7. Conclusions Efficacy The two-week treatment with pharmaceutical composition 10 μg led to a statistically significant greater mean decrease in percent of parabasal cells than did placebo treatment (54% vs. 5%, p<0.0001), as illustrated in Table 6. At the same time, a significantly greater mean increase in the percent of superficial cells was observed with the pharmaceutical composition (35%) than with the placebo capsules (9%), with the difference being highly statistically significant (p=0.0002), as illustrated in Table 7. The difference in pH reduction between the pharmaceutical composition (0.97 units) compared to that for the placebo (0.34 units) was only slightly greater than 0.5 units, but the difference was detected as statistically significant (p=0.0002), as illustrated in Table 9. While the decrease in severity of the most bothersome symptom was essentially the same (˜1 unit) for both pharmaceutical composition and placebo, the reductions in the severity of the individual symptoms of vaginal dryness, irritation and pain during sexual activity were all marginally better for the active treatment than for the placebo treatment. None of the differences between the two treatments, all of which were ≤0.3 units, were detected as statistically significant. There was no difference between the two treatments in regard to reduction of pain/burning/stinging during urination (˜0.4 unit reduction). The length of the study was not long enough to show a separation between the most bothersome symptoms in the pharmaceutical composition and placebo. However, the trends of most bothersome symptoms suggest that with a suitable period of time, significantly significant differences between the two treatments would be observed. The two-week treatment with estradiol 10 μg capsules showed no statistically detectable difference in regard to reduction of severity from baseline according to the investigator's assessment of vaginal color or vaginal epithelial surface thickness. Pharmaceutical composition capsules did demonstrate a statistically significant greater reduction than did placebo in severity of atrophic effects on vaginal epithelial integrity (−0.34 vs. 0.18, p=0.0001) and vaginal secretions (−0.64 vs. −0.27, p=0.0401). Descriptive statistical analyses (mean, median, geometric mean, standard deviation, CV, minimum and maximum, Cmax, and Tmax) were conducted on the estradiol concentrations at each sampling time, the peak concentration on day 1 and the time of peak concentration. Results from this assessment are presented in Tables 16 and 17. A pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol 10 μg outperformed placebo treatment in regard to improvement in the Maturation Index, reduction in vaginal pH, reduction in the atrophic effects on epithelial integrity and vaginal secretions. The lack of statistical significance between the two treatments in regard to reduction of severity for the most bothersome symptom, and the individual vaginal atrophy symptoms of dryness, irritation, pain associated with sexual activity, and pain/burning/stinging during urination, is not unexpected given the small number of subjects in the study and the short duration of therapy. Too few subjects in the study had vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity to permit any meaningful evaluation of this vaginal atrophy symptom. Of the 48 subjects enrolled in the study, 45 subjects were 100% compliant with the treatment regimen. Of the remaining three subjects, one removed herself from the study due to personal reasons and the other two subjects each missed one dose due to an adverse event. Safety Although the Day 1 mean plasma estradiol peak concentration for the pharmaceutical composition was somewhat higher than that for the Placebo (ratio of geometric means=1.21: Test Product (estradiol 10 μg) 21%>Placebo), no statistically significant difference was determined. However, the assay methods were questionable, resulting in questionable PK data. Additional PK studies were performed in Examples 8 and 9. There were no serious adverse events in the study. Overall, the pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol 10 μg was well tolerated when administered intravaginally in once daily regimen for 14 days. Example 8 PK Study (25 μs Formulation) A PK study was undertaken to compare the 25 μg formulation disclosed herein (Pharmaceutical Composition 3) to the RLD. The results of the PK study for estradiol are summarized in Table 23. The p values for these data demonstrate statistical significance, as shown in Table 24. TABLE 23 Statistical Summary of the Comparative Bioavailability Data for Unscaled Average BE studies of Estradiol, Least Square Geometric Means of Estradiol, Ratio of Means and 90% Confidence Intervals, Fasting/Fed Bioequivalence Study (Study No.: ESTR-1K-500-12), Dose 25 μg estradiol Parameter Test N RLD N Ratio (%) 90% C.I. Cmax 23.0839 36 42.7024 36 54.06 44.18- (pg/mL) 66.14 AUC0-24 89.2093 36 292.0606 36 30.54 23.72- (pg · hr/mL) 39.34 TABLE 24 P-values for Table 23 P-Value Effect Cmax AUC0-24 Treatment <.0001 <.0001 Sequence 0.4478 0.5124 Period 0.4104 0.7221 As illustrated in Table 23, baseline adjusted PK data illustrates that the formulations disclosed herein unexpectedly show a 54% decrease in Cmax and a 31% decrease in the AUC relative to the RLD. This result is desirable because the estradiol is intended only for local absorption. These data suggest a decrease in the circulating levels of estradiol relative to the RLD. Moreover, it is noteworthy to point out that the Cmax and AUC levels of estradiol relative to placebo are not statistically differentiable, which suggests that the formulations disclosed herein have a negligible systemic effect. As shown in Table 24, there was no significant difference between the test and reference products due to sequence and period effects. However, there was a significant difference due to treatment effect for both Cmax and AUC. Pharmacokinetics for circulating total estrone, a metabolite of estradiol, is show in Table 25. These data show that the total circulating estrone for the formulations disclosed herein resulted in a 55% decrease in the Cmax for circulating estrone, and a 70% decrease in the AUC for circulating estrone. TABLE 25 Statistical Summary of the Comparative Bioavailability Data for Unscaled Average BE studies of Estrone, Least Square Geometric Means, Ratio of Means and 90% Confidence Intervals, Fasting/Fed Bioequivalence Study (Study No.: ESTR-1K-500-12); Dose 25 μg estradiol Parameter Test N RLD N Ratio (%) 90% C.I. Cmax 10.7928 36 23.5794 36 45.77 32.95 to (pg/mL) 63.59 AUC0-24 51.2491 36 165.4664 36 30.97 19.8- (pg · hr/mL) 48.45 TABLE 26 P-values for Table 25 P-Value Effect Cmax AUC0-28 Treatment 0.0002 <.0001 Sequence 0.1524 0.0464 Period 0.0719 0.0118 There was a significant difference between test and reference products due to treatment effect whereas there was no significant difference due to sequence and period effects for Cmax. For AUC, there was a significant difference between test and reference products due to treatment, sequence, and period effects. PK for circulating total estrone sulfate is shown in Table 27. These data show that the total circulating estrone sulfate for the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein resulted in a 33% decrease in the Cmax and a 42% decrease in the AUC for circulating estrone sulfate. TABLE 27 Statistical Summary of the Comparative Bioavailability Data for Unscaled Average BE studies of Estrone Sulfate, Least Square Geometric Means of Estrone Sulfate, Ratio of Means and 90% Confidence Intervals, Fasting/Fed Bioequivalence Study (Study No.: ESTR-1K-500-12); Dose 25 μg estradiol Ratio 90% Parameter Test N RLD N (%) C.I. Cmax 490.0449 36 730.5605 36 67.08 53.84- (pg/mL) 83.57 AUC0-24 4232.9914 36 7323.0827 36 57.80 43.23- (pg · 77.29 hr/mL) TABLE 28 P-values for Table 27 P-Value Effect Cmax AUC0-28 Treatment 0.0042 0.0031 Sequence 0.5035 0.9091 Period 0.1879 0.8804 There was a significant difference between test and reference products due to treatment effect whereas there was no significant difference due sequence and period effects for both Cmax and AUC. Example 9 PK Study (10 μs Formulation) A PK study was undertaken to compare the 10 μg formulation disclosed herein (Pharmaceutical Composition 2) to the RLD. The results of the PK study for estradiol are summarized in Table 29-40, and FIGS. 9-14. A PK study was undertaken to compare pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein having 10 pg of estradiol to the RLD. The results of the PK study for estradiol are summarized in Tables 29-34, which demonstrate that the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein more effectively prevented systemic absorption of the estradiol. Table 35 shows that the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein had a 28% improvement over the RLD for systemic blood concentration Cmax and 72% AUC improvement over the RLD. TABLE 29 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Test product (T) of Estradiol - Baseline adjusted (N = 34) Arithmetic Pharmacokinetic Mean ± Standard Coefficient Parameter Deviation of Variation Median Minimum Maximum Cmax (pg/mL) 15.7176 ± 7.9179 50.3761 13.9000 6.5000 49.6000 AUC0-24 (pg · hr/mL) 53.0100 ± 19.5629 36.9041 49.9750 24.3000 95.1500 tmax (hr) 1.98 ± 1.29 65.34 2.00 1.00 8.05 TABLE 30 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Reference product (R) of Estradiol - Baseline adjusted (N = 34) Arithmetic Pharmacokinetic Mean ± Standard Coefficient Parameter Deviation of Variation Median Minimum Maximum Cmax (pg/mL) 24.1882 ± 11.9218 49.2877 24.1500 1.0000 55.3000 AUC0-24 (pg · hr/mL) 163.8586 ± 72.0913 43.9960 158.0375 2.0000 304.8500 tmax (hr) 10.53 ± 5.58 52.94 8.06 2.00 24.00 TABLE 31 Geometric Mean of Test Product (T) and Reference product (R) of Estradiol - Baseline adjusted (N = 34) Geometric Mean Pharmacokinetic Parameter Test Product (T) Reference Product (R) Cmax (pg/mL) 14.3774 20.3837 AUC0-24 (pg · hr/mL) 49.6231 132.9218 tmax (hr) 1.75 9.28 TABLE 32 Statistical Results of Test product (T) versus Reference product (R) for Estradiol - Baseline adjusted (N = 34) Geometric Least Square Mean Test Reference Intra 90% Pharmacokinetic Product Product Subject T/R Confidence Parameter (T) (R) CV % Ratio % Interval Cmax (pg/mL) 14.4490 20.1980 60.68 71.54* 56.82-90.08 AUC0-24 49.7310 131.0400 70.64 37.95* 29.21-49.31 (pg · hr/mL) *Comparison was detected as statistically significant by ANOVA (α = 0.05). The PK data for total estrone likewise demonstrated reduced systemic exposure when compared to the RLD. Table 33 shows the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein reduced systemic exposure by 25% for Cmax and 49% for AUC. TABLE 33 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Test product (T) of Estrone - Baseline adjusted (N = 33) Arithmetic Pharmacokinetic Mean ± Standard Coefficient Parameter Deviation of Variation Median Minimum Maximum Cmax (pg/mL) 6.8485 ± 6.5824 96.1149 5.4000 1.3000 36.3000 AUC0-24 (pg · hr/mL) 34.7051 ± 27.9541 80.5476 30.8500 3.3500 116.7500 tmax (hr) 9.12 ± 8.83 96.80 4.00 1.00 24.00 TABLE 34 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Reference product (R) of Estrone - Baseline adjusted (N = 33) Arithmetic Pharmacokinetic Mean ± Standard Coefficient Parameter Deviation of Variation Median Minimum Maximum Cmax (pg/mL) 8.8333 ± 7.1469 80.9086 6.7000 2.7000 30.3000 AUC0-24 (pg · hr/mL) 63.0042 ± 46.5484 73.8814 51.2800 8.8000 214.0000 tmax (hr) 11.16 ± 7.24 64.95 10.00 4.00 24.00 TABLE 35 Geometric Mean of Test Product (T) and Reference product (R) of Estrone - Baseline adjusted (N = 33) Geometric Mean Pharmacokinetic Parameter Test Product (T) Reference Product (R) Cmax (pg/mL) 5.1507 6.9773 AUC0-24 (pg · hr/mL) 24.2426 48.2377 tmax (hr) 5.87 9.07 TABLE 36 Statistical Results of Test product (T) versus Reference product (R) for Estrone - Baseline adjusted (N = 33) Geometric Least Square Mean Test Reference Intra 90% Pharmacokinetic Product Product Subject T/R Confidence Parameter (T) (R) CV % Ratio % Interval Cmax (pg/mL) 5.1620 6.9280 47.59 74.50* 61.69-89.97 AUC0-24 24.1960 47.9020 73.66 50.51* 38.37-66.50 (pg · hr/mL) *Comparison was detected as statistically significant by ANOVA (α = 0.05). The PK data for estrone sulfate likewise demonstrated reduced systemic exposure when compared to the RLD. Table 37 shows the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein reduced systemic exposure by 25% for Cmax and 42% for AUC. TABLE 37 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Test product (T) of Estrone Sulfate - Baseline adjusted (N = 24) Arithmetic Pharmacokinetic Mean ± Standard Coefficient Parameter Deviation of Variation Median Minimum Maximum Cmax (ng/mL) 13.9042 ± 7.0402 50.6339 11.1500 1.3000 39.0000 AUC0-24 (ng · hr/mL) 97.9953 ± 80.8861 82.5408 76.2750 5.1025 338.0000 tmax (hr) 6.33 ± 4.56 71.93 4.00 4.00 24.00 TABLE 38 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Reference product (R) of Estrone Sulfate - Baseline adjusted (N = 24) Arithmetic Pharmacokinetic Mean ± Standard Coefficient Parameter Deviation of Variation Median Minimum Maximum Cmax (ng/mL) 19.2542 ± 11.3633 59.0173 15.2000 7.0000 53.7000 AUC0-24 (ng · hr/mL) 177.6208 ± 166.2408 93.5931 124.0000 20.0000 683.0500 tmax (hr) 10.33 ± 5.58 54.05 10.00 2.00 24.00 TABLE 39 Geometric Mean of Test Product (T) and Reference product (R) of Estrone Sulfate - Baseline adjusted (N = 24) Geometric Mean Pharmacokinetic Parameter Test Product (T) Reference Product (R) Cmax (ng/mL) 12.1579 16.8587 AUC0-24 (ng · hr/mL) 66.5996 121.5597 tmax (hr) 5.49 8.83 TABLE 40 Statistical Results of Test product (T) versus Reference product (R) for Estrone Sulfate - Baseline adjusted (N = 24) Geometric Least Square Mean Test Reference Intra 90% Pharmacokinetic Product Product Subject T/R Confidence Parameter (T) (R) CV % Ratio % Interval Cmax (ng/mL) 12.3350 16.5470 48.02 74.55* 59.43-93.51 AUC0-24 68.5260 118.4170 73.87 57.87* 41.68-80.35 (ng · hr/mL) *Comparison was detected as statistically significant by ANOVA (α = 0.05). Example 10 Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Multicenter Study of Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsules for Treatment of VVA Investigational Plan The study was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter study design. Postmenopausal subjects who meet the study entry criteria will be randomized in a 1:1:1:1 ratio to receive Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsule 4 μg, Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsule 10 μg, Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsule 25 μg, or matching placebo. Subjects will be asked to self-assess the symptoms of vulvar or vaginal atrophy including vaginal pain associated with sexual activity, vaginal dryness, vulvar or vaginal itching or irritation by completing the VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire and identification of her MBS at screening visit 1A to determine eligibility for the study. The VVA symptom Self-Assessment Questionnaire, vaginal cytology, vaginal pH, and vaginal mucosa will be assessed at screening visit 1B. These assessments will determine continued eligibility and will be used as the baseline assessments for the study. Randomized subjects will then complete the Questionnaire during visits 3, 4, 5, and 6. The primary efficacy endpoints for the study included: (A) change from baseline to week 12 in the percentage of vaginal superficial cells (by vaginal cytologic smear) compared to placebo; (B) change from baseline to week 12 in the percentage of vaginal parabasal cells (by vaginal cytologic smear) compared to placebo; (C) change from baseline at week 12 in vaginal pH as compared to placebo; and (D) change from baseline to week 12 on the severity of the MBS of dyspareunia (vaginal pain associated with sexual activity) associated with VVA as compared to placebo. The secondary efficacy endpoints for the study included: (E) change from baseline to weeks 2, 6, and 8 in the percentage of vaginal superficial cells (by vaginal cytologic smear) compared to placebo; (F) change from baseline to weeks 2, 6, and 8 in the percentage of vaginal parabasal cells (by vaginal cytologic smear) compared to placebo; (G) change from baseline to weeks 2, 6, and 8 in vaginal pH as compared to placebo; (H) change from baseline to weeks 2, 6, and 8 on the severity of the MBS of dyspareunia (vaginal pain associated with sexual activity) associated with VVA as compared to placebo; (I) change from baseline to weeks 2, 6, 8, and 12 on the severity of vaginal dryness and vulvar or vaginal itching or irritation associated with VVA as compared to placebo; (J) change in visual evaluation of the vaginal mucosa from baseline to weeks 2, 6, 8, and 12 compared to placebo; (K) assessment of standard PK parameters as defined in the SAP for serum estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates at Screening Visit 1A, days 1, 14, and 84 of treatment in a subset of subjects (PK substudy) utilizing baseline corrected and uncorrected values [as outlined in the Statistical Analysis Plan (SAP)]; and (L) change from baseline in the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) at week 12 compared to placebo. The safety endpoints for the study included: (1) Adverse events; (2) Vital signs; (3) Physical examination findings; (4) Gynecological examination findings; (5) Clinical laboratory tests; (6) Pap smears; and (7) Endometrial biopsy. Approximately 100 sites in the United States and Canada screened approximately 1500 subjects to randomize 747 subjects in this study (modified intent to treatment population, or all subjects who have taken at least one dose of the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein), with a target of 175 subjects randomized to each treatment group (175 in each active treatment group and 175 in the placebo group to complete 560 subjects). Actual subjects enrolled are 186 subjects in the 4 μg formulation group, 188 subjects in the 10 μg formulation group, 186 subjects in the 25 μg formulation group, and 187 subjects in the placebo group, for a total of 747 subjects in the study. Within each treatment group, 15 subjects also participated in a PK substudy. Subjects were assigned to one of four treatment groups: (1) 4 μg formulation; (2) 10 μg formulation; (3) 25 μg formulation; and (4) placebo. Most subjects participated in the study for 20-22 weeks. This included a 6 to 8 week screening period (6 weeks for subjects without an intact uterus and 8 weeks for subjects with an intact uterus), 12 weeks on the investigational product, and a follow-up period of approximately 15 days after the last dose of investigational product. Some subjects' involvement lasted up to 30 weeks when an 8-week wash-out period was necessary. Subjects who withdrew from the study were not replaced regardless of the reason for withdrawal. The study schematic diagram shown in FIG. 9. There were two treatment periods; once daily intravaginal administration of one of the listed investigational products for 2 weeks, followed by a twice weekly intravaginal administration for 10 weeks. The subject inclusion criteria included: (1) postmenopausal female subjects between the ages of 40 and 75 years (at the time of randomization) with at least: 12 months of spontaneous amenorrhea (women <55 years of age with history of hysterectomy without bilateral oophorectomy prior to natural menopause must have follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) levels >40 mIU/mL); or 6 months of spontaneous amenorrhea with follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) levels >40 m1U/mL; or At least 6 weeks postsurgical bilateral oophorectomy. The subject inclusion criteria also included: (2) ≤5% superficial cells on vaginal cytological smear; (3) Vaginal pH >5.0; (4) Moderate to severe symptom of vaginal pain associated with sexual activity considered the most bothersome vaginal symptom by the subject at screening visit IA; (5) Moderate to severe symptom of vaginal pain associated with sexual activity at screening visit 1B; (6) Onset of moderate to severe dyspareunia in the postmenopausal years; (7) Subjects were sexually active (i.e., had sexual activity with vaginal penetration within approximately 1 month of screening visit 1A); and (8) Subjects anticipated having sexual activity (with vaginal penetration) during the conduct of the trial For subjects with an intact uterus, the subject inclusion criteria also included: (9) subjects had an acceptable result from an evaluable screening endometrial biopsy. The endometrial biopsy reports by the two central pathologists at screening specified one of the following: proliferative endometrium; weakly proliferative endometrium; disordered proliferative pattern; secretory endometrium; endometrial tissue other (i.e., benign, inactive, or atrophic fragments of endometrial epithelium, glands, stroma, etc.); endometrial tissue insufficient for diagnosis; no endometrium identified; no tissue identified; endometrial hyperplasia; endometrial malignancy; or other findings (endometrial polyp not present, benign endometrial polyp, or other endometrial polyp). Identification of sufficient tissue to evaluate the biopsy by at least one pathologist was required. For subjects with a Body Mass Index (BMI) less than or equal to 38 kg/m2, the subject inclusion criteria also included: (10) BMI values were rounded to the nearest integer (ex. 32.4 rounds down to 32, while 26.5 rounds up to 27). In general, the inclusion criteria also included: (11) in the opinion of the investigator, the subject was believed likely to comply with the protocol and complete the study. The exclusion criteria included: (1) use of oral estrogen-, progestin-, androgen-, or SERM-containing drug products within 8 weeks before screening visit 1A (entry of washout was permitted); use of transdermal hormone products within 4 weeks before screening visit 1A (entry of washout was permitted); use of vaginal hormone products (rings, creams, gels) within 4 weeks before screening visit 1A (entry of washout was permitted); use of intrauterine progestins within 8 weeks before screening visit 1A (entry of washout was permitted); use of progestin implants/injectables or estrogen pellets/injectables within 6 months before screening visit 1A (entry of washout was not permitted); or use of vaginal lubricants or moisturizers within 7 days before the screening visit 1B vaginal pH assessment. The exclusion criteria also included: (2) a history or active presence of clinically important medical disease that might confound the study or be detrimental to the subject, including, for example: hypersensitivity to estrogens; endometrial hyperplasia; undiagnosed vaginal bleeding; a history of a chronic liver or kidney dysfunction/disorder (e.g., Hepatitis C or chronic renal failure); thrombophlebitis, thrombosis, or thromboembolic disorders; cerebrovascular accident, stroke, or transient ischemic attack; myocardial infarction or ischemic heart disease; malignancy or treatment for malignancy, within the previous 5 years, with the exception of basal cell carcinoma of the skin or squamous cell carcinoma of the skin (a history of estrogen dependent neoplasia, breast cancer, melanoma, or any gynecologic cancer, at any time, excluded the subject); and endocrine disease (except for controlled hypothyroidism or controlled non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus). The exclusion criteria also included: (3) recent history of known alcohol or drug abuse; (4) history of sexual abuse or spousal abuse that was likely to interfere with the subject's assessment of vaginal pain with sexual activity; (5) current history of heavy smoking (more than 15 cigarettes per day) or use of e-cigarettes; (6) use of an intrauterine device within 12 weeks before screening visit 1A; (7) use of an investigational drug within 60 days before screening visit 1A; (8) any clinically important abnormalities on screening physical exam, assessments, electrocardiogram (ECG), or laboratory tests; (9) known pregnancy or a positive urine pregnancy test; and (10) current use of marijuana. In this study, if a subject discontinued or was withdrawn, the subject was not replaced. At the time of consent, each subject was given a unique subject number that identified their clinical site and sequential number. In addition to the assigned subject number, subject initials were used for identification. The clinical trial was performed in compliance with standard operating procedures as well as regulations set forth by FDA, ICH E6 (R1) guidelines, and other relevant regulatory authorities. Compliance was achieved through clinical trial-specific audits of clinical sites and database review. Statistical Methods Efficacy. The primary objective of the trial was to assess the efficacy of estradiol vaginal softgel capsules (4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg) when compared to placebo on vaginal superficial cells, vaginal parabasal cells, vaginal pH, and on the symptom of moderate to severe dyspareunia (vaginal pain associated with sexual activity) as the MBS at week 12. To account for the multiple comparisons of testing placebo to each of the three doses of estradiol (4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg) and the multiple testing of the four co-primary endpoints, a closed procedure was performed (see, Edwards D, Madsen J. “Constructing multiple procedures for partially ordered hypothesis sets.” Stat Med 2007:26-5116-24, incorporated by reference herein). Determination of Sample Size. The sample size needed per dose vs. placebo for each test of hypothesis in the modified intent-to-treat (MITT) population to achieve a given power was calculated using reference data from other studies (see, Bachman, G., et al. “Efficacy and safety of low-dose regimens of conjugated estrogens cream administered vaginally.” Menopause, 2009. 16(4): p. 719-27; Simon, J., et al. “Effective Treatment of Vaginal Atrophy With an Ultra-Low-Dose Estradiol Vaginal Tablet.” Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2008. 112(5):p. 1053-60; FDA Medical Officer's Review of Vagifem [NDA 20-908, Mar. 25, 1999, Table 6, p 12.], each incorporated by reference herein). Table 41 below provides the effect sizes, power, and sample size determinations for each of the primary endpoints. In general, subjects in the study met all inclusion/exclusion criteria and had moderate to severe dyspareunia as their most bothersome symptom of VVA. Based on the power analysis and the design considerations, approximately 175 subjects per treatment arm were enrolled. TABLE 41 Power Analysis and Sample Size Determinations Four Primary Endpoints in a Closed Procedure Mean Change from Baseline to Week 12 Compared to Placebo (MMRM) Power (One-way ANOVA, Alpha = 0.005, one-tailed) Power Based Upon N = 140 per Primary Endpoint Effect Size (%)* group per MITT % Parabasal Cells 150.3% >0.999 % Superficial Cells 115.3% >0.999 Vaginal pH 77.4% >0.999 Severity of Dyspareunia** 30.0%, 41.2%, 70.5% 0.50, 0.80, >0.999 *Range from 30% (Vagifem 10 μg; see, Simon 2008, supra), 41.2% (Vagifem 25 μg; see, FDA 1999, supra), 70.5% (Premarin cream 2/week; see, Bachman 2009, supra) **Effect Size is calculated for all primary endpoints as 100% times difference (treated minus placebo) in mean changes at week 12 from baseline. All subjects who were randomly assigned and had at least 1 dose of investigational product formed the intent-to-treat (ITT) population. The Modified intent-to-treat (MITT) population was defined as all ITT subjects with a baseline and at least one follow-up value for each of the primary endpoints, each subject having taken at least one dose of investigational product, and was the primary efficacy population. The efficacy-evaluable (EE) population was defined as all MITT subjects who completed the clinical trial, were at least 80% compliant with investigational product, had measurements for all primary efficacy endpoints, and were deemed to be protocol compliant, with no significant protocol violations. The safety population included all ITT subjects. The primary efficacy analyses were conducted on the MITT subjects with supportive efficacy analyses conducted on the EE population. For analysis purposes, subjects were required to complete all visits, up to and including Visit 6 (week 12), to be considered as having completed the study. Analysis of Efficacy Endpoints. For all numerically continuous efficacy endpoints, which included the four primary endpoints (mean change from baseline to week 12), active treatment group means were compared to placebo using an ANCOVA adjusting for the baseline level. Primary and secondary efficacy endpoints were measured at baseline and at 2, 6, 8, and 12 weeks. The analysis examined change from baseline. Therefore, ANCOVAs were based on a repeated measures mixed effects model (MIVIRM) where the random effect was subject and the two fixed effects were treatment group and visit (2, 6, 8, and 12 weeks). Baseline measures and age were used as covariates. ANCOVAs were therefore not calculated independently for each study collection period. The analyses started with the full model but, interaction terms for visit (week 2, 6, 8, and 12) with treatment only remained where statistically significant (p<0.05). The following three pair-wise comparisons were performed using the appropriate ANCOVA contrast for week 12 (primary) and weeks 2, 6, and 8 (secondary) changes from baseline: (1) active treatment, high dose group vs placebo; (2) active treatment, middle dose group vs placebo; and (3) active treatment, low dose group vs placebo. Safety outcome measures. Adverse events, vital signs, physical examination findings, gynecological examination findings, clinical laboratory tests, pap smears, and endometrial biopsy were the safety parameters. Adverse events and SAEs were summarized for each treatment group and overall for all active treatment groups with the proportion of subjects reporting each event. Actual values and change from baseline in vital signs, and all laboratory test parameters were summarized for each treatment group and overall for all active treatment groups with descriptive statistics at each assessment obtained. Endometrial Biopsy Assessment. Three independent pathologists with expertise in gynecologic pathology, blinded to treatment and to each other's readings, determined the diagnosis for endometrial biopsy slides during the conduct of the study. All visit 6, early termination, and on-treatment unscheduled endometrial biopsies were centrally read by three of the pathologists. Each pathologist's report was classified into one of the following three categories: category 1: not hyperplasia/not malignancy—includes proliferative endometrium, weakly proliferative endometrium, disordered proliferative pattern, secretory endometrium, endometrial tissue other (i.e., benign, inactive or atrophic fragments of endometrial epithelium, glands, stroma, etc.), endometrial tissue insufficient for diagnosis, no endometrium identified, no tissue identified, other; category 2: hyperplasia—includes simple hyperplasia with or without atypia and complex hyperplasia with or without atypia; category 3: malignancy—endometrial malignancy. The final diagnosis was based on agreement of two of the three reads. Consensus was reached when two of the three pathologist readers agreed on any of the above categories. For example, any 2 subcategories of “not hyperplasia/not malignancy” were classified as “Category 1: not hyperplasia/not malignancy.” If all three readings were disparate (i.e., each fell into a different category—category 1, 2, or 3), the final diagnosis was based on the most severe of the three readings. The analysis population for endometrium hyperplasia was the endometrial hyperplasia (EH) population. An EH subject at week 12 was one who was randomly assigned and took at least 1 dose of investigational product, with no exclusionary protocol violation (as detailed at the Statistical Analysis Plan), and had a pretreatment endometrial biopsy and a biopsy on therapy. Treatment of Subjects The study used a double-blind design. Investigational product was supplied as 3 doses of Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsules (4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg) and matching placebo capsules. All subjects manually inserted one capsule into the vaginal cavity daily for 14 days (2 weeks) followed by twice weekly for 10 weeks according to one of the following treatment arms: TABLE 42 Treatment Arms and Administration Regimen Capsules Capsules Treatment 1 capsule daily of 1 capsule twice weekly of 1 4 μg vaginal softgel 4 μg vaginal softgel for for 2 weeks 10 weeks Treatment 1 capsule daily of 1 capsule twice weekly of 2 10 μg vaginal softgel 10 μg vaginal softgel for for 2 weeks 10 weeks Treatment 1 capsule daily of 1 capsule twice weekly of 3 25 μg vaginal softgel 25 μg vaginal softgel for for 2 weeks 10 weeks Treatment 1 capsule daily of 1 capsule twice weekly of 4 placebo vaginal placebo vaginal softgel softgel for 2 weeks for 10 weeks Investigational product was dispensed to all eligible subjects at visit 2. Each subject was provided a total of 30 soft gel capsules of investigational product in a labeled bottle, allowing for extra capsules for accidental loss or damage. A second bottle was dispensed at Visit 5. Each subject was trained by the clinical site to self-administer intravaginally one capsule daily at approximately the same hour for 2 weeks (14 days). The drug administration instructions included: “Remove vaginal capsule from the bottle; find a position most comfortable for you; insert the capsule with the smaller end up into vaginal canal for about 2 inches.” Starting on Day 15, each subject administered 1 capsule twice weekly for the remaining 10 weeks. Twice weekly dosing was approximately 3-4 days apart, and generally did not exceed more than twice in a seven day period. For example, if the Day 15 dose was inserted on Sunday, the next dose was inserted on Wednesday or Thursday. At randomization visit 2 (day 1), subjects received their first dose of investigational product at the clinical facility under the supervision of the study personnel. The investigational estradiol vaginal softgel drug products used in the study are pear-shaped, opaque, light pink softgel capsules. The capsules contain the solubilized estradiol pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein as Pharmaceutical Compositions 4-7. When the softgel capsules come in contact with the vaginal mucosa, the soft gelatin capsule releases the pharmaceutical composition, into the vagina. In embodiments, the soft gelatin capsule completely dissolves. The placebo used in the study contained the excipients in the investigational estradiol vaginal softgel capsule without the estradiol (see, e.g., Pharmaceutical Composition 7). The packaging of the investigational products and placebo were identical to maintain adequate blinding of investigators. Neither the subject nor the investigator was able to identify the treatment from the packaging or label of the investigational products. A subject was required to use at least 80% of the investigational product to be considered compliant with investigational medication administration. Capsule count and diary cards were be used to determine subject compliance at each study visit. Subjects were randomly assigned in a 1:1:1:1 ratio to receive Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsule 4 μg (Pharmaceutical Composition 4), Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsule 10 μg (Pharmaceutical Composition 5), Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsule 25 μg (Pharmaceutical Composition 6), or placebo (Pharmaceutical Composition 7). Concomitant medications/treatments were used to treat chronic or intercurrent medical conditions at the discretion of the investigator. The following medications were prohibited for the duration of the study: investigational drugs other than the investigational Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsule; estrogen-, progestin-, androgen (i.e., DHEA) or SERM-containing medications other than the investigational product; medications, remedies, and supplements known to treat vulvar/vaginal atrophy; vaginal lubricants and moisturizers (e.g., Replens) be discontinued 7 days prior to Visit 1B vaginal pH assessment; and all medications excluded before the study. Efficacy Assessments Vaginal cytological smears were collected from the lateral vaginal walls according to standard procedures and sent to a central laboratory to evaluate vaginal cytology. The percentage of superficial, parabasal, and intermediate cells was determined. All on-therapy/early termination vaginal cytology results were blinded to the Sponsor, Investigators, and subjects. Vaginal pH was determined at screening Visit 1B and visits 3, 4, 5, and 6/end of treatment. Subjects were not allowed to use vaginal lubricants or moisturizers within 7 days of the screening vaginal pH assessment or at any time afterwards during the study. The subjects were advised not to have sexual intercourse and to refrain from using vaginal douching within 24 hours prior to the measurement for all scheduled vaginal pH assessments. After insertion of an unlubricated speculum, a pH indicator strip was applied to the lateral vaginal wall until it became wet, taking care to avoid cervical mucus, blood or semen that are known to affect vaginal pH. The color of the strip was compared immediately with a colorimetric scale and the measurement was recorded. During the gynecological examinations, the investigator performed a visual evaluation of vaginal mucosa using a four-point scale (0=none, 1=mild, 2=moderate, and 3=severe) to assess parameters of vaginal secretions, vaginal epithelial integrity, vaginal epithelial surface thickness, and vaginal color according to the table below. Assessment Severity Criteria No atrophy Mild Moderate Severe Vaginal normal clear superficial coating scant not covering none, inflamed, secretions secretions of secretions, the entire vaginal ulceration noted, noted on difficulty with vault, may need need lubrication vaginal walls speculum insertion lubrication with with speculum speculum insertion insertion to prevent to prevent pain pain Vaginal normal vaginal surface vaginal surface vaginal surface has epithelial bleeds with bleeds with light petechiae before integrity scraping contact contact and bleeds with light contact Vaginal rogation and poor rogation with smooth, some smooth, no elasticity, epithelial elasticity of some elasticity elasticity of constriction of the surface vault noted of vaginal vaginal vault upper one third of thickness vault vagina or loss of vaginal tone (cystocele and rectocele) Vaginal pink lighter in color pale in color transparent, either no color color or inflamed The VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire, shown below, is an instrument for subjects to self-assess their symptoms of vulvar or vaginal atrophy, including vaginal pain associated with sexual activity, vaginal dryness, vulvar or vaginal itching, or irritation. At screening visit 1A subjects were asked to complete the questionnaire and identify their most bothersome symptoms, and the results of the survey were used to determine initial eligibility for the study. At visit 1A, subjects were also asked to indicate which moderate or severe symptoms bothered them most. The questionnaire was administered again at screening visit 1B and used to determine continued eligibility for the study. VVA SYMPTOMS SELF-ASSESSMENT Severity Score Please Rate (Please select only ONE) your Vulvar and/or 0 = 1 = 2 = 3 = Vaginal Symptoms None mild Moderate Severe 1 Pain associated with sexual activity (with vaginal penetration). 2 Vaginal dryness. 3 Vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation. Randomized subjects were asked to complete the VVA Symptom Self-Assessment Questionnaire at visits 3, 4, 5, and 6. Subjects were asked to indicate if no sexual activity with vaginal penetration was experience since the previous visit. Screening visit 1B evaluation results were considered as Baseline data for the statistical analyses. The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) is a brief, multidimensional scale for assessing sexual function in women (see, Rosen, 2000, supra 26: p.191-208, incorporated by reference herein). The scale consists of 19 items that assess sexual function over the past 4 weeks and yield domain scores in six areas: sexual desire, arousal, lubrication, orgasm, satisfaction, and pain. Further validation of the instrument was conducted to extend the validation to include dyspareunia/vaginismus (pain), and multiple sexual dysfunctions (see, Weigel, M., et al. “The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI): Cross-Validation and Development of Clinical Cutoff Scores.” Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 2005. 31: p. 1-20, incorporated by reference herein). The FSFI was conducted at Visits 2 and 6. Subjects participating in the PK substudy were not assessed using FSFI. Safety Assessments A complete medical history, including demographic data (age and race/ethnicity) gynecological, surgical, and psychiatric history and use of tobacco and alcohol was recorded at the washout/screening visit 1A prior to any washout period; this history included a review of all past and current diseases and their respective durations as well as any history of amenorrhea. A complete physical examination was conducted at screening visit 1A and visit 6/end of treatment. The physical examination included, at a minimum, examination of the subject's general appearance, HEENT (head, eyes, ears, nose, and throat), heart, lungs, musculoskeletal system, gastrointestinal (GI) system, neurological system, lymph nodes, abdomen, and extremities. The subject's height was measured at washout/screening visit 1A only and body weight (while the subject is lightly clothed) was be measured at washout/screening visit 1A and end of treatment. BMI was calculated at washout/screening visit 1A. Vital signs (body temperature, heart rate [HR], respiration rate [RR], and sitting blood pressure [BP]) were measured at all visits after the subject had been sitting for ≥10 minutes. If the initial BP reading was above 140 mmHg systolic or 90 mmHg diastolic, the option for a single repeat assessment performed 15 minutes later was provided. A standard 12-lead ECG was obtained at screening visit 1A and visit 6 or early termination. Subjects were required to have a pelvic examination and Pap smear performed during the screening visit 1B and visit 6 or early termination. The Pap smear was required for all subjects with or without an intact uterus and cervix. For subjects without an intact cervix the Pap smear was obtained by sampling the apex of the vaginal cuff All subjects were required to have a Pap smear done during screening, regardless of any recent prior assessment. Subjects who discontinued the study after 2 weeks of investigational product were required to have an end of treatment Pap smear. Subjects had a breast examination performed during screening visit 1A and at visit 6 or early termination. Endometrial biopsies were performed by a board-certified gynecologist at screening and at visit 6/end of treatment. Unscheduled endometrial biopsies were performed during the study, when indicated for medical reasons. The screening biopsy was performed at screening visit 1B, after the subject's initial screening visit assessments indicated that the subject was otherwise an eligible candidate for the study. At screening, endometrial biopsies were read centrally by two pathologists. A candidate subject was excluded from the study if at least one pathologist assessed the endometrial biopsy as endometrial hyperplasia, endometrial cancer, proliferative endometrium, weakly proliferative endometrium, or disordered proliferative pattern, or if at least one pathologist identified an endometrial polyp with hyperplasia, glandular atypia of any degree (e.g., atypical nuclei), or cancer. Additionally, identification of sufficient tissue to evaluate the biopsy by at least one pathologist was required for study eligibility. The option for one repetition of the screening endometrial biopsy was made available when an initial endometrial biopsy was performed and both of the primary pathologists reported endometrial tissue insufficient for diagnosis, no endometrium was identified, or no tissue was identified, and if the subject had met all other protocol-specified eligibility criteria to date. The visit 6 (or early termination) endometrial biopsies and on treatment unscheduled biopsies were assessed by three pathologists. During the study, at early termination, and at the end of the study, any subject with a diagnosis of endometrial hyperplasia was withdrawn and treated with 10 mg of Medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) for 6 months unless deemed otherwise by the PI. For unscheduled biopsies, the histological diagnosis of endometrial polyp did not force withdrawal unless atypical nuclei were present. A urine pregnancy test was conducted at screening visit 1A unless the subject had a history of tubal ligation, bilateral oophorectomy, or was ≥55 years of age and had experienced cessation of menses for at least 1 year. Blood samples for blood chemistry, hematology, coagulation tests, and hormone levels and urine samples for urine analysis were collected and sent to a central laboratory. Blood Chemistry (sodium, potassium, chloride, total cholesterol, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), iron, albumin, total protein, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase, creatinine, calcium, phosphorous, uric acid, total bilirubin, glucose and triglycerides (must be fasting minimum of 8 hours). A fasting glucose of >125 mg/dL will require a HgA1C) was monitored. Hematology (complete blood count (CBC) including white blood cell count and differential, red blood cell count, hemoglobin, hematocrit, and platelet count) was monitored. Hormone Levels (follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (not required for subjects with ≥12 months of spontaneous amenorrhea or bilateral oophorectomy), estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates and SHBG for subjects in the PK substudy) were monitored. Urine Analysis (appearance, specific gravity, protein, and pH) was conducted. Pharmacokinetic Assessment Seventy-two subjects were also enrolled in a pharmacokinetic (PK) substudy. In those subjects participating in the PK substudy, time 0 h serum blood samples were obtained at screening visit 1A, day 1, and day 14 prior to dosing for baseline. The baseline was characterized by the average of the two pre-treatment samples. Serum blood samples were then obtained on day 1 and day 14 at five post dose time points (2 h, 4 h, 6 h, 10 h, and 24 h). On study days 1 (visit 2) and 14 (visit 3) a baseline pretreatment blood sample (Time 0 h) was collected from each subject prior to insertion of the investigational product. After insertion of the product, blood samples were drawn at 2, 4, 6, 10, and 24 hours following insertion. The last PK sample (approximately day 84) was obtained 4 days following the last insertion of investigational product. Blood samples were analyzed to characterize area under the curve (AUC), time of maximum concentration (tmax), minimum concentration (Cmin), and maximum concentration (Cmax). Blood samples were also analyzed to measure the levels of estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates. No fasting requirements were applied. Sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) levels were obtained at pre-treatment baseline (day 1, visit 2), and day 14 at the 0 h and on the day 84 final hormone blood draw. A symptoms/complaints and medications diary was dispensed at all visits and subjects were instructed on completion. The subjects used the diary to record symptoms/complaints (including stop and start dates and treatment received) and prior medications/treatments (including indication, stop, and start dates). A copy of the diary was made at each visit and re-dispensed to the subject. A dosing diary was dispensed at visit 2 and at visit 3 and subjects were be instructed on completion. Subjects recorded investigational product usage and sexual activity. The dosing diary dispensed at visit 3 was re-dispensed at visits 4 and 5. A copy of the diary was made at each visit prior to re-dispensing to the subject. Study Visits Study visits were typically conducted so as to include the activities outlined in Table 43. TABLE 43 Schedule of Assessments - Main Study Visit 2: Visit 3: Visit 1A Visit 1B Randomization/ Interim Washout Screening Screening Baseline Week 2 Week −14 Week −6 Week −4 Week 0 Day 14 Activity to −6 to 0 to 0 Day 1 (±3 d) Informed consent X X Demographics/Medical and X X Gynecological history and prior medications Weight X X Height and BMI calculation X X Vital signs X X X X X MBS X Subject VVA Self-Assessment X X X Questionnaire Physical examination including X breast exam Laboratory safety tests (Hematology, X Serum Chemistry, FSHP, Urinalysis) 12-Lead ECG X Pelvic exam X Vaginal pH X X Papanicolaou (Pap) smear X Investigator assessment of vaginal X X mucosa Vaginal cytological smear X X Mammogram X Endometrial biopsy X Diary Dispense X X X X X Diary Collection X X X X FSFI X Satisfaction Survey Urine pregnancy test X Randomization X Dispense Investigational X Product bottle Re-dispense Investigational X Product bottle Treatment administration X X instruction Collect unused X investigational product and used bottles; assess compliance Adverse event monitoring X X X X Concomitant medications X X X X Visit 6: End of Telephone Visit 4: Visit 5: Treatment or Interview Interim Interim Early Term Week 14 Week 6 Week 8 Week 12 approximately Day 42 Day 56 Day 84 15 days after Activity (±3 d) (±3 d) (±3 d) last dose of IP Informed consent Demographics/Medical and Gynecological history and prior medications Weight X Height and BMI calculation Vital signs X X X MBS Subject VVA Self-Assessment X X X Questionnaire Physical examination including X breast exam Laboratory safety tests (Hematology, X Serum Chemistry, FSHP, Urinalysis) 12-Lead ECG X Pelvic exam X Vaginal pH X X X Papanicolaou (Pap) smear X Investigator assessment of vaginal X X X mucosa Vaginal cytological smear X X X Mammogram Endometrial biopsy X Diary Dispense X X Diary Collection X X X FSFI X Satisfaction Survey X Urine pregnancy test Randomization Dispense Investigational X Product bottle Re-dispense X Investigational Product bottle Treatment administration X X instruction Collect unused X X X investigational product and used bottles; assess compliance Adverse event monitoring X X X X Concomitant medications X X X X Washout Period Visit (if applicable; Weeks −14 to −6). The purpose of this visit was to discuss the study with a potential subject and obtain informed consent that is signed and dated before any procedures, including washout are performed. Subjects who agreed to discontinue current treatment began washout after the consent form was signed. A symptoms/complaints and medication diary was dispensed at this visit and the subject was instructed in how to complete the diary. Once the washout period was completed, the subject will return to the site for visit 1A. The activities and assessments conducted during the visit included: informed consent; demographics; medical/gynecological history; collection of prior and concomitant medication information; height, body weight measurement and BMI calculation; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP); dispensation of symptoms/complaints diary and instruction in how to complete the diary Screening Period Visits (Visits 1A and 1B). Subjects not requiring washout begin screening procedures at visit 1A as described above for the washout period. With the exception of vital signs, procedures performed at washout will not be repeated at screening visit 1A. In general, screening visits 1A and 1B were completed within 6 weeks (42 days) for subjects without a uterus or within 8 weeks (56 days) for subjects with a uterus. All screening assessments were completed prior to randomization. The investigators reviewed the results from all screening procedures and determined if the subjects were eligible for enrollment into the study. Visit 1A (approximately Week −6 to 0). Visit 1A was conducted after the wash-out period (if applicable) or after the subject provided informed consent. The subject was advised to fast for 8 hours prior to the visit for blood draws. Procedures and evaluations conducted at the visit included: informed consent; demographics; medical/gynecological history; collection of the symptoms/complaints and medications diary from washout (if applicable) and review with the subject; recording of prior medication information; recording and assessment of adverse events (AEs) starting from the signing of informed consent; height, body weight measurement and BMI calculation; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP); physical examination; breast examination (including a mammogram conducted up to nine months prior to Visit 2); urine pregnancy test as required; blood and urine sample collection for blood chemistry (minimum fast of 8 hrs), hematology, and urinalysis; serum FSH as required; 12-Lead ECG. At visit 1A, the VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire was conducted and most bothersome symptoms were identified, with the subject self-identifying moderate or severe pain with sexual activity as her MBS to continue screening. The symptoms/complaints and medications diary was dispensed, and subjects were instructed in how to complete the diary. Subjects were instructed to refrain from use of vaginal lubricants for 7 days and sexual intercourse/vaginal douching for 24 hours prior to the vaginal pH assessment to be done at visit 1B. Visit 1B (approximately Week −4 to Week 0). Visit 1B was conducted after the subject's initial screening visit and after the other screening results indicated that the subject was otherwise an eligible candidate for the study (preferably around the middle of the screening period). Procedures and evaluations conducted at the visit included: VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire, the subject having indicated moderate to severe pain with sexual activity with vaginal penetration in order to continue screening; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP); pelvic examination; investigator assessment of vaginal mucosa as described above; assessment of vaginal pH (sexual intercourse or vaginal douching within 24 hrs prior to the assessment being prohibited, and a subject's vaginal pH being >5.0 to continue screening); Pap smear; vaginal cytological smear (one repetition being permitted during screening if no results were obtained from the first smear); endometrial biopsy performed as described above; review of the symptoms/complaints and medications diary with the subject. Visit 2 (Week 0; Randomization/Baseline). Subjects who met entry criteria were randomized to investigational product at this visit. Procedures and evaluations conducted at the visit included: self-administration of FSFI by subjects not participating in the PK substudy; review of the symptoms/complaints and medications diary with the subject; review of evaluations performed at screening visits and verification of present of all inclusion criteria and the absence of all exclusion criteria; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP); randomization, with subjects meeting all entry criteria being randomized and allocated a bottle number; dispensation of investigational product and instruction in how to insert the capsule vaginally, with subjects receiving their first dose of investigational product under supervision; dispensation of dosing diary and instruction on completion of the treatment diary, including recording investigational product usage and sexual activity. Visit 3 (Week 2, Day 14±3 days). Procedures and evaluations conducted at the visit included: completion of the VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire; review of the symptoms/complaints and medications diaries with the subject; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP); Assessment of vaginal mucosa; assessment of vaginal pH (with sexual intercourse or vaginal douching within 24 hrs prior to the assessment being prohibited); vaginal cytological smear; collection of unused investigational product and bottle for assessment of compliance/accountability; re-dispensation of investigational product and re-instruction in how to insert the capsule vaginally if necessary; review of the completed dosing diary with the subject. Visit 4 (Week 6, Day 42±3 days). Procedures and evaluations conducted at the visit included: completion of the VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire; review of the symptoms/complaints and medications diary with the subject; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP); assessment of vaginal mucosa as described above; vaginal cytological smear; assessment of vaginal pH (with sexual intercourse or vaginal douching within 24 hrs prior to the assessment being prohibited); collection of unused investigational product for assessment of compliance/accountability; re-dispensation of investigational product and re-instruction in how to insert the capsule vaginally if necessary; review of the completed dosing diary with the subject. Visit 5 (Week 8, Day 56±3 days). Procedures and evaluations conducted at the visit included: completion of the VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire; review of the symptoms/complaints and medications diary with the subject; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP); assessment of vaginal mucosa as described above; vaginal cytological smear; assessment of vaginal pH (with sexual intercourse or vaginal douching within 24 hrs prior to the assessment being prohibited); collection of unused investigational product for assessment of compliance/accountability; re-dispensation of investigational product and re-instruction in how to insert the capsule vaginally if necessary; review of the completed dosing diary with the subject. Visit 6 (Week 12, Day 84±3 days or early termination). This visit was performed if a subject withdraws from the study before visit 6. Procedures performed at this visit included: completion of the VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire; review of the subject the dosing diary, symptoms/complaints, and medications diaries with the subject; collection of blood and urine sample collection for blood chemistry (minimum fast of 8 hrs), hematology, and urinalysis; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP) and weight; performance of 12-lead-ECG; collection of unused investigational product and container for assessment of compliance/accountability; physical examination; breast exam; assessment of vaginal mucosa as described above; assessment of vaginal pH (with sexual intercourse or vaginal douching within 24 hrs prior to the assessment being prohibited); vaginal cytological smear; Pap smear; endometrial biopsy; self-administration of FSFI by subjects not participating in the PK substudy; self-administration of survey titled “Acceptability of product administration Survey” by subjects. Follow-up Interview (approximately 15 days after the last dose of investigational product). Each subject who received investigational product received a follow-up phone call, regardless of the duration of therapy, approximately 15 days following the last dose of investigational product. The follow-up generally took place after receipt of all safety assessments (e.g., endometrial biopsy and mammography results). The follow-up included: review of ongoing adverse events and any new adverse events that occurred during the 15 days following the last dose of investigational product; review of ongoing concomitant medications and any new concomitant medications that occurred during the 15 days following the last dose of investigational product; and discussion of all end of study safety assessments and determination if further follow up or clinic visit is required. PK Substudy Visit Procedures and Schedule Screening Visit 1A. In addition to the procedures listed described above, activities in the PK substudy also included: provision of informed consent by subject and agreement to participate in the PK substudy; collection of a serum blood sample during the visit for baseline assessment of estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates. Visit 2 (Week 0, Day 1). In addition to the procedures listed described above, activities in the PK substudy also included collection of serum blood sample obtained prior to the administration of investigational product (timepoint 0 h) for baseline assessment of estradiol, estrone, estrone conjugates, and SHBG. The investigational product was self-administered by the subject after the pre-treatment blood sample has been taken. After investigational product administration, serum blood samples were obtained at 2 h, 4 h, 6 h, 10 h, and 24 h timepoints for estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates (serum samples were generally taken within +/−5 minutes at 2 h and 4 h, within +/−15 minutes at 6 h, and within +/−1 h at 10 h and 24 h). The subject was released from the site after the 10 hour sample and instructed to return to the site the next morning for the 24 hour blood draw. The subject was instructed not to self-administer the day 2 dose until instructed by the site personnel to dose at the clinical site. The subject was released from the clinical site following the 24 hour blood sample and administration of the day 2 dose. Visit 3 (Week 2, Day 14). The visit must occurred on day 14 with no visit window allowed. In addition to the procedures listed above, the PK substudy included collection of a serum blood sample prior to the administration of day 14 dose (timepoint 0 h) for SHBG and PK assessments. The subject self-administered the day 14 dose at the clinical site, and serum blood samples were obtained at 2 h, 4 h, 6 h, 10 h, and 24 h timepoints for estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates. The subject was released from the site after the 10 hour sample and instructed to return to the site the next morning for the 24 hour blood draw. The subject was instructed not to self-administer the day 15 dose until instructed by the site personnel to dose at the clinical site. The subject was released from the clinical site following the 24 hour blood sample and administration of the day 15 dose. The subject was be instructed to administer the next dose of study drug on day 18 or day 19 and continue dosing on a bi-weekly basis at the same time of day for each dose. Visit 6 (Week 12, Day 84±3 days, or at early termination). The visit took place 4 days after last IP dose or early termination. A serum sample for estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates and SHBG was drawn in addition to the procedures described above. PK sub-study visits were typically conducted so as to include the activities outlined in Table 44. TABLE 44 Schedule of Assessments for PK Sub-study Visit 2: Visit 3: Visit 1A Visit 1B Randomization/ Interim Washout Screening Screening Baseline Week 2 Week −14 Week −6 Week −4 Week 0 Day 14 Activity to −6 to 0 to 0 Day 1 (no window) PK sub-study Informed X X consent Demographics/Medical X X and Gynecological history and prior medications Weight X X Height and BMI X X calculation Vital signs X X X X X MBS X Subject VVA Self- X X X Assessment Questionnaire Physical examination X including breast exam Laboratory safety tests X (Hematology, Serum Chemistry, FSHP, Urinalysis) PK Serum Blood Samples X X X (Estradiol, Estrone, Estrone Conjugates) Serum blood samples for X X SHBG 12-Lead ECG X Pelvic exam X Vaginal pH X X Papanicolaou (Pap) smear X Investigator assessment of X X vaginal mucosa Vaginal cytological smear X X Mammogram X Endometrial biopsy X Diary Dispense X X X X X Diary Collection X X X X Satisfaction Survey Urine pregnancy test X Randomization X Dispense new X Investigational Product (IP) bottle Re-dispense X Investigational Product (IP) bottle IP administration X X instruction Collect unused IP and X used bottles; assess compliance Adverse event monitoring X X X X Concomitant medications X X X X Visit 6: End of Treatment Telephone Visit 4: Visit 5: of Early Term Interview Interim Interim Week 12 Week 14 Week 6 Week 8 Day 84 (±3 d) approximately Day 42 Day 56 (4 days after 15 days after Activity (±3 d) (±3 d) last IP dose) last dose of IP PK sub-study Informed consent Demographics/Medical and Gynecological history and prior medications Weight X Height and BMI calculation Vital signs X X X MBS Subject VVA Self- X X X Assessment Questionnaire Physical examination X including breast exam Laboratory safety tests X (Hematology, Serum Chemistry, FSHP, Urinalysis) PK Serum Blood Samples X (Estradiol, Estrone, Estrone Conjugates) Serum blood samples for X SHBG 12-Lead ECG X Pelvic exam X Vaginal pH X X X Papanicolaou (Pap) smear X Investigator assessment of X X X vaginal mucosa Vaginal cytological smear X X X Mammogram Endometrial biopsy X Diary Dispense X X Diary Collection X X X Satisfaction Survey X Urine pregnancy test Randomization Dispense new X Investigational Product (IP) bottle Re-dispense X Investigational Product (IP) bottle IP administration X X instruction Collect unused IP and X X X used bottles; assess compliance Adverse event monitoring X X X X Concomitant medications X X X X An Adverse Event (AE) in the study was defined as the development of an undesirable medical condition or the deterioration of a pre-existing medical condition following or during exposure to a pharmaceutical product, whether or not considered casually related to the product. An AE could occur from overdose of investigational product. In this study, an AE can include an undesirable medical condition occurring at any time, including baseline or washout periods, even if no study treatment has been administered. Relationship to Investigational Product The investigators determined the relationship to the investigational product for each AE (Not Related, Possibly Related, or Probably Related). The degree of “relatedness” of the adverse event to the investigational product was described as follows: not related—no temporal association and other etiologies are likely the cause; possible—temporal association, but other etiologies are likely the cause. However, involvement of the investigational product cannot be excluded; probable—temporal association, other etiologies are possible but unlikely. The event may respond if the investigational product is discontinued. Example 11 Efficacy Results of Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Multicenter Study Each of the three doses showed statistical significance compared with placebo for the primary endpoints. Each of the three doses showed statistical significance compared with placebo for the secondary endpoints. Table 45 shows the statistical significance of the experimental data for each of the four co-primary endpoints. Each of the dosages met each of the four co-primary endpoints at a statistically significant level. The 25 mcg dose of TX-004HR demonstrated highly statistically significant results at the p≤0.0001 level compared to placebo across all four co-primary endpoints. The 10 mcg dose of TX-004HR demonstrated highly statistically significant results at the p≤0.0001 level compared to placebo across all four co-primary endpoints. The 4 mcg dose of TX-004HR also demonstrated highly statistically significant results at the p≤0.0001 level compared to placebo for the endpoints of superficial vaginal cells, parabasal vaginal cells, and vaginal pH; the change from baseline compared to placebo in the severity of dyspareunia was at the p=0.0255 level. TABLE 45 Statistical Significance of Results for Co-Primary Endpoints (Based on Mean Change from Baseline to Week 12 Compared to Placebo) 25 mcg 10 mcg 4 mcg Superficial Cells P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 Parabasal Cells P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 Vaginal pH P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 Severity of P = 0.0001 P = 0.0001 P = 0.0255 Dyspareunia Statistical improvement over placebo was also observed for all three doses at the first assessment at week two and sustained through week 12. The pharmacokinetic data for all three doses demonstrated low systemic absorption, supporting the previous Phase 1 trial data. TX-004HR was well tolerated, and there were no clinically significant differences compared to placebo-treated women with respect to adverse events. There were no drug-related serious adverse events reported. As shown in the data below, in the MITT population (n=747) at week 12, all TX-004HR doses compared with placebo significantly decreased the percentage of parabasal cells and vaginal pH, significantly increased the percentage of superficial cells, and significantly reduced the severity of dyspareunia (all p≤0.00001 except dyspareunia at 4 μg p=0.0149). At weeks 2, 6, and 8, the percentage of parabasal cells and vaginal pH significantly decreased p<0.00001); the percentage of superficial cells significantly increased (p<0.00001); and the severity of dyspareunia significantly improved from baseline with all TX-004HR doses vs placebo (4 μg p<0.03; 10 μg and 25 μg p<0.02). Moderate-to-severe vaginal dryness was reported by 93% at baseline and significantly improved (p<0.02) for all doses at weeks 2, 6, 8, and 12 (except 4 μg at week 2). Vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation significantly improved (p<0.05) for 10 μg at weeks 8 and 12, and for 25 μg at week 12. TX-004HR was well tolerated, had high acceptability, and no treatment-related serious AEs were reported in the safety population (n=764). There were no clinically significant differences in any AEs or treatment-related SAEs between TX-004HR and placebo. Very low to negligible systemic levels of estradiol were observed. All TX-004HR doses were safe and effective and resulted in very low to negligible systemic absorption of E2 in women with VVA and moderate-to-severe dyspareunia. Onset of effect was seen as early as 2 weeks and was maintained throughout the study and acceptability was very high. This novel product provides a promising new treatment option for women experiencing menopausal VVA. Cytology Vaginal cytology data was collected as vaginal smears from the lateral vaginal walls according to procedures presented above to evaluate vaginal cytology at screening and Visit 6—End of treatment (day 84). The change in the Maturation Index was assessed as a change in cell composition measured at Visit 1—Baseline (day 1) compared to the cell composition measured at Visit 3—End of treatment (day 84). The change in percentage of superficial, parabasal, and intermediate cells obtained from the vaginal mucosal epithelium from a vaginal smear was recorded. Results from these assessments for superficial cells are presented in Table 46 and Table 47, as well as FIG. 10, FIG. 11, and FIG. 12. Results from these assessments for parabasal cells are presented in Table 48 and Table 49, as well as FIG. 13, FIG. 14, and FIG. 15. Superficial Cells TABLE 46 Superficial Cells P-values by Treatment Week 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Week 2 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 6 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 8 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 12 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 TABLE 47 Superficial Cells Change in Severity from Baseline by Treatment Week (change in percent of total vaginal cells) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Week 2 31.35 (1.496) 31.93 (1.488) 38.85 (1.5) 6.05 (1.498) Week 6 18.41 (1.536) 16.88 (1.543) 22.65 (1.532) 5.43 (1.525) Week 8 19.04 (1.561) 17.41 (1.558) 23.88 (1.554) 5.98 (1.551) Week 12 17.5 (1.542) 16.72 (1.54) 23.2 (1.529) 5.63 (1.537) The study showed the formulations disclosed herein across all doses increased the percentage of superficial cells across all dosages in a statistically significant way. Parabasal Cells TABLE 48 Parabasal Cells P-values by Treatment Week 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Week 2 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 6 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 8 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 12 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 TABLE 49 Parabasal Cells Change in Severity from Baseline by Treatment Week (change in percent of total vaginal cells) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Week 2 −40.23 (1.719) −44.42 (1.708) −45.6 (1.723) −7 (1.72) Week 6 −39.36 (1.75) −43.55 (1.752) −45.61 (1.746) −9.23 (1.741) Week 8 −41.87 (1.768) −43.78 (1.764) −45.08 (1.762) −7.86 (1.76) Week 12 −40.63 (1.755) −44.07 (1.751) −45.55 (1.745) −6.73 (1.75) The increase of superficial cells and decrease of parabasal cells showed statistical significance over placebo at week 2 and for every week thereafter, including at week 12. Administration of the pharmaceutical formulation resulted in rapid onset of action, as early as two weeks after the initial administration. Rapid onset of action may be coupled with the rapid absorption demonstrated in the pharmacokinetic data presented below. pH Vaginal pH was measured at Screening and Visit 6—End of treatment (day 84). The pH measurement was obtained as disclosed herein. Results from these assessments are presented in Table 50 and Table 51, and FIG. 16, FIG. 17, and FIG. 18. TABLE 50 pH P-values by Treatment Week 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Week 2 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 6 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 8 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 12 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 TABLE 51 pH Change in Severity from Baseline by Treatment Week (change in pH) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Week 2 −1.23 (0.064) −1.37 (0.064) −1.3 (0.065) −0.28 (0.064) Week 6 −1.32 (0.066) −1.4 (0.066) −1.48 (0.066) −0.3 (0.065) Week 8 −1.35 (0.067) −1.46 (0.067) −1.45 (0.066) −0.38 (0.066) Week 12 −1.32 (0.066) −1.42 (0.066) −1.34 (0.066) −0.28 (0.066) The decrease in vaginal pH was observed at statistically significant levels at week 2 and through the end of the study. Surprisingly, the pH decreased in all three pharmaceutical formulations tested and at all three dosages of over a full pH unit for all three doses. Most Bothersome Symptoms Dyspareunia Subjects were asked to specify the symptom that she identified as the “most bothersome symptom.” During the screening period all of the subjects were provided with a questionnaire to self-assess the symptoms of VVA: (1) dyspareunia; (2) vaginal dryness; and (3) vaginal or vulvar irritation, burning, or itching. Each symptom was measured on a scale of 0 to 3, where 0=none, 1=mild, 2=moderate, and 3=severe. Each subject was given a questionnaire at each visit and the responses were recorded. All randomized subjects were also provided a questionnaire to self-assess the symptoms of VVA at Visit 1 and on each subsequent visit through Visit 6—End of the treatment (day 84). Subjects recorded their self-assessments daily in a diary and answers were collected on visits 8 and 15 (end of treatment). Pre-dose evaluation results obtained at Visit 1 were considered as baseline data for the statistical analyses. Data from these assessments for dyspareunia are presented in Table 52 and Table 53. Data from these assessments for dryness are presented in Table 54 and Table 55. TABLE 52 Dyspareunia P-values by Treatment Week 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Week 2 0.026 0.0019 0.0105 Week 6 0.0069 0.0009 <0.0001 Week 8 0.0003 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 12 0.0149 <0.0001 <0.0001 TABLE 53 Dyspareunia Change in Severity from Baseline by Treatment Week (0 to 3 severity scale) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Week 2 −0.99 (0.072) −1.08 (0.072) −1.02 (0.073) −0.76 (0.072) Week 6 −1.3 (0.072) −1.37 (0.072) −1.48 (0.072) −1.03 (0.07) Week 8 −1.52 (0.073) −1.64 (0.074) −1.62 (0.075) −1.15 (0.072) Week 12 −1.52 (0.071) −1.69 (0.071) −1.69 (0.071) −1.28 (0.07) Each of the 4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg formulations tests demonstrated an early onset of action at week 2 for the most bothersome symptom of dyspareunia, evidenced by the statistically significant results (measured by p-value) in Table 52. After two weeks, each dose demonstrated separation from placebo in improvement in the most bothersome symptom of dyspareunia. Coupled with the PK data presented below, these results show that the formulations disclosed herein provide a bolus of estradiol within two hours of administration, which resulted in a decrease in the severity of dyspareunia as early as two weeks later. Estradiol is rapidly absorbed at around two hours, which is significantly faster than the formulations of the prior art that sought an extended release profile. The rapid absorption of estradiol is believed to be a result of administration with a liquid formulation. Surprisingly, the 4 μg formulation showed clinical effectiveness at two weeks along with the 25 μg and 10 μg dosage levels. These data demonstrate that 4 μg is an effective dose, and can be effective as early as two weeks after administration for the most bothersome symptom of dyspareunia. Dryness TABLE 54 Dryness P-values by Treatment Week 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Week 2 0.1269 0.0019 0.0082 Week 6 0.0094 0.0001 0.0005 Week 8 0.0128 <0.0001 0.0008 Week 12 0.0014 <0.0001 <0.0001 TABLE 55 Dryness Change in Severity from Baseline by Treatment Week (0 to 3 severity scale) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Week 2 −0.86(0.066) −1.01 (0.065) −0.96 (0.066) −0.72 (0.066) Week 6 −1.14 (0.067) −1.27 (0.068) −1.23 (0.067) −0.9 (0.067) Week 8 −1.25 (0.069) −1.44 (0.068) −1.34 (0.068) −1.01 (0.068) Week 12 −1.27 (0.068) −1.47 (0.067) −1.47 (0.067) −0.97 (0.067) Each of the 4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg formulations tests demonstrated an early onset of action at week 2 for the most bothersome symptom of dryness, evidenced by the statistically significant results (measured by p-value) in Table 54. After two weeks, each dose demonstrated separation from placebo in improvement in the most bothersome symptom of dryness. Irritation/Itching TABLE 56 Irritation/Itching P-values by Treatment Week 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Week 2 0.9616 0.2439 0.6518 Week 6 0.7829 0.2328 0.4118 Week 8 0.0639 0.0356 0.0914 Week 12 0.0503 0.0055 0.0263 TABLE 57 Irritation/Itching Change in Severity from Baseline by Treatment Week (0 to 3 severity scale) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Week 2 −0.47 (0.054) −0.56 (0.053) −0.51 (0.054) −0.47 (0.054) Week 6 −0.57 (0.055) −0.64 (0.055) −0.61 (0.055) −0.55 (0.055) Week 8 −0.74 (0.056) −0.76 (0.056) −0.73 (0.056) −0.59 (0.056) Week 12 −0.75 (0.055) −0.81 (0.055) −0.77 (0.055) −0.6 (0.055) Vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation significantly improved (p<0.05) for 10 μg at weeks 8 and 12, and for 25 μg at week 12. Moreover, the trend for 4 μg was an improvement in itching week over week to nearly being statistically significant at week 12. Coupled with the PK data presented below, these results show that the formulations disclosed herein provide a bolus of estradiol within two hours of administration, which resulted in a decrease in the severity of dryness as early as two weeks later. Estradiol is rapidly absorbed at around two hours, which is significantly faster than the formulations of the prior art that sought an extended release profile. The rapid absorption of estradiol is believed to be a result of administration with a liquid formulation. Surprisingly, the 4 μg formulation showed clinical effectiveness at two weeks along with the 25 μg and 10 μg dosage levels. These data demonstrate that 4 μg is an effective dose, and can be effective as early as two weeks after administration for the most bothersome symptom of dryness. As described above, each dose was compared with placebo for change from baseline to week 12 in the percentages of vaginal superficial cells and parabasal cells, vaginal pH, and severity of dyspareunia (co-primary endpoints). The proportion of responders (defined as women with ≥2 of the following at week 12: vaginal superficial cells >5%, vaginal pH <5.0, ≥1 category improvement from baseline dyspareunia score) was compared in TX-004HR groups vs placebo. Pre-specified subgroup analyses of co-primary endpoints were analyzed by age (≤56 years, 57-61 years, and ≥62 years), BMI (≤24 kg/m2, 25-28 kg/m2, and ≥29 kg/m2), uterine status, parity, and vaginal births. Pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters were compared with placebo in a sub-analysis of the main study. The proportion of responders was significantly higher for all TX-004HR dose groups vs placebo (p<0.0001 for all). All TX-004HR doses vs placebo significantly improved percentage of superficial and parabasal cells, vaginal pH, and severity of dyspareunia at 12 weeks. Subgroup analyses showed generally similar results for percentage of superficial and parabasal cells and vaginal pH irrespective of age, BMI, uterine status, parity, and vaginal births. Severity of dyspareunia was significantly reduced at 12 weeks with all TX-004HR doses vs placebo in most subgroups (Table 57A). The PK sub-analysis (n=72), described in more detail below, found AUC and Cavg parameters for E2 and estrone (E1) with 4 μg and 10 μg TX-004HR to be similar to placebo. Increases occurred in E2 AUC and Cavg with 25 μg vs placebo but remained within the normal postmenopausal range. E2 levels at day 84 were similar between the TX-004HR groups and placebo, indicating no systemic drug accumulation. All doses of TX-004HR were associated with robust efficacy and demonstrated a statistically significant difference vs placebo for increasing superficial cells, decreasing parabasal cells and vaginal pH, and reducing the severity of dyspareunia. Age, BMI, uterine status, parity and vaginal births generally did not affect TX-004HR efficacy. These results occurred with negligible systemic absorption of TX-004HR estradiol doses of 4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg. TABLE 57A Change from baseline to week 12 in the severity of dyspareunia (LS mean change ± SE). Placebo TX-004HR 4 μg TX-004HR 10 μg TX-004HR 25 μg Key clinical factors (n = 187) (n = 186) (n = 188) (n = 186) Age, years ≤56 n = 52 −1.25 ± 0.119 n = 50 −1.58 ± 0.122 n = 61 −1.77 ± 0.112† n = 65 −1.86 ± 0.108‡ 57-61 n = 53 −1.39 ± 0.118 n = 50 −1.42 ± 0.121 n = 49 −1.63 ± 0.121 n = 47 −1.79 ± 0.125* ≥62 n = 58 −1.19 ± 0.122 n = 51 −1.52 ± 0.126 n = 44 −1.66 ± 0.138† n = 47 −1.38 ± 0.135 BMI, ≤24 n = 56 −1.14 ± 0.115 n = 58 −1.48 ± 0.113* n = 56 −1.6 ± 0.117† n = 51 −1.72 ± 0.123‡ kg/m2 25 to 28 n = 57 −1.48 ± 0.118 n = 45 −1.51 ± 0.131 n = 52 −1.78 ± 0.124 n = 58 −1.77 ± 0.117 ≥29 n = 50 −1.21 ± 0.125 n = 48 −1.56 ± 0.125 n = 46 −1.71 ± 0.129† n = 50 −1.57 ± 0.124* Uterine Intact n = 101 −1.35 ± 0.086 n = 82 −1.66 ± 0.095* n = 84 −1.74 ± 0.095† n = 85 −1.81 ± 0.094‡ status Non-intact n = 62 −1.15 ± 0.115 n = 69 −1.35 ± 0.108 n = 70 −1.63 ± 0.108† n = 74 −1.55 ± 0.107* Pregnancy Pregnancy = 0 n = 16 −1.18 ± 0.220 n = 17 −1.28 ± 0.217 n = 19 −1.26 ± 0.209 n = 13 −1.64 ± 0.257 status Pregnancy ≥ 1 n = 147 −1.28 ± 0.073 n = 134 −1.55 ± 0.075* n = 135 −1.74 ± 0.076§ n = 146 −1.70 ± 0.073‡ Vaginal Vaginal birth = 0 n = 26 −1.19 ± 0.171 n = 22 −1.74 ± 0.189* n = 29 −1.68 ± 0.161* n = 31 −1.76 ± 0.160* births Vaginal birth ≥ 1 n = 121 −1.30 ± 0.080 n = 112 −1.51 ± 0.082 n = 106 −1.77 ± 0.085‡ n = 115 −1.69 ± 0.082‡ *p < 0.05; †p < 0.01; ‡p < 0.001; §p < 0.0001 vs placebo. Visual evaluation of the vaginal epithelium, a secondary endpoint of the trial, was performed during gynecological examinations at baseline and weeks 2, 6, 8, and 12. A four-point score (0=none, 1=mild, 2=moderate, 3=severe) was used to assess changes in vaginal color, vaginal epithelial integrity, vaginal epithelial surface thickness, and vaginal secretions. Change from baseline to each time point was compared with placebo using the mixed effect model repeat measurement (MIVIRM) analysis. At baseline, women had mean scores of 1.8 for vaginal color, 1.5 for epithelial integrity, 1.9 for epithelial surface thickness, and 1.7 for secretions. These scores were consistent with VVA reflecting pallor, diminished vaginal wall integrity and thickness, and secretions. Significant improvements from baseline at weeks 2, 6, 8 and 12 (Table 57B; FIG. 19A-FIG. 19D) were observed for all 3 doses of TX-004HR compared with placebo in vaginal color (white to pink), epithelial integrity, epithelial surface thickness and secretions (p<0.001 for all). After 12 weeks, women in the active TX-004HR treatment groups had mean scores less than 1 in all four characterized categories. Vaginal visual examination of women in the 3 TX-004HR groups had greater reported improvements from baseline in all vaginal parameters examined than placebo subjects and at all time points. These improved vaginal visual scores reflect other observed measures of efficacy of TX-004HR (4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg) at treating moderate-to-severe VVA in postmenopausal women, with negligible to very low systemic E2 absorption. TABLE 57B Change from baseline at week 12 in vaginal parameters TX-004HR TX-004HR TX-004HR 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Vaginal Parameters, mean (SD) (n = 171) (n = 173) (n = 175) (n = 175) Vaginal epithelial Baseline 1.8 (0.61) 1.7 (0.59) 1.8 (0.60) 1.7 (0.64) color 12 weeks 0.8 (0.67) 0.7 (0.64) 0.8 (0.68) 1.2 (0.80) Change −1.0 (0.82) −1.1 (0.80) −1.0 (0.88) −0.6 (0.83) LS Mean (SE) −0.97 (0.05)* −1.06 (0.05)* −0.96 (0.05)* −0.60 (0.05) Vaginal epithelial Baseline 1.6 (0.84) 1.4 (0.83) 1.5 (0.77) 1.5 (0.84) integrity 12 weeks 0.5 (0.69) 0.4 (0.57) 0.5 (0.66) 0.9 (0.91) Change −1.0 (0.93) −1.0 (0.89) −1.0 (0.91) −0.6 (0.98) LS Mean (SE) −0.97 (0.05)* −1.07 (0.05)* −1.01 (0.05)* −0.60 (0.05) Vaginal epithelial Baseline 1.9 (0.67) 1.8 (0.63) 1.9 (0.59) 1.9 (0.65) surface thickness 12 weeks 0.9 (0.66) 0.8 (0.63) 0.9 (0.69) 1.3 (0.85) Change −1.0 (0.76) −1.0 (0.79) −0.9 (0.80) −0.6 (0.82) LS Mean (SE) −0.98 (0.05)* −1.03 (0.05)* −0.94 (0.05)* −0.61 (0.05) Vaginal Baseline 1.8 (0.68) 1.7 (0.66) 1.7 (0.63) 1.8 (0.63) secretions 12 weeks 0.8 (0.69) 0.6 (0.67) 0.7 (0.71) 1.1 (0.84) Change −1.0 (0.82) −1.0 (0.86) −1.0 (0.85) −0.7 (0.79) LS Mean (SE) −1.01 (0.05)* −1.06 (0.05)* −1.04 (0.05)* −0.64 (0.05) Data is mean (SD) unless otherwise noted; *MMRM p < 0.0001 vs placebo. A direct correlation was observed between the total sum of the individual visual examination score and severity of dyspareunia (r=0.31; P<0.0001) as well as the severity of vaginal dryness (r=0.38; P<0.0001) at 12 weeks when all subjects were analyzed independent of treatment. See, FIG. 20A and FIG. 20B. Interestingly, women treated with placebo also showed some improvements in their scores at week 2, but while women treated with TX-004HR showed continued improvements through 12 weeks of treatment, such continued improvements were not observed to the same extent with the placebo. Three possible explanations for the improvements observed with the placebo include the potential lubricating effect of the excipient Miglyol, a fractionated coconut oil contained in all softgel capsules, improved appearance based on vaginal lubrication caused by increased sexual activity and/or bias on the part of the physicians performing the examinations as they may anticipate improvement. Nevertheless, TX-004HR still significantly improved evaluated signs and symptoms of VVA better than placebo. Since visual inspection of the vagina with the 4-point assessment tool positively correlated with dyspareunia and vaginal dryness in this study, this tool may help healthcare professionals diagnose VVA and assess its treatment, and provide a vehicle for health care professionals to initiation discussion with their patients about a sensitive topic. Several large-scale studies have shown that it is difficult for patients to discuss vulvovaginal health openly with their health care professionals because they are either embarrassed, uninformed about VVA and its treatments, or believe that the topic is not appropriate for discussion. Therefore, of the 50% of postmenopausal women who have symptoms of VVA, far fewer seek treatment. Visual examination of the vagina may help practitioners identify women at risk of dyspareunia and vaginal dryness, and allow them to proactively engage women in conversations about VVA symptoms such as dyspareunia and dryness and discuss available treatment options. Example 12 Pharmacokinetics Results in Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Multicenter Study While some approved local estrogens effectively treat VVA, systemic estradiol may increase with local administration. TX-004HR is a new low-dose vaginal softgel capsule containing solubilized natural estradiol designed to provide excellent efficacy with negligible systemic absorption. Up to three times lower systemic estrogen levels were previously reported with TX-004HR vs an approved low-dose vaginal estradiol tablet. The present studies show that VVA efficacy can be achieved with negligible systemic absorption as measured by PK in postmenopausal women with moderate-to-severe dyspareunia. The terms “minimal systemic effect,” “low systemic absorption,” and “negligible systemic absorption,” as used herein, mean that the disclosed formulations and methods result in low to minimal absorption of estradiol in women, especially women with VVA and/or dyspareunia. In fact, it has surprisingly been found that the disclosed formulations and methods result in negligible to very low systemic absorption of estradiol, which remains in the postmenopausal range. The finding is borne out by the examples provided herein that demonstrate that the Cmax and AUC levels of estradiol relative to placebo were not statistically differentiable, which indicates that the formulations disclosed herein have a negligible systemic effect. As such, the disclosed formulations and methods advantageously provide local benefits in patients with VVA and/or dyspareunia (i.e., the disclosed formulations are extremely effective in increasing the superficial cells, decreasing parabasal cells, and decreasing pH) without increasing systemic levels. A PK substudy was part of a large, multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial evaluating the efficacy and safety of TX-004HR (4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg) compared with placebo for treating postmenopausal moderate-to-severe dyspareunia. Women received TX-004HR or placebo once daily for 2 weeks then twice weekly for 10 wks. In this study, the systemic exposure to estradiol following once daily intravaginal administration of estradiol 25 μg, 10 μg, 4 μg, and placebo were investigated on days 1, 14, and 84 as described herein. Descriptive statistics of the plasma estradiol concentrations taken at each sampling time and the observed Cmax values were recorded, as shown in the tables below and FIG. 21 and FIG. 22, for estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates for all three doses. Serum estradiol, estrone, estrone conjugates, and sex hormone binding globulin were measured. For PK, serum was sampled pre-dose and at 2, 4, 6, 10, and 24 h post-dose on days 1 and 14 for estradiol, estrone (E1), and estrone conjugates (E1Cs). Baseline-adjusted results are shown here; unadjusted data will be presented. Efficacy endpoints were change from baseline to week 12 for vaginal superficial cells (%), vaginal parabasal cells (%), vaginal pH, and severity of dyspareunia. Secondary endpoints were severity of dryness and itching/irritation. Blood chemistry was tested at week 12. The substudy randomized 72 women (mean age 59 y) at 11 centers. Mean area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) and average concentration (Cavg) for estradiol were not significantly different vs placebo with 4 μg and 10 μg TX-004HR, but were significantly higher with 25 μg at day 1 (AUC 130 vs 13.8 h*pg/mL and Cavg 5.4 vs 0.4 pg/mL) and day 14 (AUC 84.6 vs 7.1 h*pg/mL and Cavg 3.5 vs −0.2 pg/mL). Mean estradiol peak concentration (Cmax) was not significantly different with 4 μg (day 1: 2.6 pg/mL; day 14: 1.3 pg/mL) vs placebo (day 1: 2.1 pg/mL; day 14: 1.0 pg/mL), and although significant, was negligible with 10 μg (day 1: 6.0 pg/mL; day 14: 3.0 pg/mL) and very low for 25 μg (day 1: 26.2 pg/mL; day 14: 12.0 pg/mL). E1 and E1Cs AUC, Cavg, Cmax, Cmin did not differ vs placebo, except for E1Cs on day 1 when AUC was significantly higher with 25 μg (2454 vs 83.0 h*pg/mL), Cmax with 10 μg and 25 μg (90.2 and 198.6 pg/mL, respectively vs 27.1 pg/mL), and Cavg with 10 μg (8.0 vs −33.7 pg/mL). In the overall study TX004-HR showed robust efficacy for symptoms of dyspareunia, vaginal dryness and irritation at 12 weeks with all 3 doses compared with placebo. Vaginal TX-004HR resulted in negligible to very low systemic absorption of estradiol, which remained in the postmenopausal range. TX-004HR improved the signs and symptoms of VVA. This study supports local benefits of estradiol without increasing systemic exposure. The pharmacokinetic data for estradiol demonstrates the rapid absorption of the formulations disclosed herein for all three doses. Surprisingly, while the pharmacokinetic data was extremely low for all three doses, each dose was extremely effective in increasing the superficial cells, decreasing parabasal cells, and decreasing pH. The pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein provide an improved safety profile over other options for treating VVA. The combination of low systemic estradiol, while retaining efficacy was a surprising result for all three doses. Estradiol Concentration TABLE 58 Pharmacokinetics Estradiol Baseline (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Baseline 4.7 (4.41) 5 (3.52) 3.6 (1.86) 4.6 (2.56) TABLE 59 Pharmacokinetics Estradiol Day 1 (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Predose 3.1 (1.56) 4.9 (3.47) 3.6 (1.81) 4.1 (2.45) 2 hour 6.1 (2.3) 10.4 (4.89) 28.7 (17.91) 4.8 (3.33) 4 hour 4.3 (1.68) 6.7 (3.59) 16.1 (14.75) 5 (3.59) 6 hour 3.7 (1.96) 5.7 (3.16) 9.7 (6.86) 4.8 (3.53) 10 hour 3.7 (1.47) 5.5 (2.92) 6.2 (2.37) 5.2 (3.61) 24 hour 4.2 (2.02) 5.4 (4.44) 6.2 (8.43) 5.1 (4.42) TABLE 60 Pharmacokinetics Estradiol Day 14 (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Predose 3.5 (1.63) 3.8 (2.56) 5.2 (2.89) 4.2 (3.07) 2 hour 4.3 (2.01) 6.3 (2.29) 15.3 (7.72) 4.2 (2.44) 4 hour 4 (1.7) 5.9 (2.55) 11 (4.86) 4.7 (3.2) 6 hour 3.9 (1.92) 5.1 (2.32) 7.9 (3.35) 4.7 (2.97) 10 hour 3.8 (2.12) 5 (3) 6.8 (3.76) 5.1 (3.53) 24 hour 3.6 (1.89) 3.7 (2.05) 4.9 (4.35) 3.9 (2.43) TABLE 61 Pharmacokinetics Estradiol End of Study (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Post Dosing 4.3 (2.69) 4.8 (2.57) 6.7 (11.51) 4.4 (2.6) Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 Hours) TABLE 62 Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) (h*pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 91.7 (37.86) 138.2 (75.22) 217.4 (99.02) 116.6 (77.3) Day 14 87.2 (42.77) 110.1 (54.57) 171.6 (80.13) 104.2 (66.39) TABLE 63 Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) (Baseline Adjusted) (h*pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 12 (13.89) 21.9 (19.16) 130.4 (111.95) 13.8 (28.86) Day 14 7.2 (12.08) 13.7 (18.77) 84.6 (62.7) 7.1 (20.28) TABLE 64 Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0242 <0.0001 Day 14 0.1777 0.0005 TABLE 65 Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.2292 0.4028 0.0021 Day 14 0.3829 0.7724 0.0108 TABLE 66 Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.082 0.0001 Day 14 0.2373 <0.0001 TABLE 67 Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.8134 0.3238 0.0002 Day 14 0.979 0.3235 <0.0001 TABLE 68 Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo AUC Ratio of 0.971 (0.2358) 0.876 (0.1937) 0.955 (0.6633) 0.949 (0.225) Day 14 to Day 1 Pairwise test vs 4 ug — 0.2022 0.9246 — Pairwise test vs 0.7859 0.3101 0.9748 — Placebo Estradiol Cmax TABLE 69 Cmax (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 6.5 (2.13) 10.9 (5) 29.8 (17.51) 6.6 (4.85) Day 14 4.8 (2.31) 7.3 (2.36) 15.7 (7.61) 5.5 (3.43) TABLE 70 Cmax (Baseline Adjusted) (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 2.6 (2.17) 6 (4.44) 26.2 (18.19) 2.1 (3.48) Day 14 1.3 (1.08) 3 (1.73) 12 (7.32) 1 (1.81) TABLE 71 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0013 <0.0001 Day 14 0.0033 <0.0001 TABLE 72 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.9586 0.0116 <0.0001 Day 14 0.5174 0.0702 <0.0001 TABLE 73 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0055 <0.0001 Day 14 0.002 <0.0001 TABLE 74 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.6074 0.0059 <0.0001 Day 14 0.5088 0.0022 <0.0001 TABLE 75 Cmax Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Cmax Ratio of 0.77 (0.2633) 0.804 (0.3245) 0.929 (1.5011) 0.933 (0.2406) Day 14 to Day 1 Pairwise test vs — 0.7399 0.6702 — Pairwise test vs 0.0702 0.1946 0.9931 — Placebo Estradiol Cavg TABLE 76 Cavg (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 3.9 (1.46) 5.8 (3.13) 9.1 (4.13) 4.9 (3.22) Day 14 3.6 (1.78) 4.6 (2.27) 7.1 (3.34) 4.3 (2.77) TABLE 77 Cavg (Baseline Adjusted) (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 0 (1.93) 0.8 (0.95) 5.4 (4.66) 0.4 (1.35) Day 14 0.1 (0.68) 0.2 (1.22) 3.5 (2.61) −0.2 (1.28) TABLE 78 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0294 <0.0001 Day 14 0.1777 0.0005 TABLE 79 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.267 0.4028 0.0021 Day 14 0.3829 0.7724 0.0108 TABLE 80 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.1076 0.0001 Day 14 0.7759 <0.0001 TABLE 81 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5126 0.2564 0.0001 Day 14 0.4098 0.3629 <0.0001 TABLE 82 Cavg Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Cavg Ratio of 0.77 (0.2633) 0.804 (0.3245) 0.929 (1.5011) 0.933 (0.2406) Day 14 to Day 1 Pairwise test vs — 0.7399 0.6702 — Pairwise test vs 0.0702 0.1946 0.9931 — Placebo Estradiol Tmax TABLE 83 Tmax (h) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 7 (9.36) 6.1 (8.04) 4.6 (7.09) 8.6 (6.74) Day 14 9.3 (8.86) 4 (2.57) 2.7 (1.94) 7.2 (3) TABLE 84 Tmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.7566 0.3834 Day 14 0.0206 0.004 TABLE 85 Tmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5705 0.3255 0.0943 Day 14 0.3576 0.0019 <0.0001 Estrone Concentration TABLE 86 Pharmacokinetics Estrone Baseline (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Baseline 15.9 (6.02) 19.7 (9.18) 16.3 (7.71) 20.4 (9.67) TABLE 87 Pharmacokinetics Estrone Day 1 (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Predose 14.7 (4.44) 21 (8.51) 17.2 (8.5) 18.3 (8.54) 2 hour 13.3 (4.52) 20 (8.53) 18.9 (6.7) 18.9 (11.25) 4 hour 13 (4.68) 19.3 (7.4) 19.4 (7.06) 19.9 (13.87) 6 hour 13.9 (6.04) 19.6 (8.89) 19.1 (8.1) 19 (11.69) 10 hour 13.4 (4.94) 19.7 (8.53) 18.8 (7.18) 19.3 (11.65) 24 hour 14.3 (5.92) 21.2 (9.89) 16.6 (6.06) 22.9 (17.18) TABLE 88 Pharmacokinetics Estrone Day 14 (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Predose 15.8 (5.15) 21.7 (14.25) 18.6 (8.49) 18.7 (9.38) 2 hour 13.6 (5.3) 19.7 (10.2) 19.8 (9.08) 17.3 (7.99) 4 hour 14 (5.25) 21 (13.46) 19.9 (7.26) 20.4 (11.41) 6 hour 14 (5.11) 20.7 (10.4) 19.3 (6.47) 16.1 (7.54) 10 hour 14.2 (5.51) 20.1 (11.93) 19.3 (8.24) 19 (8.17) 24 hour 14.5 (4.69) 20.1 (9.34) 16.7 (6.09) 18.9 (8.24) TABLE 89 Pharmacokinetics Estrone End of Study (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Post Dosing 4.328 (2.7619) 4.643 (2.5807) 6.652 (11.508) 4.363 (2.5982) Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 Hours) TABLE 90 Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) (h*pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 290.2 (123.67) 462.7 (195.64) 419.1 (147.85) 467.9 (278.78) Day 14 326.6 (114.09) 464.1 (243.92) 428.7 (161.75) 426.8 (180.67) TABLE 91 Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) (Baseline Adjusted) (h*pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 7.2 (20.91) 10.9 (24.55) 44.3 (54.27) 43.5 (97.41) Day 14 15 (41.53) 43.2 (84.87) 55.6 (78.06) 17.4 (45.27) TABLE 92 Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.003 0.0076 Day 14 0.042 0.0393 TABLE 93 Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0193 0.9487 0.519 Day 14 0.0621 0.6117 0.9738 TABLE 94 Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.6195 0.0104 Day 14 0.2251 0.0658 TABLE 95 Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.1311 0.167 0.9761 Day 14 0.8721 0.2746 0.0886 TABLE 96 Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo AUC Ratio of 1.234 (0.5824) 1.023 (0.2675) 1.039 (0.1941) 1.006 (0.2316) Day 14 to Day 1 Pairwise test vs — 0.1722 0.1866 — Pairwise test vs 0.1432 0.848 0.6544 — Placebo Estrone Cmax TABLE 97 Cmax (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 15.7 (6.07) 23.5 (9.87) 21.9 (7.73) 25.7 (18.43) Day 14 16 (5.5) 23.9 (13.45) 22.4 (8.95) 22.8 (10.89) TABLE 98 Cmax (Baseline Adjusted) (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 0.4 (3.05) 3.2 (2.99) 5.1 (4.78) 6.3 (12.81) Day 14 0.6 (3.49) 3.7 (8.79) 5.6 (4.81) 3.45.69) TABLE 99 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.007 0.0126 Day 14 0.0301 0.0163 TABLE 100 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0373 0.6567 0.4223 Day 14 0.0275 0.7878 0.8979 TABLE 101 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0087 0.0013 Day 14 0.1975 0.0014 TABLE 102 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0659 0.3046 0.71 Day 14 0.0938 0.933 0.2249 TABLE 103 Cmax Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Cmax Ratio of 1.029 (0.2346) 1.042 (0.3436) 1.041 (0.2179) 1.039 (0.2916) Day 14 to Day 1 Pairwise test vs — 0.9035 0.8835 — Pairwise test vs 0.9188 0.9788 0.982 — Placebo Estrone Cavg TABLE 104 Cavg (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 13 (4.72) 19.3 (8.15) 17.5 (6.16) 19.5 (11.62) Day 14 13.6 (4.75) 19.3 (10.16) 17.9 (6.74) 17.8 (7.53) TABLE 105 Cavg (Baseline Adjusted) (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 −2.3 (2.26) −1.1 (2.66) 0.7 (3.73) 0.1 (5.03) Day 14 −1.7 (3.25) −0.9 (5.91) 1.1 (4.81) −1.6 (3.8) TABLE 106 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0075 0.0207 Day 14 0.042 0.0393 TABLE 107 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0363 0.9487 0.519 Day 14 0.0621 0.6117 0.9738 TABLE 108 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.1345 0.0057 Day 14 0.6351 0.0495 TABLE 109 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0712 0.3751 0.691 Day 14 0.912 0.7058 0.0742 TABLE 110 Cavg Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Cavg Ratio of 1.029 (0.2346) 1.042 (0.3436) 1.041 (0.2179) 1.039 (0.2916) Day 14 to Day 1 Pairwise test vs — 0.9035 0.8835 — Pairwise test vs 0.9188 0.9788 0.982 — Placebo Estrone Tmax TABLE 111 Tmax (h) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 14.1 (9.37) 11.9 (9.76) 9.1 (7.43) 12.1 (9.39) Day 14 10.9 (9.03) 10.4 (8.93) 6.3 (6.9) 12.2 (9.24) TABLE 112 Tmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.4862 0.0849 Day 14 0.8711 0.0982 TABLE 113 Tmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5341 0.9449 0.2997 Day 14 0.6824 0.5639 0.0391 Estrone Conjugates TABLE 114 Pharmacokinetics Estrone Conjugates Baseline (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Baseline 250.3 (162.91) 259.7 (208.51) 374.4 (586.45) 280.7 (171.26) TABLE 115 Pharmacokinetics Estrone Conjugates Day 1 (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Predose 225.1 (215.01) 218.6 (147.84) 312.4 (410.38) 271.2 (153.33) 2 hour 206.8 (163.2) 273.1 (176.59) 396.6 (408.16) 223.4 (162.11) 4 hour 241.7 (176.87) 267.2 (161.79) 413.3 (343.25) 241.8 (139.77) 6 hour 240.6 (181.14) 266 (184.92) 477.8 (472.66) 265 (154.01) 10 hour 223 (150.42) 243.5 (173.71) 436.4 (461) 258 (133.21) 24 hour 229.4 (186.79) 268.4 (221.29) 306.4 (322.91) 268.8 (153.22) TABLE 116 Pharmacokinetics Estrone Conjugates Day 14 (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Predose 212.7 (140.19) 319.1 (326.71) 411.1 (624.14) 256.1 (133.07) 2 hour 212.4 (145.02) 420.4 (560.53) 434.3 (491.31) 285.6 (158.61) 4 hour 240.2 (155.7) 429.3 (506.01) 505.1 (618.47) 273.1 (148.76) 6 hour 225.8 (164.76) 359.2 (346.26) 483.8 (515.95) 267.7 (181.53) 10 hour 238.3 (152.45) 417.6 (517.51) 492.5 (598.16) 306.9 (178.68) 24 hour 206.4 (154.26) 349 (345.91) 309.6 (380.88) 240.1 (115.84) TABLE 117 Pharmacokinetics Estrone Conjugates End of Study (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Post 237.4 (151.19) 221.7 (188.05) 499.7 (1089.67) 250 (148.72) Dosing Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 Hours) TABLE 118 Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) (h*pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 5077.5 (3798.39) 5931.9 (4209.95) 9126 (9186.37) 5637.9 (3151.49) Day 14 5172.9 (3382.89) 8978 (9811.23) 9930.2 (11711.99) 6275.2 (3397.54) TABLE 119 Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) (Baseline Adjusted) (h*pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 375.5 (843.98) 422.4 (473.83) 2454.3 (2600.25) 83 (229.06) Day 14 660.5 (1230.69) 3767.2 (7671.38) 3059 (4792.46) 665.4 (1552.19) TABLE 120 Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5219 0.0931 Day 14 0.1392 0.1166 TABLE 121 Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.639 0.8157 0.1472 Day 14 0.3503 0.2898 0.2246 TABLE 122 Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.8349 0.0028 Day 14 0.1087 0.0537 TABLE 123 Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P- values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.1894 0.0134 0.001 Day 14 0.992 0.1225 0.0654 TABLE 124 Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo AUC Ratio of 1.115 (0.4539) 1.444 (1.0121) 1.107 (0.3545) 1.125 (0.4522) Day 14 to Day 1 Pairwise test vs — 0.2279 0.9587 — Pairwise test vs 0.9459 0.2427 0.8975 — Placebo Estrone Conjugates Cmax TABLE 125 Cmax (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 273.1 (196.36) 329.4 (226.58) 542.1 (475.49) 309.8 (146.07) Day 14 289 (183.79) 511.7 (568.75) 579.5 (610.1) 343.6 (182.2) TABLE 126 Cmax (Baseline Adjusted) (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 35.4 (89.09) 90.2 (65.2) 198.6 (301.53) 27.1 (49.69) Day 14 48.2 (132.61) 277.8 (493.64) 236.1 (372.42) 67 (121.81) TABLE 127 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.4261 0.0333 Day 14 0.1332 0.0685 TABLE 128 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5369 0.7629 0.0625 Day 14 0.3902 0.2533 0.1356 TABLE 129 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.039 0.0345 Day 14 0.0726 0.0579 TABLE 130 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.7444 0.0033 0.0318 Day 14 0.6735 0.1065 0.0928 TABLE 131 Cmax Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Cmax Ratio of Day 14 to 1.13 (0.4068) 1.524 (1.1682) 1.144 (0.4569) 1.11 (0.5404) Day 1 Pairwise test vs — 0.1969 0.9226 — Pairwise test vs 0.9043 0.1919 0.8406 — Placebo Estrone Conjugates Cavg TABLE 132 Cavg (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 215.9 (154.77) 247.2 (175.41) 380.3 (382.77) 244.6 (128.1) 1 Day 215.5 (140.95) 374.1 (408.8) 413.8 (488) 261.5 (141.56) 14 TABLE 133 Cavg (Baseline Adjusted) (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day −21.8 (88.41) 8 (34.21) 36.8 (291.72) −33.7 (46.95) 1 Day −25.3 (120.69) 140.2 (330.6) 70.3 (300.36) −7.9 (89.89) 14 TABLE 134 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5701 0.1004 Day 14 0.1392 0.1166 TABLE 135 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5562 0.9602 0.1741 Day 14 0.3503 0.2898 0.2246 TABLE 136 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.1804 0.4201 Day 14 0.0606 0.2305 TABLE 137 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.6353 0.0047 0.3473 Day 14 0.6439 0.0928 0.3244 TABLE 138 Cavg Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Cavg Ratio of Day 14 to 1.13 (0.4068) 1.524 (1.1682) 1.144 (0.4569) 1.11 (0.5404) Day 1 Pairwise test vs — 0.1969 0.9226 — Pairwise test vs 0.9043 0.1919 0.8406 — Placebo Estrone Conjugates Tmax TABLE 139 Tmax (h) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 10.9 (8.66) 9.2 (9.25) 5.4 (2.64) 13.1 (9.7) Day 14 8.4 (7.79) 9 (8.6) 5.9 (2.87) 8.1 (6.76) TABLE 140 Tmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5609 0.0154 Day 14 0.8173 0.2178 TABLE 141 Tmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.4893 0.2253 0.003 Day 14 0.9256 0.739 0.2087 In the phase 3 trial, all doses of TX-004HR compared with placebo (MITT n=747) significantly improved the 4 co-primary endpoints at week 2 through week 12, as well as the secondary endpoints of vaginal dryness by week 6 and vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation by week 12 (except 4 μg, p=0.0503), and was well-tolerated with no treatment-related serious AEs reported. The phase 3 PK study (n=72) showed no difference in systemic E2 levels for 4 μg and 10 μg TX-004HR vs placebo, as measured by AUC and Cavg. E2 AUC and Cavg with 25 μg TX-004HR was higher than placebo, but average concentrations remained within the normal postmenopausal range (Table 142). E2 levels at day 84 were similar to placebo indicating no systemic drug accumulation. SHBG concentrations did not change with treatment. The two phase 2 studies (n=36 for each) of TX-004HR 10 μg and 25 μg resulted in statistically significantly lower E2 absorption than an approved E2 tablet at identical doses, with 25 μg TX-004HR demonstrating AUC less than ⅓ that of the approved product (Table 143). TABLE 142 Phase 3 study PK parameters for E2 (unadjusted mean ± SD). AUC0-24 (pg*hr/mL) Cavg (pg/mL) Day Dose (μg) TX-004HR Placebo p-value TX-004HR Placebo p-value 1 4 91.7 ± 37.9 116.6 ± 77.3 NS 3.92 ± 1.46 4.86 ± 3.22 NS 10 138.2 ± 75.2 116.6 ± 77.3 NS 5.76 ± 3.13 4.86 ± 3.22 NS 25 217.4 ± 99.0 116.6 ± 77.3 0.0021 9.06 ± 4.13 4.86 ± 3.22 0.0021 14 4 87.2 ± 42.8 104.2 ± 66.4 NS 3.63 ± 1.78 4.34 ± 2.77 NS 10 110.1 ± 54.6 104.2 ± 66.4 NS 4.59 ± 2.27 4.34 ± 2.77 NS 25 171.6 ± 80.1 104.2 ± 66.4 0.0108 7.15 ± 3.34 4.34 ± 2.77 0.0108 TABLE 143 Phase 2 studies PK parameters for E2 (baseline adjusted geometric mean). AUC0-24 (pg*hr/mL) Cmax (pg/mL) Dose (μg) TX-004HR Vaginal Tablet p-value TX-004HR Vaginal Tablet p-value 10 49.62 132.92 <0.0001 14.38 20.38 0.0194 25 89.21 292.06 <0.0001 23.08 42.70 <0.0001 With robust efficacy demonstrated as early as 2 weeks and up to 12 weeks at all 3 doses, TX-004HR 4 μg and 10 μg showed negligible systemic E2 absorption, while 25 μg resulted in very low systemic absorption of E2 in the phase 3 trial. TX-004HR 10 μg and 25 μg showed lower systemic E2 exposure than equivalent doses of an approved E2 tablet. The absence of clinically meaningful increases in E2 concentrations paired with data consistent with a lack of systemic effects (e.g., no increase in SHBG) shows that TX-004 HR delivers excellent efficacy with negligible to very low systemic exposure. The impact of normal daily activities for 4 hours post dose was evaluated, in comparison with the impact of remaining in the supine position for 4 hours post dose on the pharmacokinetic (PK) profile of TX-004HR 25 mcg. In two studies, at the same site, the same sixteen healthy postmenopausal female subjects were fasted for at least 10 hours prior to dosing through 4 hours following dosing. Subjects received a 25 mcg dose of TX-004HR administered intravaginally by trained female study personnel. Following their first dose, the subjects were required to remain in a supine position for 4 hours following dosing. Following the second dose, after 5 minutes resting time, the subjects were instructed to be ambulatory in the clinic and refrain from reclining for the 4 hours following dosing. Blood samples were collected at pre-defined intervals up to 24 hours after dosing. Plasma samples were analyzed for estradiol using LC-MS/MS. See, e.g., FIG. 23. PK parameters were calculated on an individual and group mean basis with baseline correction. The mean Cmax and AUC0-24 of estradiol was not significantly different with ambulation than with supination. On an individual subject basis, the majority showed similar Cmax and AUC0-24 levels with ambulation as with supination. There were no signs of posture having an effect on absorption rate as evidenced by the similarity in group average and individual subject Tmax. In addition, there was no difference between the group mean profiles when compared on an individual time point basis, further demonstrating that posture had no effect on absorption. The systemic exposure of estradiol in TX-004HR 25 mcg was generally low and occurred regardless of whether the subjects were ambulatory or supine for 4 hours after dosing. An important advantage of the formulation is that a woman can be ambulatory almost immediately after the formulation is administered, as opposed to other known formulations that require a subject to remain in a supine position after administration. Generally, other known formulations direct administration before bed at night because of the requirement to be supine, which requirement is unnecessary in the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein because the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein adhere to the vaginal tissue, the capsule dissolves rapidly, and the formulation is released into the vagina and rapidly absorbed by the vaginal tissue. Because activity level does not adversely affect the systemic absorption of estradiol, the formulation of the invention gives the patient more flexibility with her dosing regimen. Example 13 Safety Results in Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Multicenter Study Safety endpoints in the study included vital signs, clinical laboratory tests (blood chemistry, hematology, hormone levels, urine analysis), ECG, physical and gynecological examination findings, pap smears, endometrial biopsies, and adverse events (AEs). AEs included undesirable medical conditions occurring at any time during all study phases including the washout period, whether or not a study treatment had been administered. An AE was considered treatment emergent if it occurred after study drug administration, or if it was pre-existing and worsened during 120 days post-dose follow up. Participants were given a diary with instructions to record product use, sexual activity, symptoms/complaints, and other medications. AEs, concomitant medications, and vital signs were recorded and assessed at each study visit from screening to week 12. TX-004HR had a favorable safety profile and was well tolerated. No clinically significant differences in AEs were observed between treatment and placebo groups (Table 144). Headache was the most commonly reported TEAE, followed by vaginal discharge, nasopharyngitis, and vulvovaginal pruritus (Table 144). Headache was the only treatment-related TEAE that was numerically more frequent in women receiving TX-004HR than those receiving placebo (3.7% for 4-μg dose vs 3.1% for placebo). Vaginal discharge was reported by numerically fewer women in any of the TX-004HR groups than by women in the placebo group. Most TEAEs were mild to moderate in severity. Few participants (1.8%) discontinued the study due to AEs. TABLE 144 Number (%) of treatment emergent adverse events (TEAE) reported for >3% in any treatment arm of the safety population. TX- TX- TX-004HR 004HR 004HR 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Preferred Term (n = 191) (n = 191) (n = 190) (n = 192) Any subject with 97 (50.8) 94 (49.2) 93 (48.9) 111 (57.8) reported TEAE Headache 12 (6.3) 14 (7.3) 6 (3.2) 15 (7.8) Vaginal discharge 5 (2.6) 6 (3.1) 4 (2.1) 13 (6.8) Nasopharyngitis 5 (2.6) 6 (3.1) 7 (3.7) 10 (5.2) Vulvovaginal pruritus 4 (2.1) 3 (1.6) 7 (3.7) 10 (5.2) Back pain 9 (4.7) 1 (0.5) 4 (2.1) 8 (4.2) Urinary tract infection 5 (2.6) 5 (2.6) 8 (4.2) 4 (2.1) Upper respiratory tract 5 (2.6) 6 (3.1) 3 (1.6) 5 (2.6) infection Oropharyngeal pain 1 (0.5) 0 (0) 6 (3.2) 1 (0.5) Nine serious TEAEs were reported in 8 subjects; however, none were considered related to treatment. Complete heart block, appendicitis, endophthalmitis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease were each reported by a different participant in the 25 μg group. Sinus node dysfunction and ankle fracture were both reported for one women, and arthralgia and malignant melanoma were each reported for one women in the 10 μg group. None of the women in the 4 μg group had reports of serious TEAEs. One woman in the placebo group was reported to have a cervical myelopathy. No deaths occurred during the study. No diagnoses of endometrial hyperplasia or malignancy from endometrial biopsies were observed at week 12. Total cholesterol numerically decreased from baseline to week 12 by a mean of 0.024 mmol/L to 0.07 mmol/L in the treatment groups, and by 0.008 mmol/L in the placebo group. No clinically meaningful increases in triglycerides were observed in any active treatment groups compared with placebo. Sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) concentrations (measured in a subset of 72 women) did not increase with treatment relative to placebo or baseline at week 12. No clinically significant changes in any laboratory parameters were found. The phase 3 clinical trial demonstrated that TX-004HR at 4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg doses is safe and effective for treating vaginal changes and self-reported symptoms of VVA in postmenopausal women. Statistically significant and clinically meaningful improvements in all of the 4 pre-specified co-primary endpoints (increase in the percentage of vaginal superficial cells, decrease in the percentage of vaginal parabasal cells and vaginal pH, and decrease in severity of the MBS of dyspareunia) occurred as early as 2 weeks with all 3 doses of TX-004HR as compared with placebo, and were sustained throughout the 12-week trial. Additionally, improvements were found for the secondary endpoints of vaginal dryness and vulvar or vaginal irritation and itching. These improvements were achieved without increasing systemic estrogen concentrations (4 μg and 10 μg) or with negligible (25 μg) systemic estrogen exposure, as found in pharmacokinetic studies. TX-004HR was also well-tolerated with no clinically significant differences found between treatment and placebo groups in any AEs or treatment-related AEs, and no treatment-related serious AEs. The results demonstrate early onset of action in the clinical signs of VVA with statistically significantly improved changes compared with placebo. The efficacy results here were somewhat numerically higher than data from a 12-week, randomized, controlled trial that compared a 10-μg vaginal estradiol tablet with placebo, which showed significant improvements in the percentages of superficial and parabasal cells, and in pH compared with placebo (see, Simon et al. Obstet Gynecol. 2008; 112:1053-1060). At 12 weeks, improvements were smaller with the 10-μg estradiol tablet (change of 13% in superficial cells, −37% in parabasal cells, and −1.3 in vaginal pH) than what was observed in this study with the 10-μg TX-004HR dose (change of 17% in superficial cells, −44% in parabasal cells, and −1.4 in vaginal pH). While improvements in some objective (cell and pH) endpoints were seen with the estradiol tablet within 2 weeks of treatment, the patient-reported improvements in a composite score of subjective symptoms were not observed until 8 weeks of therapy, which can be perceived as a disadvantage for many users. That clinical trial did not assess individual symptoms. A second randomized, controlled trial of 10-μg and 25-μg estradiol tablets similarly did not find significant improvements over placebo in the composite score of vaginal symptoms with either dose until 7 weeks of treatment (week 2, NS). Likewise, the SERM, ospemifene, was evaluated in a clinical trial for the treatment of dyspareunia, and statistically significant improvements were not observed until week 12. See, Bachmann et al. Obstet Gynecol. 2008; 111:67-76; Portman et al. Menopause. 2013; 20:623-630. Importantly, the results reported here showed significant improvement in dyspareunia within 2 weeks with all 3 doses of TX-004HR, with reductions in severity scores from 1.5 to 1.7 points at week 12, which were comparable or superior to reductions of 1.2 to 1.6 points reported for other currently approved dyspareunia treatments. See, VAGIFEM® (estradiol vaginal tablets) Prescribing Information. Bagsvaerd, Denmark: Novo Nordisk Pharmaceuticals Inc.; 2012; PREMARIN® (conjugated estrogens tablets, USP) Prescribing Information. Philadelphia, Pa.: Wyeth Pharmaceuticals Inc.; 2010; OSPHENA® (ospemifene) tablets, for oral use. Prescribing Information. Shionogi, Inc. 2013. Additionally, vaginal dryness improved from week 2 with 10 μg and 25 μg TX-004HR. None of the currently available products reported as early an onset of action for the symptom of vaginal dryness associated with VVA as did TX-004HR. Furthermore, TX-004HR 10 μg and 25 μg showed significant improvement in vaginal irritation and/or itching at week 12, while none of the currently available products on the market are reported to improve these symptoms. See, Portman et al. Maturitas. 2014; 78:91-98; Eriksen et al. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1992; 44:137-144. Based on a large survey of postmenopausal women in the United States, only a small proportion (7%) of women are thought to receive prescription vaginal estrogen therapy alone for their VVA, probably due to lack of information about available treatments, avoidance of discussion of the topic with health care practitioners, or dissatisfaction with currently available products (see, e.g., Kingsberg et al. J Sex Med. 2013; 10:1790-1799). Eliminating the need for an applicator or individually measuring doses is intended to give women a more positive user experience and thus potentially better compliance, resulting in overall better efficacy of treatment. The results with TX-004HR in this study exemplify one of the advantages of local vaginal estrogen therapies: rapid symptom resolution without increasing systemic estrogen concentrations. The mean area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) and average concentration (Cavg) for estradiol were not significantly different from placebo with 4 μg and 10 μg TX-004HR. Although statistically higher AUC for estradiol was observed with the 25 μg dose, estradiol levels remained within the postmenopausal range with no evidence of accumulation by day 84. Although there was negligible systemic absorption, rapid efficacy was observed within 2 weeks of dosing with all doses of TX-004HR. TX-004HR was well-tolerated. The 4 most commonly reported TEAEs, including vaginal discharge and vulvovaginal pruritus, were experienced by fewer women in any TX-004HR group than in the placebo group, and were mostly mild to moderate in severity. By comparison, in a 12-week study of the efficacy of ospemifene, vaginal discharge was reported more than 6-times more frequently in the ospemifene group than in the placebo group (see, Portman et al. Menopause. 2013; 20:623-630). Genital pruritus was also reported 4-times more frequently in women treated with Vagifem 10-μg tablets than with placebo in a 12-month randomized study (see, Vagifem® (estradiol vaginal tablets) Prescribing Information. Bagsvaerd, Denmark: Novo Nordisk Pharmaceuticals Inc.; 2012). Importantly, endometrial findings after TX-004HR were benign as no hyperplasia or malignancies were reported in biopsies at 12 weeks. Onset of effect was seen as early as 2 weeks and was maintained throughout the study. TX-004HR was well tolerated as reported here and systemic estrogen exposure was negligible to very low as demonstrated by the pharmacokinetic study. Example 14 Results of Female Sexual Function Index in Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Multicenter Study The trial was a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled, multicenter, phase 3 study. Treatments were self-administered vaginally, once daily, for 2 weeks and then twice weekly, for 10 weeks. Female sexual dysfunction (FSD) was evaluated using the multidimensional Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) at baseline and at week 12. The FSFI is a brief, validated, self-reporting questionnaire consisting of 19 questions designed to assess the areas of arousal, desire, orgasm, lubrication, and pain. The Index defines sexual dysfunction by a total FSFI score (the sum of the individual domain scores) of ≤26.55 out of a possible maximum score of 36. Postmenopausal women (40-75 years; BMI ≤38 kg/m2) were included if they had ≤5% superficial cells on vaginal cytological smear; vaginal pH >5.0; self-identified most bothersome symptom (MBS) of moderate-to severe dyspareunia; and anticipated sexual activity (with vaginal penetration) during the trial period. Vulvar and vaginal atrophy (VVA) treatments, including vaginal lubricants and moisturizers, were discontinued within 7 days prior to screening. Use of oral estrogen-, progestin-, androgen-, or SERM-containing drug products were prohibited within 8 weeks of study start. Changes from baseline in total and individual domain FSFI scores for each dose were compared with placebo using ANCOVA with baseline as a covariate. 764 postmenopausal women were randomized to 4 μg (n=191), 10 μg (n=191), or 25 μg (n=190) vaginal estradiol softgel capsules or placebo (n=192). The majority of the women were white (87%) with a mean age of 59 years and a mean BMI of 26.7 kg/m2 (Table 145). The FSFI questionnaire was completed by those who were not in the PK sub-study (n=692; 90.6%). The average baseline total FSFI score of 14.8 for all women indicated FSD in the subjects. TABLE 145 Summary of subjects enrolled in study Composition 4 Composition 5 Composition 6 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Composition 7 (n = 186) (n = 188) (n = 186) (n = 187) Age, years Mean ± SD 59.8 ± 6.0 58.6 ± 6.3 58.8 ± 6.2 59.4 ± 6.0 Race, n (%) White 162 (87.1) 165 (87.8) 161 (86.6) 160 (85.6) Black or African American 20 (10.8) 21 (11.2) 24 (12.9) 21 (11.2) Asian 3 (1.6) 2 (1.1) 1 (0.5) 1 (0.5) BMI, kg/m2 Mean ± SD 26.6 ± 4.9 26.8 ± 4.7 26.9 ± 4.8 26.6 ± 4.6 Baseline total FSFI Score Mean ± SD 14.8 ± 6.13 15.8 ± 6.24 14.2 ± 6.21 14.4 ± 6.61 Baseline FSFI Pain Score Mean ± SD 1.6 ± 1.11 1.8 ± 1.22 1.7 ± 1.17 1.7 ± 1.20 The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) total summary score is a numerically continuous measure that was descriptively summarized at Visits 2 and 6 and the change in the total summary score (Visit 6 minus Visit 2) was also descriptively summarized. The domain sub-scores and the changes in the domain sub-scores were also descriptively summarized. Summaries were by treatment arm, and all active treatment arms combined. In addition, the change in mean from baseline of each active treatment group from the placebo group for each numerically continuous endpoint was evaluated. The least square (LS) mean changes and the 95% CI for the difference in LS Mean changes between treated and placebo are provided. The FSFI Questionnaire consists of 19 questions divided among 6 domains, and has a minimum total score of 2.0 and a maximum score of 36.0 points. The FSFI questionnaire was administered to the randomized population except for those subjects in the PK sub-study. At Baseline, the overall mean Total Score was 14.8 (14.8 for the 4 μg group; 15.8 for the 10 μg group; 14.2 for the 25 μg group; and 14.4 for the placebo group). The LS mean change in the FSFI Total Score and domain scores from Baseline to Week 12 are summarized in Table 146. Change from Baseline to Week 12 in FSFI total score and domains compared to placebo was assessed. After 12 weeks, total FSFI scores numerically improved from baseline in all groups, including placebo. Total FSFI score significantly increased with the 10 μg group (P<0.05) and the 25 μg group (P=0.0019) versus placebo (FIG. 24). FSFI lubrication and pain domain scores improved numerically in all groups including placebo from baseline to 12 weeks; improvements for the 10 μg group and the 25 μg group were statistically significantly greater than with placebo (FIG. 25A). The 25 μg composition significantly improved FSFI arousal (P=0.0085) and satisfaction (P=0.0073) domain scores at 12 weeks (FIG. 25B, FIG. 25C). All three doses were comparable to placebo in their effect on the FSFI domains of desire and orgasm (FIG. 25D, FIG. 25E). The 4 μg composition and placebo provided similar levels of improvement. The compositions improved FSFI in a dose-dependent manner, with the 25 μg dose having the greatest improvement. All three doses were efficacious, and the numeric improvement in subjective symptoms was highest for subjects in the 10 and 25 μg groups. The observed placebo response could be attributed to the coconut oil (Miglyol) in the formulation for the placebo and the estradiol compositions, which may also contribute to the observed benefits. TABLE 146 Female Sexual Function Index Total and Domain Scores: 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Category Score Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Total Baseline 14.8 6.13 15.8 6.24 14.2 6.21 14.4 6.61 Week 12 22.6 8.4 24.8 7.59 24.8 7.59 22 8.54 Change 7.98 7.551 8.85 7.361 10.49 8.176 7.74 8.41 LS Mean 7.909 0.9075 9.431 0.0492 10.283 0.0019 7.458 — Arousal Baseline 2.8 1.44 2.9 1.43 2.7 1.5 2.7 1.41 Week 12 3.6 1.61 4.1 1.47 4.1 1.39 3.6 1.52 Change 0.88 1.615 1.16 1.632 1.43 1.646 1.02 1.607 LS Mean 0.876 0.9777 1.288 0.0581 1.393 0.008 0.927 — Desire Baseline 2.6 1.01 2.7 1.13 2.6 1.09 2.7 1.07 Week 12 3.3 1.11 3.5 1.13 3.5 1.06 3.3 1.21 Change 0.64 1.065 0.78 1.113 0.87 1.105 0.62 1.102 LS Mean 0.626 1 0.801 0.2753 0.849 0.1139 0.628 — Lubrication Baseline 2.1 1.25 2.3 1.25 2 1.19 2 1.29 Week 12 3.9 1.84 4.4 1.56 4.3 1.65 3.6 1.77 Change 1.84 1.782 2.12 1.612 2.36 1.744 1.64 1.871 LS Mean 1.835 0.4023 2.243 0.0012 2.3 0.0003 1.591 — Orgasm Baseline 2.7 1.74 2.9 1.74 2.4 1.68 2.4 1.73 Week 12 3.8 1.89 4.1 1.75 4.1 1.66 3.7 1.97 Change 1.12 1.93 1.09 1.821 1.68 1.857 1.31 1.86 LS Mean 1.162 0.9978 1.273 0.9424 1.59 0.0763 1.189 — Satisfaction Baseline 2.9 1.37 3.2 1.43 2.9 1.37 2.9 1.49 Week 12 4.2 1.54 4.4 1.37 4.6 1.35 4.1 1.55 Change 1.31 1.512 1.24 1.534 1.64 1.613 1.23 1.661 LS Mean 1.256 0.8798 1.382 0.3484 1.628 0.0063 1.165 — While the pharmaceutical compositions and methods have been described in terms of what are presently considered to be practical and preferred embodiments, it is to be understood that the disclosure need not be limited to the disclosed embodiments. It is intended to cover various modifications and similar arrangements included within the spirit and scope of the claims, the scope of which should be accorded the broadest interpretation so as to encompass all such modifications and similar embodiments. This disclosure includes any and all embodiments of the following claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Postmenopausal women frequently suffer from atrophic vaginitis or vulvar and vaginal atrophy (hereinafter “vulvovaginal atrophy” or “VVA”) with symptoms including, for example, vaginal dryness, vaginal odor, vaginal or vulvar irritation or itching, dysuria (pain, burning, or stinging when urinating), dyspareunia (vaginal pain associated with sexual activity), or vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Other symptoms include soreness; with urinary frequency and urgency; urinary discomfort and incontinence also occurring (“estrogen-deficient urinary state(s)”). One symptom of vaginal atrophy is an increased vaginal pH, which creates an environment more susceptible to infections. The mucosal epithelium of the VVA patients also reported to show signs of severe atrophy and upon cytological examination accompanied by an increased number of the parabasal cells and a reduced number of superficial cells. Each of these VVA-related states manifest symptoms associated with decreased estrogenization of the vulvovaginal tissue, and can even occur in women treated with oral administration of an estrogen-based pharmaceutical drug product. Although VVA is most common with menopausal women, it can occur at any time in a woman's life cycle. VVA symptoms also interfere with sexual activity and satisfaction. Women with female sexual dysfunction (FSD) are almost 4 times more likely to have VVA than those without FSD. Estrogen treatment has proven to be very successful in controlling menopausal symptoms, including VVA and FSD. Several studies have shown that the symptoms connected with vaginal atrophy are often relieved by estrogen treatment given either systemically or topically. The existing treatments have numerous problems, for example compliance issues with patients not completing or continuing treatment due to the problems associated with the form of treatment. Accordingly, there remains a need in the art for treatments for VVA and FSD that overcome these limitations.

<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Disclosed herein is, among other things, a new soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition and dosage form containing solubilized estradiol for the treatment of VVA. The soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition has been designed to mitigate common limitations found with other vaginal forms of estradiol. The soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition eases vaginal administration, provides improved safety of insertion, minimizes vaginal discharge following administration, and provides a more effective dosage form having improved efficacy, safety and patient compliance. According to various aspects and embodiments of this disclosure, a soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition as a treatment for post-menopausal women suffering with moderate to severe symptoms of VVA is provided. Provided herein is a suppository comprising: a) a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; and b) a solubilizing agent comprising a medium chain oil. In some embodiments, the suppository includes about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. For example, the suppository can include about 1 μg to about 10 μg of estradiol; and about 10 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the estradiol is solubilized. In some embodiments, the medium chain oil includes at least one C6-C12 fatty acid or a glycol, monoglyceride, diglyceride, or triglyceride ester thereof. In some embodiments, the solubilizing agent includes at least one ester selected from the group consisting of: an ester of caproic fatty acid, an ester of caprylic fatty acid, an ester of capric fatty acid, and combinations thereof. For example, the solubilizing agent can include a caprylic/capric triglyceride. In some embodiments, the suppository further includes a capsule. For example, the capsule can be a soft gelatin capsule. Also provided herein is a suppository comprising: a) a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; b) a caprylic/capric triglyceride; c) a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate; and d) a soft gelatin capsule. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol of about 19 pg*hr/mL to about 29 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estradiol of about 75 pg*hr/mL to about 112 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone of about 9 pg*hr/mL to about 14 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone of about 43 pg*hr/mL to about 65 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate of about 416 pg*hr/mL to about 613 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 3598 pg*hr/mL to about 5291 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol of about 12 pg*hr/mL to about 18 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estradiol of about 42 pg*hr/mL to about 63 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estradiol of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 7 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone of about 20 pg*hr/mL to about 31 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estrone of about 4 hrs to about 8 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate of about 10 pg*hr/mL to about 16 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 56 pg*hr/mL to about 84 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T.) of estrone sulfate of about 4 hrs to about 7 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 8 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estradiol of about 16 pg*hr/mL to about 26 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estradiol of about 0.25 hrs to about 2 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone of about 1 pg*hr/mL to about 3 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone of about 8 pg*hr/mL to about 13 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estrone of about 1 hrs to about 4 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 7 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 22 pg*hr/mL to about 34 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estrone sulfate of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. Also provided herein is a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol that is less than about 30 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol that is less than about 18 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 112 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 63 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone that is less than about 14 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone that is less than about 7 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 65 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 31 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 613 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 16 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 5291 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 84 pg*hr/mL. Further provided herein is a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to the proximal region of the vagina of a patient provides a therapeutically effective concentration of estradiol over 24 hours in the proximal region of the vagina. This disclosure also provides a method of treating an estrogen-deficient state, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a suppository as provided herein. In some embodiments, a method of treating vulvovaginal atrophy is provided, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a suppository as provided herein. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein, treatment includes reducing the severity of one or more symptoms selected from the group consisting of: vaginal dryness, dyspareunia, vaginal or vulvar irritation, vaginal or vulvar burning, vaginal or vulvar itching, dysuria, and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein treatment includes reducing the vaginal pH of the patient. For example, treatment includes reducing the vaginal pH of the patient to a pH of less than about 5.0. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein treatment includes a change in cell composition of the patient. For example, the change in cell composition includes reducing the number of parabasal vaginal cells or increasing the number of superficial vaginal cells. In some embodiments, the number of parabasal vaginal cells in the patient are reduced by at least about 35% (e.g., at least about 50%). In some embodiments, the number of superficial vaginal cells are increased by at least about 5% (e.g., at least about 35%). Further provided herein is a method for reducing vaginal discharge following administration of a suppository, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a suppository provided herein, wherein the vaginal discharge following administration of the suppository is compared to the vaginal discharge following administration of a reference drug. Also provided herein is a method for treating female sexual dysfunction in a female subject in need thereof. The method includes administering to the subject a vaginal suppository as described herein. In some embodiments, the method includes administering to the subject a vaginal suppository comprising: (a) a pharmaceutical composition comprising: a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; a caprylic/capric triglyceride; a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate; and (b) a soft gelatin capsule; wherein the vaginal suppository includes from about 1 microgram to about 25 micrograms of estradiol; wherein estradiol is the only active hormone in the vaginal suppository. In some embodiments, the vaginal suppository does not include a hydrophilic gel-forming bioadhesive agent in the solubilizing agent. In some embodiments, treating female sexual dysfunction includes increasing the subject's desire, arousal, lubrication, satisfaction, and or/orgasms.

A61K31565

20180209

20180614

60258.0

A61K31565

PARAD, DENNIS J

VAGINAL INSERTED ESTRADIOL PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

A61K

PENDING

VAGINAL INSERTED ESTRADIOL PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS

In one aspect, compositions and methods for the treatment of vulvovaginal atrophy (VVA) are provided. In one embodiment, the method comprises administering an estrogen to a subject having VVA by inserting a dosage form comprising a liquid pharmaceutical composition.

1. A method for treating VVA in a subject, the method comprising: administering, by inserting into the vagina of the subject, a dosage form comprising a liquid pharmaceutical composition, wherein the composition comprises estrogen as the only active agent, and wherein the dosage form dissolves and at least 80% of the composition is absorbed by the vaginal tissue with no vaginal discharge of the composition. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the dosage form is a capsule. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the capsule is a soft gelatin capsule. 4. The method of claim 1, where the composition comprises about 4 μg to about 25 μg of solubilized estradiol. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein at least about 85% by weight, at least about 90% by weight, at least about 95% by weight, at least about 97% by weight, at least about 98% by weight, or at least about 99% by weight of the composition is absorbed by the vaginal tissue. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the composition is fully absorbed by the vaginal tissue. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein administering the dosage form results in an improvement in one or more clinical parameters in the subject within two weeks from the first administration, wherein the parameters are selected from the group consisting of an increase in the percentage of vaginal superficial cells, a decrease in the percentage of vaginal parabasal cells, a decrease in vaginal pH, and a decrease in the severity of moderate to severe symptoms of dyspareunia. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein administration of the composition results in an increase in the percentage of vaginal superficial cells within two weeks from the first administration. 9. The method of claim 7, wherein administration of the composition results in a decrease in the percentage of vaginal parabasal cells within two weeks from the first administration. 10. The method of claim 7, wherein administration of the composition results in a decrease in vaginal pH within two weeks from the first administration. 11. The method of claim 7, wherein administration of the composition results in a decrease in the severity of moderate to severe symptoms of dyspareunia within two weeks from the first administration. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the administration is conducted daily for two weeks, and twice weekly thereafter.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/372,385, filed Dec. 7, 2016, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/521,230, filed Oct. 22, 2014, and which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Pat. Appl. No. 62/264,309, filed Dec. 7, 2015; U.S. Provisional Pat. Appl. No. 62/296,552, filed Feb. 17, 2016; U.S. Provisional Pat. Appl. No. 62/324,838, filed Apr. 19, 2016; U.S. Provisional Pat. Appl. No. 62/329,940, filed Apr. 29, 2016; and U.S. Provisional Pat. Appl. No. 62/348,820, filed Jun. 10, 2016; which applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This application is directed to pharmaceutical compositions, methods, and devices related to hormone replacement therapy. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Postmenopausal women frequently suffer from atrophic vaginitis or vulvar and vaginal atrophy (hereinafter “vulvovaginal atrophy” or “VVA”) with symptoms including, for example, vaginal dryness, vaginal odor, vaginal or vulvar irritation or itching, dysuria (pain, burning, or stinging when urinating), dyspareunia (vaginal pain associated with sexual activity), or vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Other symptoms include soreness; with urinary frequency and urgency; urinary discomfort and incontinence also occurring (“estrogen-deficient urinary state(s)”). One symptom of vaginal atrophy is an increased vaginal pH, which creates an environment more susceptible to infections. The mucosal epithelium of the VVA patients also reported to show signs of severe atrophy and upon cytological examination accompanied by an increased number of the parabasal cells and a reduced number of superficial cells. Each of these VVA-related states manifest symptoms associated with decreased estrogenization of the vulvovaginal tissue, and can even occur in women treated with oral administration of an estrogen-based pharmaceutical drug product. Although VVA is most common with menopausal women, it can occur at any time in a woman's life cycle. VVA symptoms also interfere with sexual activity and satisfaction. Women with female sexual dysfunction (FSD) are almost 4 times more likely to have VVA than those without FSD. Estrogen treatment has proven to be very successful in controlling menopausal symptoms, including VVA and FSD. Several studies have shown that the symptoms connected with vaginal atrophy are often relieved by estrogen treatment given either systemically or topically. The existing treatments have numerous problems, for example compliance issues with patients not completing or continuing treatment due to the problems associated with the form of treatment. Accordingly, there remains a need in the art for treatments for VVA and FSD that overcome these limitations. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Disclosed herein is, among other things, a new soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition and dosage form containing solubilized estradiol for the treatment of VVA. The soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition has been designed to mitigate common limitations found with other vaginal forms of estradiol. The soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition eases vaginal administration, provides improved safety of insertion, minimizes vaginal discharge following administration, and provides a more effective dosage form having improved efficacy, safety and patient compliance. According to various aspects and embodiments of this disclosure, a soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition as a treatment for post-menopausal women suffering with moderate to severe symptoms of VVA is provided. Provided herein is a suppository comprising: a) a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; and b) a solubilizing agent comprising a medium chain oil. In some embodiments, the suppository includes about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. For example, the suppository can include about 1 μg to about 10 μg of estradiol; and about 10 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the estradiol is solubilized. In some embodiments, the medium chain oil includes at least one C6-C12 fatty acid or a glycol, monoglyceride, diglyceride, or triglyceride ester thereof. In some embodiments, the solubilizing agent includes at least one ester selected from the group consisting of: an ester of caproic fatty acid, an ester of caprylic fatty acid, an ester of capric fatty acid, and combinations thereof. For example, the solubilizing agent can include a caprylic/capric triglyceride. In some embodiments, the suppository further includes a capsule. For example, the capsule can be a soft gelatin capsule. Also provided herein is a suppository comprising: a) a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; b) a caprylic/capric triglyceride; c) a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate; and d) a soft gelatin capsule. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 19 pg*hr/mL to about 29 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 75 pg*hr/mL to about 112 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 9 pg*hr/mL to about 14 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 43 pg*hr/mL to about 65 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 416 pg*hr/mL to about 613 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 3598 pg*hr/mL to about 5291 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 12 pg*hr/mL to about 18 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 42 pg*hr/mL to about 63 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estradiol of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 7 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 20 pg*hr/mL to about 31 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone of about 4 hrs to about 8 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 10 pg*hr/mL to about 16 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 56 pg*hr/mL to about 84 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone sulfate of about 4 hrs to about 7 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 8 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 16 pg*hr/mL to about 26 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estradiol of about 0.25 hrs to about 2 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 1 pg*hr/mL to about 3 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 8 pg*hr/mL to about 13 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone of about 1 hrs to about 4 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 7 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 22 pg*hr/mL to about 34 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone sulfate of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. Also provided herein is a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol that is less than about 30 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol that is less than about 18 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 112 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 63 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone that is less than about 14 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone that is less than about 7 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 65 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 31 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 613 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 16 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 5291 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 84 pg*hr/mL. Further provided herein is a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to the proximal region of the vagina of a patient provides a therapeutically effective concentration of estradiol over 24 hours in the proximal region of the vagina. This disclosure also provides a method of treating an estrogen-deficient state, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a suppository as provided herein. In some embodiments, a method of treating vulvovaginal atrophy is provided, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a suppository as provided herein. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein, treatment includes reducing the severity of one or more symptoms selected from the group consisting of: vaginal dryness, dyspareunia, vaginal or vulvar irritation, vaginal or vulvar burning, vaginal or vulvar itching, dysuria, and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein treatment includes reducing the vaginal pH of the patient. For example, treatment includes reducing the vaginal pH of the patient to a pH of less than about 5.0. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein treatment includes a change in cell composition of the patient. For example, the change in cell composition includes reducing the number of parabasal vaginal cells or increasing the number of superficial vaginal cells. In some embodiments, the number of parabasal vaginal cells in the patient are reduced by at least about 35% (e.g., at least about 50%). In some embodiments, the number of superficial vaginal cells are increased by at least about 5% (e.g., at least about 35%). Further provided herein is a method for reducing vaginal discharge following administration of a suppository, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a suppository provided herein, wherein the vaginal discharge following administration of the suppository is compared to the vaginal discharge following administration of a reference drug. Also provided herein is a method for treating female sexual dysfunction in a female subject in need thereof. The method includes administering to the subject a vaginal suppository as described herein. In some embodiments, the method includes administering to the subject a vaginal suppository comprising: (a) a pharmaceutical composition comprising: a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; a caprylic/capric triglyceride; a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate; and (b) a soft gelatin capsule; wherein the vaginal suppository includes from about 1 microgram to about 25 micrograms of estradiol; wherein estradiol is the only active hormone in the vaginal suppository. In some embodiments, the vaginal suppository does not include a hydrophilic gel-forming bioadhesive agent in the solubilizing agent. In some embodiments, treating female sexual dysfunction includes increasing the subject's desire, arousal, lubrication, satisfaction, and or/orgasms. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above-mentioned features and objects of the this disclosure will become more apparent with reference to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein like reference numerals denote like elements and in which: FIG. 1 is a flow diagram illustrating a process in accordance with various embodiments of the invention; FIG. 2 illustrates a suppository in accordance with various embodiments of the invention; FIG. 3 is a linear plot of mean plasma estradiol—baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=34); FIG. 4 is a semi-logarithmic plot of mean plasma estradiol—baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=34); FIG. 5 is a linear plot of mean plasma estrone—baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=33); FIG. 6 is a semi-logarithmic plot of mean plasma estrone—baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=33); FIG. 7 is a linear plot of mean plasma estrone sulfate—baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=24); and FIG. 8 is a semi-logarithmic plot of mean plasma estrone sulfate—baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=24). FIG. 9 is a study schematic diagram. FIG. 10 shows the percentage change in superficial cells at 12 weeks compared to placebo. FIG. 11 shows the percentage change in superficial cells at week 2, week 6, week 8, and week 12 compared to placebo. FIG. 12 shows percentage change in superficial cells per dose for each of week 2, week 6, week 8, and week 12 compared to placebo. FIG. 13 shows the percentage change in parabasal cells at 12 weeks compared to placebo. FIG. 14 shows the percentage change in parabasal cells at week 2, week 6, week 8, and week 12 compared to placebo. FIG. 15 shows the percentage change in parabasal cells per dose for each of week 2, week 6, week 8, and week 12 compared to placebo FIG. 16 shows the percentage change in pH at 12 weeks compared to placebo. FIG. 17 shows the percentage change in pH at week 2, week 6, week 8, and week 12 compared to placebo. FIG. 18 shows the percentage change in pH per dose for each of week 2, week 6, week 8, and week 12 compared to placebo. FIG. 19A shows the change in visual assessments from baseline to week 12 in vaginal color in a modified intent to treat (MITT) population. FIG. 19B shows the change in visual assessments from baseline to week 12 in vaginal epithelial integrity in a modified intent to treat (MITT) population. FIG. 19C shows the change in visual assessments from baseline to week 12 in vaginal epithelial thickness a modified intent to treat (MITT) population. FIG. 19D shows the change in visual assessments from baseline to week 12 in vaginal secretions in a modified intent to treat (MITT) population. FIG. 20A shows the correlation between the total sum of four visual assessments and dyspareunia at week 12 in an intent to treat (ITT) population. FIG. 20B shows the correlation between the total sum of four visual assessments and vaginal dryness at week 12 in an intent to treat (ITT) population. FIG. 21 shows baseline adjusted estradiol serum concentration (pg/mL) assessed on Day 1 (squares) and Week 12 (diamonds) for four treatment artms. FIG. 22 shows baseline adjusted estradiol serum concentration (pg/mL) assessed on Day 14 (squares) and Week 12 (diamonds) for four treatment artms. FIG. 23 shows estradiol plasma levels measured in subjects following a supine period after administration of the estradiol formulation, compared with plasma levels measured in subjects following an ambulatory period after administration of the estradiol formulation. FIG. 24 shows mean change from baseline in Total FSFI score at Week 12. FIG. 25A shows the mean change from baseline to week 12 in the individual FSFI lubrication score. FIG. 25B shows the mean change from baseline to week 12 in the individual FSFI arousal score. FIG. 25C shows the mean change from baseline to week 12 in the individual FSFI satisfaction score. FIG. 25D shows the mean change from baseline to week 12 in the individual FSFI desire score. FIG. 25E shows the mean change from baseline to week 12 in the individual FSFI orgasm score. FIG. 26A shows an estradiol softgel capsule held with the larger end between the fingers. FIG. 26B shows insertion of an estradiol softgel capsule in a reclining position. The softgel is inserted into the lower third of the vagina with the smaller end up. FIG. 26C shows insertion of an estradiol softgel capsule in a standing position. The softgel is inserted into the lower third of the vagina with the smaller end up. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In the following detailed description of embodiments of this disclosure, reference is made to the accompanying drawings in which like references indicate similar elements, and in which is shown by way of illustration specific embodiments in which this disclosure may be practiced. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice this disclosure, and it is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and that other changes may be made without departing from the scope of the this disclosure. The following detailed description is, therefore, not to be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of this disclosure is defined only by the appended claims. As used in this disclosure, the term “or” shall be understood to be defined as a logical disjunction (i.e., and/or) and shall not indicate an exclusive disjunction unless expressly indicated as such with the terms “either,” “unless,” “alternatively,” and words of similar effect. I. DEFINITIONS The term “active pharmaceutical ingredient” (“API”) as used herein, means the active compound(s) used in formulating a drug product. The term “co-administered” as used herein, means that two or more drug products are administered simultaneously or sequentially on the same or different days. The term “drug product” as used herein means at least one active pharmaceutical ingredient in combination with at least one excipient and provided in unit dosage form. The term “area under the curve” (“AUC”) refers to the area under the curve defined by changes in the blood concentration of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (e.g., estradiol or progesterone), or a metabolite of the active pharmaceutical ingredient, over time following the administration of a dose of the active pharmaceutical ingredient. “AUC0-∞” is the area under the concentration-time curve extrapolated to infinity following the administration of a dose. “AUC0-t” is the area under the concentration-time curve from time zero to time t following the administration of a dose, wherein t is the last time point with a measurable concentration. The term “Cmax” refers to the maximum value of blood concentration shown on the curve that represents changes in blood concentrations of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (e.g., progesterone or estradiol), or a metabolite of the active pharmaceutical ingredient, over time. The term “Tmax” refers to the time that it takes for the blood concentration an active pharmaceutical ingredient (e.g., estradiol or progesterone), or a metabolite of the active pharmaceutical ingredient, to reach the maximum value. The term “bioavailability,” which has the meaning defined in 21 C.F.R. § 320.1(a), refers to the rate and extent to which an API or active ingredient or active moiety is absorbed from a drug product and becomes available at the site of action. For example, bioavailability can be measured as the amount of API in the blood (serum or plasma) as a function of time. Pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters such as AUC, Cmax, or Tmax may be used to measure and assess bioavailability. For drug products that are not intended to be absorbed into the bloodstream, bioavailability may be assessed by measurements intended to reflect the rate and extent to which the API or active ingredient or active moiety becomes available at the site of action. The term “bioequivalent,” which has the meaning defined in 21 C.F.R. § 320.1(e), refers to the absence of a significant difference in the rate and extent to which the API or active ingredient or active moiety in pharmaceutical equivalents or pharmaceutical alternatives becomes available at the site of drug action when administered at the same molar dose under similar conditions in an appropriately designed study. Where there is an intentional difference in rate (e.g., in certain extended release dosage forms), certain pharmaceutical equivalents or alternatives may be considered bioequivalent if there is no significant difference in the extent to which the active ingredient or moiety from each product becomes available at the site of drug action. This applies only if the difference in the rate at which the active ingredient or moiety becomes available at the site of drug action is intentional and is reflected in the proposed labeling, is not essential to the attainment of effective body drug concentrations on chronic use, and is considered medically insignificant for the drug. In practice, two products are considered bioequivalent if the 90% confidence interval of the AUC, Cmax, or optionally Tmax is within 80.00% to 125.00%. The term “bio-identical,” “body-identical,” or “natural” used in conjunction with the hormones disclosed herein, means hormones that match the chemical structure and effect of those that occur naturally or endogenously in the human body. An exemplary natural estrogen is estradiol. The term “bio-identical hormone” or “body-identical hormone” refers to an active pharmaceutical ingredient that is structurally identical to a hormone naturally or endogenously found in the human body (e.g., estradiol and progesterone). The term “estradiol” refers to (17β)-estra-1,3,5(10)-triene-3,17-diol. Estradiol is also interchangeably called 17β-estradiol, oestradiol, or E2, and is found endogenously in the human body. As used herein, estradiol refers to the bio-identical or body-identical form of estradiol found in the human body having the structure: Estradiol is supplied in an anhydrous or hemi-hydrate form. For the purposes of this disclosure, the anhydrous form or the hemihydrate form can be substituted for the other by accounting for the water or lack of water according to well-known and understood techniques. The term “solubilized estradiol” means that the estradiol or a portion thereof is solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent(s) or the formulations disclosed herein. Solubilized estradiol may include estradiol that is about 80% solubilized, about 85% solubilized, about 90% solubilized, about 95% solubilized, about 96% solubilized, about 97% solubilized, about 98% solubilized, about 99% solubilized or about 100% solubilized. In some embodiments, the estradiol is “fully solubilized” with all or substantially all of the estradiol being solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent. Fully solubilized estradiol may include estradiol that is about 97% solubilized, about 98% solubilized, about 99% solubilized or about 100% solubilized. Solubility can be expressed as a mass fraction (%w/w, which is also referred to as wt %). The term “progesterone” refers to pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione. Progesterone is also interchangeably called P4 and is found endogenously in the human body. As used herein, progesterone refers to the bio-identical or body-identical form of progesterone found in the human body having the structure: The term “solubilized progesterone” means that the progesterone or a portion thereof is solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent(s) or the formulations disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the progesterone is “partially solubilized” with a portion of the progesterone being solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent and a portion of the progesterone being suspended in the solubilizing agent. Partially solubilized progesterone may include progesterone that is about 1% solubilized, about 5% solubilized, about 10% solubilized, about 15% solubilized, about 20% solubilized, about 30% solubilized, about 40% solubilized, about 50% solubilized, about 60% solubilized, about 70% solubilized, about 80% solubilized, about 85% solubilized, about 90% solubilized or about 95% solubilized. In other embodiments, the progesterone is “fully solubilized” with all or substantially all of the progesterone being solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent. Fully solubilized progesterone may include progesterone that is about 97% solubilized, about 98% solubilized, about 99% solubilized or about 100% solubilized. Solubility can be expressed as a mass fraction (%w/w, which is also referred to as wt %). The terms “micronized progesterone” and “micronized estradiol,” as used herein, include micronized progesterone and micronized estradiol having an X50 particle size value below about 15 microns or having an X90 particle size value below about 25 microns. The term “X50” means that one-half of the particles in a sample are smaller in diameter than a given number. For example, micronized progesterone having an X50 of 5 microns means that, for a given sample of micronized progesterone, one-half of the particles have a diameter of less than 5 microns. Similarly, the term “X90” means that ninety percent (90%) of the particles in a sample are smaller in diameter than a given number. The term “glyceride” is an ester of glycerol (1,2,3-propanetriol) with acyl radicals of fatty acids and is also known as an acylglycerol. If only one position of the glycerol molecule is esterified with a fatty acid, a “monoglyceride” or “monoacylglycerol” is produced; if two positions are esterified, a “diglyceride” or “diacylglycerol” is produced; and if all three positions of the glycerol are esterified with fatty acids, a “triglyceride” or “triacylglycerol” is produced. A glyceride is “simple” if all esterified positions contain the same fatty acid; whereas a glyceride is “mixed” if the esterified positions contained different fatty acids. The carbons of the glycerol backbone are designated sn-1, sn-2 and sn-3, with sn-2 being in the middle carbon and sn-1 and sn-3 being the end carbons of the glycerol backbone. The term “solubilizing agent” refers to an agent or combination of agents that solubilize an active pharmaceutical ingredient (e.g., estradiol or progesterone). For example and without limitation, suitable solubilizing agents include medium chain oils and other solvents and co-solvents that solubilize or dissolve an active pharmaceutical ingredient to a desirable extent. Solubilizing agents suitable for use in the formulations disclosed herein are pharmaceutical grade solubilizing agents (e.g., pharmaceutical grade medium chain oils). It will be understood by those of skill in the art that other excipients or components can be added to or mixed with the solubilizing agent to enhance the properties or performance of the solubilizing agent or resulting formulation. Examples of such excipients include, but are not limited to, surfactants, emulsifiers, thickeners, colorants, flavoring agents, etc. In some embodiments, the solubilizing agent is a medium chain oil and, in some other embodiments, the medium chain oil is combined with a co-solvent(s) or other excipient(s). The term “medium chain” is used to describe the aliphatic chain length of fatty acid containing molecules. “Medium chain” specifically refers to fatty acids, fatty acid esters, or fatty acid derivatives that contain fatty acid aliphatic tails or carbon chains that contain 6 (C6) to 14 (C14) carbon atoms, 8 (C8) to 12 (C12) carbon atoms, or 8 (C8) to 10 (C10) carbon atoms. The terms “medium chain fatty acid” and “medium chain fatty acid derivative” are used to describe fatty acids or fatty acid derivatives with aliphatic tails (i.e., carbon chains) having 6 to 14 carbon atoms. Fatty acids consist of an unbranched or branched aliphatic tail attached to a carboxylic acid functional group. Fatty acid derivatives include, for example, fatty acid esters and fatty acid containing molecules, including, without limitation, mono-, di- and triglycerides that include components derived from fatty acids. Fatty acid derivatives also include fatty acid esters of ethylene or propylene glycol. The aliphatic tails can be saturated or unsaturated (i.e., having one or more double bonds between carbon atoms). In some embodiments, the aliphatic tails are saturated (i.e., no double bonds between carbon atoms). Medium chain fatty acids or medium chain fatty acid derivatives include those with aliphatic tails having 6-14 carbons, including those that are C6-C14, C6-C12, C8-C14, C8-C12, C6-C10, C8-C10, or others. Examples of medium chain fatty acids include, without limitation, caproic acid, caprylic acid, capric acid, lauric acid, myristic acid, and derivatives thereof. The term “oil,” as used herein, refers to any pharmaceutically acceptable oil, especially medium chain oils, and specifically excluding peanut oil, that can suspend or solubilize bioidentical progesterone or estradiol, including starting materials or precursors thereof, including micronized progesterone or micronized estradiol as described herein. The term “medium chain oil” refers to an oil wherein the composition of the fatty acid fraction of the oil is substantially medium chain (i.e., C6 to C14) fatty acids, i.e., the composition profile of fatty acids in the oil is substantially medium chain. As used herein, “substantially” means that between 20% and 100% (inclusive of the upper and lower limits) of the fatty acid fraction of the oil is made up of medium chain fatty acids, i.e., fatty acids with aliphatic tails (i.e., carbon chains) having 6 to 14 carbons. In some embodiments, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 85%, about 90% or about 95% of the fatty acid fraction of the oil is made up of medium chain fatty acids. As used herein, “predominantly” means that greater than or equal to 50% of the fatty acid fraction of the oil is made up of medium-chain fatty acids, i.e., fatty acids with aliphatic carbon chains having 6 to 14 carbon atoms. Those of skill in the art that will readily appreciate that the terms “alkyl content” or “alkyl distribution” of an oil can be used in place of the term “fatty acid fraction” of an oil in characterizing a given oil or solubilizing agent, and these terms are used interchangeable herein. As such, medium chain oils suitable for use in the formulations disclosed herein include medium chain oils wherein the fatty acid fraction of the oil is substantially medium chain fatty acids, or medium chain oils wherein the alkyl content or alkyl distribution of the oil is substantially medium chain alkyls (C6-C12 alkyls). It will be understood by those of skill in the art that the medium chain oils suitable for use in the formulations disclosed herein are pharmaceutical grade (e.g., pharmaceutical grade medium chain oils). Examples of medium chain oils include, for example and without limitation, medium chain fatty acids, medium chain fatty acid esters of glycerol (e.g., for example, mono-, di-, and triglycerides), medium chain fatty acid esters of propylene glycol, medium chain fatty acid derivatives of polyethylene glycol, and combinations thereof. The term “ECN” or “equivalent carbon number” means the sum of the number of carbon atoms in the fatty acid chains of an oil, and can be used to characterize an oil as, for example, a medium chain oil or a long-chain oil. For example, tripalmitin (tripalmitic glycerol), which is a simple triglyceride containing three fatty acid chains of 16 carbon atoms, has an ECN of 3×16=48. Conversely, a triglyceride with an ECN=40 may have “mixed” fatty acid chain lengths of 8, 16 and 16; 10, 14 and 16; 8, 14 and 18; etc. Naturally occurring oils are frequently “mixed” with respect to specific fatty acids, but tend not to contain both long chain fatty acids and medium chain fatty acids in the same glycerol backbone. Thus, triglycerides with ECN's of 21-42 typically contain predominantly medium chain fatty acids; while triglycerides with ECN's of greater than 43 typically contain predominantly long chain fatty acids. For example, the ECN of corn oil triglyceride in the USP would be in the range of 51-54. Medium chain diglycerides with ECN's of 12-28 will often contain predominanty medium chain fatty chains, while diglycerides with ECN's of 32 or greater will typically contain predominanty long chain fatty acid tails. Monoglycerides will have an ECN that matches the chain length of the sole fatty acid chain. Thus, monoglyceride ECN's in the range of 6-14 contain mainly medium chain fatty acids, and monoglycerides with ECN's 16 or greater will contain mainly long chain fatty acids. The average ECN of a medium chain triglyceride oil is typically 21-42. For example, as listed in the US Pharmacopeia (USP), medium chain triglycerides have the following composition as the exemplary oil set forth in the table below: Fatty-acid Tail Length % of oil Exemplary Oil 6 ≤2.0 2.0 8 50.0-80.0 70.0 10 20.0-50.0 25.0 12 ≤3.0 2.0 14 ≤1.0 1.0 and would have an average ECN of 3*[(6*0.02)+(8*0.70)+(10*0.25)+(12*0.02)+(14*0.01)]=25.8. The ECN of the exemplary medium chain triglycerides oil can also be expressed as a range (per the ranges set forth in the USP) of 24.9-27.0. For oils that have mixed mono-, di-, and triglycerides, or single and double fatty acid glycols, the ECN of the entire oil can be determined by calculating the ECN of each individual component (e.g., C8 monoglycerides, C8 diglycerides, C10 monoglycerides, and C10 monoglycerides) and taking the sum of the relative percentage of the component multiplied by the ECN normalized to a monoglyceride for each component. For example, the oil having C8 and C10 mono- and diglycerides shown in the table below has an ECN of 8.3, and is thus a medium chain oil. ECN as % of oil ECN as % of oil Fatty-acid Chain (chain length) × (% in normalized to Length % of oil oil) monoglyceride C8 monoglyceride 47 8 × 0.47 = 3.76 3.76 C10 monoglyceride 8 10 × 0.08 = 0.8 0.8 C8 diglyceride 38 2 × (8 × 0.38) = 6.08 6.08/2 = 3.04 C10 diglyceride 7 2 × (10 × 0.07) = 1.4 1.4/2 = 0.7 OIL ECN 8.3 (normalized to monoglycerides) Expressed differently, ECN can be calculated as each chain length in the composition multiplied by its relative percentage in the oil: (8*0.85)+(10*0.15)=8.3. The term “excipients,” as used herein, refers to non-API ingredients such as solubilizing agents, anti-oxidants, oils, lubricants, and others used in formulating pharmaceutical products. The term “patient” or “subject” refers to an individual to whom the pharmaceutical composition is administered. The term “pharmaceutical composition” refers to a pharmaceutical composition comprising at least a solubilizing agent and estradiol. As used herein, pharmaceutical compositions are delivered, for example via suppository (i.e., vaginal suppository), or absorbed vaginally. The term “progestin” means any natural or man-made substance that has pharmacological properties similar to progesterone. The terms “treat,” “treating,” and “treatment” refer to any indicia of success in the treatment or amelioration of an injury, disease, or condition, including any objective or subjective parameter such as abatement; remission; diminishing of symptoms or making the injury, disease, or condition more tolerable to the patient; slowing in the rate of degeneration or decline; or improving a patient's physical or mental well-being. The treatment or amelioration of symptoms can be based on objective or subject parameters, including the results of a physical examination, neuropsychiatric examinations, or psychiatric evaluation. The terms “atrophic vaginitis,” “vulvovaginal atrophy,” “vaginal atrophy,” and “VVA” are used herein interchangeably. The molecular morphology of VVA is well known in the medical field. As used herein, “sexual dysfunction” refers to a condition having one or more symptoms of difficulty during any one or more stages. The dysfunction can prevent an individual from enjoying sexual activity. Non-limiting examples of symptoms of sexual dysfunction include: reduced sexual desire, reduced sexual pleasure, reduced sexual arousal and excitement, aversion to and avoidance of genital sexual contact, inability to attain or maintain arousal, and persistent or recurrent delay of, or absence of orgasm. Sexual dysfunction may be lifelong (no effective performance ever) or acquired (after a period of normal function); generalized or limited to certain situations or certain partners; and total or partial. As used herein, “sexual desire” refers to the frequency of wanting to engage in sexual activity and/or the frequency of engaging in sexual activity as perceived by the individual. Sexual desire can be expressed, for example, in one or more cognitive activities, including the frequency of sexual thoughts, the extent of enjoyment of movies, books, music, etc. having sexual content and/or the extent of enjoyment or pleasure of thinking and fantasizing about sex as perceived by the individual. As used herein, “sexual arousal” refers to the frequency of becoming sexually aroused, how readily sexual arousal occurs and/or if arousal is maintained, as perceived by the individual. Psychologically, arousal can include factors such as increased desire for sexual activity and excitement related to sexual activity. Physiologically, arousal can include increased blood flow to the genitals, causing clitoral engorgement, as well as vaginal lubrication. As used herein, “lubrication” refers to wetness in and around the vagina before, during, or after sexual activity. Increasing lubrication can include increasing the frequency of lubrication; decreasing the difficulty of becoming lubricated; and/or decreasing the difficulty in maintaining lubrication. As used herein, “satisfaction” refers to one or more positive emotions (e.g., contentment, fulfillment, gratification, and the like) related to a sexual activity or sexual relationship. Satisfaction can include, for example, satisfaction with occurrence of sexual arousal or orgasm, satisfaction with the amount of closeness with a partner, and satisfaction with overall sex life. As used herein, “orgasm” refers to the highest point of sexual excitement characterized by a subjective experience of intense pleasure marked normally by vaginal contractions in females. Increasing orgasm can include increasing the frequency, duration, and/or intensity of orgasms in a subject. Increasing orgasm can also include decreasing the difficulty of reaching orgasm. II. INTRODUCTION Provided herein are pharmaceutical compositions comprising solubilized estradiol designed to be absorbed vaginally. The pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are designed to be absorbed and have their therapeutic effect locally, e.g., in vaginal or surrounding tissue. Further disclosed herein are data demonstrating efficacy of the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed, as well as methods relating to the pharmaceutical compositions. Generally, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are useful in VVA, dyspareunia, and other indications caused by decrease or lack of estrogen. Additional aspects and embodiments of this disclosure include: providing increased patient ease of use while potentially minimizing certain side effects from inappropriate insertion, minimizing incidence of vulvovaginal mycotic infection compared to incidence of vulvovaginal mycotic infection due to usage of other vaginally applied estradiol products; and, improved side effect profile (e.g., pruritus) compared to, for example, VAGIFEM® (estradiol vaginal tablets, Novo Nordisk; Princeton, N.J.). III. PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS Functionality According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are alcohol-free or substantially alcohol-free. The pharmaceutical compositions offer provide for improved patient compliance because of improvements over the prior offering. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are encapsulated in soft gelatin capsules, which improve comfort during use. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are substantially liquid, which are more readily absorbed in the vaginal tissue, and also are dispersed over a larger surface area of the vaginal tissue. Estradiol According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are for vaginal insertion in a single or multiple unit dosage form. According to embodiments, the estradiol in the pharmaceutical compositions is at least about: 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% solubilized. According to embodiments and where the estradiol is not 100% solubilized, the remaining estradiol is present in a micronized (crystalline) form that is absorbable by the body and retains biological functionality, either in its micronized form or in another form which the micronized form is converted to after administration. According to embodiments, all or some of the estradiol is solubilized in a solubilizing agent during manufacturing process. According to embodiments, all or some of the estradiol is solubilized following administration (e.g., the micronized portion where the estradiol is not 100% solubilized is solubilized in a body fluid after administration). According to embodiments, because the estradiol is solubilized, the solubilizing agents taught herein, with or without additional excipients other than the solubilizing agents, are liquid or semi-solid. To the extent the estradiol is not fully solubilized at the time of administration/insertion, the estradiol should be substantially solubilized at a body temperature (average of 37° C.) and, generally, at the pH of the vagina (ranges from 3.8 to 4.5 in healthy patients; or 4.6 to 6.5 in VVA patients). According to embodiments, the estradiol can be added to the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein as estradiol, estradiol hemihydrate, or other grade estradiol forms used in pharmaceutical compositions or formulations. According to embodiments, estradiol dosage strengths vary. Estradiol (or estradiol hemihydrate, for example, to the extent the water content of the estradiol hemihydrate is accounted for) dosage strength of is from at least about 1 microgram (μg or μg) to at least about 50 μg. Specific dosage embodiments contain at least about: 1 μg, 2 μg, 3 μg, 4 μg, 5 μg, 6 μg, 7 μg, 8 μg, 9 μg, 10 μg, 11 μg, 12 μg, 13 μg, 14 μg, 15 μg, 16 μg, 17 μg, 18 μg, 19 μg, 20 μg, 21 μg, 22 μg, 23 μg, 24 μg, 25 μg, 26 μg, 27 μg, 28 μg, 29 μg, 30 μg, 31 μg, 32 μg, 33 μg, 34 μg, 35 μg, 36 μg, 37 μg, 38 μg, 39 μg, 40 μg, 41 μg, 42 μg, 43 μg, 44 μg, 45 μg, 46 μg, 47 μg, 48 μg, 49 μg, or 50 μg estradiol. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions contain at least about 2.5 μg; 4 μg 6.25 μg, 7.5 μg, 12.5 μg, 18.75 μg of estradiol. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions contain from about 1 μg to about 10 μg, from 3 μg to 7 μg, from about 7.5 μg to 12.5 μg, from about 10 μg to about 25 μg, about 1 μg, about 2.5 μg, from about 23.5 μg to 27.5 μg, from about 7.5 μg to 22.5 μg, from 10 μg to 25 μg of estradiol. The lowest clinically effective dose of estradiol is used for treatment of VVA and other indications set forth herein. In some embodiments, the estradiol dosage is about 4 μg. In one embodiment, the estradiol dosage is about 10 μg. In another embodiment, the estradiol dosage is about 25 μg. Solvent System According to embodiments, the solvent system that solubilizes the estradiol are medium chain fatty acid based solvents, together with other excipients. According to embodiments, the solvent system includes non-toxic, pharmaceutically acceptable solvents, co-solvents, surfactants, and other excipients suitable for vaginal delivery or absorption. According to embodiments, oils having medium chain fatty acids as a majority component are used as solubilizing agents to solubilize estradiol. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agents comprise medium chain fatty acid esters (e.g., esters of glycerol, ethylene glycol, or propylene glycol) or mixtures thereof. According to embodiments, the medium chain fatty acids comprise chain lengths from C6 to C14. According to embodiments the medium chain fatty acids comprise chain lengths from C6 to C12. According to embodiments the medium chain fatty acids substantially comprise chain lengths from C8-C10. ECN's for medium chain oils will be in the range of 21-42 for triglycerides, 12-28 for diglycerides, and 6-14 for monoglycerides. According to embodiments, the medium chain fatty acids are saturated. According to embodiments, the medium chain fatty acids are predominantly saturated, i.e., greater than about 60% or greater than about 75% saturated. According to embodiments, estradiol is soluble in the solubilizing agent at room temperature, although it may be desirable to warm certain solubilizing agents during manufacture to improve viscosity. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent is liquid at between room temperature and about 50° C., at or below 50° C., at or below 40° C., or at or below 30° C. According to embodiments, the solubility of estradiol in the medium chain oil, medium chain fatty acid, or solubilizing agent (or oil/surfactant) is at least about 0.01 wt %, 0.02 wt %, 0.05 wt %, 0.06 wt %, 0.08 wt %, 0.1 wt %, 0.2 wt %, 0.3 wt %, 0.4 wt %, 0.5 wt %, 0.6 wt %, 0.7 wt %, 0.8 wt %, 0.9 wt %, 1.0 wt %, or higher. According to embodiments, medium chain solubilizing agents include, for example and without limitation saturated medium chain fatty acids: caproic acid (C6), enanthic acid (C7), caprylic acid (C8), pelargonic acid (C9), capric acid (C10), undecylic acid(C11), lauric acid (C12), tridecylic acid (C13), or myristic acid (C14). According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent includes oils made of these free medium chain fatty acids, oils of medium chain fatty acid esters of glycerin, propylene glycol, or ethylene glycol, or combinations thereof. These examples comprise predominantly saturated medium chain fatty acids (i.e., greater than 50% of the fatty acids are medium chain saturated fatty acids). According to embodiments, predominantly C6 to C12 saturated fatty acids are contemplated. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent is selected from at least one of a solvent or co-solvent. According to embodiments, glycerin based solubilizing agents include: mono-, di-, or triglycerides and combinations and derivatives thereof. Exemplary glycerin based solubilizing agents include MIGLYOLs®, which are caprylic/capric triglycerides (SASOL Germany GMBH, Hamburg). MIGLYOLs includes MIGLYOL 810 (caprylic/capric triglyceride), MIGLYOL 812 (caprylic/capric triglyceride), MIGLYOL 816 (caprylic/capric triglyceride), and MIGLYOL 829 (caprylic/capric/succinic triglyceride). Other caprylic/capric triglyceride solubilizing agents are likewise contemplated, including, for example: caproic/caprylic/capric/lauric triglycerides; caprylic/capric/linoleic triglycerides; caprylic/capric/succinic triglycerides. According to embodiments, CAPMUL MCM, medium chain mono- and di-glycerides, is the solubilizing agent. Other and triglycerides of fractionated vegetable fatty acids, and combinations or derivatives thereof can be the solubilizing agent, according to embodiments. For example, the solubilizing agent can be 1,2,3-propanetriol (glycerol, glycerin, glycerine) esters of saturated coconut and palm kernel oil and derivatives thereof. Ethylene and propylene glycols (which include polyethylene and polypropylene glycols) solubilizing agents include: glyceryl mono- and di-caprylates; propylene glycol monocaprylate (e.g., CAPMUL® PG-8 (the CAPMUL brands are owned by ABITEC, Columbus, Ohio)); propylene glycol monocaprate (e.g., CAPMUL PG-10); propylene glycol mono- and dicaprylates; propylene glycol mono- and dicaprate; diethylene glycol mono ester (e.g., TRANSCUTOL®, 2-(2-ethoxyethoxy)ethanol, GATTEFOSSÉ SAS); and diethylene glycol monoethyl ether. Other combinations of mono- and di-esters of propylene glycol or ethylene glycol are expressly contemplated are the solubilizing agent. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent includes combinations of mono- and di-propylene and ethylene glycols and mono-, di-, and triglyceride combinations. According to embodiments, polyethylene glycol glyceride (GELUCIRE®, GATTEFOSSÉ SAS, Saint-Priest, France) can be used herein as the solubilizing agent or as a surfactant. For example, GELUCIRE 44/14 (PEG-32 glyceryl laurate EP), a medium chain fatty acid esters of polyethylene glycol, is a polyethylene glycol glyceride composed of mono-, di- and triglycerides and mono- and diesters of polyethylene glycol. According to embodiments, commercially available fatty acid glycerol and glycol ester solubilizing agents are often prepared from natural oils and therefore may comprise components in addition to the fatty acid esters that predominantly comprise and characterize the solubilizing agent. Such other components may be, e.g., other fatty acid mono-, di-, and triglycerides; fatty acid mono- and diester ethylene or propylene glycols, free glycerols or glycols, or free fatty acids, for example. In some embodiments, when an oil/solubilizing agent is described herein as a saturated C8 fatty acid mono- or diester of glycerol, the predominant component of the oil, i.e., >50 wt % (e.g., >75 wt %, >85 wt % or >90 wt %) is caprylic monoglycerides and caprylic diglycerides. For example, the Technical Data Sheet by ABITEC for CAPMUL MCM C8 describes CAPMUL MCM C8 as being composed of mono and diglycerides of medium chain fatty acids (mainly caprylic) and describes the alkyl content as ≤1% C6, ≥95% C8, ≤5% C10, and ≤1.5% C12 and higher. For example, MIGLYOL 812 is a solubilizing agent that is generally described as a C8-C10 triglyceride because the fatty acid composition is at least about 80% triglyceride esters of caprylic acid (C8) and capric acid (C10). However, it also includes small amounts of other fatty acids, e.g., less than about 5% of caproic acid (C6), lauric acid (C12), and myristic acid (C14). The product information sheet for various MIGLYOLs illustrate the various fatty acid components as follows: Tests 810 812 818 829 840 Caproic acid max. 2.0 max. 2.0 max. 2 max. 2 max. 2 (C6:0) Caprylic acid 65.0-80.0 50.0-65.0 45-65 45-55 65-80 (C8:0) Capric acid 20.0-35.0 30.0-45.0 30-45 30-40 20-35 (C10:0) Lauric acid max. 2 max. 2 max. 3 max. 3 max. 2 (C12:0) Myristic acid max. 1.0 max. 1.0 max. 1 max. 1 max. 1 (C14:0) Linoleic acid — — 2-5 — — (C18:2) Succinic acid — — — 15-20 — ECN 25.5-26.4 26.1-27 26.52-28.56 26-27.6 25.5-26.4 According to embodiments, anionic or non-ionic surfactants may be used in pharmaceutical compositions containing solubilized estradiol. Ratios of solubilizing agent(s) to surfactant(s) vary depending upon the respective solubilizing agent(s) and the respective surfactant(s) and the desired physical characteristics of the resultant pharmaceutical composition. For example and without limitation, CAPMUL MCM and a non-ionic surfactant may be used at ratios including 65:35, 70:30, 75:25, 80:20, 85:15 and 90:10. Other non-limiting examples include: CAPMUL MCM and GELUCIRE 39/01 used in ratios including, for example and without limitation, 6:4, 7:3, and 8:2; CAPMUL MCM and GELUCIRE 43/01 used in ratios including, for example and without limitation, 7:3, and 8:2; CAPMUL MCM and GELUCIRE 50/13 used in ratios including, for example and without limitation, 7:3, and 8:2, and 9:1. Other Excipients According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further includes a surfactant. The surfactant can be a nonionic surfactant, cationic surfactant, anionic surfactant, or mixtures thereof. Suitable surfactants include, for example, water-insoluble surfactants having a hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) value less than 12 and water-soluble surfactants having a HLB value greater than 12. Surfactants that have a high HLB and hydrophilicity, aid the formation of oil-water droplets. The surfactants are amphiphilic in nature and are capable of dissolving or solubilizing relatively high amounts of hydrophobic drug compounds. Non-limiting examples, include, Tween, Dimethylacetamide (DMA), Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), Ethanol, Glycerin, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), PEG 300, PEG 400, Poloxamer 407, Propylene glycol, Phospholipids, Hydrogenated soy phosphatidylcholine (HSPC), Distearoylphosphatidylglycerol (DSPG), L-α-dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC), L-α-dimyristoylphosphatidylglycerol (DMPG), Polyoxyl 35 castor oil (CREMOPHOR EL, CREMOPHOR ELP), Polyoxyl 40 hydrogenated castor oil (Cremophor RH 40), Polyoxyl 60 hydrogenated castor oil (CREMOPHOR RH 60), Polysorbate 20 (TWEEN 20), Polysorbate 80 (TWEEN 80), d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS), Solutol HS-15, Sorbitan monooleate (SPAN 20), PEG 300 caprylic/capric glycerides (SOFTIGEN 767), PEG 400 caprylic/capric glycerides (LABRASOL), PEG 300 oleic glycerides (LABRAFIL M-1944CS), Polyoxyl 35 Castor oil (ETOCAS 35), Glyceryl Caprylate (Mono- and Diglycerides) (IMWITOR), PEG 300 linoleic glycerides (LABRAFIL M-2125CS), Polyoxyl 8 stearate (PEG 400 monosterate), Polyoxyl 40 stearate (PEG 1750 monosterate), and combinations thereof. Additionally, suitable surfactants include, for example, polyoxyethylene derivative of sorbitan monolaurate such as polysorbate, caprylcaproyl macrogol glycerides, polyglycolyzed glycerides, and the like. According to embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant is selected from one or more of glycerol and polyethylene glycol esters of long chain fatty acids, for example, lauroyl macrogol-32 glycerides or lauroyl polyoxyl-32 glycerides, commercially available as GELUCIRE, including, for example, GELUCIRE 39/01 (glycerol esters of saturated C12-C18 fatty acids), GELUCIRE 43/01 (hard fat NF/JPE) and GELUCIRE 50/13 (stearoyl macrogol-32 glycerides EP, stearoyl polyoxyl-32 glycerides NF, stearoyl polyoxylglycerides (USA FDA IIG)). These surfactants may be used at concentrations greater than about 0.01%, and typically in various amounts of about 0.01%-10.0%, 10.1%-20%, and 20.1%-30%. In some embodiments, surfactants may be used at concentrations of about 1% to about 10% (e.g., about 1% to about 5%, about 2% to about 4%, about 3% to about 8%). According to embodiments, non-ionic surfactants include, for example and without limitation: one or more of oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid. According to embodiments, non-ionic surfactants comprise polyethylene sorbitol esters, including polysorbate 80, which is commercially available under the trademark TWEEN® 80 (polysorbate 80) (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.). Polysorbate 80 includes approximately 60%-70% oleic acid with the remainder comprising primarily linoleic acids, palmitic acids, and stearic acids. Polysorbate 80 may be used in amounts ranging from about 5 to 50%, and according to embodiments, about 30% of the pharmaceutical composition total mass. According to embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant includes PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate, which are available commercially as TEFOSE® 63 (GATTEFOSSÉ SAS, Saint-Priest, France), which can be used with, for example, CAPMUL MCM having ratios of MCM to TEFOSE 63 of, for example, 8:2 or 9:1. According to embodiments, other solubilizing agents/non-ionic surfactants combinations include, for example, MIGLYOL 812:GELUCIRE 50/13 or MIGLYOL 812:TEFOSE 63. According to embodiments, the surfactant can be an anionic surfactant, for example: ammonium lauryl sulfate, dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate, perfluoro-octane sulfonic acid, potassium lauryl sulfate, or sodium stearate. Cationic surfactants are also contemplated. According to embodiments, non-ionic or anionic surfactants can be used alone with at least one solubilizing agent or can be used in combination with other surfactants. Accordingly, such surfactants, or any other excipient as set forth herein, may be used to solubilize estradiol. The combination of solubilizing agent, surfactant, and other excipients should be designed whereby the estradiol is absorbed into the vaginal tissue. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition will result in minimal vaginal discharge. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further includes at least one thickening agent. Generally, a thickening agent is added when the viscosity of the pharmaceutical composition results less than desirable absorption. According to embodiments, the surfactant(s) disclosed herein may also provide thickening of the pharmaceutical composition that, upon release, will aid the estradiol in being absorbed by the vaginal mucosa while minimizing vaginal discharge. Examples of thickening agents include: hard fats; propylene glycol; a mixture of hard fat EP/NF/JPE, glyceryl ricinoleate, ethoxylated fatty alcohols (ceteth-20, steareth-20) EP/NF (available as OVUCIRE® 3460, GATTEFOSSÉ, Saint-Priest, France); a mixture of hard fat EP/NF/JPE, glycerol monooleate (type 40) EP/NF (OVUCIRE WL 3264; a mixture of hard fat EP/NF/JPE, glyceryl monooleate (type 40) EP/NF (OVUCIRE WL 2944); a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 stearate, ethylene glycol palmitostearate, and PEG-32 stearate; TEFOSE 63 or a similar product; and a mixture of various hard fats (WITEPSOL®, Sasol Germany GmbH, Hamburg, Germany). Other thickening agents such as the alginates, certain gums such as xanthan gums, agar-agar, iota carrageenans, kappa carrageenans, etc. Several other compounds can act as thickening agents like gelatin, and polymers like HPMC, PVC, and CMC. According to embodiments, the viscosity of pharmaceutical compositions in accordance with various embodiments may comprise from about 50 cps to about 1000 cps at 25° C. A person of ordinary skill in the art will readily understand and select from suitable thickening agents. According to embodiments, the thickening agent is a non-ionic surfactant. For example, polyethylene glycol saturated or unsaturated fatty acid ester or diester is the non-ionic surfactant thickening agent. In embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant includes a polyethylene glycol long chain (C16-C20) fatty acid ester and further includes an ethylene glycol long chain fatty acid ester, such as PEG-fatty acid esters or diesters of saturated or unsaturated C16-C18 fatty acids, e.g., oleic, lauric, palmitic, and stearic acids. In embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant includes a polyethylene glycol long chain saturated fatty acid ester and further includes an ethylene glycol long chain saturated fatty acid ester, such as PEG- and ethylene glycol-fatty acid esters of saturated C16-C18 fatty acids, e.g., palmitic and stearic acids. Such non-ionic surfactant can comprise PEG-6 stearate, ethylene glycol palmitostearate, and PEG-32 stearate, such as but not limited to TEFOSE 63. According to embodiments, TEFOSE 63 is used to provide additional viscosity and/or spreadability in the vagina so as to retard flow of the composition out of the vagina. While the pharmaceutical composition remains liquid, the viscosity of such a pharmaceutical composition causes the liquid to remain in the API absorption area whereby the pharmaceutical composition is substantially absorbed by the tissue. Surprisingly, the addition of an excipient to increase the viscosity and/or spreadability of the pharmaceutical compositions herein allows the administration of a pharmaceutical composition that is liquid at body temperature but does not excessively discharge from the vagina when the patient is standing, which allows the patients to be ambulatory after administration of the pharmaceutical compositions. According to embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant used as a thickening agent is not hydrophilic and has good emulsion properties. An illustrative example of such surfactant is TEFOSE 63, which has a hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) value of about 9-10. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further includes one or more mucoadherent agents to improve vaginal absorption of the estradiol by, for example, increasing the viscosity of of the pharmaceutical composition whereby flow out of the vagina is retarded. According to other embodiments, alone or in addition to changes in viscosity, the mucoadhesive agent causes the pharmaceutical composition to adhere to the vaginal tissue chemically or mechanically. For example, a mucoadherent agent can be present to aid the pharmaceutical composition with adherence to the mucosa upon activation with water. According to embodiments, polycarbophil is the mucoadherent agent. According to embodiments, other mucoadherent agents include, for example and without limitation: poly (ethylene oxide) polymers having a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 900,000; chitosans; carbopols including polymers of acrylic acid crosslinked with allyl sucrose or allyl pentaerythritol; polymers of acrylic acid and C10-C30 alkyl acrylate crosslinked with allyl pentaerythritol; carbomer homopolymer or copolymer that contains a block copolymer of polyethylene glycol and a long chain alkyl acid ester; and the like. According to embodiments, various hydrophilic polymers and hydrogels may be used as the mucoadherent agent. According to certain embodiments, the polymers or hydrogels can swell in response to contact with vaginal tissue or secretions, enhancing moisturizing and mucoadherent effects. The selection and amount of hydrophilic polymer may be based on the selection and amount of solubilizing agent. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes a hydrophilic polymer but optionally excludes a gelling agent. In embodiments having a hydrogel, from about 5% to about 10% of the total mass may comprise the hydrophilic polymer. In further embodiments, hydrogels may be employed. A hydrogel may comprise chitosan, which swell in response to contact with water. In various embodiments, a cream pharmaceutical composition may comprise PEG-90M. In some embodiments, a mucoadherent agent is present in the pharmaceutical formulation, in the soft gel capsule, or both. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions include one or more thermoreversible gels, typically of the hydrophilic nature including for example and without limitation, hydrophilic sucrose and other saccharide-based monomers (U.S. Pat. No. 6,018,033, which is incorporated by reference). According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further includes a lubricant. In some embodiments, a lubricant can be present to aid in formulation of a dosage form. For example, a lubricant may be added to ensure that capsules or tablets do not stick to one another during processing or upon storage. Any suitable lubricant may be used. For example, lecithin, which is a mixture of phospholipids, is the lubricant. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further includes an antioxidant. Any suitable anti-oxidant may be used. For example, butylated hydroxytoluene, butylated hydroxyanisole, and Vitamin E TPGS. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes about 20% to about 80% solubilizing agent by weight, about 0.1% to about 5% lubricant by weight, and about 0.01% to about 0.1% antioxidant by weight. The choice of excipient will depend on factors such as, for example, the effect of the excipient on solubility and stability. Additional excipients used in various embodiments may include colorants and preservatives. Examples of colorants include FD&C colors (e.g., blue No. 1 and Red No. 40), D&C colors (e.g., Yellow No. 10), and opacifiers (e.g., Titanium dioxide). According to embodiments, colorants, comprise about 0.1% to about 2% of the pharmaceutical composition by weight. According to embodiments, preservatives in the pharmaceutical composition comprise methyl and propyl paraben, in a ratio of about 10:1, and at a proportion of about 0.005% and 0.05% by weight. Generally, the solubilizing agents, excipients, other additives used in the pharmaceutical compositions described herein, are non-toxic, pharmaceutically acceptable, compatible with each other, and maintain stability of the pharmaceutical composition and the various components with respect to each other. Additionally, the combination of various components that comprise the pharmaceutical compositions will maintain will result in the desired therapeutic effect when administered to a subject. Solubility of Estradiol According to embodiments, solubilizing agents comprising mixtures of medium chain fatty acid glycerides, e.g., C6-C12, C8-C12, or C8-C10 fatty acid mono- and diglycerides or mono-, di-, and triglycerides dissolve estradiol. As illustrated in the Examples, good results were obtained with solubilizing agents that are predominantly a mixture of C8-C10 saturated fatty acid mono- and diglycerides, or medium chain triglycerides (e.g., MIGLYOL 810 or 812). Longer chain glycerides appear to be not as well suited for dissolution of estradiol. A solubilizing agent comprising propylene glycol monocaprylate (e.g., CAPRYOL) and 2-(2-Ethoxyethoxy)ethanol (e.g., TRANSCUTOL) solubilized estradiol well. IV. MANUFACTURE OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITION According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is prepared via blending estradiol with a pharmaceutically acceptable solubilizing agent, including for example and without limitation, at least one medium chain fatty acid such as medium chain fatty acids consisting of at least one mono-, di-, or triglyceride, or derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition also includes at least one glycol or derivatives thereof or combinations thereof or combinations of at least one glyceride and glycol. The glycol(s) may be used as solubilizing agents or to adjust viscosity and, thus, may be considered thickening agents, as discussed further herein. Optionally added are other excipients including, for example and without limitation, anti-oxidants, lubricants, and the like. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes sufficient solubilizing agent to fully solubilize the estradiol. It is expressly understood, however, the other volumes of solubilizing agent can be used depending on the level of estradiol solubilization desired. Persons of ordinary skill in the art will know and understand how to determine the volume of solubilizing agent and other excipients depending on the desired percent of estradiol to be solubilized in the pharmaceutical composition. In illustrative embodiments, GELUCIRE 44/14 (lauroyl macrogol-32 glycerides EP, lauroyl polyoxyl-32 glycerides NF, lauroyl polyoxylglycerides (USA FDA IIG)) is heated to about 65° C. and CAPMUL MCM is heated to about 40° C. to facilitate mixing of the oil and non-ionic surfactant, although such heating is not necessary to dissolve the estradiol. Specific Examples disclosed herein provide additional principles and embodiments illustrating the manufactures of the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein. V. DELIVERY VEHICLE Generally, the pharmaceutical compositions described herein delivered intravaginally inside of a delivery vehicle, for example a capsule. According to embodiments, the capsules are soft capsules made of materials well known in the pharmaceutical arts, for example, gelatin. However, according to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is integral with the pharmaceutical composition (i.e., the pharmaceutical composition is the delivery vehicle). In such embodiments the pharmaceutical compositions is a gel, cream, ointment, tablet, or other preparation that is directly applied and absorbed vaginally. According to embodiments, the capsules do not contain one or more of the following: a hydrophilic gel-forming bioadhesive agent, a lipophilic agent, a gelling agent for the lipophilic agent, and/or a hydrodispersible agent. According to embodiments, the capsules do not contain a hydrophilic gel-forming bioadhesive agent selected from: carboxyvinylic acid, hydroxypropylcellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, gelatin, xanthan gum, guar gum, aluminum silicate, and mixtures thereof. According to embodiments, the capsules do not contain a lipophilic agent selected from: a liquid triglyceride, a solid triglyceride (with a melting point of about 35° C.), carnauba wax, cocoa butter, and mixtures thereof. According to embodiments, the capsules do not contain a hydrophobic colloidal silica gelling agent. According to embodiments, the capsules do not contain a hydrodispersible agent selected from: polyoxyethylene glycol, polyoxyethylene glycol 7-glyceryl-cocoate, and mixtures thereof. In some embodiments, the estradiol is formulated as a liquid composition consisting of a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; a caprylic/capric triglyceride; and a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate. In such embodiments, a hydrophilic gel-forming bioadhesive agent in the liquid composition. In some such embodiments, the liquid composition is contained with a gelatin capsule as described herein. In some such embodiments, the capsule comprises gelatin and optionally one or more further components selected from the group consisting of gelatin, hydrolyzed gelatin, sorbitol-sorbitan solution, water, glycerin, titanium dioxide, FD&C Red #40, ethanol, ethyl acetate, propylene glycol, polyvinyl acetate phthalate, isopropyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, and ammonium hydroxide. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is designed for ease of insertion. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is sized whereby it can be comfortably inserted into the vagina. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is prepared in a variety of geometries. For example, the delivery vehicle is shaped as a tear drop, a cone with frustoconical end, a cylinder, a cylinder with larger “cap” portion, or other shapes suitable for and that ease insertion into the vagina. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is used in connection with an applicator. According to other embodiments, the delivery vehicle is inserted digitally. According to embodiments, a method for the treatment of VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), is provided wherein a composition for the treatment of VVA is digitally insert approximately two inches into the vagina or in the third of the vagina closest to the opening of the vagina and results in at least one of: improved compliance compared to other products for the treatment of VVA; improved user experience compared to other products for the treatment of VVA; and statistically significantly improved symptoms of VVA, compared to placebo or baseline within one of two, four, six, eight, ten, or twelve or more weeks after initiation of administration. According to embodiments, a method for the treatment of VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), is provided wherein a delivery vehicle containing a composition for the treatment of VVA and a tear drop shape as disclosed herein is insert approximately two inches into the vagina or in the third of the vagina closest to the opening of the vagina and results in at least one of: improved compliance compared to other products for the treatment of VVA; improved user experience compared to other products for the treatment of VVA; and statistically significantly improved symptoms of VVA, compared to placebo or baseline within one of two, four, six, eight, ten, or twelve or more weeks after initiation of administration. With reference to FIG. 2, delivery vehicle 200 includes pharmaceutical composition 202 and capsule 204. Width 208 represents the thickness of capsule 204, for example about 0.108 inches. The distance from one end of delivery vehicle 200 to another is represented by distance 206, for example about 0.690 inches. The size of delivery vehicle 200 may also be described by the arc swept by a radius of a given length. For example, arc 210, which is defined by the exterior of gelatin 204, is an arc swept by a radius of about 0.189 inches. Arc 212, which is defined by the interior of capsule 204, is an arc swept by a radius of about 0.0938 inches. Arc 214, which is defined by the exterior of gelatin 204 opposite arc 210, is an arc swept by a radius of about 0.108 inches. Suitable capsules of other dimensions may be provided. According to embodiments, capsule 204 has dimensions the same as or similar to the ratios as provided above relative to each other. In some embodiment, the gelatin capsule further comprises one or more components selected from the group consisting of hydrolyzed gelatin, sorbitol-sorbitan solution, water, glycerin, titanium dioxide, FD&C Red #40, ethanol, ethyl acetate, propylene glycol, polyvinyl acetate phthalate, isopropyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, and ammonium hydroxide. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is designed to remaining in the vagina until the pharmaceutical compositions are released. According to embodiments, delivery vehicle dissolves intravaginally and is absorbed into the vaginal tissue with the pharmaceutical composition, which minimizes vaginal discharge. In such embodiments, delivery mechanism is made from constituents that are non-toxic, for example, gelatin. Design Factors for Vaginally Inserted Pharmaceutical Compositions According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is designed to maximize favorable characteristics that lead to patient compliance (patients that discontinue treatment prior to completion of the prescribed course of therapy), without sacrificing efficacy. Favorable characteristics include, for example, lack of or reduction of irritation relative to other hormone replacement pessaries, lack of or reduction in vaginal discharge of the pharmaceutical composition and delivery vehicle relative to other hormone replacement pessaries, lack of or reduction of pharmaceutical composition or delivery vehicle residue inside the vagina, ease of administration compared to other hormone replacement pessaries, or improved efficacy of drug product relative to otherwise similar pharmaceutical compositions. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is non-irritating or minimizes irritation. Patient irritation includes pain, pruritus (itching), soreness, excessive discharge, swelling, or other similar conditions. Patient irritation results in poor compliance. Non-irritating or reduced irritation pharmaceutical compositions are measured relative to competing hormone pessaries, including tablets, creams, or other intravaginal estrogen delivery forms. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions does not result in systemic exposure (e.g., blood circulation of estradiol), which improves safety. According to other embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein result in significantly reduced systemic exposure (e.g., blood circulation of estradiol) when compared to other vaginally administered drugs on the market for the treatment of VVA. In certain embodiments, the administration of the pharmaceutical composition provides a mean concentration (Cave) value below 20.6 pg/mL on Day 1 of the treatment, and/or a Cave value below 19.4 pg/mL on Day 14 of the treatment, and/or a Cave value below 11.5 pg/mL on Day 83 of the treatment. In certain embodiments, the administration of the pharmaceutical composition provides a mean concentration (Cave) value below 10 pg/mL on Day 1 of the treatment, and/or a Cave value below 7.3 pg/mL on Day 14 of the treatment, and/or a Cave value below 5.5 pg/mL on Day 83 of the treatment. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition does not leave residue inside the vagina. Rather, the pharmaceutical composition and delivery vehicle are substantially absorbed or dispersed without resulting in unabsorbed residue or unpleasant sensations of non-absorbed or non-dispersed drug product. Measurement of lack of residue is relative to other vaginally inserted products or can be measured objectively with inspection of the vaginal tissues. For example, certain other vaginally inserted products contain starch which can result in greater discharge from the vagina following administration than. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions provided herein provide a lower amount, duration, or frequency of discharge following administration compared to other vaginally inserted products (e.g., compressed tablets). According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition improves vaginal discharge compared to other pessaries, including pessaries that deliver hormones. Ideally, vaginal discharge is eliminated, minimized, or improved compared to competing products. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are inserted digitally. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are digitally inserted approximately two inches into the vagina without a need for an applicator. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are designed to be also inserted with an applicator, if desired. According to some embodiments, because the site of VVA is in the proximal region of the vagina (towards the vaginal opening), the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are designed to be inserted in the proximal portion of the vagina. Through extensive experimentation, various medium chain fatty acid esters of glycerol and propylene glycol demonstrated one or more favorable characteristics for development as a human drug product. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent was selected from at least one of a solvent or co-solvent. Suitable solvents and co-solvents include any mono-, di- or triglyceride and glycols, and combinations thereof. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is delivered via a gelatin capsule delivery vehicle. According to these embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is a liquid pharmaceutical composition. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is a soft capsule, for example a soft gelatin capsule. Thus, the pharmaceutical composition of such embodiments is encapsulated in the soft gelatin capsule or other soft capsule. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes estradiol that is at least about 80% solubilized in a solubilizing agent comprising one or more C6 to C14 medium chain fatty acid mono-, di-, or triglycerides and, optionally, a thickening agent. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes estradiol that is at least about 80% solubilized one or more C6 to C12 medium chain fatty acid mono-, di-, or triglycerides, e.g., one or more C6 to C14 triglycerides, e.g., one or more C6 to C12 triglycerides, such as one or more C8-C10 triglycerides. These embodiments specifically contemplate the estradiol being at least 80% solubilized. These embodiments specifically contemplate the estradiol being at least 90% solubilized. These embodiments specifically contemplate the estradiol being at least 95% solubilized. These embodiments specifically contemplate the estradiol being fully solubilized. As noted above, liquid pharmaceutical compositions are liquid at room temperature or at body temperature. For example, in some embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition provided herein is a liquid formulation contained within a soft gel capsule. Gels, hard fats, or other solid forms that are not liquid at room or body temperature are less desirable in embodiments of the pharmaceutical composition that are liquid. The thickening agent serves to increase viscosity, e.g., up to about 10,000 cP (10,000 mPa-s), typically to no more than about 5000 cP, and more typically to between about 50 and 1000 cP. In embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant, e.g., GELUCIRE or TEFOSE, may be solid at room temperature and require melting to effectively mix with the solubilizing agent. However, in these embodiments, the resultant pharmaceutical composition remains liquid, albeit with greater viscosity, not solid. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes estradiol, the medium chain solubilizing agent, and the thickening agent as the ingredients delivered via a soft capsule delivery vehicle. Other ingredients, e.g., colorants, antioxidants, preservatives, or other ingredients may be included as well. However, the addition of other ingredients should be in amounts that do not materially change the solubility of the estradiol, the pharmacokinetics of the pharmaceutical composition, or efficacy of the pharmaceutical composition. Other factors that should be considered when adjusting the ingredients of the pharmaceutical composition include the irritation, vaginal discharge, intravaginal residue, and other relevant factors, for example those that would lead to reduced patient compliance. Other contemplated ingredients include: oils or fatty acid esters, lecithin, mucoadherent agents, gelling agents, dispersing agents, or the like. VI. METHODS According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein can be used for the treatment of VVA, including the treatment of at least one VVA symptom including: vaginal dryness, vaginal or vulvar irritation or itching, dysuria, dyspareunia, and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity, among others. According to embodiments the methods of treatment are generally applicable to females. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein can be used for the treatment of estrogen-deficient urinary states. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein can be used for the treatment of dyspareunia, or vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. According to embodiments, treatment of the VVA, estrogen-deficient urinary states, and dyspareunia and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity occurs by administering the pharmaceutical compositions intravaginally. According to embodiments where the delivery vehicle is a capsule, the patient obtains the capsule and inserts the capsule into the vagina, where the capsule dissolves and the pharmaceutical composition is released into the vagina where it is absorbed into the vaginal tissue. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is completely absorbed into the vaginal tissue. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is substantially absorbed into the vaginal tissue (e.g., at least about 80% by weight, at least about 85% by weight, at least about 90% by weight, at least about 95% by weight, at least about 97% by weight, at least about 98% by weight, or at least about 99% by weight of the composition is absorbed). According to embodiments, the capsule is inserted about two inches into the vagina, however the depth of insertion is generally any depth that allows for adsorption of substantially all of the pharmaceutical composition. According to embodiments, the capsule can also be applied using an applicator that deposits the capsule at an appropriate vaginal depth as disclosed herein. According to embodiments, the capsule is insert into the lower third of the vagina (i.e., the third closest to the vaginal opening). According to embodiments, the softgel capsule can be held with the larger end between the fingers as shown in FIG. 26A. The subject will select a position that is most comfortable (e.g., a reclining position as shown in FIG. 26B or a standing position as shown in FIG. 26C), and the subject will insert the softgel into the lower third of the vagina with the smaller end up. The softgel capsule will dissolve rapidly. The softgel can be inserted at any time of day and normal activities can be immediately resumed. According to embodiments, the same time of day for all insertions of of the softgel is used. According to embodiments where the pharmaceutical composition is a cream, gel, ointment, or other similar preparation, the pharmaceutical composition is applied digitally, as is well known and understood in the art. Upon release of the pharmaceutical composition in the vagina, estradiol is locally absorbed. For example, following administration of the suppository to the proximal region of the vagina of a patient provides a therapeutically effective concentration of estradiol over 24 hours in the proximal region of the vagina. According to embodiments, the timing of administration of the pharmaceutical composition of this disclosure may be conducted by any safe means as prescribed by an attending physician. According to embodiments, a patient will administer the pharmaceutical composition (e.g., a capsule) intravaginally each day for 14 days, then twice weekly thereafter. In some such embodiments, the doses administered during the twice weekly dosing period are administered approximately 3-4 days apart. Typically, doses administered during the twice weekly dosing period do not exceed more than twice in a seven day period. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are vaginally administered with co-administration of an orally administered estrogen-based (or progestin-based or progestin- and estrogen-based) pharmaceutical drug product, or patch, cream, gel, spray, transdermal delivery system or other parenterally-administered estrogen-based pharmaceutical drug product, each of which can include natural, bio-similar, or synthetic or other derived estrogens or progestins. According to embodiments, modulation of circulating estrogen levels provided via the administration of the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein, if any, are not intended to be additive to any co-administered estrogen product and its associated circulating blood levels. According to other embodiments, co-administrated estrogen products are intended to have an additive effect as would be determined by the patient physician. According to embodiments, a method for estrogenizing vaginal tissue is provided. The method includes administration of a (i.e., a suppository) or dosage as described herein. Estrogenized vaginal tissue is typically characterized by one or more of the following properties: the presence clear secretions on vaginal walls; rogation and elasticity of the vaginal walls; intact vaginal epithelium; and pink tissue color. In contrast, de-estrogenized vaginal is characterized by decreased or absent secretions; smooth tissue with fewer or no rugae; bleeding of the vaginal surface; development of petechiae (i.e., pinpoint, round spots on the skin due to bleeding, appearing red, brown, or purple); and pale or transparent tissues. Accordingly, estrogenizing vaginal tissue according to the method disclosed herein can include, increasing the level of vaginal secretions in a subject; increasing the number of vaginal rugae in the subject; and/or decreasing bleeding or petechiae in the subject. According to embodiments, a method for estrogenizing vaginal tissue is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estradiol Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for estrogenizing vaginal tissue is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estrone Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for estrogenizing the labia majora and labia minora (collectively “labia”) is provided as described herein. Generally, the pharmaceutical composition is inserted digitally into the vagina approximately two inches or inserted into the third of the vagina closest to the vaginal opening as shown in FIGS. 26A, 26B, and 26C. The gelatin capsule containing the pharmaceutical composition dissolves, ruptures, or otherwise releases the pharmaceutical composition into the vagina, whereby the lower third of the vagina and labia are both reestrogenized. According to some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is a liquid that partially flows to the labia and directly reestrogenizes the labia. According to embodiments, a method for estrogenizing the vulva is provided as described herein. Generally, the pharmaceutical composition is inserted digitally into the vagina approximately two inches or inserted into the third of the vagina closest to the vaginal opening as shown in FIGS. 26A, 26B, and 26C. The gelatin capsule containing the pharmaceutical composition dissolves, ruptures, or otherwise releases the pharmaceutical composition into the vagina, whereby the lower third of the vagina and vulva are both reestrogenized. According to some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is a liquid that partially flows to the vulval tissue and directly reestrogenizes the vulva. According to embodiments, a method for treating vaginal dryness is provided. The method includes administration of a soft gel vaginal estradiol formulation (i.e., a suppository) or dosage as described herein. Treating vaginal dryness according to the method disclosed herein can include, decreasing the severity of vaginal dryness by 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99%. The decrease in severity can be obtained following 2 weeks of treatment, or 6 weeks of treatment, or 8 weeks of treatment, or 12 weeks of treatment. In some embodiments, vaginal dryness is assessed using a severity scale, ranging from 0 to 4 points wherein 0 indicates no dryness, 1 indicates mild dryness, 2 indicates moderate dryness, and 3 indicates severe dryness. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes reducing the dryness severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes decreasing the severity of dryness after two weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.5-point decrease to a 1.25-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes decreasing the severity of dryness after six weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.75-point decrease to a 1.5-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes decreasing the severity of dryness after eight weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.9-point decrease to a 1.5-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes decreasing the severity of dryness after twelve weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.9-point decrease to a 1.5-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vaginal dryness includes administering a suppository so as to provide an estradiol Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating vaginal dryness is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estrone Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation is provided. The method includes administration of a soft gel vaginal estradiol formulation (i.e., a suppository) or dosage as described herein. Treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation according to the method disclosed herein can include, decreasing the severity of vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation by 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99%. The decrease in severity can be obtained following 2 weeks of treatment, or 6 weeks of treatment, or 8 weeks of treatment, or 12 weeks of treatment. In some embodiments, vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation is assessed using a severity scale, ranging from 0 to 4 points wherein 0 indicates no itching or irritation, 1 indicates mild itching or irritation, 2 indicates moderate itching or irritation, and 3 indicates severe itching or irritation. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subj ect, to 1, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes reducing the itching/irritation severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes decreasing the severity of itching/irritation after two weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.3-point decrease to a 0.6-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes decreasing the severity of itching/irritation after six weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.5-point decrease to a 0.7-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes decreasing the severity of itching/irritation after eight weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.5-point decrease to a 0.8-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes decreasing the severity of itching/irritation after twelve weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.5-point decrease to a 1.0-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation includes administering a suppository so as to provide an estradiol Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estrone Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating dyspareunia is provided. The method includes administration of a suppository or dosage as described herein. Treating dyspareunia according to the method disclosed herein can include, decreasing the severity of dyspareunia by 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99%. The decrease in severity can be obtained following 2 weeks of treatment, or 6 weeks of treatment, or 8 weeks of treatment, or 12 weeks of treatment. In some embodiments, dyspareunia is assessed using a severity scale, ranging from 0 to 4 points wherein 0 indicates no pain associated with sexual activity (with vaginal penetration), 1 indicates mild pain associated with sexual activity (with vaginal penetration), 2 indicates moderate pain associated with sexual activity (with vaginal penetration), and 3 indicates severe pain associated with sexual activity (with vaginal penetration). In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 2 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 6 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 8 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 3, prior to treatment of a subject, to 2, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 2, prior to treatment of a subject, to 1, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes reducing the dyspareunia severity score from 1, prior to treatment of subject, to 0, after 12 weeks of treatment of the subject. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes decreasing the severity of dyspareunia after two weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 0.9-point decrease to a 1.1-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes decreasing the severity of dyspareunia after six weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 1.3-point decrease to a 1.5-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes decreasing the severity of dyspareunia after eight weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 1.5-point decrease to a 1.8-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes decreasing the severity of dyspareunia after twelve weeks of treatment, wherein the severity is assessed on a scale of 0-3 points, and the average decrease ranges from a 1.5-point decrease to a 1.8-point decrease. The average decrease can be determined by observing any suitable number of subjects. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 100. In some embodiments, the number of subjects is at least 500. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 700 to 800. In some embodiments, the number of subjects ranges from 740 to 750. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 4 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 10 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the vaginal estradiol formulation contains 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the method for treating dyspareunia includes administering a suppository so as to provide an estradiol Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating dyspareunia is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estrone Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating urinary tract infections is provided. As used herein the term “urinary tract infection” refers to an infection of the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra by a microorganism such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Klebsiella sp., Enterobacter sp., or Proteus sp. The method for treating urinary tract infections generally includes administering a soft gel vaginal estradiol formulation (i.e., a suppository) as described herein. According to certain embodiments, the method further includes decreasing urethral discomfort, frequency or urination, hematuria, dysuria, and/or stress incontinence. According to certain embodiments, a method for treating urinary tract infections is provided, the method including administering a suppository as described herein and decreasing vaginal pH from above 4.5 to between 3.5 and 4.5 (inclusive). The method can be particularly effective for treating urinary tract infections in elderly subjects (e.g., subjects older than 65 years, or older than 75 years, or older than 85 years). According to embodiments, a method for treating urinary tract infections is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estradiol Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating urinary tract infections is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estrone Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating sexual dysfunction is provided. As used herein with respect to female subjects, the term “sexual dysfunction” generally refers to pain or discomfort during sexual intercourse, diminished vaginal lubrication, delayed vaginal engorgement, increased time for arousal, diminished ability to reach orgasm, diminished clitoral sensation, diminished sexual desire, and/or diminished arousal. According to embodiments, a method for treating sexual dysfunction is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estradiol Cmax or AUC as described herein. According to embodiments, a method for treating sexual dysfunction is provided, the method including administering a suppository so as to provide an estrone Cmax or AUC as described herein. Sexual function and dysfunction can be assessed using the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) (see, Rosen R, Brown C, Heiman J, et al. “The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI): A Multidimensional Self-Report Instrument for the Assessment of Female Sexual Function.” Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy 2000. 26: p. 191-208). The FSFI is useful for assessing various domains of sexual functioning (e.g. sexual desire, arousal, orgasm, satisfaction and pain). Accordingly, the method for treating sexual dysfunction as provided herein can include administering a vaginal soft gel formulation to a subject and increasing a subject's full-scale FSFI score, FSFI-desire score, FSFI-arousal score, FSFI-lubrication score and/or FSFI-orgasm score. Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) Question Answer Options Q1: Over the past 4 weeks, how often did you feel 5 = Almost always or always sexual desire or interest? 4 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 2 = A few times (less than half the time) 1 = Almost never or never Q2: Over the past 4 weeks, how would you rate your 5 = Very high level (degree) of sexual desire or interest? 4 = High 3 = Moderate 2 = Low 1 = Very low or none at all Q3. Over the past 4 weeks, how often did you feel 0 = No sexual activity sexually aroused (“turned on”) during sexual activity 5 = Almost always or always or intercourse? 4 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 2 = A few times (less than half the time) 1 = Almost never or never Q4. Over the past 4 weeks, how would you rate your 0 = No sexual activity level of sexual arousal (“turn on”) during sexual 5 = Very high activity or intercourse? 4 = High 3 = Moderate 2 = Low 1 = Very low or none at all Q5. Over the past 4 weeks, how confident were you 0 = No sexual activity about becoming sexually aroused during sexual 5 = Very high confidence activity or intercourse? 4 = High confidence 3 = Moderate confidence 2 = Low confidence 1 = Very low or no confidence Q6. Over the past 4 weeks, how often have you been 0 = No sexual activity satisfied with your arousal (excitement) during sexual 5 = Almost always or always activity or intercourse? Response Options 4 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 2 = A few times (less than half the time) 1 = Almost never or never Q7: Over the past 4 weeks, how often did you become 0 = No sexual activity lubricated (“wet”) during sexual activity or 5 = Almost always or always intercourse? 4 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 2 = A few times (less than half the time) 1 = Almost never or never Q8. Over the past 4 weeks, how difficult was it to 0 = No sexual activity become lubricated (“wet”) during sexual activity or 1 = Extremely difficult or impossible intercourse? 2 = Very difficult 3 = Difficult 4 = Slightly difficult 5 = Not difficult Q9: Over the past 4 weeks, how often did you 0 = No sexual activity maintain your lubrication (“wetness”) until completion 5 = Almost always or always of sexual activity or intercourse? 4 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 2 = A few times (less than half the time) 1 = Almost never or never Q10: Over the past 4 weeks, how difficult was it to 0 = No sexual activity maintain your lubrication (“wetness”) until completion 1 = Extremely difficult or impossible of sexual activity or intercourse? 2 = Very difficult 3 = Difficult 4 = Slightly difficult 5 = Not difficult Q11. Over the past 4 weeks, when you had sexual 0 = No sexual activity stimulation or intercourse, how often did you reach 5 = Almost always or always orgasm (climax)? 4 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 2 = A few times (less than half the time) 1 = Almost never or never Q12: Over the past 4 weeks, when you had sexual 0 = No sexual activity stimulation or intercourse, how difficult was it for you 1 = Extremely difficult or impossible to reach orgasm (climax)? 2 = Very difficult 3 = Difficult 4 = Slightly difficult 5 = Not difficult Q13: Over the past 4 weeks, how satisfied were you 0 = No sexual activity with your ability to reach orgasm (climax) during 5 = Very satisfied 4 sexual activity or intercourse? 4 = Moderately satisfied 3 = About equally satisfied and dissatisfied 2 = Moderately dissatisfied 1 = Very dissatisfied Q14: Over the past 4 weeks, how satisfied have you 0 = No sexual activity been with the amount of emotional closeness during 5 = Very satisfied sexual activity between you and your partner? 4 = Moderately satisfied 3 = About equally satisfied and dissatisfied 2 = Moderately dissatisfied 1 = Very dissatisfied Q15: Over the past 4 weeks, how satisfied have you 5 = Very satisfied been with your sexual relationship with your partner? 4 = Moderately satisfied 3 = About equally satisfied and dissatisfied 2 = Moderately dissatisfied 1 = Very dissatisfied Q16: Over the past 4 weeks, how satisfied have you 5 = Very satisfied been with your overall sexual life? 4 = Moderately satisfied 3 = About equally satisfied and dissatisfied 2 = Moderately dissatisfied 1 = Very dissatisfied Q17: Over the past 4 weeks, how often did you 0 = Did not attempt intercourse experience discomfort or pain during vaginal I = Almost always or always penetration? 2 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 4 = A few times (less than half the time) 5 = Almost never or never Q18: Over the past 4 weeks, how often did you 0 = Did not attempt intercourse experience discomfort or pain following vaginal 1 = Almost always or always penetration? 2 = Most times (more than half the time) 3 = Sometimes (about half the time) 4 = A few times (less than half the time) 5 = Almost never or never Q19. Over the past 4 weeks, how would you rate your 0 = Did not attempt intercourse level (degree) of discomfort or pain during or 1 = Very high following vaginal penetration? 2 = High 3 = Moderate 4 = Low 5 = Very low or none at all FSFI Scoring System Domain Questions Score Range Factor Minimum Maximum Desire 1, 2 1-5 0.6 1.2 6.0 Arousal 3, 4, 5, 6 0-5 0.3 0 6.0 Lubrication 7, 8, 9, 10 0-5 0.3 0 6.0 Orgasm 11, 12, 13 0-5 0.4 0 6.0 Satisfaction 14, 15, 16 0 (or 1)-5 0.4 0.8 6.0 Pain 17, 18, 19 0-5 0.4 0 6.0 Full Scale Score Range: 2.0 36.0 In some embodiments, the method for treating sexual dysfunction includes administering estradiol to the subject and increasing the FSFI-desire score by at least about 20%, or at least about 25%, or at least about 30% as compared to baseline. In some embodiments, the method for treating sexual dysfunction includes administering estradiol to the subject and increasing the FSFI-arousal score by at least about 30%, or at least about 40%, or at least about 50% as compared to baseline. In some embodiments, the method for treating sexual dysfunction includes administering estradiol to the subject and increasing the FSFI-lubrication score by at least about 85%, or at least about 95%, or at least about 115% as compared to baseline. In some embodiments, the method for treating sexual dysfunction includes administering estradiol to the subject and increasing the FSFI-orgasm score by at least about 40%, or at least about 60% as compared to baseline. In some embodiments, the method for treating sexual dysfunction includes administering estradiol to the subject and increasing the total FSFI score by at least about 50%, or at least about 55%, or at least about 70% as compared to baseline. Examples of other metrics for assessment of sexual function include, but are not limited to, Changes in Sexual Function Questionnaire (“CSFQ”; Clayton et al., Psychopharmacol Bull. 33(4):731-45 (1997) and Clayton et al., Psychopharmacol. Bull. 33(4):747-53 (1997)); the Derogatis Interview for Sexual Functioning—Self-Report (“DISF-SR”; Derogatis, J Sex Marital Ther. 23:291-304 (1997)); the Golombok-Rust Inventory of Sexual Satisfaction (“GRISS”; Rust et al., Arch. Sex Behav. 15:157-165 (1986)); the Sexual Function Questionnaire (“SFQ”; Quirk et al., J Womens Health Gend Based Med. 11:277-289 (2002)); and the Arizona Sexual Experience Scale (“ASEX”; McGahuey et al., J Sex Marital Ther. 26:25-40 (2000)), the entire disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. For assessment using a questionnaire, a measure of sexual dysfunction function is increased when the score in the appropriate domain, subscale or subtest is indicative of sexual dysfunction, as established for that questionnaire. For instance, a female's sexual interest is considered reduced, when assessed using the CSFQ, if the subscale for sexual interest score is less than or equal to 9. Conversely, sexual dysfunction is considered improved when the score in the appropriate domain, subscale or subtest is indicative of higher (e.g., normal or desired) sexual function. For a clinician's assessment, sexual dysfunction may be assessed in comparison to a previous point in time for the patient and/or in comparison to a patient's peers with respect to age, gender, sexual experience, and health, or may also be determined via a validated questionnaire administered by the clinician. According to embodiments, the efficacy and safety of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein in the treatment of the symptoms of VVA may be determined. According to embodiments, the size, effect, cytology, histology, and variability of the VVA may be determined using various endpoints to determine efficacy and safety of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein or as otherwise accepted in the art, at present or as further developed. One source of endpoints is with the US Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) published guidelines for treatment of VVA with estradiol. According to embodiments, a method of treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), is provided that allows a subject to be ambulatory immediately or within minutes after a gelatin capsule containing the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are administered. According to embodiments, a gelatin capsule containing a pharmaceutical composition as disclosed herein is administered by digitally inserting the gelatin capsule containing the pharmaceutical composition into the vagina approximately two inches or inserting into the third of the vagina closest to the vaginal opening as shown in FIGS. 26A, 26B, and 26C. According to embodiments, the gelatin capsule adheres to the vaginal tissue and dissolves, ruptures, or otherwise disintegrates soon after being inserted into the vagina thereby releasing the pharmaceutical composition. The pharmaceutical composition spreads onto the vaginal tissue and is rapidly absorbed. According to embodiments, the gelatin capsule is also fully absorbed by the vaginal tissue. According to some embodiments, a viscosity enchancer such as TEFOSE 63 provides increased viscosity to ensure the pharmaceutical composition stays within the desired absorption area, thereby estrogenizing the vagina, labia, and/or vulva. The combination of high viscosity, bioadhesion, and rapid absorption prevents the need for subjects to remain supine after administration to allow the tissue to absorb the estradiol, thereby allowing subjects to be ambulatory immediately or almost immediately after administration. According to embodiments, a method for treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), without causing non-natural discharge (e.g., discharge of a pharmaceutical composition or a component thereof) is provided. According to the method, a soft gelatin capsule is administered containing a liquid pharmaceutical composition that is able to be fully absorbed by the vaginal tissue. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition itself is fully absorbed by the vaginal tissue. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition and gelatin capsule are administered in a volume and size, respectively, that allows a subject's vaginal tissue to fully absorb the pharmaceutical composition. According to embodiments, such absorption will occur contemporaneously with the subject being ambulatory. According to the method, the gelatin capsule and liquid pharmaceutical composition are fully absorbed by the vaginal tissue, wherein the only discharge that occurs after estrogenizing the vagina is natural discharge that a woman would have experienced prior to menopause. “Natural” vaginal discharge refers to a small amount of fluid that flows out of the vagina each day, carrying out old cells that have lined the vagina. Natural discharge is usually clear or milky. Non-natural discharge can refer to discharge that is higher in volume than natural discharge, different in color than natural discharge, or different in consistency than natural discharge. Non-natural discharge can also refer to the discharge (e.g., leaking) of a pharmaceutical composition from the vagina. According to embodiments, a method of treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), using a liquid pharmaceutical composition is provided. According to the method, a soft gelatin capsule containing a liquid composition for treating VVA is provided to a subject. The subject inserts the soft gelatin capsule containing the liquid composition for treating VVA into their vagina either digitally or with an applicator, wherein the soft gelatin capsule dissolves, ruptures, or disintegrates and the liquid composition is released into the vagina. According to embodiments, the liquid composition for treating VVA is a pharmaceutical composition disclosed herein. According to embodiments, the subject inserts the gelatin capsule about two inches into the vagina, or in the third of the vagina closest to the vaginal opening. According to embodiments, the subject is ambulatory immediately after or soon after administration. According to embodiments, a method is disclosed herein for treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), comprising improving the symptoms of VVA, compared to placebo or baseline, within two weeks by vaginally administering a composition for the treatment of VVA. One of skill in the art will understand that the improvements can be assessed statistically as described herein, and that any improvement can be a statistically significant improvement. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid pharmaceutical composition as disclosed herein. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid containing from 1 μg to 25 μg of estradiol. According to embodiments, the method of administration is a method disclosed herein, including the insertion method shown in FIGS. 26A, 26B, and 26C. According to embodiments, at the two week point of measurement, the estradiol is not detected systemically when measured using standard pharmaceutical pharmacokinetic parameters, such as AUC and Cmax. According to embodiments, a method is disclosed herein for treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), comprising improving the symptoms of VVA, compared to placebo or baseline, within four weeks by vaginally administering a composition for the treatment of VVA. One of skill in the art will understand that the improvements can be assessed statistically as described herein, and that any improvement can be a statistically significant improvement. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid pharmaceutical composition as disclosed herein. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid containing from 1 μg to 25 μg of estradiol. According to embodiments, the method of administration is a method disclosed herein, including the insertion method shown in FIGS. 26A, 26B, and 26C. According to embodiments, at the two week point of measurement and/or the four week point of measurement, the estradiol is not detected systemically when measured using standard pharmaceutical pharmacokinetic parameters, such as AUC and Cmax. According to embodiments, a method is disclosed herein for treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), comprising improving the symptoms of VVA, compared to placebo or baseline, within eight weeks by vaginally administering a composition for the treatment of VVA. One of skill in the art will understand that the improvements can be assessed statistically as described herein, and that any improvement can be a statistically significant improvement. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid pharmaceutical composition as disclosed herein. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid containing from 1 μg to 25 μg of estradiol. According to embodiments, the method of administration is a method disclosed herein, including the insertion method shown in FIGS. 26A, 26B, and 26C. According to embodiments, at the two week point of measurement and/or the eight week point of measurement, the estradiol is not detected systemically when measured using standard pharmaceutical pharmacokinetic parameters, such as AUC and Cmax. According to embodiments, a method is disclosed herein for treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), comprising improving the symptoms of VVA, compared to placebo or baseline, within ten weeks by vaginally administering a composition for the treatment of VVA. One of skill in the art will understand that the improvements can be assessed statistically as described herein, and that any improvement can be a statistically significant improvement. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid pharmaceutical composition as disclosed herein. According to embodiments, the composition for the treatment of VVA is a liquid containing from 1 μg to 25 μg of estradiol. According to embodiments, the method of administration is a method disclosed herein, including the insertion method shown in FIGS. 26A, 26B, and 26C. According to embodiments, at the two week point of measurement and/or the ten week point of measurement, the estradiol is not detected systemically when measured using standard pharmaceutical pharmacokinetic parameters, such as AUC and Cmax. According to embodiments, a method for treating VVA, including dyspareunia, vaginal dryness, and estrogen-deficient urinary states (including urinary tract infections), comprising administering a composition containing estradiol for the treatment of VVA is provided, wherein the method improves the symptoms of VVA, compared with baseline or placebo, in at least one of two weeks, four weeks, six weeks, eight weeks, or twelve weeks, wherein the estradiol is not detected systemically using standard pharmaceutical pharmacokinetic parameters, such as AUC and Cmax. One of skill in the art will understand that the improvements can be assessed statistically as described herein, and that any improvement can be a statistically significant improvement. According to embodiments, the composition containing estradiol is a liquid composition as disclosed herein. According to embodiments, the composition contains 1 μg to 25 μg of estradiol. According to embodiments, a method for reestrogenizing the vagina, labia, or vulva is provided, wherein the method comprises administering a composition containing estradiol for the treatment of VVA, wherein the composition is a liquid containing estradiol or a synthetic estrogen, and wherein the liquid spreads over a surface area of the vagina, labia, or vulva which is larger than the area covered by a solid composition. For example, the liquid can spread over a surface area ranging from about 50 cm2 to about 120 cm2 (e.g., from about 50 cm2 to about 60 cm2; or from about 60 cm2 to about 70 cm2; or from about 70 cm2 to about 80 cm2; or from about 80 cm2 to about 90 cm2; or from about 90 cm2 to about 100 cm2; or from about 100 cm2 to about 110 cm2; or from about 110 cm2 to about 120 cm2; or from about 65 cm2 to about 110 cm2). According to embodiments, the subject inserts a liquid composition into her vagina in a capsule, such as a hard or soft gelatin capsule, that then dissolves, ruptures, disintegrates, or otherwise releases the liquid in the vagina. According to embodiments, the liquid contains at least one of a bio-adhesive or viscosity enhancer to prevent the liquid from discharging from the vagina before the estradiol or synthetic estrogen can be absorbed into the vaginal tissue in a dose sufficient to effect reestrongenization of the vagina. According to embodiments, the vagina will be statistically significantly reestrogenized within two weeks of administration compared to baseline or placebo levels. According to embodiments, the vagina will be statistically significantly reestrogenized within four weeks of administration compared to baseline or placebo levels. According to embodiments, the vagina will be statistically significantly reestrogenized within six weeks of administration compared to baseline or placebo levels. According to embodiments, the vagina will be statistically significantly reestrogenized within eight weeks of administration compared to baseline or placebo levels. According to embodiments, the vagina will be statistically significantly reestrogenized within ten weeks of administration compared to baseline or placebo levels. According to embodiments, the vagina will be statistically significantly reestrogenized within twelve or more weeks of administration compared to baseline or placebo levels. VII. MEASUREMENT OF EFFICACY According to embodiments, administration of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein resulted in treatment of the VVA, as well as improvement of one or more of the associated symptoms. Patients with VVA experience shrinking of the vaginal canal in both length and diameter and the vaginal canal has fewer glycogen-rich vaginal cells to maintain moisture and suppleness. In addition, the vaginal wall can become thin, pale, dry, or sometimes inflamed (atrophic vaginitis). These changes can manifest as a variety of symptoms collectively referred to as VVA. Such symptoms include, without limitations, an increase in vaginal pH; reduction of vaginal epithelial integrity, vaginal secretions, or epithelial surface thickness; pruritus; vaginal dryness; dyspareunia (pain or bleeding during sexual intercourse); urinary tract infections; or a change in vaginal color. According to embodiments, efficacy is measured as a reduction of vulvar and vaginal atrophy in a patient back to premenopausal conditions. According to embodiments, the change is measured as a reduction in the severity of one or more atrophic effects measured at baseline (screening, Day 1) and compared to a measurement taken at Day 15 (end of treatment). Severity of the atrophic effect may be measured using a scale of 0 to 3 where, for example, none=0, mild=1, moderate=2, or severe=3. Such scoring is implemented to evaluate the pre-treatment condition of patients; to determine the appropriate course of a treatment regime; such as dosage, dosing frequency, and duration, among others; and post-treatment outcomes. One of the symptoms of VVA is increased vaginal pH. In further aspects of this disclosure, treatment with the pharmaceutical compositions described herein resulted in a decrease in vaginal pH. A decrease in vaginal pH is measured as a decrease from the vaginal pH at baseline (screening) to the vaginal pH at Day 15, according to embodiments. In some embodiments, a pH of 5 or greater may be associated with VVA. In some embodiments, pH is measured using a pH indicator strip placed against the vaginal wall. In some embodiments, a change in vaginal pH is a change in a patient's vaginal pH to a pH of less than about pH 5.0. In some embodiments, a subject's vaginal pH may be less than about pH 4.9, pH 4.8, pH 4.7, pH 4.6, pH 4.5, pH 4.4, pH 4.3, pH 4.2, pH 4.1, pH 4.0, pH 3.9, pH 3.8, pH 3.7, pH 3.6, or pH 3.5. According to embodiments, treatment with the pharmaceutical compositions described herein resulted in improvements in the vaginal Maturation Index. The Maturation Index is measured as a change in cell composition. According to embodiments and as related to VVA, a change in cell composition is measured as the change in percent of composition or amount of parabasal vaginal cells, intermediate cells, and superficial vaginal cells, such as a change in the composition or amount of parabasal vaginal cells compared with or, relative to, a change in superficial vaginal cells. A subject having VVA symptoms often has an increased number of parabasal cells and a reduced number of superficial cells (e.g., less than about 5%) compared with women who do not suffer from VVA. Conversely, a subject having decreasing VVA symptoms, or as otherwise responding to treatment, may demonstrate an improvement in the Maturation Index, specifically a decrease in the amount of parabasal cells or an increase in the amount of superficial cells compared to baseline (screening). In embodiments, a decrease in parabasal cells is measured as a reduction in the percent of parabasal cells; the percent reduction may be at least about an 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15% or 10% reduction in the number of parabasal cells. In embodiments, a percent reduction may be at least about a 54% reduction in the number of parabasal cells. In embodiments, an increase in superficial cells is measured as an increase in the percent of superficial cells; the percent increase in superficial cells may be at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% increase in the number of superficial cells. In further embodiments, a percent increase may be at least about a 35% increase in the number of superficial cells. In some embodiments, an improvement in the Maturation Index is assessed as a change over time. For example, as a change in cell composition measured at a baseline (screening) at Day 1 compared to the cell composition measured at Day 15. The change in cell composition may also be assessed as a change in the amount of parabasal cells over time, optionally in addition to measuring changes in parabasal cells and superficial cells as described above. Such cells may be obtained from the vaginal mucosal epithelium through routine gynecological examination and examined by means of a vaginal smear. In various further aspects of this disclosure, treatment with the pharmaceutical compositions described herein resulted in any of: an increase in superficial cells; a decrease in parabasal cells; and an increase in intermediate cells. In further aspects of this disclosure, samples may be collected to determine hormone levels, in particular, estradiol levels. In some embodiments, blood samples may be taken from a subject and the level of estradiol measured (pg/mL). In some embodiments, estradiol levels may be measured at 0 hours (for example, at time of first treatment), at 1 hour (for example, post first treatment), at 3 hours, and at 6 hours. In some embodiments, samples may be taken at day 8 (for example, post first treatment) and at day 15 (for example, one day post the last treatment on day 14). In some embodiments, descriptive statistics of plasma estradiol concentrations at each sampling time and observed Cmax and Tmax values may be measured and the AUC calculated. In some embodiments, a suppository can comprise about 25 μg of estradiol. In such cases, administration of the suppository to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, parameters including one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 19 pg*hr/mL to about 29 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 19.55 pg*hr/mL to about 28.75 pg*hr/mL); or 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 75 pg*hr/mL to about 112 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 75.82 pg*hr/mL to about 111.50). In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 9 pg*hr/mL to about 14 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 9.17 pg*hr/mL to about 13.49 pg*hr/mL); and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 43 pg*hr/mL to about 65 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 43.56 pg*hr/mL to about 64.06 pg*hr/mL). In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, provides one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 416 pg*hr/mL to about 613 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 416.53 pg*hr/mL to about 612.55 pg*hr/mL); and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 3598 pg*hr/mL to about 5291 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 3598.04 pg*hr/mL to about 5291.24 pg*hr/mL). In some embodiments, a suppository includes about 25 μg of estradiol. In some such embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, parameters including one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol ranging from about 20.9 pg/mL to about 32.8 pg/mL (e.g., 20.96 pg/mL to about 32.75 pg/mL); 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 104.3 pg*hr/mL to about 163.1 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 104.32 pg*hr/mL to about 163.0 pg*hr/mL); and 3) an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol ranging from about 4.3 pg/mL to about 6.8 pg/mL (e.g., 4.32 pg/mL to about 6.75 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, parameters including one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 26.2 pg/mL; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 130 pg*hr/mL; and 3) an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol of about 5.4 pg/mL, as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, parameters including one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol ranging from about 9.5 pg/mL to about 15.1 pg/mL (e.g., 9.60 pg*hr/mL to about 15.00 pg/mL); 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 67.6 pg*hr/mL to about 105.8 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 67.68 pg*hr/mL to about 105.75 pg*hr/mL); and 3) an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol ranging from about 2.7 pg/mL to about 4.4 pg/mL (e.g., 2.80 pg/mL to about 4.38 pg/mL) of estradiol as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, parameters including one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 12.0 pg/mL; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 84.6 pg*hr/mL; and 3) an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol of about 3.5 pg/mL, as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 158.8 pg/mL to about 248.3 pg/mL (e.g., 158.88 hr/mL to about 248.25 pg*hr/mL); and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates ranging from about 1963.1 pg*hr/mL to about 3067.6 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 1963.20 pg*hr/mL to about 3067.50 pg*hr/mL) as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone conjugates of about 198.6 pg/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates of about 2454 pg*hr/mL as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 173.5 pg*hr/mL to about 271.3 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 173.60 pg*hr/mL to about 271.25 pg*hr/mL; or about 217 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estradiol ranging from about 7.2 pg/mL to about 11.4 pg/mL (e.g., from 7.25 pg/mL to about 11.33 pg/mL; or about 9.06 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 137.5 pg*hr/mL to about 215.1 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 137.60 pg*hr/mL to about 215.00 pg*hr/mL; or about 172 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estradiol ranging from about 5.7 pg/mL to about 9.0 pg/mL (e.g., from 5.72 pg/mL to about 8.94 pg/mL; or about 7.15 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone ranging from about 335.1 pg*hr/mL to about 523.8 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 335.20 pg*hr/mL to about 523.75 pg*hr/mL; or about 419 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone ranging from about 13.9 pg/mL to about 21.9 pg/mL (e.g., from 14.00 pg/mL to about 21.88 pg/mL; or about 17.5 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone ranging from about 343.1pg*hr/mL to about 536.2 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 343.20 pg*hr/mL to about 536.25 pg*hr/mL; or about 429 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone ranging from about 14.3 pg/mL to about 22.4 pg/mL (e.g., from 14.32 pg/mL to about 22.38 pg/mL; or about 17.9 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 25 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates ranging from about 7,300.7 pg*hr/mL to about 11,407.6 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 7,300.80 pg*hr/mL to about 11,407.50 pg*hr/mL; or about 9,126 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 303.9 pg/mL to about 475.1 pg/mL (e.g., from 304.00 pg/mL to about 475.00 pg/mL; or about 380 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates ranging from about 7,943.9 pg*hr/mL to about 12,412.6 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 7,944.00 pg*hr/mL to about 12,412.50 pg*hr/mL; or about 9,930 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 331.1 pg/mL to about 517.4 pg/mL (e.g., from 331.20 pg/mL to about 517.50 pg/mL; or about 414 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, a suppository can comprise about 10 μg of estradiol. In such cases, administration of the suppository to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 12 pg*hr/mL to about 18 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 12.22 pg*hr/mL to about 17.98 pg*hr/mL); 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 42 pg*hr/mL to about 63 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 42.18 pg*hr/mL to about 62.02 pg*hr/mL); and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estradiol of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs (e.g., 1.49 hrs to about 2.19 hrs). In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 7 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 4.38 pg*hr/mL to about 6.44 pg*hr/mL); 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 20 pg*hr/mL to about 31 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 20.60 pg*hr/mL to about 30.30 pg*hr/mL); and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone of about 4 hrs to about 8 hrs (e.g., 4.99 hrs to about 7.34 hrs). In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 10 pg*hr/mL to about 16 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 10.34 pg*hr/mL to about 15.20 pg*hr/mL); 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 56 pg*hr/mL to about 84 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 56.61 pg*hr/mL to about 83.25 pg*hr/mL); and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone sulfate of about 4 hrs to about 7 hrs (e.g., 4.67 hrs to about 6.86 hrs). In some embodiments, a suppository includes about 10 μg of estradiol. In some such embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol ranging from about 4.7 pg/mL to about 7.6 pg/mL (e.g., 4.80 pg*hr/mL to about 7.50 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol ranging from about 2.3 pg*hr/mL to about 3.8 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 2.40 pg*hr/mL to about 3.75 pg*hr/mL) of estradiol as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 6.0 pg/mL, as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 3.0 pg/mL, as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 17.5 pg/mL to about 27.4 pg/mL (e.g., 17.52 pg*hr/mL to about 27.37 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 10.9 pg*hr/mL to about 17.2 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 10.96 pg*hr/mL to about 17.13 pg*hr/mL) of estradiol as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 21.9 pg*hr/mL, as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 13.7 pg*hr/mL, as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol ranging from about 0.6 pg/mL to about 1.1 pg/mL (e.g., 0.64 pg/mL to about 1.0 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol ranging from about 0.1 pg/mL to about 0.3 pg/mL (e.g., 0.16 pg/mL to about 0.25 pg/mL) of estradiol as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol of about 0.8 pg/mL, as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, an average concentration (Cavg) of estradiol of about 0.2 pg/mL, as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 72.1 pg/mL to about 112.8 pg/mL (e.g., 72.16 pg/mL to about 112.75 pg/mL); and 2) an average concentration (Cavg) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 6.3 pg/mL to about 10.1 pg/mL (e.g., 6.40 pg/mL to about 10.00 pg/mL) as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone conjugates of about 90.2 pg/mL; and 2) an average concentration (Cavg) of estrone conjugates of about 8.0 pg/mL, as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 110.3 pg*hr/mL to about 172.6 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 110.40 pg*hr/mL to about 172.50 pg*hr/mL; or about 138 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estradiol ranging from about 4.6 pg/mL to about 7.8 pg/mL (e.g., from 4.61 pg/mL to about 7.20 pg/mL; or about 5.76 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 87.9 pg*hr/mL to about 137.4 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 88.00 pg*hr/mL to about 137.50 pg*hr/mL; or about 110 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estradiol ranging from about 3.6 pg/mL to about 5.8 pg/mL (e.g., from 3.67 pg/mL to about 5.74 pg/mL; or about 4.59 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone ranging from about 370.3 pg*hr/mL to about 578.8 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 370.40 pg*hr/mL to about 578.75 pg*hr/mL; or about 463 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone ranging from about 15.4 pg/mL to about 24.2 pg/mL (e.g., from 15.44 pg/mL to about 24.13 pg/mL; or about 19.3 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone ranging from about 371.1 pg*hr/mL to about 580.1 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 371.20 pg*hr/mL to about 580.00 pg*hr/mL; or about 464 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone ranging from about 15.4 pg/mL to about 24.2 pg/mL (e.g., from 15.44 pg/mL to about 24.13 pg/mL; or about 19.3 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates ranging from about 4,745.5 pg*hr/mL to about 7,414.9 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 4,745.60 pg*hr/mL to about 7,415.00 pg*hr/mL; or about 5,932 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 197.5 pg/mL to about 308.8 pg/mL (e.g., from 197.60 pg/mL to about 308.75 pg/mL; or about 247 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates ranging from about 7,182.3 pg*hr/mL to about 11,222.6 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 7,182.40 pg*hr/mL to about 11,222.50 pg*hr/mL; or about 8,978 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 299.1 pg/mL to about 467.6 pg/mL (e.g., from 299.20 pg/mL to about 467.50 pg/mL; or about 374 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, a suppository can comprise about 4 μg of estradiol. In such cases, administration of the suppository to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 8 pg*hr/mL; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 16 pg*hr/mL to about 26 pg*hr/mL; and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estradiol of about 0.25 hrs to about 2 hrs. In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 1 pg*hr/mL to about 3 pg*hr/mL; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 8 pg*hr/mL to about 13 pg*hr/mL; and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone of about 1 hrs to about 4 hrs. In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 7 pg*hr/mL; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 22 pg*hr/mL to about 34 pg*hr/mL; and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone sulfate of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository includes about 4 μg of estradiol. In some such embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol ranging from about 2.0 pg/mL to about 3.3 pg/mL (e.g., 2.08 pg*hr/mL to about 3.25 pg*hr/mL); and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 9.5 pg*hr/mL to about 15.1 pg*hr/mL (e.g.; 9.60 pg*hr/mL to about 15.0 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 4 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol ranging from about 1.0 pg*hr/mL to about 1.7 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 1.04 pg*hr/mL to about 1.63 pg*hr/mL) of estradiol, and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 5.7 pg*hr/mL to about 9.1 pg*hr/mL (e.g., 5.76 pg*hr/mL to about 9.0 pg*hr/mL). In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 4 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 2.6 pg/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 12 pg*hr/mL, as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 10 μg of estradiol to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 1.3 pg/mL; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 7.2 pg*hr/mL, as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 4 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 0.3 pg/mL to about 0.5 pg/mL (e.g., 0.32 pg/mL to about 0.5 pg/mL) as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 4 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone conjugates of about 0.4 pg/mL as assessed at day 1. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 4 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 73.3 pg*hr/mL to about 114.7 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 73.36 pg*hr/mL to about 114.63 pg*hr/mL; or about 91.7 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estradiol ranging from about 3.1 pg/mL to about 4.8 pg/mL (e.g., from 3.14 pg/mL to about 4.90 pg/mL; or about 3.92 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol ranging from about 69.7 pg*hr/mL to about 108.9 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 69.76 pg*hr/mL to about 109.00 pg*hr/mL; or about 87.2 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estradiol ranging from about 2.8 pg/mL to about 4.6 pg/mL (e.g., from 2.90 pg/mL to about 4.54 pg/mL; or about 3.63 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 4 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone ranging from about 231.9 pg*hr/mL to about 362.4 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 232.00 pg*hr/mL to about 362.50 pg*hr/mL; or about 290 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone ranging from about 10.3 pg/mL to about 16.3 pg/mL (e.g., from 10.40 pg/mL to about 16.25 pg/mL; or about 13 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone ranging from about 261.5 pg*hr/mL to about 408.8 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 261.60 pg*hr/mL to about 408.75 pg*hr/mL; or about 327 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone ranging from about 10.8 pg/mL to about 17.1 pg/mL (e.g., from 10.88 pg/mL to about 17.00 pg/mL; or about 13.6 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. In some embodiments, administration of a suppository comprising about 4 μg of estradiol to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates ranging from about 4,062.3 pg*hr/mL to about 6,347.6 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 4,062.40 pg*hr/mL to about 6,347.50 pg*hr/mL; or about 5,078 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 1; 2) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 172.7 pg/mL to about 270.1 pg/mL (e.g., from 172.80 pg/mL to about 270.00 pg/mL; or about 216 pg/mL), as assessed at day 1; 3) an unadjusted arithmetic mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone conjugates ranging from about 4,138.3 pg*hr/mL to about 6,466.3 pg*hr/mL (e.g., from 4,138.40 pg*hr/mL to about 6,466.25 pg*hr/mL; or about 5173 pg*hr/mL), as assessed at day 14; and 4) a corrected arithmetic mean peak plasma concentration (Cavg[0-24]) of estrone conjugates ranging from about 172.7 pg/mL to about 270.1 pg/mL (e.g., from 172.80 pg/mL to about 270.00 pg/mL; or about 216 pg/mL), as assessed at day 14. A pharmaceutical composition provided herein can result in substantially local delivery of estradiol. For example, plasma concentrations of estradiol, estrone, and estrone sulfate measured in the plasma of a patient following administration of a pharmaceutical composition as provided herein be statistically similar to those measured following administration of a placebo formulation (i.e., a similar formulation lacking the estradiol). Accordingly, in some embodiments, the plasma concentrations of estradiol, estrone, or estrone sulfate measured following administration of a pharmaceutical composition provided herein may be low compared to RLD formulations. In some embodiments, a suppository can include about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. Upon administration the suppository to a patient, a plasma sample from the patient can provide a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol that is less than about 30 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol that is less than about 18 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 112 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 63 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone that is less than about 14 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone that is less than about 7 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 65 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 31 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 613 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 16 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 5291 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 84 pg*hr/mL. In further aspects of this disclosure, capsule disintegration may be determined. In some embodiments, delivery vehicle disintegration or absorption (presence or absence of the delivery vehicle after administration) at day 1 of treatment (for example, at 6 hours post first treatment) and at day 15 (for example, one day post the last treatment on day 14). The pharmaceutical compositions can be formulated as described herein to provide desirable pharmacokinetic parameters in a subject (e.g., a female subject) to whom the composition is administered. In some embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition as described herein produces desirable pharmacokinetic parameters for estradiol in the subject. In some embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition as described herein produces desirable pharmacokinetic parameters for one or more metabolites of estradiol in the subject, for example, estrone or total estrone. Following the administration of a composition comprising estradiol to a subject, the concentration and metabolism of estradiol can be measured in a sample (e.g., a blood, serum, or plasma sample) from the subject. Estradiol is typically converted reversibly to estrone, and both estradiol and estrone can be converted to the metabolite estriol. In postmenopausal women, a significant proportion of circulating estrogens exist as sulfate conjugates, especially estrone sulfate. Thus, estrone can be measured with respect to “estrone” amounts (excluding conjugates such as estrone sulfate) and “total estrone” amounts (including both free, or unconjugated, estrone and conjugated estrone such as estrone sulfate). The pharmaceutical compositions of this disclosure can be characterized for one or more pharmacokinetic parameters of estradiol or a metabolite thereof following administration of the composition to a subject or to a population of subjects. These pharmacokinetic parameters include AUC, Cmax, Cavg, and Tmax. AUC is a determination of the area under the curve (AUC) plotting the blood, serum, or plasma concentration of drug along the ordinate (Y-axis) against time along the abscissa (X-axis). AUCs are well understood, frequently used tools in the pharmaceutical arts and have been extensively described. Cmax is well understood in the art as an abbreviation for the maximum drug concentration in blood, serum, or plasma of a subject. Tmax is well understood in the art as an abbreviation for the time to maximum drug concentration in blood, serum, or plasma of a subject. In some embodiments, one or more pharmacokinetic parameters, e.g., AUC, Cmax, Cavg, or Tmax, is measured for estradiol. In some embodiments, one or more pharmacokinetic parameters, e.g., AUC, Cmax, Cavg, or Tmax, is measured for estrone. In some embodiments, one or more pharmacokinetic parameters, e.g., AUC, Cmax, Cavg, or Tmax, is measured for total estrone. Any pharmacokinetic parameter can be a “corrected” parameter, wherein the parameter is determined as a change over a baseline level. Any of a variety of methods can be used for measuring the levels of estradiol, estrone, or total estrone in a sample, including immunoassays, mass spectrometry (MS), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet fluorescent detection, liquid chromatography in conjunction with mass spectrometry (LC-MS), tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In some embodiments, the levels of estradiol, estrone, or total estrone are measured using a validated LC-MS/MS method. Methods of measuring hormone levels are well described in the literature. Statistical Measurements According to embodiments, pharmacokinetics of the pharmaceutical composition disclosed herein are measured using statistical analysis. According to embodiments, Analysis of Variance (“ANOVA”) or Analysis of CoVariance (“ANCOVA”) are used to evaluate differences between a patient receiving treatment with a pharmaceutical composition comprising an active pharmaceutical composition (for example, a pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol) and a patient receiving treatment with a placebo (for example, the same pharmaceutical composition but without estradiol) or a reference drug. A person of ordinary skill in the art will understand how to perform statistical analysis of the data collected. VIII. EXAMPLES The following examples are of pharmaceutical compositions, delivery vehicles, and combinations thereof. Methods of making are also disclosed. Data generated using the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are also disclosed. Example 1 Pharmaceutical Composition In embodiments, estradiol is procured and combined with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable solubilizing agents. The estradiol is purchased as a pharmaceutical grade ingredient, often as micronized estradiol, although other forms can also be used. In embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes estradiol in a dosage strength of from about 1 μg to about 50 μg. In embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes 10 μg of estradiol. In embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes 25 of estradiol. In embodiments, the estradiol is combined with pharmaceutically acceptable solubilizing agents, and, optionally, other excipients, to form a pharmaceutical composition. In embodiments, the solubilizing agent is one or more of CAPMUL MCM, MIGLYOL 812, GELUCIRE 39/01, GELUCIRE 43/01, GELUCIRE 50/13, and TEFOSE 63. GELUCIRE 39/01 and GELUCIRE 43/01 each have an HLB value of 1. GELUCIRE 50/13 has an HLB value of 13. TEFOSE 63 has an HLB value of between 9 and 10. Various combinations of pharmaceutically acceptable solubilizing agents were combined with estradiol and examined as shown in Table 1. Pharmaceutical compositions in Table 1 that were liquid or semisolid at room temperature were tested using a Brookfield viscometer (Brookfield Engineering Laboratories, Middleboro, Mass.) at room temperature. Pharmaceutical compositions appearing in Table 1 that were solid at ambient temperature were tested using a Brookfield viscometer at 37° C. Pharmaceutical compositions appearing in Table 1 that were solid at room temperature were assessed at 37° C. to determine their melting characteristics. The viscosity of the gels can be important during encapsulation of the formulation. For example, in some cases, it is necessary to warm the formulation prior to filing of the gelatin capsules. In addition, the melting characteristics of the composition can have important implications following administration of the formulation into the body. For example, in some embodiments, the formulation will melt at temperatures below about 37° C. Pharmaceutical Composition 11 (Capmul MCM/Tefose 63), for example, did not melt at 37° C. or 41° C. A dispersion assessment of the pharmaceutical compositions appearing in Table 1 was performed. The dispersion assessment was performed by transferring 300 mg of each vehicle system in 100 mL of 37° C. water, without agitation, and observing for mixing characteristics. Results varied from formation of oil drops on the top to separation of phases to uniform, but cloudy dispersions. Generally speaking, it is believed that formulations able to readily disperse in aqueous solution will have better dispersion characteristics upon administration. It was surprisingly found, however, as shown below in Examples 7-9, that formulations that did not readily disperse in aqueous solution (e.g., Formulation 13) and instead formed two phases upon introduction to the aqueous solution were found to be the most effective when administered to the human body. Example 2 Delivery Vehicle In embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is delivered in a gelatin capsule delivery vehicle. The gelatin capsule delivery vehicle includes, for example, gelatin (e.g., Gelatin, NF (150 Bloom, Type B)), hydrolyzed collagen (e.g., GELITA®, GELITA AG, Eberbach, Germany), glycerin, sorbitol special, or other excipients in proportions that are well known and understood by persons of ordinary skill in the art. Sorbitol special may be obtained commercially and may tend to act as a plasticizer and humectant. A variety of delivery vehicles were developed, as show in Table 2, Gels A through F. In Table 2, each delivery vehicle A through F differs in the proportion of one or more components. Each delivery vehicle A through F was prepared at a temperature range from about 45° C. to about 85° C. Each molten delivery vehicle A through F was cast into a film, dried, and cut into strips. The strips were cut into uniform pieces weighing about 0.5 g, with about 0.5 mm thickness. Strips were placed into a USP Type 2 dissolution vessel in either water or pH 4 buffer solution and the time for them to completely dissolve was recorded (see Table 2). Delivery vehicle A had the fastest dissolution in both water and pH 4 buffer solution. Example 3 Pharmaceutical Compositions and Delivery Vehicle Various combinations of the pharmaceutical compositions from Table 1 and from Table 2 were prepared. The combinations are shown in Table 3. TABLE 3 Delivery Trial Pharmaceutical Composition Ratio Batch Size g Vehicle 1 MCM:39/01 8:2 750 A 2 MCM:50/13 8:2 750 A 3 MCM:TEFOSE 63 8:2 750 A 4 MCM:TEFOSE 63 8:2 750 B 5 MIGLYOL 812:TEFOSE 63 9:1 750 A Each aliquot of the pharmaceutical compositions of Table 3 about 300 mg to about 310 mg. Batch size was as listed in Table 3. To encapsulate the vehicle system, each 300 mg to about 310 mg pharmaceutical composition aliquot was encapsulated in about 200 mg of the gelatin capsule delivery vehicle. Thus, for example, in Trial 1, the pharmaceutical composition denoted by MCM:39/01 was encapsulated in gelatin capsule delivery vehicle A for a total encapsulated weight of about 500 mg to about 510 mg. The aliquot size is arbitrary depending on the concentration of the estradiol and the desired gelatin capsule delivery vehicle size. Artisans will readily understand how to adjust the amount of estradiol in the pharmaceutical composition to accommodate a given size of delivery vehicle, when the delivery vehicle encapsulates the pharmaceutical composition. Example 4 Estradiol Solubility In various experiments, solubilizing agents were tested to determine whether they were able to solubilize 2 mg of estradiol for a total pharmaceutical composition weight of 100 mg. The solubilizing agents were considered suitable if estradiol solubility in the solubilizing agent was greater than or equal to about 20 mg/g. Initial solubility was measured by dissolving micronized estradiol into various solubilizing agents until the estradiol was saturated (the estradiol/solubilizing agent equilibrated for three days), filtering the undissolved estradiol, and analyzing the resulting pharmaceutical composition for estradiol concentration by HPLC. TABLE 4 Solubility of Solubilizing Agents (* denotes literature reference) Ingredient Solubility (mg/g) PEG 400 105* Propylene Glycol 75* Polysorbate 80 36* TRANSCUTOL HP 141 CAPMUL PG8 31.2 Example 5 Pharmaceutical Compositions The following pharmaceutical compositions are contemplated. Gel Mass Ingredient % w/w Qty/Batch (kg) Gelatin 150 Bloom Limed Bone, NF 41.00 82.00 Hydrolyzed Gelatin 3.00 6.00 Glycerin 99.7% 6.00 12.00 Sorbitol Special, NF 15.00 30.00 Opatint White G-18006 1.20 2.40 Opatine Red DG-15001 0.06 0.12 Purified Water, USP 33.74 67.48 Total 100.00 200.00 Kg Pharmaceutical Composition 1: 10 μg Estradiol Qty/Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, 0.010 0.003 0.10 g USP CAPMUL ® MCM, NF (Glyceryl 240.0 79.997 2.40 kg Caprylate/Caprate or Medium Chain Mono- and Diglycerides) GELUCIRE ® 50/13 (stearoyl 60.0 20.0 600.0 g polyoxyl-32 glycerides NF) Total 300.0 100.0 3.0 kg Pharmaceutical Composition 2: 10 μg Estradiol Qty/ Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, USP 0.010 0.003 0.10 g MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 270.0 89.997 2.70 kg triglyceride) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.0 10.0 300.0 g stearate or ethylene glycol palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 3.00 kg Pharmaceutical Composition 3: 25 μg Estradiol Qty/ Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, USP 0.026* 0.009 0.26 g MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 270.0 89.991 2.70 kg triglyceride) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.02 10.0 300.0 g stearate or ethylene glycol palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 3.00 kg *1.0 mg estradiol is equivalent to 1.03 mg estradiol hemihydrate Pharmaceutical Composition 4: 4 μg Estradiol Qty/ Qty/Batch Capsule (alternate Ingredients (mg) % w/w batch size) Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, USP 0.0041* 0.001 0.041 g (0.615 g) MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 269.99 89.999 2700.0 g triglyceride) (40.50 kg) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.0 10.0 300.0 g stearate or ethylene glycol (4.50 kg) palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 3000.0 g 45.0 kg *1.0 mg estradiol is equivalent to 1.03 mg estradiol hemihydrate Pharmaceutical Composition 5: 10 μg Estradiol Qty/ Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, USP 0.0103* 0.003 1.545 g MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 269.99 89.997 40.5 kg triglyceride) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.0 10.0 4.50 kg stearate or ethylene glycol palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 45.00 kg *1.0 mg estradiol is equivalent to 1.03 mg estradiol hemihydrate Pharmaceutical Composition 6: 25 μg Estradiol Qty/ Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, USP 0.026* 0.009 3.90 g MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 269.97 89.991 40.50 kg triglyceride) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.0 10.0 4.50 kg stearate or ethylene glycol palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 45.00 kg *1.0 mg estradiol is equivalent to 1.03 mg estradiol hemihydrate Pharmaceutical Composition 7: Placebo Qty/ Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, USP 0.00 0.00 0.00 g MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 270.0 90.0 40.5 kg triglyceride) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.0 10.0 4.5 kg stearate or ethylene glycol palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 3000.0 g In the Examples below, TX-004HR is Pharmaceutical Compositions 4, 5, and 6 (TX-004HR 4 μg, TX-004HR 10 μg, and TX-004HR 25 μg) compared to Pharmaceutical Composition 7. Example 6 Process FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of a method making pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol solubilized in CapmulMCM/Gelucire solubilizing agent encapsulated in a soft gelatin delivery vehicle 100. In operation 102, the CapmulMCM is heated to 40° C.±5° C. Heating may be accomplished through any suitable means. The heating may be performed in any suitable vessel, such as a stainless steel vessel. Other pharmaceutical compositions can be made using the same general method by substituting various excipients, including the solubilizing agent. In operation 104, GELUCIRE is mixed with the CapmulMCM to form the finished solubilizing agent. As used herein, any form of GELUCIRE may be used in operation 104. For example, one or more of GELUCIRE 39/01, GELUCIRE 43/01, GELUCIRE 50/13 may be used in operation 104. Mixing is performed as would be known to persons of ordinary skill in the art, for example by impeller, agitator, stirrer, or other like devices used to mix pharmaceutical compositions. Operation 104 may be performed under an inert or relatively inert gas atmosphere, such as nitrogen gas. Mixing may be performed in any vessels that are known to persons of ordinary skill in the art, such as a stainless steel vessel or a steel tank. In operation 106 estradiol is mixed into the solubilizing agent. In embodiments, the estradiol in micronized when mixed into the solubilizing agent. In other embodiments, the estradiol added is in a non-micronized form. Mixing may be facilitated by an impeller, agitator, stirrer, or other like devices used to mix pharmaceutical compositions. Operation 106 may be performed under an inert or relatively inert gas atmosphere, such as nitrogen gas. In embodiments, however, the addition of estradiol may be performed prior to operation 104. In that regard, operations 104 and 106 are interchangeable with respect to timing or can be performed contemporaneously with each other. In operation 110, the gelatin delivery vehicle is prepared. Any of the gelatin delivery vehicles described herein may be used in operation 110. In embodiments, gelatin, hydrolyzed collagen, glycerin, and other excipients are combined at a temperature range from about 45° C. to about 85° C. and prepared as a film. Mixing may occur in a steel tank or other container used for preparing gelatin delivery vehicles. Mixing may be facilitated by an impellor, agitator, stirrer, or other devices used to combine the contents of gelatin delivery vehicles. Operation 110 may be performed under an inert or relatively inert gas atmosphere, such as nitrogen gas. In embodiments, the gelatin delivery vehicle mixture is degassed prior to being used to encapsulate the pharmaceutical composition. In operation 112, the gelatin delivery vehicle encapsulates the pharmaceutical composition, according to protocols well known to persons of ordinary skill in the art. In operation 112, a soft gelatin capsule delivery vehicle is prepared by combining the pharmaceutical composition made in operation 106 with the gelatin delivery vehicle made in operation 110. The gelatin may be wrapped around the material, partially or fully encapsulating it or the gelatin can also be injected or otherwise filled with the pharmaceutical composition made in operation 106. In embodiments, operation 112 is completed in a suitable die to provide a desired shape. Vaginal soft gel capsules may be prepared in a variety of geometries. For example, vaginal soft gel capsules may be shaped as a tear drop, a cone with frustoconical end, a cylinder, a cylinder with larger “cap” portion as illustrated in FIG. 2, or other shapes suitable for insertion into the vagina. The resulting pharmaceutical composition encapsulated in the soft gelatin delivery vehicle may be inserted digitally or with an applicator. Example 7 Study of Estradiol Pharmaceutical Composition on the Improvement of Vulvovaginal Atrophy (VVA) The objective of this study was designed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a pharmaceutical composition comprising 10 μg estradiol (i.e., Pharmaceutical Composition 2) in treating moderate to severe symptoms of VVA associated with menopause after 14 days of treatment, and to estimate the effect size and variability of vulvovaginal atrophy endpoints. In addition, the systemic exposure to estradiol from single and multiple doses of the pharmaceutical composition was investigated. This study was a phase 1, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to evaluate safety and efficacy of the pharmaceutical composition in reducing moderate to severe symptoms of vaginal atrophy associated with menopause and to investigate the systemic exposure to estradiol following once daily intravaginal administrations of a pharmaceutical composition for 14 days. Postmenopausal subjects who met the study entry criteria were randomized to one of two treatment groups (pharmaceutical composition or placebo). During the screening period subjects were asked to self-assess the symptoms of VVA, including vaginal dryness, vaginal or vulvar irritation or itching, dysuria, vaginal pain associated with sexual activity, and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Subjects with at least one self-assessed moderate to severe symptom of VVA identified by the subject as being most bothersome to her were eligible to participate in the study. Clinical evaluations were performed at the following time points: Screening Period (up to 28 days); Visit 1—Randomization/Baseline (day 1); Visit 2—Interim (day 8); and Visit 3—End of the treatment (day 15). Eligible subjects were randomized in a 1:1 ratio to receive either pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol 10 μg or a matching placebo vaginal softgel capsule, and self-administered their first dose of study medication at the clinical facility under the supervision of the study personnel. Serial blood samples for monitoring of estradiol level were collected at 0.0, 1.0, 3.0, and 6.0 hours relative to first dose administration on day 1. Subjects remained at the clinical site until completion of the 6-hour blood draw and returned to clinical facility for additional single blood draws for measurement of estradiol concentration on day 8 (before the morning dose) and day 15. Subjects were provided with enough study medication until the next scheduled visit and were instructed to self-administer their assigned study treatment once a day intravaginally at approximately the same time (±1 hour) every morning. Each subject was provided with a diary in which she was required to daily record investigational drug dosing dates and times. Subjects returned to clinical facility on day 8 for interim visit and on day 15 for end of treatment assessments and post study examinations. Capsule disintegration state was assessed by the investigator at day 1 (6 hours post-dose) and day 15. The study involved a screening period of up to 28 days before randomization and treatment period of 14 days. Selection of dosage strength (estradiol 10 μg) and treatment regimen (once daily for two weeks) was based on the FDA findings on safety and efficacy of the RLD. Number of Subjects (Planned and Analyzed) Up to 50 (25 per treatment group) postmenopausal female subjects 40 to 75 years old with symptoms of moderate to severe VVA were randomized. 50 subjects were enrolled, 48 subjects completed the study, and 48 subjects were analyzed. Diagnosis and Main Criteria for Inclusion Fifty female subjects were enrolled in the study. Post-menopausal female subjects 40 to 75 years of age, with a mean age was 62.3 years were enrolled. Subjects' mean weight (kg) was 71.2 kg with a range of 44.5-100 kg. Subjects' mean height (cm) was 162.6 cm with a range of 149.9-175.2 cm, and the mean BMI (kg/m2) was 26.8 kg/m2 with a range of 19-33 kg/m2. Criteria of inclusion in the study included: self-identification of at least one moderate to severe symptom of VVA, for example, vaginal dryness, dyspareunia, vaginal or vulvar irritation, burning, or itching, dysuria, vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity, that was identified by the subject as being most bothersome to her; ≤5% superficial cells on vaginal smear cytology; vaginal pH>5.0; and estradiol level ≤50 pg/mL. Subject who were judged as being in otherwise generally good health on the basis of a pre-study physical examination, clinical laboratory tests, pelvic examination, and mammography were enrolled. Estradiol 10 μg is or Placebo, Dose, and Mode of Administration Subjects were randomly assigned (in 1:1 allocation) to self-administer one of the following treatments intravaginally once daily for 14 days: Treatment A: The pharmaceutical composition of Example 5 (Pharmaceutical Composition 2: 10 μg estradiol); or Treatment B: Placebo vaginal softgel capsule, containing the same formulation as Treatment A, except for the 10 μg of estradiol. The estradiol formulation was a tear drop shaped light pink soft gel capsule. Treatment B had the same composition, appearance, and route of administration as the Treatment A, but contained no estradiol. Duration of Treatment The study involved a screening period of up to 28 days before randomization and a treatment period of 14 days. Criteria for Evaluation Efficacy Endpoints: Change from baseline (screening) to day 15 in the Maturation Index (percent of parabasal vaginal cells, superficial vaginal cells, and intermediate vaginal cells) of the vaginal smear. Data for this endpoint are shown in Tables 6-8. Change from baseline (screening) to day 15 in vaginal pH. Data for this endpoint are shown in Table 9. Change from baseline (randomization) to day 15 in severity of the most bothersome symptoms: (1) vaginal dryness; (2) vaginal or vulvar irritation, burning, or itching; (3) dysuria; (4) dyspareunia; (5) vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Data for this endpoint are shown in Tables 13 and 15. Change from baseline (randomization) to day 15 in investigator's assessment of the vaginal mucosa. Data for this endpoint are shown in Tables 18-21. Unless otherwise noted, the efficacy endpoints were measured as a change-from Visit 1—Randomization/Baseline (day 1) to Visit 3—End of the treatment (day 15), except for vaginal bleeding which was expressed as either treatment success or failure. Other endpoints include: Vital signs, weight, changes in physical exam, pelvic and breast exam, and adverse events were evaluated as part of the safety endpoints. Concentration of estradiol at each sampling time. Peak concentration of estradiol on day 1 and sampling time at which peak occurred. Delivery vehicle disintegration to measure the amount of residual delivery vehicle remains in the vagina post treatment. Results from the assessment of plasma concentrations of estradiol are presented in Table 5. TABLE 5 Safety Results: The descriptive statistics for Day 1 plasma estradiol Cmax and Tmax are provided below. Estradiol 10 μg Placebo Cmax Tmax Cmax Tmax N 24 24 26 26 Mean ± SD 30.7 ± 7.47 2.12 ± 1.73 27.5 ± 17.26 4.00 ± 2.68 Geometric 29.9 — 24.7 — Mean Median 29.8 1.00 22.1 6.00 Min, Max 19.7, 52.3 1.00, 6.00 15.1, 90.0 0.00, 6.00 CV % 24.3% 81.3% 62.9% 67.1% Maturation Index Results Vaginal cytology data was collected as vaginal smears from the lateral vaginal walls according to standard procedures to evaluate vaginal cytology at screening and Visit 3—End of treatment (day 15). The change in the Maturation Index was assessed as a change in cell composition measured at Visit 1—Baseline (day 1) compared to the cell composition measured at Visit 3—End of treatment (day 15). The change in percentage of superficial, parabasal, and intermediate cells obtained from the vaginal mucosal epithelium from a vaginal smear was recorded. Results from these assessments are presented in Tables 6, 7, and 8. TABLE 6 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Screening) to Day 15 in the Maturation Index of the Vaginal Smear (Percent Parabasal Cells) Difference Estradiol 10 μg Between vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo P- Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference value Intent-to- N 24 24 — — — Treat Least- −54.4 −4.80 −49.6 (−60.4, −38.8) <0.0001 Squares Mean Mean ± SD −53.8 ± 39.7 −5.4 ± 22.3 — — — Median −60.0 −5.0 — — — Min, Max −100.0, 0.0 −60.0, 60.0 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. TABLE 7 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Screening) to Day 15 in the Maturation Index of the Vaginal Smear (Superficial Cells) Difference Estradiol 10 μg Between vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo P- Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference value Intent-to- N 24 24 — — — Treat Least- 35.2 8.75 26.5 (15.4, 37.6) 0.0002 Squares Mean Mean ± SD 35.2 ± 26.4 8.8 ± 18.7 — — — Median 40.0 0.0 — — — Min, Max 0.0, 80.0 0.0, 90.0 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANOVA with treatment as a fixed effect. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANOVA with treatment as a fixed effect. TABLE 8 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Screening) to Day 15 in the Maturation Index of the Vaginal Smear (Intermediate Cells) Difference Estradiol 10 μg Between vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo P- Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference value2 Intent-to- N 24 24 — — — Treat Least- 18.7 −3.54 22.3 (11.1, 33.5) 0.0017 Squares Mean Mean ± SD 18.5 ± 42.7 −3.3 ± 21.6 — — — Median 22.5 −5.0 — — — Min, Max −60.0, −60.0, 20.0 — — — 100.0 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. Change in pH Results Vaginal pH was measured at Screening and Visit 3—End of treatment (day 15). The pH measurement was obtained by pressing a pH indicator strip against the vaginal wall. The subjects entering the study were required to have a vaginal pH value greater than 5.0 at screening. pH values were recorded on the subject's case report form. The subjects were advised not to have sexual activity and to refrain from using vaginal douching within 24 hours prior to the measurement. Results from these assessments are presented in Table 9. TABLE 9 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Screening) to Day 15 in Vaginal pH Estradiol 10 μg Difference vs. Estradiol Between 90% CI for Placebo P- Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Treatment Means Difference1 value2 Intent-to- N 24 24 — — — Treat Least- −0.974 −0.339 −0.635 (−0.900, −0.368) 0.0002 Squares Mean Mean ± SD −0.917 ± 0.686 −0.396 ± 0.659 — — — Median −1.00 −0.500 — — — Min, Max −2.00, 0.500 −1.50, — — — 0.500 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. Most Bothersome Symptoms Data Subjects were asked to specify the symptom that she identified as the “most bothersome symptom.” During the screening period all of the subjects were provided with a questionnaire to self-assess the symptoms of VVA: (1) vaginal dryness; (2) vaginal or vulvar irritation, burning, or itching; (3) dysuria; (4) dyspareunia; (5) vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Each symptom, with the exception of vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity, was measured on a scale of 0 to 3, where 0=none, 1=mild, 2=moderate, and 3=severe. Vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity was measured in a binary scale: N=no bleeding; Y=bleeding. The subject's responses were recorded. All randomized subjects were also provided a questionnaire to self-assess the symptoms of VVA at Visit 1—Randomization/Baseline (day 1) and at Visit 3—End of the treatment (day 15). Subjects recorded their self-assessments daily in a diary and answers were collected on days 8 and 15 (end of treatment). Pre-dose evaluation results obtained at Visit 1 were considered as baseline data for the statistical analyses. Data from these assessments are presented in Tables 10 and 11. TABLE 10 Baseline Characteristics for Vaginal Atrophy Symptoms (ITT Population) Estradiol 10 μg vs. Estradiol Placebo VVA Symptom Statistics 10 μg Placebo P-value1 Vaginal dryness N of Subjects 24 24 — Mean 2.292 2.375 0.68231 Vaginal or vulvar N of Subjects 24 24 — irritation/burning/ Mean 0.875 1.333 0.08721 itching Pain, burning or N of Subjects 24 24 — stinging when Mean 0.583 0.625 0.87681 urinating Vaginal pain N of Subjects2 12 12 — associated with Mean 2.083 2.333 0.54281 sexual activity Vaginal bleeding N of Subjects2 12 12 associated with sexual Percent3 25.00 33.33 0.31463 activity 1P-value for treatment comparison from ANOVA/ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and Baseline as a covariate when appropriate. 2N = number of subjects sexually active at baseline. 3Percent of subjects with bleeding, evaluated using Fisher's Exact Test. TABLE 11 Additional Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Severity of Vaginal Atrophy Symptoms Difference Least-Squares Mean Between Estradiol 10 μg Statistical Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for vs. Placebo Symptom Method1 10 μg Placebo Means Difference2 P-value Vaginal dryness ANCOVA 0.980 0.729 0.251 −0.706, 0.204) 0.3597 Vaginal or vulvar ANCOVA 0.694 0.514 0.180 −0.549, 0.189) 0.4159 Irritation/burning/ itching Pain/Burning/ ANCOVA 0.391 0.359 0.032 −0.263, 0.200) 0.8185 Stinging (Urination) Vaginal pain ANOVA 0.800 0.500 0.300 −1.033, 0.433) 0.4872 associated with sexual activity 1ANOVA model contained a fixed effect for treatment. ANCOVA added baseline as a covariate to the model. 2Confidence interval for the difference between estradiol 10 μg and Placebo treatment least-squares means. Changes to the most bothersome symptom from the baseline was scored according to the evaluation of VVA symptoms generally set forth above. Tables 13 and 14 show a comparison between the pharmaceutical composition 1 and placebo generally for most bothersome symptom and vaginal atrophy symptom. It is noteworthy to point out that these measurement demonstrated a trend of improvement, though not statistically significant, at day 15. TABLE 13 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Severity of the Most Bothersome VVA Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent- N 24 24 — — — to-Treat Least- −1.043 −1.042 −0.002 (−0.497, 0.493) 0.9951 Squares Mean Mean ± SD −1.043 ± 0.928 −1.042 ± 1.08 — — — Median −1.00 −1.00 — — — Min, Max −3.00, 0.00 −3.00, 0.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANOVA with treatment as a fixed effect. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANOVA with treatment as a fixed effect. TABLE 14 Additional Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Severity of Vaginal Atrophy Symptoms Difference Between TX42-004-HR Statistical Least-Squares Mean Treatment 90% CI for vs. Placebo Symptom Method1 TX-12-004-HR Placebo Means Difference2 P-value Dryness ANCOVA −0.980 −0.729 −0.251 (−0.706, 0.204) 0.3597 Irritation ANCOVA −0.694 −0.514 −0.180 (−0.549, 0.189) 0.4159 Pain (Sex) ANOVA −0.800 −0.500 −0.300 (−1.033, 0.433) 0.4872 Pain/Burning/ ANCOVA −0.391 −0.359 −0.032 (−0.263, 0.200) 0.8185 Stinging (Urination) 1ANOVA model contained a fixed effect for treatment. ANCOVA added baseline as a covariate to the model. 2Confidence interval for the difference between TX-12-004-HR and Placebo treatment least-squares means. With respect to the most bothersome symptoms data presented in Tables 13 and 14, the period over which the data was measured is generally considered insufficient to make meaningful conclusions. However, the trends observed as part of this study suggest that the data will show improvement of the most bothersome symptoms when data for a longer time period is collected. The absence or presence of any vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity was also measured as one of the most bothersome symptoms. The data for vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity is reported in Table 15. TABLE 15 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Vaginal Bleeding Associated with Sexual Activity Baseline (Randomization) and Day 15 Summary of Vaginal Bleeding Bleeding/No Bleeding/ No Bleeding/ No Bleeding/ Bleeding Bleeding Bleeding No Bleeding Treatment N* (Success)2 (Failure) (Failure) (NC) Estradiol 10 2 (100%) 0 0 8 10 μg Placebo 10 1 (20%) 3 1 5 P-Value for 0.1429 — — — Estradiol 10 μg vs. Placebo1 *N = Total number of patients within each treatment group who were sexually active at both Baseline and Day 15 and provided a response at both visits. NC = No Change - not considered in the statistical comparison. 1P-value for treatment comparison from Fisher's Exact Test. 2Percent is based on the number of subjects classified as either a Success or a Failure (N = 2 for estradiol 10 μg; N = 5 for Placebo Estradiol Level/Pharmacokinetics Data In this study, the systemic exposure to estradiol following once daily intravaginal administration of estradiol 10 μg for 14 days was investigated. Descriptive statistics of the plasma estradiol concentrations taken at each sampling time and the observed Cmax and Tmax values were recorded in Tables 16 and 17. No statistically significant difference in the systemic concentration of estradiol 10 μg versus the placebo group was observed, which suggests the estradiol is not carried into the blood stream where it will have a systemic effect. Rather, it remains in localized tissues; the effect of estradiol is therefore believed be local to the location of administration (i.e., the vagina). The lower limits of detection of the assays used to measure the pharmacokinetic data may have affected the measured the accuracy of the PK values presented. Additional PK studies were performed with more accurate assays in Examples 8 and 9. For the purpose of monitoring the estradiol level during the study blood samples were collected at 0.0, 1.0, 3.0, and 6.0 hours relative to dosing on day 1; prior to dosing on day 8; and prior to dosing on day 15. Efforts were made to collect blood samples at their scheduled times. Sample collection and handling procedures for measurement of estradiol blood level was performed according to procedure approved by the sponsor and principal investigator. All baseline and post-treatment plasma estradiol concentrations were determined using a validated bioanalytical (UPLC-MS/MS) methods. These data are shown in Tables 16 and 17. TABLE 16 Descriptive Statistics of Estradiol Concentrations (pg/mL) at Each Sampling Time Sampling Time Pre-dose Day Pre-dose Day Treatment 0 Hour 1 Hour 3 Hours 6 Hours 8 15 Estradiol 10 μg N 24 24 24 24 24 22 Mean ± SD 20.1 ± 5.74 28.7 ± 5.89 25.7 ± 5.71 23.4 ± 7.91 21.4 ± 9.28 23.4 ± 8.72 Median 20.2 28.9 24.7 22.3 20.7 20.7 Min, Max 2.63, 38.3 18.8, 43.9 19.3, 47.5 3.31, 52.3 2.09, 52.2 17.9, 54.7 Placebo N 26 26 26 26 25 24 Mean ± SD 20.5 ± 4.29 21.0 ± 6.14 19.0 ± 5.92 26.9 ± 17.36 29.9 ± 22.51 28.1 ± 16.80 Median 20.8 20.8 20.9 21.7 21.6 21.1 Min, Max 4.03, 29.1 3.19, 41.2 3.15, 26.9 15.1, 90.0 15.0, 116.2 14.7, 81.3 TABLE 17 Descriptive Statistics of Estradiol Cmax and Tmax on Day 1 Estradiol 10 μg Placebo Cmax Tmax Cmax Tmax N 24 24 26 26 Mean ± SD 30.7 ± 7.47 2.12 ± 1.73 27.5 ± 17.26 4.00 ± 2.68 Geometric 29.9 — 24.7 — Mean Median 29.8 1.00 22.1 6.00 Min, Max 19.7, 52.3 1.00, 6.00 15.1, 90.0 0.00, 6.00 CV % 24.3% 81.3% 62.9% 67.1% Assessment of Vaginal Mucosa Data The investigators rated the vaginal mucosal appearance at day 1 (pre-dose) and day 15. Vaginal color, vaginal epithelial integrity, vaginal epithelial surface thickness, and vaginal secretions were evaluated according to the following degrees of severity: none, mild, moderate, or severe using scales 0 to 3, where 0=none, 1=mild, 2=moderate, and 3=severe. Results from these investigators rated assessments are presented in Tables 18, 19, 20, and 21. TABLE 18 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Investigator's Assessment of the Vaginal Mucosa (Assessment of Vaginal Color) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent- N 24 24 — — — to-Treat Least- −0.199 −0.009 −0.191 (−0.434, 0.052) 0.1945 squares Mean Mean ± SD −0.333 ± 0.565 0.125 ± 0.741 Median 0.00 0.00 — — — Min, Max −2.00, 0.00 −1.00, 2.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. TABLE 19 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Investigator's Assessment of the Vaginal Mucosa (Assessment of Vaginal Epithelial Integrity) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent- N 24 24 — — — to-Treat Least- −0.342 0.176 −0.518 (−0.726, −0.311) 0.0001 squares Mean Mean ± SD −0.417 ± 0.584 0.250 ± 0.442 Median 0.00 0.00 — — — Min, Max −1.00, 1.00 0.00, 1.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. TABLE 20 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Investigator's Assessment of the Vaginal Mucosa (Assessment of Vaginal Epithelial Surface Thickness) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent- N 24 24 — — — to-Treat Least- −0.034 −0.133 0.099 (−0.024, 0.221) 0.1820 squares Mean Mean ± SD −0.125 ± 0.338 −0.042 ± 0.550 — — — Median 0.00 0.00 — — — Min, Max −1.00, 0.00 −1.00, 1.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. TABLE 21 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Investigator's Assessment of the Vaginal Mucosa (Assessment of Vaginal Secretions) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent- N 24 24 — — — to-Treat Least- −0.643 −0.274 −0.369 (−0.661, −0.076) 0.0401 squares Mean Mean ± SD −0.792 ± 0.779 −0.125 ± 0.741 — — — Median −1.00 0.00 — — — Min, Max −2.00, 1.00 −2.00, 2.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. Delivery Vehicle Disintegration Data Assessment of capsule disintegration in the vagina (presence or absence) at Day 1 (6 hours after dosing) and Day 15. Results of this assessment is presented in Table 22. TABLE 22 Capsule Disintegration State in the Vagina on Day 1 and Day 15 Estradiol 10 μg Placebo Day 1 Day 15 Day 1 Day 15 No evidence of 23 (95.8%) 24 26 24 (92.3%) capsule present (100.0%) (100.0%) Evidence of capsule 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) present Assessment not 1 (4.2%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (7.7%) done Serum hormone level data was collected to measure the serum concentrations of estradiol. These data were used for screening inclusion and were determined using standard clinical chemistry methods. Appropriateness of Measurements The selection of the efficacy measurements used in this study was based on FDA's recommendations for studies of estrogen and estrogen/progestin drug products for the treatment of moderate to severe vasomotor symptoms associated with the menopause and moderate to severe symptoms of vulvar and vaginal atrophy associated with the menopause (Food and Drug Administration, Guidance for Industry, Estrogen and Estrogen/Progestin Drug Products to Treat Vasomotor Symptoms and Vulvar and Vaginal Atrophy Symptoms—Recommendations for Clinical Evaluation. January 2003, hereby incorporated by reference). Standard clinical, laboratory, and statistical procedures were utilized in the trial. All clinical laboratory procedures were generally accepted and met quality standards. Statistical Methods: Efficacy: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate the change from baseline differences between the subjects receiving estradiol 10 μg and placebo capsules for all efficacy endpoints, except for vaginal bleeding, to estimate the effect size and variability of the effect. In some cases, for example, for some vaginal atrophy symptoms, the change from baseline (post dose response) was correlated with the baseline value (p<0.05), so baseline was included as a covariate to adjust for this correlation (Analysis of Covariance, ANCOVA). The 90% confidence intervals on the differences between estradiol 10 μg and placebo endpoint means were determined to evaluate the effect size. The change from baseline in vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity was evaluated in terms of the proportion of subjects who had treatment success or failure. Any subject reporting bleeding at baseline who did not report bleeding at Day 15 was considered to have been successfully treated. Any subject reporting bleeding at day 15 was considered a treatment failure, regardless of whether they reported baseline bleeding or not. Subjects reporting no bleeding at both baseline and day 15 were classified as no-change and were excluded from the statistical evaluation. The difference in the proportion of subjects with success between the two treatment groups was statistically evaluated using Fisher's Exact Test. Results of this difference in proportion are presented in Table 10. Measurements of Treatment Compliance Subjects were required to complete a diary in order to record treatment compliance. Diaries were reviewed for treatment compliance at day 8 and day 15 visits. A total of 45 subjects (21 subjects in the estradiol 10 μg group and 24 subjects in the placebo group) were 100% compliant with the treatment regimen. Due to the investigative nature of the study, no adjustments were made for multiplicity of endpoints. Safety: The frequency and severity of all adverse events were summarized descriptively by treatment group. Results: All forty eight (48) subjects who completed the study were included in the primary efficacy analyses. The results of efficacy analyses are presented throughout Tables 5, 6, and 7. Conclusions Efficacy The two-week treatment with pharmaceutical composition 10 μg led to a statistically significant greater mean decrease in percent of parabasal cells than did placebo treatment (54% vs. 5%, p<0.0001), as illustrated in Table 6. At the same time, a significantly greater mean increase in the percent of superficial cells was observed with the pharmaceutical composition (35%) than with the placebo capsules (9%), with the difference being highly statistically significant (p=0.0002), as illustrated in Table 7. The difference in pH reduction between the pharmaceutical composition (0.97 units) compared to that for the placebo (0.34 units) was only slightly greater than 0.5 units, but the difference was detected as statistically significant (p=0.0002), as illustrated in Table 9. While the decrease in severity of the most bothersome symptom was essentially the same (˜1 unit) for both pharmaceutical composition and placebo, the reductions in the severity of the individual symptoms of vaginal dryness, irritation and pain during sexual activity were all marginally better for the active treatment than for the placebo treatment. None of the differences between the two treatments, all of which were ≤0.3 units, were detected as statistically significant. There was no difference between the two treatments in regard to reduction of pain/burning/stinging during urination (˜0.4 unit reduction). The length of the study was not long enough to show a separation between the most bothersome symptoms in the pharmaceutical composition and placebo. However, the trends of most bothersome symptoms suggest that with a suitable period of time, significantly significant differences between the two treatments would be observed. The two-week treatment with estradiol 10 μg capsules showed no statistically detectable difference in regard to reduction of severity from baseline according to the investigator's assessment of vaginal color or vaginal epithelial surface thickness. Pharmaceutical composition capsules did demonstrate a statistically significant greater reduction than did placebo in severity of atrophic effects on vaginal epithelial integrity (−0.34 vs. 0.18, p=0.0001) and vaginal secretions (−0.64 vs. −0.27, p=0.0401). Descriptive statistical analyses (mean, median, geometric mean, standard deviation, CV, minimum and maximum, Cmax, and Tmax) were conducted on the estradiol concentrations at each sampling time, the peak concentration on day 1 and the time of peak concentration. Results from this assessment are presented in Tables 16 and 17. A pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol 10 μg outperformed placebo treatment in regard to improvement in the Maturation Index, reduction in vaginal pH, reduction in the atrophic effects on epithelial integrity and vaginal secretions. The lack of statistical significance between the two treatments in regard to reduction of severity for the most bothersome symptom, and the individual vaginal atrophy symptoms of dryness, irritation, pain associated with sexual activity, and pain/burning/stinging during urination, is not unexpected given the small number of subjects in the study and the short duration of therapy. Too few subjects in the study had vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity to permit any meaningful evaluation of this vaginal atrophy symptom. Of the 48 subjects enrolled in the study, 45 subjects were 100% compliant with the treatment regimen. Of the remaining three subjects, one removed herself from the study due to personal reasons and the other two subjects each missed one dose due to an adverse event. Safety Although the Day 1 mean plasma estradiol peak concentration for the pharmaceutical composition was somewhat higher than that for the Placebo (ratio of geometric means=1.21: Test Product (estradiol 10 μg) 21%>Placebo), no statistically significant difference was determined. However, the assay methods were questionable, resulting in questionable PK data. Additional PK studies were performed in Examples 8 and 9. There were no serious adverse events in the study. Overall, the pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol 10 μg was well tolerated when administered intravaginally in once daily regimen for 14 days. Example 8 PK Study (25 μg Formulation) A PK study was undertaken to compare the 25 μg formulation disclosed herein (Pharmaceutical Composition 3) to the RLD. The results of the PK study for estradiol are summarized in Table 23. The p values for these data demonstrate statistical significance, as shown in Table 24. TABLE 23 Statistical Summary of the Comparative Bioavailability Data for Unscaled Average BE studies of Estradiol, Least Square Geometric Means of Estradiol, Ratio of Means and 90% Confidence Intervals, Fasting/Fed Bioequivalence Study (Study No.: ESTR-1K-500-12), Dose 25 μg estradiol Parameter Test N RLD N Ratio (%) 90% C.I. Cmax 23.0839 36 42.7024 36 54.06 44.18- (pg/mL) 66.14 AUC0-24 89.2093 36 292.0606 36 30.54 23.72- (pg · hr/mL) 39.34 TABLE 24 P-values for Table 23 P-value Effect Cmax AUC0-24 Treatment <.0001 <.0001 Sequence 0.4478 0.5124 Period 0.4104 0.7221 As illustrated in Table 23, baseline adjusted PK data illustrates that the formulations disclosed herein unexpectedly show a 54% decrease in Cmax and a 31% decrease in the AUC relative to the RLD. This result is desirable because the estradiol is intended only for local absorption. These data suggest a decrease in the circulating levels of estradiol relative to the RLD. Moreover, it is noteworthy to point out that the Cmax and AUC levels of estradiol relative to placebo are not statistically differentiable, which suggests that the formulations disclosed herein have a negligible systemic effect. As shown in Table 24, there was no significant difference between the test and reference products due to sequence and period effects. However, there was a significant difference due to treatment effect for both Cmax and AUC. Pharmacokinetics for circulating total estrone, a metabolite of estradiol, is show in Table 25. These data show that the total circulating estrone for the formulations disclosed herein resulted in a 55% decrease in the Cmax for circulating estrone, and a 70% decrease in the AUC for circulating estrone. TABLE 25 Statistical Summary of the Comparative Bioavailability Data for Unscaled Average BE studies of Estrone, Least Square Geometric Means, Ratio of Means and 90% Confidence Intervals, Fasting/Fed Bioequivalence Study (Study No.: ESTR-1K-500-12); Dose 25 μg estradiol Parameter Test N RLD N Ratio (%) 90% C.I. Cmax 10.7928 36 23.5794 36 45.77 32.95 to (pg/mL) 63.59 AUC0-24 51.2491 36 165.4664 36 30.97 19.8- (pg · hr/mL) 48.45 TABLE 26 P-values for Table 25 P-Value Effect Cmax AUC0-24 Treatment 0.0002 <.0001 Sequence 0.1524 0.0464 Period 0.0719 0.0118 There was a significant difference between test and reference products due to treatment effect whereas there was no significant difference due to sequence and period effects for Cmax. For AUC, there was a significant difference between test and reference products due to treatment, sequence, and period effects. PK for circulating total estrone sulfate is shown in Table 27. These data show that the total circulating estrone sulfate for the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein resulted in a 33% decrease in the Cmax and a 42% decrease in the AUC for circulating estrone sulfate. TABLE 27 Statistical Summary of the Comparative Bioavailability Data for Unscaled Average BE studies of Estrone Sulfate, Least Square Geometric Means of Estrone Sulfate, Ratio of Means and 90% Confidence Intervals, Fasting/Fed Bioequivalence Study (Study No.: ESTR-1K-500-12); Dose 25 μg estradiol Ratio 90% Parameter Test N RLD N (%) C.I. Cmax 490.0449 36 730.5605 36 67.08 53.84- (pg/mL) 83.57 AUC0-24 4232.9914 36 7323.0827 36 57.80 43.23- (pg · 77.29 hr/mL) TABLE 28 P-values for Table 27 P-Value Effect Cmax AUC0-24 Treatment 0.0042 0.0031 Sequence 0.5035 0.9091 Period 0.1879 0.8804 There was a significant difference between test and reference products due to treatment effect whereas there was no significant difference due sequence and period effects for both Cmax and AUC. Example 9 PK Study (10 μg Formulation) A PK study was undertaken to compare the 10 μg formulation disclosed herein (Pharmaceutical Composition 2) to the RLD. The results of the PK study for estradiol are summarized in Table 29-40, and FIGS. 9-14. A PK study was undertaken to compare pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein having 10 pg of estradiol to the RLD. The results of the PK study for estradiol are summarized in Tables 29-34, which demonstrate that the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein more effectively prevented systemic absorption of the estradiol. Table 35 shows that the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein had a 28% improvement over the RLD for systemic blood concentration Cmax and 72% AUC improvement over the RLD. TABLE 29 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Test product (T) of Estradiol - Baseline adjusted (N = 34) Arithmetic Pharmacokinetic Mean ± Standard Coefficient Parameter Deviation of Variation Median Minimum Maximum Cmax (pg/mL) 15.7176 ± 7.9179 50.3761 13.9000 6.5000 49.6000 AUC0-24 (pg · hr/mL) 53.0100 ± 19.5629 36.9041 49.9750 24.3000 95.1500 tmax (hr) 1.98 ± 1.29 65.34 2.00 1.00 8.05 TABLE 30 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Reference product (R) of Estradiol - Baseline adjusted (N = 34) Arithmetic Pharmacokinetic Mean ± Standard Coefficient Parameter Deviation of Variation Median Minimum Maximum Cmax (pg/mL) 24.1882 ± 11.9218 49.2877 24.1500 1.0000 55.3000 AUC0-24 (pg · hr/mL) 163.8586 ± 72.0913 43.9960 158.0375 2.0000 304.8500 tmax (hr) 10.53 ± 5.58 52.94 8.06 2.00 24.00 TABLE 31 Geometric Mean of Test Product (T) and Reference product (R) of Estradiol - Baseline adjusted (N = 34) Geometric Mean Pharmacokinetic Parameter Test Product (T) Reference Product (R) Cmax (pg/mL) 14.3774 20.3837 AUC0-24 (pg · hr/mL) 49.6231 132.9218 tmax (hr) 1.75 9.28 TABLE 32 Statistical Results of Test product (T) versus Reference product (R) for Estradiol - Baseline adjusted (N = 34) Geometric Least Square Mean Test Reference Intra 90% Pharmacokinetic Product Product Subject T/R Confidence Parameter (T) (R) CV % Ratio % Interval Cmax (pg/mL) 14.4490 20.1980 60.68 71.54* 56.82-90.08 AUC0-24 49.7310 131.0400 70.64 37.95* 29.21-49.31 (pg · hr/mL) *Comparison was detected as statistically significant by ANOVA (α = 0.05). The PK data for total estrone likewise demonstrated reduced systemic exposure when compared to the RLD. Table 33 shows the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein reduced systemic exposure by 25% for Cmax and 49% for AUC. TABLE 33 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Test product (T) of Estrone - Baseline adjusted (N = 33) Arithmetic Pharmacokinetic Mean ± Standard Coefficient Parameter Deviation of Variation Median Minimum Maximum Cmax (pg/mL) 6.8485 ± 6.5824 96.1149 5.4000 1.3000 36.3000 AUC0-24 (pg · hr/mL) 34.7051 ± 27.9541 80.5476 30.8500 3.3500 116.7500 tmax (hr) 9.12 ± 8.83 96.80 4.00 1.00 24.00 TABLE 34 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Reference product (R) of Estrone - Baseline adjusted (N = 33) Arithmetic Pharmacokinetic Mean ± Standard Coefficient Parameter Deviation of Variation Median Minimum Maximum Cmax (pg/mL) 8.8333 ± 7.1469 80.9086 6.7000 2.7000 30.3000 AUC0-24 (pg · hr/mL) 63.0042 ± 46.5484 73.8814 51.2800 8.8000 214.0000 tmax (hr) 11.16 ± 7.24 64.95 10.00 4.00 24.00 TABLE 35 Geometric Mean of Test Product (T) and Reference product (R) of Estrone - Baseline adjusted (N = 33) Geometric Mean Pharmacokinetic Parameter Test Product (T) Reference Product (R) Cmax (pg/mL) 5.1507 6.9773 AUC0-24 (pg · hr/mL) 24.2426 48.2377 tmax (hr) 5.87 9.07 TABLE 36 Statistical Results of Test product (T) versus Reference product (R) for Estrone - Baseline adjusted (N = 33) Geometric Least Square Mean Test Reference Intra 90% Pharmacokinetic Product Product Subject T/R Confidence Parameter (T) (R) CV % Ratio % Interval Cmax (pg/mL) 5.1620 6.9280 47.59 74.50* 61.69-89.97 AUC0-24 24.1960 47.9020 73.66 50.51* 38.37-66.50 (pg · hr/mL) *Comparison was detected as statistically significant by ANOVA (α = 0.05). The PK data for estrone sulfate likewise demonstrated reduced systemic exposure when compared to the RLD. Table 37 shows the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein reduced systemic exposure by 25% for Cmax and 42% for AUC. TABLE 37 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Test product (T) of Estrone Sulfate - Baseline adjusted (N = 24) Arithmetic Pharmacokinetic Mean ± Standard Coefficient Parameter Deviation of Variation Median Minimum Maximum Cmax (ng/mL) 13.9042 ± 7.0402 50.6339 11.1500 1.3000 39.0000 AUC0-24 (ng · hr/mL) 97.9953 ± 80.8861 82.5408 76.2750 5.1025 338.0000 tmax (hr) 6.33 ± 4.56 71.93 4.00 4.00 24.00 TABLE 38 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Reference product (R) of Estrone Sulfate - Baseline adjusted (N = 24) Arithmetic Pharmacokinetic Mean ± Standard Coefficient Parameter Deviation of Variation Median Minimum Maximum Cmax (ng/mL) 19.2542 ± 11.3633 59.0173 15.2000 7.0000 53.7000 AUC0-24 (ng · hr/mL) 177.6208 ± 166.2408 93.5931 124.0000 20.0000 683.0500 tmax (hr) 10.33 ± 5.58 54.05 10.00 2.00 24.00 TABLE 39 Geometric Mean of Test Product (T) and Reference product (R) of Estrone Sulfate - Baseline adjusted (N = 24) Geometric Mean Pharmacokinetic Parameter Test Product (T) Reference Product (R) Cmax (ng/mL) 12.1579 16.8587 AUC0-24 (ng · hr/mL) 66.5996 121.5597 tmax (hr) 5.49 8.83 TABLE 40 Statistical Results of Test product (T) versus Reference product (R) for Estrone Sulfate - Baseline adjusted (N = 24) Geometric Least Square Mean Test Reference Intra 90% Pharmacokinetic Product Product Subject T/R Confidence Parameter (T) (R) CV % Ratio % Interval Cmax (ng/mL) 12.3350 16.5470 48.02 74.55* 59.43-93.51 AUC0-24 68.5260 118.4170 73.87 57.87* 41.68-80.35 (ng · hr/mL) *Comparison was detected as statistically significant by ANOVA (α = 0.05). Example 10 Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Multicenter Study of Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsules for Treatment of VVA Investigational Plan The study was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter study design. Postmenopausal subjects who meet the study entry criteria will be randomized in a 1:1:1:1 ratio to receive Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsule 4 μg, Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsule 10 μg, Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsule 25 μg, or matching placebo. Subjects will be asked to self-assess the symptoms of vulvar or vaginal atrophy including vaginal pain associated with sexual activity, vaginal dryness, vulvar or vaginal itching or irritation by completing the VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire and identification of her MBS at screening visit 1A to determine eligibility for the study. The VVA symptom Self-Assessment Questionnaire, vaginal cytology, vaginal pH, and vaginal mucosa will be assessed at screening visit 1B. These assessments will determine continued eligibility and will be used as the baseline assessments for the study. Randomized subjects will then complete the Questionnaire during visits 3, 4, 5, and 6. The primary efficacy endpoints for the study included: (A) change from baseline to week 12 in the percentage of vaginal superficial cells (by vaginal cytologic smear) compared to placebo; (B) change from baseline to week 12 in the percentage of vaginal parabasal cells (by vaginal cytologic smear) compared to placebo; (C) change from baseline at week 12 in vaginal pH as compared to placebo; and (D) change from baseline to week 12 on the severity of the MBS of dyspareunia (vaginal pain associated with sexual activity) associated with VVA as compared to placebo. The secondary efficacy endpoints for the study included: (E) change from baseline to weeks 2, 6, and 8 in the percentage of vaginal superficial cells (by vaginal cytologic smear) compared to placebo; (F) change from baseline to weeks 2, 6, and 8 in the percentage of vaginal parabasal cells (by vaginal cytologic smear) compared to placebo; (G) change from baseline to weeks 2, 6, and 8 in vaginal pH as compared to placebo; (H) change from baseline to weeks 2, 6, and 8 on the severity of the MBS of dyspareunia (vaginal pain associated with sexual activity) associated with VVA as compared to placebo; (I) change from baseline to weeks 2, 6, 8, and 12 on the severity of vaginal dryness and vulvar or vaginal itching or irritation associated with VVA as compared to placebo; (J) change in visual evaluation of the vaginal mucosa from baseline to weeks 2, 6, 8, and 12 compared to placebo; (K) assessment of standard PK parameters as defined in the SAP for serum estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates at Screening Visit 1A, days 1, 14, and 84 of treatment in a subset of subjects (PK substudy) utilizing baseline corrected and uncorrected values [as outlined in the Statistical Analysis Plan (SAP)]; and (L) change from baseline in the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) at week 12 compared to placebo. The safety endpoints for the study included: (1) Adverse events; (2) Vital signs; (3) Physical examination findings; (4) Gynecological examination findings; (5) Clinical laboratory tests; (6) Pap smears; and (7) Endometrial biopsy. Approximately 100 sites in the United States and Canada screened approximately 1500 subjects to randomize 747 subjects in this study (modified intent to treatment population, or all subjects who have taken at least one dose of the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein), with a target of 175 subjects randomized to each treatment group (175 in each active treatment group and 175 in the placebo group to complete 560 subjects). Actual subjects enrolled are 186 subjects in the 4 μg formulation group, 188 subjects in the 10 μg formulation group, 186 subjects in the 25 μg formulation group, and 187 subjects in the placebo group, for a total of 747 subjects in the study. Within each treatment group, 15 subjects also participated in a PK substudy. Subjects were assigned to one of four treatment groups: (1) 4 μg formulation; (2) 10 μg formulation; (3) 25 μg formulation; and (4) placebo. Most subjects participated in the study for 20-22 weeks. This included a 6 to 8 week screening period (6 weeks for subjects without an intact uterus and 8 weeks for subjects with an intact uterus), 12 weeks on the investigational product, and a follow-up period of approximately 15 days after the last dose of investigational product. Some subjects' involvement lasted up to 30 weeks when an 8-week wash-out period was necessary. Subjects who withdrew from the study were not replaced regardless of the reason for withdrawal. The study schematic diagram shown in FIG. 9. There were two treatment periods; once daily intravaginal administration of one of the listed investigational products for 2 weeks, followed by a twice weekly intravaginal administration for 10 weeks. The subject inclusion criteria included: (1) postmenopausal female subjects between the ages of 40 and 75 years (at the time of randomization) with at least: 12 months of spontaneous amenorrhea (women <55 years of age with history of hysterectomy without bilateral oophorectomy prior to natural menopause must have follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) levels >40 mIU/mL); or 6 months of spontaneous amenorrhea with follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) levels >40 m1U/mL; or At least 6 weeks postsurgical bilateral oophorectomy. The subject inclusion criteria also included: (2) ≤5% superficial cells on vaginal cytological smear; (3) Vaginal pH>5.0; (4) Moderate to severe symptom of vaginal pain associated with sexual activity considered the most bothersome vaginal symptom by the subject at screening visit IA; (5) Moderate to severe symptom of vaginal pain associated with sexual activity at screening visit 1B; (6) Onset of moderate to severe dyspareunia in the postmenopausal years; (7) Subjects were sexually active (i.e., had sexual activity with vaginal penetration within approximately 1 month of screening visit 1A); and (8) Subjects anticipated having sexual activity (with vaginal penetration) during the conduct of the trial For subjects with an intact uterus, the subject inclusion criteria also included: (9) subjects had an acceptable result from an evaluable screening endometrial biopsy. The endometrial biopsy reports by the two central pathologists at screening specified one of the following: proliferative endometrium; weakly proliferative endometrium; disordered proliferative pattern; secretory endometrium; endometrial tissue other (i.e., benign, inactive, or atrophic fragments of endometrial epithelium, glands, stroma, etc.); endometrial tissue insufficient for diagnosis; no endometrium identified; no tissue identified; endometrial hyperplasia; endometrial malignancy; or other findings (endometrial polyp not present, benign endometrial polyp, or other endometrial polyp). Identification of sufficient tissue to evaluate the biopsy by at least one pathologist was required. For subjects with a Body Mass Index (BMI) less than or equal to 38 kg/m2, the subject inclusion criteria also included: (10) BMI values were rounded to the nearest integer (ex. 32.4 rounds down to 32, while 26.5 rounds up to 27). In general, the inclusion criteria also included: (11) in the opinion of the investigator, the subject was believed likely to comply with the protocol and complete the study. The exclusion criteria included: (1) use of oral estrogen-, progestin-, androgen-, or SERM-containing drug products within 8 weeks before screening visit 1A (entry of washout was permitted); use of transdermal hormone products within 4 weeks before screening visit 1A (entry of washout was permitted); use of vaginal hormone products (rings, creams, gels) within 4 weeks before screening visit 1A (entry of washout was permitted); use of intrauterine progestins within 8 weeks before screening visit 1A (entry of washout was permitted); use of progestin implants/injectables or estrogen pellets/injectables within 6 months before screening visit 1A (entry of washout was not permitted); or use of vaginal lubricants or moisturizers within 7 days before the screening visit 1B vaginal pH assessment. The exclusion criteria also included: (2) a history or active presence of clinically important medical disease that might confound the study or be detrimental to the subject, including, for example: hypersensitivity to estrogens; endometrial hyperplasia; undiagnosed vaginal bleeding; a history of a chronic liver or kidney dysfunction/disorder (e.g., Hepatitis C or chronic renal failure); thrombophlebitis, thrombosis, or thromboembolic disorders; cerebrovascular accident, stroke, or transient ischemic attack; myocardial infarction or ischemic heart disease; malignancy or treatment for malignancy, within the previous 5 years, with the exception of basal cell carcinoma of the skin or squamous cell carcinoma of the skin (a history of estrogen dependent neoplasia, breast cancer, melanoma, or any gynecologic cancer, at any time, excluded the subject); and endocrine disease (except for controlled hypothyroidism or controlled non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus). The exclusion criteria also included: (3) recent history of known alcohol or drug abuse; (4) history of sexual abuse or spousal abuse that was likely to interfere with the subject's assessment of vaginal pain with sexual activity; (5) current history of heavy smoking (more than 15 cigarettes per day) or use of e-cigarettes; (6) use of an intrauterine device within 12 weeks before screening visit 1A; (7) use of an investigational drug within 60 days before screening visit 1A; (8) any clinically important abnormalities on screening physical exam, assessments, electrocardiogram (ECG), or laboratory tests; (9) known pregnancy or a positive urine pregnancy test; and (10) current use of marijuana. In this study, if a subject discontinued or was withdrawn, the subject was not replaced. At the time of consent, each subject was given a unique subject number that identified their clinical site and sequential number. In addition to the assigned subject number, subject initials were used for identification. The clinical trial was performed in compliance with standard operating procedures as well as regulations set forth by FDA, ICH E6 (R1) guidelines, and other relevant regulatory authorities. Compliance was achieved through clinical trial-specific audits of clinical sites and database review. Statistical Methods Efficacy. The primary objective of the trial was to assess the efficacy of estradiol vaginal softgel capsules (4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg) when compared to placebo on vaginal superficial cells, vaginal parabasal cells, vaginal pH, and on the symptom of moderate to severe dyspareunia (vaginal pain associated with sexual activity) as the MBS at week 12. To account for the multiple comparisons of testing placebo to each of the three doses of estradiol (4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg) and the multiple testing of the four co-primary endpoints, a closed procedure was performed (see, Edwards D, Madsen J. “Constructing multiple procedures for partially ordered hypothesis sets.” Stat Med 2007:26-5116-24, incorporated by reference herein). Determination of Sample Size. The sample size needed per dose vs. placebo for each test of hypothesis in the modified intent-to-treat (MITT) population to achieve a given power was calculated using reference data from other studies (see, Bachman, G., et al. “Efficacy and safety of low-dose regimens of conjugated estrogens cream administered vaginally.” Menopause, 2009. 16(4): p. 719-27; Simon, J., et al. “Effective Treatment of Vaginal Atrophy With an Ultra-Low-Dose Estradiol Vaginal Tablet.” Obstetrics & Gynecology, 2008. 112(5):p. 1053-60; FDA Medical Officer's Review of Vagifem [NDA 20-908, Mar. 25, 1999, Table 6, p 12.], each incorporated by reference herein). Table 41 below provides the effect sizes, power, and sample size determinations for each of the primary endpoints. In general, subjects in the study met all inclusion/exclusion criteria and had moderate to severe dyspareunia as their most bothersome symptom of VVA. Based on the power analysis and the design considerations, approximately 175 subjects per treatment arm were enrolled. TABLE 41 Power Analysis and Sample Size Determinations Four Primary Endpoints in a Closed Procedure Mean Change from Baseline to Week 12 Compared to Placebo (MMRM) Power (One-way ANOVA, Alpha = 0.005, one-tailed) Power Based Upon N = 140 per Primary Endpoint Effect Size (%)* group per MITT % Parabasal Cells 150.3% >0.999 % Superficial Cells 115.3% >0.999 Vaginal pH 77.4% >0.999 Severity of Dyspareunia** 30.0%, 41.2%, 70.5% 0.50, 0.80, >0.999 *Range from 30% (Vagifem 10 μg; see, Simon 2008, supra), 41.2% (Vagifem 25 μg; see, FDA 1999, supra), 70.5% (Premarin cream 2/week; see, Bachman 2009, supra) **Effect Size is calculated for all primary endpoints as 100% times difference (treated minus placebo) in mean changes at week 12 from baseline. All subjects who were randomly assigned and had at least 1 dose of investigational product formed the intent-to-treat (ITT) population. The Modified intent-to-treat (MITT) population was defined as all ITT subjects with a baseline and at least one follow-up value for each of the primary endpoints, each subject having taken at least one dose of investigational product, and was the primary efficacy population. The efficacy-evaluable (EE) population was defined as all MITT subjects who completed the clinical trial, were at least 80% compliant with investigational product, had measurements for all primary efficacy endpoints, and were deemed to be protocol compliant, with no significant protocol violations. The safety population included all ITT subjects. The primary efficacy analyses were conducted on the MITT subjects with supportive efficacy analyses conducted on the EE population. For analysis purposes, subjects were required to complete all visits, up to and including Visit 6 (week 12), to be considered as having completed the study. Analysis of Efficacy Endpoints. For all numerically continuous efficacy endpoints, which included the four primary endpoints (mean change from baseline to week 12), active treatment group means were compared to placebo using an ANCOVA adjusting for the baseline level. Primary and secondary efficacy endpoints were measured at baseline and at 2, 6, 8, and 12 weeks. The analysis examined change from baseline. Therefore, ANCOVAs were based on a repeated measures mixed effects model (MMRM) where the random effect was subject and the two fixed effects were treatment group and visit (2, 6, 8, and 12 weeks). Baseline measures and age were used as covariates. ANCOVAs were therefore not calculated independently for each study collection period. The analyses started with the full model but, interaction terms for visit (week 2, 6, 8, and 12) with treatment only remained where statistically significant (p<0.05). The following three pair-wise comparisons were performed using the appropriate ANCOVA contrast for week 12 (primary) and weeks 2, 6, and 8 (secondary) changes from baseline: (1) active treatment, high dose group vs placebo; (2) active treatment, middle dose group vs placebo; and (3) active treatment, low dose group vs placebo. Safety outcome measures. Adverse events, vital signs, physical examination findings, gynecological examination findings, clinical laboratory tests, pap smears, and endometrial biopsy were the safety parameters. Adverse events and SAEs were summarized for each treatment group and overall for all active treatment groups with the proportion of subjects reporting each event. Actual values and change from baseline in vital signs, and all laboratory test parameters were summarized for each treatment group and overall for all active treatment groups with descriptive statistics at each assessment obtained. Endometrial Biopsy Assessment. Three independent pathologists with expertise in gynecologic pathology, blinded to treatment and to each other's readings, determined the diagnosis for endometrial biopsy slides during the conduct of the study. All visit 6, early termination, and on-treatment unscheduled endometrial biopsies were centrally read by three of the pathologists. Each pathologist's report was classified into one of the following three categories: category 1: not hyperplasia/not malignancy—includes proliferative endometrium, weakly proliferative endometrium, disordered proliferative pattern, secretory endometrium, endometrial tissue other (i.e., benign, inactive or atrophic fragments of endometrial epithelium, glands, stroma, etc.), endometrial tissue insufficient for diagnosis, no endometrium identified, no tissue identified, other; category 2: hyperplasia—includes simple hyperplasia with or without atypia and complex hyperplasia with or without atypia; category 3: malignancy—endometrial malignancy. The final diagnosis was based on agreement of two of the three reads. Consensus was reached when two of the three pathologist readers agreed on any of the above categories. For example, any 2 subcategories of “not hyperplasia/not malignancy” were classified as “Category 1: not hyperplasia/not malignancy.” If all three readings were disparate (i.e., each fell into a different category—category 1, 2, or 3), the final diagnosis was based on the most severe of the three readings. The analysis population for endometrium hyperplasia was the endometrial hyperplasia (EH) population. An EH subject at week 12 was one who was randomly assigned and took at least 1 dose of investigational product, with no exclusionary protocol violation (as detailed at the Statistical Analysis Plan), and had a pretreatment endometrial biopsy and a biopsy on therapy. Treatment of Subjects The study used a double-blind design. Investigational product was supplied as 3 doses of Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsules (4 10 μg, and 25 μg) and matching placebo capsules. All subjects manually inserted one capsule into the vaginal cavity daily for 14 days (2 weeks) followed by twice weekly for 10 weeks according to one of the following treatment arms: TABLE 42 Treatment Arms and Administration Regimen Capsules Capsules Treatment 1 capsule daily of 1 capsule twice weekly of 1 4 μg vaginal softgel 4 μg vaginal softgel for for 2 weeks 10 weeks Treatment 1 capsule daily of 1 capsule twice weekly of 2 10 μg vaginal softgel 10 μg vaginal softgel for for 2 weeks 10 weeks Treatment 1 capsule daily of 1 capsule twice weekly of 3 25 μg vaginal softgel 25 μg vaginal softgel for for 2 weeks 10 weeks Treatment 1 capsule daily of 1 capsule twice weekly of 4 placebo vaginal placebo vaginal softgel softgel for 2 weeks for 10 weeks Investigational product was dispensed to all eligible subjects at visit 2. Each subject was provided a total of 30 soft gel capsules of investigational product in a labeled bottle, allowing for extra capsules for accidental loss or damage. A second bottle was dispensed at Visit 5. Each subject was trained by the clinical site to self-administer intravaginally one capsule daily at approximately the same hour for 2 weeks (14 days). The drug administration instructions included: “Remove vaginal capsule from the bottle; find a position most comfortable for you; insert the capsule with the smaller end up into vaginal canal for about 2 inches.” Starting on Day 15, each subject administered 1 capsule twice weekly for the remaining 10 weeks. Twice weekly dosing was approximately 3-4 days apart, and generally did not exceed more than twice in a seven day period. For example, if the Day 15 dose was inserted on Sunday, the next dose was inserted on Wednesday or Thursday. At randomization visit 2 (day 1), subjects received their first dose of investigational product at the clinical facility under the supervision of the study personnel. The investigational estradiol vaginal softgel drug products used in the study are pear-shaped, opaque, light pink softgel capsules. The capsules contain the solubilized estradiol pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein as Pharmaceutical Compositions 4-7. When the softgel capsules come in contact with the vaginal mucosa, the soft gelatin capsule releases the pharmaceutical composition, into the vagina. In embodiments, the soft gelatin capsule completely dissolves. The placebo used in the study contained the excipients in the investigational estradiol vaginal softgel capsule without the estradiol (see, e.g., Pharmaceutical Composition 7). The packaging of the investigational products and placebo were identical to maintain adequate blinding of investigators. Neither the subject nor the investigator was able to identify the treatment from the packaging or label of the investigational products. A subject was required to use at least 80% of the investigational product to be considered compliant with investigational medication administration. Capsule count and diary cards were be used to determine subject compliance at each study visit. Subjects were randomly assigned in a 1:1:1:1 ratio to receive Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsule 4 μg (Pharmaceutical Composition 4), Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsule 10 μg (Pharmaceutical Composition 5), Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsule 25 μg (Pharmaceutical Composition 6), or placebo (Pharmaceutical Composition 7). Concomitant medications/treatments were used to treat chronic or intercurrent medical conditions at the discretion of the investigator. The following medications were prohibited for the duration of the study: investigational drugs other than the investigational Estradiol Vaginal Softgel Capsule; estrogen-, progestin-, androgen (i.e., DHEA) or SERM-containing medications other than the investigational product; medications, remedies, and supplements known to treat vulvar/vaginal atrophy; vaginal lubricants and moisturizers (e.g., Replens) be discontinued 7 days prior to Visit 1B vaginal pH assessment; and all medications excluded before the study. Efficacy Assessments Vaginal cytological smears were collected from the lateral vaginal walls according to standard procedures and sent to a central laboratory to evaluate vaginal cytology. The percentage of superficial, parabasal, and intermediate cells was determined. All on-therapy/early termination vaginal cytology results were blinded to the Sponsor, Investigators, and subjects. Vaginal pH was determined at screening Visit 1B and visits 3, 4, 5, and 6/end of treatment. Subjects were not allowed to use vaginal lubricants or moisturizers within 7 days of the screening vaginal pH assessment or at any time afterwards during the study. The subjects were advised not to have sexual intercourse and to refrain from using vaginal douching within 24 hours prior to the measurement for all scheduled vaginal pH assessments. After insertion of an unlubricated speculum, a pH indicator strip was applied to the lateral vaginal wall until it became wet, taking care to avoid cervical mucus, blood or semen that are known to affect vaginal pH. The color of the strip was compared immediately with a colorimetric scale and the measurement was recorded. During the gynecological examinations, the investigator performed a visual evaluation of vaginal mucosa using a four-point scale (0=none, 1=mild, 2=moderate, and 3=severe) to assess parameters of vaginal secretions, vaginal epithelial integrity, vaginal epithelial surface thickness, and vaginal color according to the table below. Assessment Severity Criteria No atrophy Mild Moderate Severe Vaginal normal clear superficial coating scant not covering none, inflamed, secretions secretions of secretions, the entire vaginal ulceration noted, noted on difficulty with vault, may need need lubrication vaginal walls speculum insertion lubrication with with speculum speculum insertion insertion to prevent to prevent pain pain Vaginal normal vaginal surface vaginal surface vaginal surface has epithelial bleeds with bleeds with light petechiae before integrity scraping contact contact and bleeds with light contact Vaginal rogation and poor rogation with smooth, some smooth, no elasticity, epithelial elasticity of some elasticity elasticity of constriction of the surface vault noted of vaginal vaginal vault upper one third of thickness vault vagina or loss of vaginal tone (cystocele and rectocele) Vaginal pink lighter in color pale in color transparent, either no color color or inflamed The VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire, shown below, is an instrument for subjects to self-assess their symptoms of vulvar or vaginal atrophy, including vaginal pain associated with sexual activity, vaginal dryness, vulvar or vaginal itching, or irritation. At screening visit 1A subjects were asked to complete the questionnaire and identify their most bothersome symptoms, and the results of the survey were used to determine initial eligibility for the study. At visit 1A, subjects were also asked to indicate which moderate or severe symptoms bothered them most. The questionnaire was administered again at screening visit 1B and used to determine continued eligibility for the study. VVA SYMPTOMS SELF-ASSESSMENT Please Rate Severity Score your Vulvar and/or (Please select only ONE) Vaginal Symptoms 0 = None 1 = mild 2 = Moderate 3 = Severe 1 Pain associated with sexual activity (with vaginal penetration). 2 Vaginal dryness. 3 Vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation. Randomized subjects were asked to complete the VVA Symptom Self-Assessment Questionnaire at visits 3, 4, 5, and 6. Subjects were asked to indicate if no sexual activity with vaginal penetration was experience since the previous visit. Screening visit 1B evaluation results were considered as Baseline data for the statistical analyses. The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) is a brief, multidimensional scale for assessing sexual function in women (see, Rosen, 2000, supra 26: p. 191-208, incorporated by reference herein). The scale consists of 19 items that assess sexual function over the past 4 weeks and yield domain scores in six areas: sexual desire, arousal, lubrication, orgasm, satisfaction, and pain. Further validation of the instrument was conducted to extend the validation to include dyspareunia/vaginismus (pain), and multiple sexual dysfunctions (see, Weigel, M., et al. “The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI): Cross-Validation and Development of Clinical Cutoff Scores.” Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 2005. 31: p. 1-20, incorporated by reference herein). The FSFI was conducted at Visits 2 and 6. Subjects participating in the PK substudy were not assessed using FSFI. Safety Assessments A complete medical history, including demographic data (age and race/ethnicity) gynecological, surgical, and psychiatric history and use of tobacco and alcohol was recorded at the washout/screening visit 1A prior to any washout period; this history included a review of all past and current diseases and their respective durations as well as any history of amenorrhea. A complete physical examination was conducted at screening visit 1A and visit 6/end of treatment. The physical examination included, at a minimum, examination of the subject's general appearance, HEENT (head, eyes, ears, nose, and throat), heart, lungs, musculoskeletal system, gastrointestinal (GI) system, neurological system, lymph nodes, abdomen, and extremities. The subject's height was measured at washout/screening visit 1A only and body weight (while the subject is lightly clothed) was be measured at washout/screening visit 1A and end of treatment. BMI was calculated at washout/screening visit 1A. Vital signs (body temperature, heart rate [HR], respiration rate [RR], and sitting blood pressure [BP]) were measured at all visits after the subject had been sitting for ≥10 minutes. If the initial BP reading was above 140 mmHg systolic or 90 mmHg diastolic, the option for a single repeat assessment performed 15 minutes later was provided. A standard 12-lead ECG was obtained at screening visit 1A and visit 6 or early termination. Subjects were required to have a pelvic examination and Pap smear performed during the screening visit 1B and visit 6 or early termination. The Pap smear was required for all subjects with or without an intact uterus and cervix. For subjects without an intact cervix the Pap smear was obtained by sampling the apex of the vaginal cuff All subjects were required to have a Pap smear done during screening, regardless of any recent prior assessment. Subjects who discontinued the study after 2 weeks of investigational product were required to have an end of treatment Pap smear. Subjects had a breast examination performed during screening visit 1A and at visit 6 or early termination. Endometrial biopsies were performed by a board-certified gynecologist at screening and at visit 6/end of treatment. Unscheduled endometrial biopsies were performed during the study, when indicated for medical reasons. The screening biopsy was performed at screening visit 1B, after the subject's initial screening visit assessments indicated that the subject was otherwise an eligible candidate for the study. At screening, endometrial biopsies were read centrally by two pathologists. A candidate subject was excluded from the study if at least one pathologist assessed the endometrial biopsy as endometrial hyperplasia, endometrial cancer, proliferative endometrium, weakly proliferative endometrium, or disordered proliferative pattern, or if at least one pathologist identified an endometrial polyp with hyperplasia, glandular atypia of any degree (e.g., atypical nuclei), or cancer. Additionally, identification of sufficient tissue to evaluate the biopsy by at least one pathologist was required for study eligibility. The option for one repetition of the screening endometrial biopsy was made available when an initial endometrial biopsy was performed and both of the primary pathologists reported endometrial tissue insufficient for diagnosis, no endometrium was identified, or no tissue was identified, and if the subject had met all other protocol-specified eligibility criteria to date. The visit 6 (or early termination) endometrial biopsies and on treatment unscheduled biopsies were assessed by three pathologists. During the study, at early termination, and at the end of the study, any subject with a diagnosis of endometrial hyperplasia was withdrawn and treated with 10 mg of Medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) for 6 months unless deemed otherwise by the PI. For unscheduled biopsies, the histological diagnosis of endometrial polyp did not force withdrawal unless atypical nuclei were present. A urine pregnancy test was conducted at screening visit 1A unless the subject had a history of tubal ligation, bilateral oophorectomy, or was ≥55 years of age and had experienced cessation of menses for at least 1 year. Blood samples for blood chemistry, hematology, coagulation tests, and hormone levels and urine samples for urine analysis were collected and sent to a central laboratory. Blood Chemistry (sodium, potassium, chloride, total cholesterol, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), iron, albumin, total protein, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase, creatinine, calcium, phosphorous, uric acid, total bilirubin, glucose and triglycerides (must be fasting minimum of 8 hours). A fasting glucose of >125 mg/dL will require a HgAlC) was monitored. Hematology (complete blood count (CBC) including white blood cell count and differential, red blood cell count, hemoglobin, hematocrit, and platelet count) was monitored. Hormone Levels (follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) (not required for subjects with ≥12 months of spontaneous amenorrhea or bilateral oophorectomy), estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates and SHBG for subjects in the PK substudy) were monitored. Urine Analysis (appearance, specific gravity, protein, and pH) was conducted. Pharmacokinetic Assessment Seventy-two subjects were also enrolled in a pharmacokinetic (PK) substudy. In those subjects participating in the PK substudy, time 0 h serum blood samples were obtained at screening visit 1A, day 1, and day 14 prior to dosing for baseline. The baseline was characterized by the average of the two pre-treatment samples. Serum blood samples were then obtained on day 1 and day 14 at five post dose time points (2 h, 4 h, 6 h, 10 h, and 24 h). On study days 1 (visit 2) and 14 (visit 3) a baseline pretreatment blood sample (Time 0 h) was collected from each subject prior to insertion of the investigational product. After insertion of the product, blood samples were drawn at 2, 4, 6, 10, and 24 hours following insertion. The last PK sample (approximately day 84) was obtained 4 days following the last insertion of investigational product. Blood samples were analyzed to characterize area under the curve (AUC), time of maximum concentration (tmax), minimum concentration (Cmax), and maximum concentration (Cmax). Blood samples were also analyzed to measure the levels of estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates. No fasting requirements were applied. Sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) levels were obtained at pre-treatment baseline (day 1, visit 2), and day 14 at the 0 h and on the day 84 final hormone blood draw. A symptoms/complaints and medications diary was dispensed at all visits and subjects were instructed on completion. The subjects used the diary to record symptoms/complaints (including stop and start dates and treatment received) and prior medications/treatments (including indication, stop, and start dates). A copy of the diary was made at each visit and re-dispensed to the subject. A dosing diary was dispensed at visit 2 and at visit 3 and subjects were be instructed on completion. Subjects recorded investigational product usage and sexual activity. The dosing diary dispensed at visit 3 was re-dispensed at visits 4 and 5. A copy of the diary was made at each visit prior to re-dispensing to the subject. Study Visits Study visits were typically conducted so as to include the activities outlined in Table 43. TABLE 43 Schedule of Assessments - Main Study Visit 2: Visit 3: Visit 1A Visit 1B Randomization/ Interim Washout Screening Screening Baseline Week 2 Week −14 Week −6 Week −4 Week 0 Day 14 Activity to −6 to 0 to 0 Day 1 (±3 d) Informed consent X X Demographics/Medical and X X Gynecological history and prior medications Weight X X Height and BMI calculation X X Vital signs X X X X X MBS X Subject VVA Self-Assessment X X X Questionnaire Physical examination including X breast exam Laboratory safety tests (Hematology, X Serum Chemistry, FSHP, Urinalysis) 12-Lead ECG X Pelvic exam X Vaginal pH X X Papanicolaou (Pap) smear X Investigator assessment of vaginal X X mucosa Vaginal cytological smear X X Mammogram X Endometrial biopsy X Diary Dispense X X X X X Diary Collection X X X X FSFI X Satisfaction Survey Urine pregnancy test X Randomization X Dispense Investigational X Product bottle Re-dispense Investigational X Product bottle Treatment administration X X instruction Collect unused X investigational product and used bottles; assess compliance Adverse event monitoring X X X X Concomitant medications X X X X Visit 6: End of Telephone Visit 4: Visit 5: Treatment or Interview Interim Interim Early Term Week 14 Week 6 Week 8 Week 12 approximately Day 42 Day 56 Day 84 15 days after Activity (±3 d) (±3 d) (±3 d) last dose of IP Informed consent Demographics/Medical and Gynecological history and prior medications Weight X Height and BMI calculation Vital signs X X X MBS Subject VVA Self-Assessment X X X Questionnaire Physical examination including X breast exam Laboratory safety tests (Hematology, X Serum Chemistry, FSHP, Urinalysis) 12-Lead ECG X Pelvic exam X Vaginal pH X X X Papanicolaou (Pap) smear X Investigator assessment of vaginal X X X mucosa Vaginal cytological smear X X X Mammogram Endometrial biopsy X Diary Dispense X X Diary Collection X X X FSFI X Satisfaction Survey X Urine pregnancy test Randomization Dispense Investigational X Product bottle Re-dispense X Investigational Product bottle Treatment administration X X instruction Collect unused X X X investigational product and used bottles; assess compliance Adverse event monitoring X X X X Concomitant medications X X X X Washout Period Visit (if applicable; Weeks −14 to −6). The purpose of this visit was to discuss the study with a potential subject and obtain informed consent that is signed and dated before any procedures, including washout are performed. Subjects who agreed to discontinue current treatment began washout after the consent form was signed. A symptoms/complaints and medication diary was dispensed at this visit and the subject was instructed in how to complete the diary. Once the washout period was completed, the subject will return to the site for visit 1A. The activities and assessments conducted during the visit included: informed consent; demographics; medical/gynecological history; collection of prior and concomitant medication information; height, body weight measurement and BMI calculation; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP); dispensation of symptoms/complaints diary and instruction in how to complete the diary Screening Period Visits (Visits 1A and 1B). Subjects not requiring washout begin screening procedures at visit 1A as described above for the washout period. With the exception of vital signs, procedures performed at washout will not be repeated at screening visit 1A. In general, screening visits 1A and 1B were completed within 6 weeks (42 days) for subjects without a uterus or within 8 weeks (56 days) for subjects with a uterus. All screening assessments were completed prior to randomization. The investigators reviewed the results from all screening procedures and determined if the subjects were eligible for enrollment into the study. Visit 1A (approximately Week −6 to 0). Visit 1A was conducted after the wash-out period (if applicable) or after the subject provided informed consent. The subject was advised to fast for 8 hours prior to the visit for blood draws. Procedures and evaluations conducted at the visit included: informed consent; demographics; medical/gynecological history; collection of the symptoms/complaints and medications diary from washout (if applicable) and review with the subject; recording of prior medication information; recording and assessment of adverse events (AEs) starting from the signing of informed consent; height, body weight measurement and BMI calculation; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP); physical examination; breast examination (including a mammogram conducted up to nine months prior to Visit 2); urine pregnancy test as required; blood and urine sample collection for blood chemistry (minimum fast of 8 hrs), hematology, and urinalysis; serum FSH as required; 12-Lead ECG. At visit 1A, the VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire was conducted and most bothersome symptoms were identified, with the subject self-identifying moderate or severe pain with sexual activity as her MBS to continue screening. The symptoms/complaints and medications diary was dispensed, and subjects were instructed in how to complete the diary. Subjects were instructed to refrain from use of vaginal lubricants for 7 days and sexual intercourse/vaginal douching for 24 hours prior to the vaginal pH assessment to be done at visit 1B. Visit 1B (approximately Week −4 to Week 0). Visit 1B was conducted after the subject's initial screening visit and after the other screening results indicated that the subject was otherwise an eligible candidate for the study (preferably around the middle of the screening period). Procedures and evaluations conducted at the visit included: VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire, the subject having indicated moderate to severe pain with sexual activity with vaginal penetration in order to continue screening; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP); pelvic examination; investigator assessment of vaginal mucosa as described above; assessment of vaginal pH (sexual intercourse or vaginal douching within 24 hrs prior to the assessment being prohibited, and a subject's vaginal pH being >5.0 to continue screening); Pap smear; vaginal cytological smear (one repetition being permitted during screening if no results were obtained from the first smear); endometrial biopsy performed as described above; review of the symptoms/complaints and medications diary with the subject. Visit 2 (Week 0; Randomization/Baseline). Subjects who met entry criteria were randomized to investigational product at this visit. Procedures and evaluations conducted at the visit included: self-administration of FSFI by subjects not participating in the PK substudy; review of the symptoms/complaints and medications diary with the subject; review of evaluations performed at screening visits and verification of present of all inclusion criteria and the absence of all exclusion criteria; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP); randomization, with subjects meeting all entry criteria being randomized and allocated a bottle number; dispensation of investigational product and instruction in how to insert the capsule vaginally, with subjects receiving their first dose of investigational product under supervision; dispensation of dosing diary and instruction on completion of the treatment diary, including recording investigational product usage and sexual activity. Visit 3 (Week 2, Day 14±3 days). Procedures and evaluations conducted at the visit included: completion of the VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire; review of the symptoms/complaints and medications diaries with the subject; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP); Assessment of vaginal mucosa; assessment of vaginal pH (with sexual intercourse or vaginal douching within 24 hrs prior to the assessment being prohibited); vaginal cytological smear; collection of unused investigational product and bottle for assessment of compliance/accountability; re-dispensation of investigational product and re-instruction in how to insert the capsule vaginally if necessary; review of the completed dosing diary with the subject. Visit 4 (Week 6, Day 42±3 days). Procedures and evaluations conducted at the visit included: completion of the VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire; review of the symptoms/complaints and medications diary with the subject; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP); assessment of vaginal mucosa as described above; vaginal cytological smear; assessment of vaginal pH (with sexual intercourse or vaginal douching within 24 hrs prior to the assessment being prohibited); collection of unused investigational product for assessment of compliance/accountability; re-dispensation of investigational product and re-instruction in how to insert the capsule vaginally if necessary; review of the completed dosing diary with the subject. Visit 5 (Week 8, Day 56±3 days). Procedures and evaluations conducted at the visit included: completion of the VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire; review of the symptoms/complaints and medications diary with the subject; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP); assessment of vaginal mucosa as described above; vaginal cytological smear; assessment of vaginal pH (with sexual intercourse or vaginal douching within 24 hrs prior to the assessment being prohibited); collection of unused investigational product for assessment of compliance/accountability; re-dispensation of investigational product and re-instruction in how to insert the capsule vaginally if necessary; review of the completed dosing diary with the subject. Visit 6 (Week 12, Day 84±3 days or early termination). This visit was performed if a subject withdraws from the study before visit 6. Procedures performed at this visit included: completion of the VVA symptom self-assessment questionnaire; review of the subject the dosing diary, symptoms/complaints, and medications diaries with the subject; collection of blood and urine sample collection for blood chemistry (minimum fast of 8 hrs), hematology, and urinalysis; collection of vital signs (body temperature, HR, RR, and BP) and weight; performance of 12-lead-ECG; collection of unused investigational product and container for assessment of compliance/accountability; physical examination; breast exam; assessment of vaginal mucosa as described above; assessment of vaginal pH (with sexual intercourse or vaginal douching within 24 hrs prior to the assessment being prohibited); vaginal cytological smear; Pap smear; endometrial biopsy; self-administration of FSFI by subjects not participating in the PK substudy; self-administration of survey titled “Acceptability of product administration Survey” by subjects. Follow-up Interview (approximately 15 days after the last dose of investigational product). Each subject who received investigational product received a follow-up phone call, regardless of the duration of therapy, approximately 15 days following the last dose of investigational product. The follow-up generally took place after receipt of all safety assessments (e.g., endometrial biopsy and mammography results). The follow-up included: review of ongoing adverse events and any new adverse events that occurred during the 15 days following the last dose of investigational product; review of ongoing concomitant medications and any new concomitant medications that occurred during the 15 days following the last dose of investigational product; and discussion of all end of study safety assessments and determination if further follow up or clinic visit is required. PK Substudy Visit Procedures and Schedule Screening Visit 1A. In addition to the procedures listed described above, activities in the PK substudy also included: provision of informed consent by subject and agreement to participate in the PK substudy; collection of a serum blood sample during the visit for baseline assessment of estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates. Visit 2 (Week 0, Day 1). In addition to the procedures listed described above, activities in the PK substudy also included collection of serum blood sample obtained prior to the administration of investigational product (timepoint 0 h) for baseline assessment of estradiol, estrone, estrone conjugates, and SHBG. The investigational product was self-administered by the subject after the pre-treatment blood sample has been taken. After investigational product administration, serum blood samples were obtained at 2 h, 4 h, 6 h, 10 h, and 24 h timepoints for estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates (serum samples were generally taken within +/−5 minutes at 2 h and 4 h, within +/−15 minutes at 6 h, and within +/−1 h at 10 h and 24 h). The subject was released from the site after the 10 hour sample and instructed to return to the site the next morning for the 24 hour blood draw. The subject was instructed not to self-administer the day 2 dose until instructed by the site personnel to dose at the clinical site. The subject was released from the clinical site following the 24 hour blood sample and administration of the day 2 dose. Visit 3 (Week 2, Day 14). The visit must occurred on day 14 with no visit window allowed. In addition to the procedures listed above, the PK substudy included collection of a serum blood sample prior to the administration of day 14 dose (timepoint 0 h) for SHBG and PK assessments. The subject self-administered the day 14 dose at the clinical site, and serum blood samples were obtained at 2 h, 4 h, 6 h, 10 h, and 24 h timepoints for estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates. The subject was released from the site after the 10 hour sample and instructed to return to the site the next morning for the 24 hour blood draw. The subject was instructed not to self-administer the day 15 dose until instructed by the site personnel to dose at the clinical site. The subject was released from the clinical site following the 24 hour blood sample and administration of the day 15 dose. The subject was be instructed to administer the next dose of study drug on day 18 or day 19 and continue dosing on a bi-weekly basis at the same time of day for each dose. Visit 6 (Week 12, Day 84±3 days, or at early termination). The visit took place 4 days after last IP dose or early termination. A serum sample for estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates and SHBG was drawn in addition to the procedures described above. PK sub-study visits were typically conducted so as to include the activities outlined in Table 44. TABLE 44 Schedule of Assessments for PK Sub-study Visit 2: Visit 3: Visit 1A Visit 1B Randomization/ Interim Washout Screening Screening Baseline Week 2 Week −14 Week −6 Week −4 Week 0 Day 14 Activity to −6 to 0 to 0 Day 1 (no window) PK sub-study Informed X X consent Demographics/Medical and Gynecological history X X and prior medications Weight X X Height and BMI X X calculation Vital signs X X X X X MBS X Subject VVA Self- X X X Assessment Questionnaire Physical examination X including breast exam Laboratory safety tests X (Hematology, Serum Chemistry, FSHP, Urinalysis) PK Serum Blood Samples X X X (Estradiol, Estrone, Estrone Conjugates) Serum blood samples for X X SHBG 12-Lead ECG X Pelvic exam X Vaginal pH X X Papanicolaou (Pap) smear X Investigator assessment of X X vaginal mucosa Vaginal cytological smear X X Mammogram X Endometrial biopsy X Diary Dispense X X X X X Diary Collection X X X X Satisfaction Survey Urine pregnancy test X Randomization X Dispense new X Investigational Product (IP) bottle Re-dispense X Investigational Product (IP) bottle IP administration X X instruction Collect unused IP and X used bottles; assess compliance Adverse event monitoring X X X X Concomitant medications X X X X Visit 6: End of Treatment Telephone Visit 4: Visit 5: of Early Term Interview Interim Interim Week 12 Week 14 Week 6 Week 8 Day 84 (±3 d) approximately Day 42 Day 56 (4 days after 15 days after Activity (±3 d) (±3 d) last IP dose) last dose of IP PK sub-study Informed consent Demographics/Medical and Gynecological history and prior medications Weight X Height and BMI calculation Vital signs X X X MBS Subject VVA Self- X X X Assessment Questionnaire Physical examination X including breast exam Laboratory safety tests X (Hematology, Serum Chemistry, FSHP, Urinalysis) PK Serum Blood Samples X (Estradiol, Estrone, Estrone Conjugates) Serum blood samples for X SHBG 12-Lead ECG X Pelvic exam X Vaginal pH X X X Papanicolaou (Pap) smear X Investigator assessment of X X X vaginal mucosa Vaginal cytological smear X X X Mammogram Endometrial biopsy X Diary Dispense X X Diary Collection X X X Satisfaction Survey X Urine pregnancy test Randomization Dispense new X Investigational Product (IP) bottle Re-dispense X Investigational Product (IP) bottle IP administration X X instruction Collect unused IP and X X X used bottles; assess compliance Adverse event monitoring X X X X Concomitant medications X X X X An Adverse Event (AE) in the study was defined as the development of an undesirable medical condition or the deterioration of a pre-existing medical condition following or during exposure to a pharmaceutical product, whether or not considered casually related to the product. An AE could occur from overdose of investigational product. In this study, an AE can include an undesirable medical condition occurring at any time, including baseline or washout periods, even if no study treatment has been administered. Relationship to Investigational Product The investigators determined the relationship to the investigational product for each AE (Not Related, Possibly Related, or Probably Related). The degree of “relatedness” of the adverse event to the investigational product was described as follows: not related—no temporal association and other etiologies are likely the cause; possible—temporal association, but other etiologies are likely the cause. However, involvement of the investigational product cannot be excluded; probable—temporal association, other etiologies are possible but unlikely. The event may respond if the investigational product is discontinued. Example 11 Efficacy Results of Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Multicenter Study Each of the three doses showed statistical significance compared with placebo for the primary endpoints. Each of the three doses showed statistical significance compared with placebo for the secondary endpoints. Table 45 shows the statistical significance of the experimental data for each of the four co-primary endpoints. Each of the dosages met each of the four co-primary endpoints at a statistically significant level. The 25 mcg dose of TX-004HR demonstrated highly statistically significant results at the p≤0.0001 level compared to placebo across all four co-primary endpoints. The 10 mcg dose of TX-004HR demonstrated highly statistically significant results at the p≤0.0001 level compared to placebo across all four co-primary endpoints. The 4 mcg dose of TX-004HR also demonstrated highly statistically significant results at the p≤0.0001 level compared to placebo for the endpoints of superficial vaginal cells, parabasal vaginal cells, and vaginal pH; the change from baseline compared to placebo in the severity of dyspareunia was at the p=0.0255 level. TABLE 45 Statistical Significance of Results for Co-Primary Endpoints (Based on Mean Change from Baseline to Week 12 Compared to Placebo) 25 mcg 10 mcg 4 mcg Superficial Cells P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 Parabasal Cells P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 Vaginal pH P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 P < 0.0001 Severity of P = 0.0001 P = 0.0001 P = 0.0255 Dyspareunia Statistical improvement over placebo was also observed for all three doses at the first assessment at week two and sustained through week 12. The pharmacokinetic data for all three doses demonstrated low systemic absorption, supporting the previous Phase 1 trial data. TX-004HR was well tolerated, and there were no clinically significant differences compared to placebo-treated women with respect to adverse events. There were no drug-related serious adverse events reported. As shown in the data below, in the MITT population (n=747) at week 12, all TX-004HR doses compared with placebo significantly decreased the percentage of parabasal cells and vaginal pH, significantly increased the percentage of superficial cells, and significantly reduced the severity of dyspareunia (all p≤0.00001 except dyspareunia at 4 p=0.0149). At weeks 2, 6, and 8, the percentage of parabasal cells and vaginal pH significantly decreased p<0.00001); the percentage of superficial cells significantly increased (p<0.00001); and the severity of dyspareunia significantly improved from baseline with all TX-004HR doses vs placebo (4 μg p<0.03; 10 μg and 25 μg p<0.02). Moderate-to-severe vaginal dryness was reported by 93% at baseline and significantly improved (p<0.02) for all doses at weeks 2, 6, 8, and 12 (except 4 μg at week 2). Vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation significantly improved (p<0.05) for 10 μg at weeks 8 and 12, and for 25 μg at week 12. TX-004HR was well tolerated, had high acceptability, and no treatment-related serious AEs were reported in the safety population (n=764). There were no clinically significant differences in any AEs or treatment-related SAEs between TX-004HR and placebo. Very low to negligible systemic levels of estradiol were observed. All TX-004HR doses were safe and effective and resulted in very low to negligible systemic absorption of E2 in women with VVA and moderate-to-severe dyspareunia. Onset of effect was seen as early as 2 weeks and was maintained throughout the study and acceptability was very high. This novel product provides a promising new treatment option for women experiencing menopausal VVA. Cytology Vaginal cytology data was collected as vaginal smears from the lateral vaginal walls according to procedures presented above to evaluate vaginal cytology at screening and Visit 6—End of treatment (day 84). The change in the Maturation Index was assessed as a change in cell composition measured at Visit 1—Baseline (day 1) compared to the cell composition measured at Visit 3—End of treatment (day 84). The change in percentage of superficial, parabasal, and intermediate cells obtained from the vaginal mucosal epithelium from a vaginal smear was recorded. Results from these assessments for superficial cells are presented in Table 46 and Table 47, as well as FIG. 10, FIG. 11, and FIG. 12. Results from these assessments for parabasal cells are presented in Table 48 and Table 49, as well as FIG. 13, FIG. 14, and FIG. 15. Superficial Cells TABLE 46 Superficial Cells P-values by Treatment Week 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Week 2 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 6 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 8 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 12 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 TABLE 47 Superficial Cells Change in Severity from Baseline by Treatment Week (change in percent of total vaginal cells) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Week 2 31.35 (1.496) 31.93 (1.488) 38.85 (1.5) 6.05 (1.498) Week 6 18.41 (1.536) 16.88 (1.543) 22.65 (1.532) 5.43 (1.525) Week 8 19.04 (1.561) 17.41 (1.558) 23.88 (1.554) 5.98 (1.551) Week 12 17.5 (1.542) 16.72 (1.54) 23.2 (1.529) 5.63 (1.537) The study showed the formulations disclosed herein across all doses increased the percentage of superficial cells across all dosages in a statistically significant way. Parabasal Cells TABLE 48 Parabasal Cells P-values by Treatment Week 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Week 2 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 6 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 8 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 12 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 TABLE 49 Parabasal Cells Change in Severity from Baseline by Treatment Week (change in percent of total vaginal cells) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Week 2 −40.23 (1.719) −44.42 (1.708) −45.6 (1.723) −7 (1.72) Week 6 −39.36 (1.75) −43.55 (1.752) −45.61 (1.746) −9.23 (1.741) Week 8 −41.87 (1.768) −43.78 (1.764) −45.08 (1.762) −7.86 (1.76) Week 12 −40.63 (1.755) −44.07 (1.751) −45.55 (1.745) −6.73 (1.75) The increase of superficial cells and decrease of parabasal cells showed statistical significance over placebo at week 2 and for every week thereafter, including at week 12. Administration of the pharmaceutical formulation resulted in rapid onset of action, as early as two weeks after the initial administration. Rapid onset of action may be coupled with the rapid absorption demonstrated in the pharmacokinetic data presented below. pH Vaginal pH was measured at Screening and Visit 6—End of treatment (day 84). The pH measurement was obtained as disclosed herein. Results from these assessments are presented in Table 50 and Table 51, and FIG. 16, FIG. 17, and FIG. 18. TABLE 50 pH P-values by Treatment Week 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Week 2 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 6 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 8 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 12 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 TABLE 51 pH Change in Severity from Baseline by Treatment Week (change in pH) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Week 2 −1.23 (0.064) −1.37 (0.064) −1.3 (0.065) −0.28 (0.064) Week 6 −1.32 (0.066) −1.4 (0.066) −1.48 (0.066) −0.3 (0.065) Week 8 −1.35 (0.067) −1.46 (0.067) −1.45 (0.066) −0.38 (0.066) Week 12 −1.32 (0.066) −1.42 (0.066) −1.34 (0.066) −0.28 (0.066) The decrease in vaginal pH was observed at statistically significant levels at week 2 and through the end of the study. Surprisingly, the pH decreased in all three pharmaceutical formulations tested and at all three dosages of over a full pH unit for all three doses. Most Bothersome Symptoms Dyspareunia Subjects were asked to specify the symptom that she identified as the “most bothersome symptom.” During the screening period all of the subjects were provided with a questionnaire to self-assess the symptoms of VVA: (1) dyspareunia; (2) vaginal dryness; and (3) vaginal or vulvar irritation, burning, or itching. Each symptom was measured on a scale of 0 to 3, where 0=none, 1=mild, 2=moderate, and 3=severe. Each subject was given a questionnaire at each visit and the responses were recorded. All randomized subjects were also provided a questionnaire to self-assess the symptoms of VVA at Visit 1 and on each subsequent visit through Visit 6—End of the treatment (day 84). Subjects recorded their self-assessments daily in a diary and answers were collected on visits 8 and 15 (end of treatment). Pre-dose evaluation results obtained at Visit 1 were considered as baseline data for the statistical analyses. Data from these assessments for dyspareunia are presented in Table 52 and Table 53. Data from these assessments for dryness are presented in Table 54 and Table 55. TABLE 52 Dyspareunia P-values by Treatment Week 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Week 2 0.026 0.0019 0.0105 Week 6 0.0069 0.0009 <0.0001 Week 8 0.0003 <0.0001 <0.0001 Week 12 0.0149 <0.0001 <0.0001 TABLE 53 Dyspareunia Change in Severity from Baseline by Treatment Week (0 to 3 severity scale) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Week 2 −0.99 (0.072) −1.08 (0.072) −1.02 (0.073) −0.76 (0.072) Week 6 −1.3 (0.072) −1.37 (0.072) −1.48 (0.072) −1.03 (0.07) Week 8 −1.52 (0.073) −1.64 (0.074) −1.62 (0.075) −1.15 (0.072) Week 12 −1.52 (0.071) −1.69 (0.071) −1.69 (0.071) −1.28 (0.07) Each of the 4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg formulations tests demonstrated an early onset of action at week 2 for the most bothersome symptom of dyspareunia, evidenced by the statistically significant results (measured by p-value) in Table 52. After two weeks, each dose demonstrated separation from placebo in improvement in the most bothersome symptom of dyspareunia. Coupled with the PK data presented below, these results show that the formulations disclosed herein provide a bolus of estradiol within two hours of administration, which resulted in a decrease in the severity of dyspareunia as early as two weeks later. Estradiol is rapidly absorbed at around two hours, which is significantly faster than the formulations of the prior art that sought an extended release profile. The rapid absorption of estradiol is believed to be a result of administration with a liquid formulation. Surprisingly, the 4 μg formulation showed clinical effectiveness at two weeks along with the 25 μg and 10 μg dosage levels. These data demonstrate that 4 μg is an effective dose, and can be effective as early as two weeks after administration for the most bothersome symptom of dyspareunia. Dryness TABLE 54 Dryness P-values by Treatment Week 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Week 2 0.1269 0.0019 0.0082 Week 6 0.0094 0.0001 0.0005 Week 8 0.0128 <0.0001 0.0008 Week 12 0.0014 <0.0001 <0.0001 TABLE 55 Dryness Change in Severity from Baseline by Treatment Week (0 to 3 severity scale) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Week 2 −0.86 (0.066) −1.01 (0.065) −0.96 (0.066) −0.72 (0.066) Week 6 −1.14 (0.067) −1.27 (0.068) −1.23 (0.067) −0.9 (0.067) Week 8 −1.25 (0.069) −1.44 (0.068) −1.34 (0.068) −1.01 (0.068) Week 12 −1.27 (0.068) −1.47 (0.067) −1.47 (0.067) −0.97 (0.067) Each of the 4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg formulations tests demonstrated an early onset of action at week 2 for the most bothersome symptom of dryness, evidenced by the statistically significant results (measured by p-value) in Table 54. After two weeks, each dose demonstrated separation from placebo in improvement in the most bothersome symptom of dryness. Irritation/Itching TABLE 56 Irritation/Itching P-values by Treatment Week 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Week 2 0.9616 0.2439 0.6518 Week 6 0.7829 0.2328 0.4118 Week 8 0.0639 0.0356 0.0914 Week 12 0.0503 0.0055 0.0263 TABLE 57 Irritation/Itching Change in Severity from Baseline by Treatment Week (0 to 3 severity scale) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Week 2 −0.47 (0.054) −0.56 (0.053) −0.51 (0.054) −0.47 (0.054) Week 6 −0.57 (0.055) −0.64 (0.055) −0.61 (0.055) −0.55 (0.055) Week 8 −0.74 (0.056) −0.76 (0.056) −0.73 (0.056) −0.59 (0.056) Week 12 −0.75 (0.055) −0.81 (0.055) −0.77 (0.055) −0.6 (0.055) Vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation significantly improved (p<0.05) for 10 μg at weeks 8 and 12, and for 25 μg at week 12. Moreover, the trend for 4 μg was an improvement in itching week over week to nearly being statistically significant at week 12. Coupled with the PK data presented below, these results show that the formulations disclosed herein provide a bolus of estradiol within two hours of administration, which resulted in a decrease in the severity of dryness as early as two weeks later. Estradiol is rapidly absorbed at around two hours, which is significantly faster than the formulations of the prior art that sought an extended release profile. The rapid absorption of estradiol is believed to be a result of administration with a liquid formulation. Surprisingly, the 4 μg formulation showed clinical effectiveness at two weeks along with the 25 μg and 10 μg dosage levels. These data demonstrate that 4 μg is an effective dose, and can be effective as early as two weeks after administration for the most bothersome symptom of dryness. As described above, each dose was compared with placebo for change from baseline to week 12 in the percentages of vaginal superficial cells and parabasal cells, vaginal pH, and severity of dyspareunia (co-primary endpoints). The proportion of responders (defined as women with ≥2 of the following at week 12: vaginal superficial cells >5%, vaginal pH<5.0, ≥1 category improvement from baseline dyspareunia score) was compared in TX-004HR groups vs placebo. Pre-specified subgroup analyses of co-primary endpoints were analyzed by age (≤56 years, 57-61 years, and ≥62 years), BMI (≤24 kg/m2, 25-28 kg/m2, and ≥29 kg/m2), uterine status, parity, and vaginal births. Pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters were compared with placebo in a sub-analysis of the main study. The proportion of responders was significantly higher for all TX-004HR dose groups vs placebo (p<0.0001 for all). All TX-004HR doses vs placebo significantly improved percentage of superficial and parabasal cells, vaginal pH, and severity of dyspareunia at 12 weeks. Subgroup analyses showed generally similar results for percentage of superficial and parabasal cells and vaginal pH irrespective of age, BMI, uterine status, parity, and vaginal births. Severity of dyspareunia was significantly reduced at 12 weeks with all TX-004HR doses vs placebo in most subgroups (Table 57A). The PK sub-analysis (n=72), described in more detail below, found AUC and Cavg parameters for E2 and estrone (E1) with 4 μg and 10 μg TX-004HR to be similar to placebo. Increases occurred in E2 AUC and Cavg with 25 μg vs placebo but remained within the normal postmenopausal range. E2 levels at day 84 were similar between the TX-004HR groups and placebo, indicating no systemic drug accumulation. All doses of TX-004HR were associated with robust efficacy and demonstrated a statistically significant difference vs placebo for increasing superficial cells, decreasing parabasal cells and vaginal pH, and reducing the severity of dyspareunia. Age, BMI, uterine status, parity and vaginal births generally did not affect TX-004HR efficacy. These results occurred with negligible systemic absorption of TX-004HR estradiol doses of 4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg. TABLE 57A Change from baseline to week 12 in the severity of dyspareunia (LS mean change ± SE). Placebo TX-004HR 4 μg 1TX-004HR 0 μg TX-004HR 25 μg Key clinical factors (n = 187) (n = 186) (n = 188) (n = 186) Age, years ≤56 n = 52 −1.25 ± 0.119 n = 50 −1.58 ± 0.122 n = 61 −1.77 ± 0.112† n = 65 −1.86 ± 0.108‡ 57-61 n = 53 −1.39 ± 0.118 n = 50 −1.42 ± 0.121 n = 49 −1.63 ± 0.121 n = 47 −1.79 ± 0.125* ≥62 n = 58 −1.19 ± 0.122 n = 51 −1.52 ± 0.126 n = 44 −1.66 ± 0.138† n = 47 −1.38 ± 0.135 BMI, ≤24 n = 56 −1.14 ± 0.115 n = 58 −1.48 ± 0.113* n = 56 −1.6 ± 0.117† n = 51 −1.72 ± 0.123‡ kg/m2 25 to 28 n = 57 −1.48 ± 0.118 n = 45 −1.51 ± 0.131 n = 52 −1.78 ± 0.124 n = 58 −1.77 ± 0.117 ≥29 n = 50 −1.21 ± 0.125 n = 48 −1.56 ± 0.125 n = 46 −1.71 ± 0.129† n = 50 −1.57 ± 0.124* Uterine Intact n = 101 −1.35 ± 0.086 n = 82 −1.66 ± 0.095* n = 84 −1.74 ± 0.095† n = 85 −1.81 ± 0.094‡ status Non-intact n = 62 −1.15 ± 0.115 n = 69 −1.35 ± 0.108 n = 70 −1.63 ± 0.108† n = 74 −1.55 ± 0.107* Pregnancy Pregnancy = 0 n = 16 −1.18 ± 0.220 n = 17 −1.28 ± 0.217 n = 19 −1.26 ± 0.209 n = 13 −1.64 ± 0.257 status Pregnancy ≥ 1 n = 147 −1.28 ± 0.073 n = 134 −1.55 ± 0.075* n = 135 −1.74 ± 0.076§ n = 146 −1.70 ± 0.073‡ Vaginal Vaginal birth = 0 n = 26 −1.19 ± 0.171 n = 22 −1.74 ± 0.189* n = 29 −1.68 ± 0.161* n = 31 −1.76 ± 0.160* births Vaginal birth ≥ 1 n = 121 −1.30 ± 0.080 n = 112 −1.51 ± 0.082 n = 106 −1.77 ± 0.085‡ n = 115 −1.69 ± 0.082‡ *p < 0.05; †p < 0.01; ‡p < 0.001; §p < 0.0001 vs placebo Visual evaluation of the vaginal epithelium, a secondary endpoint of the trial, was performed during gynecological examinations at baseline and weeks 2, 6, 8, and 12. A four-point score (0=none, 1=mild, 2=moderate, 3=severe) was used to assess changes in vaginal color, vaginal epithelial integrity, vaginal epithelial surface thickness, and vaginal secretions. Change from baseline to each time point was compared with placebo using the mixed effect model repeat measurement (MMRM) analysis. At baseline, women had mean scores of 1.8 for vaginal color, 1.5 for epithelial integrity, 1.9 for epithelial surface thickness, and 1.7 for secretions. These scores were consistent with VVA reflecting pallor, diminished vaginal wall integrity and thickness, and secretions. Significant improvements from baseline at weeks 2, 6, 8 and 12 (Table 57B; FIG. 19A-FIG. 19D) were observed for all 3 doses of TX-004HR compared with placebo in vaginal color (white to pink), epithelial integrity, epithelial surface thickness and secretions (p<0.001 for all). After 12 weeks, women in the active TX-004HR treatment groups had mean scores less than 1 in all four characterized categories. Vaginal visual examination of women in the 3 TX-004HR groups had greater reported improvements from baseline in all vaginal parameters examined than placebo subjects and at all time points. These improved vaginal visual scores reflect other observed measures of efficacy of TX-004HR (4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg) at treating moderate-to-severe VVA in postmenopausal women, with negligible to very low systemic E2 absorption. TABLE 57B Change from baseline at Week 12 in vaginal parameters TX-004HR TX-004HR TX-004HR 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Vaginal Parameters, mean (SD) (n = 171) (n = 173) (n = 175) (n = 175) Vaginal epithelial Baseline 1.8 (0.61) 1.7 (0.59) 1.8 (0.60) 1.7 (0.64) color 12 weeks 0.8 (0.67) 0.7 (0.64) 0.8 (0.68) 1.2 (0.80) Change −1.0 (0.82) −1.1 (0.80) −1.0 (0.88) −0.6 (0.83) LS Mean (SE) −0.97 (0.05)* −1.06 (0.05)* −0.96 (0.05)* −0.60 (0.05) Vaginal epithelial Baseline 1.6 (0.84) 1.4 (0.83) 1.5 (0.77) 1.5 (0.84) integrity 12 weeks 0.5 (0.69) 0.4 (0.57) 0.5 (0.66) 0.9 (0.91) Change −1.0 (0.93) −1.0 (0.89) −1.0 (0.91) −0.6 (0.98) LS Mean (SE) −0.97 (0.05)* −1.07 (0.05)* −1.01 (0.05)* −0.60 (0.05) Vaginal epithelial Baseline 1.9 (0.67) 1.8 (0.63) 1.9 (0.59) 1.9 (0.65) surface thickness 12 weeks 0.9 (0.66) 0.8 (0.63) 0.9 (0.69) 1.3 (0.85) Change −1.0 (0.76) −1.0 (0.79) −0.9 (0.80) −0.6 (0.82) LS Mean (SE) −0.98 (0.05)* −1.03 (0.05)* −0.94 (0.05)* −0.61 (0.05) Vaginal Baseline 1.8 (0.68) 1.7 (0.66) 1.7 (0.63) 1.8 (0.63) secretions 12 weeks 0.8 (0.69) 0.6 (0.67) 0.7 (0.71) 1.1 (0.84) Change −1.0 (0.82) −1.0 (0.86) −1.0 (0.85) −0.7 (0.79) LS Mean (SE) −1.01 (0.05)* −1.06 (0.05)* −1.04 (0.05)* −0.64 (0.05) Data is mean (SD) unless otherwise noted; *MMRM p < 0.0001 vs placebo. A direct correlation was observed between the total sum of the individual visual examination score and severity of dyspareunia (r=0.31; P<0.0001) as well as the severity of vaginal dryness (r=0.38; P<0.0001) at 12 weeks when all subjects were analyzed independent of treatment. See, FIG. 20A and FIG. 20B. Interestingly, women treated with placebo also showed some improvements in their scores at week 2, but while women treated with TX-004HR showed continued improvements through 12 weeks of treatment, such continued improvements were not observed to the same extent with the placebo. Three possible explanations for the improvements observed with the placebo include the potential lubricating effect of the excipient Miglyol, a fractionated coconut oil contained in all softgel capsules, improved appearance based on vaginal lubrication caused by increased sexual activity and/or bias on the part of the physicians performing the examinations as they may anticipate improvement. Nevertheless, TX-004HR still significantly improved evaluated signs and symptoms of VVA better than placebo. Since visual inspection of the vagina with the 4-point assessment tool positively correlated with dyspareunia and vaginal dryness in this study, this tool may help healthcare professionals diagnose VVA and assess its treatment, and provide a vehicle for health care professionals to initiation discussion with their patients about a sensitive topic. Several large-scale studies have shown that it is difficult for patients to discuss vulvovaginal health openly with their health care professionals because they are either embarrassed, uninformed about VVA and its treatments, or believe that the topic is not appropriate for discussion. Therefore, of the 50% of postmenopausal women who have symptoms of VVA, far fewer seek treatment. Visual examination of the vagina may help practitioners identify women at risk of dyspareunia and vaginal dryness, and allow them to proactively engage women in conversations about VVA symptoms such as dyspareunia and dryness and discuss available treatment options. Example 12 Pharmacokinetics Results in Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Multicenter Study While some approved local estrogens effectively treat VVA, systemic estradiol may increase with local administration. TX-004HR is a new low-dose vaginal softgel capsule containing solubilized natural estradiol designed to provide excellent efficacy with negligible systemic absorption. Up to three times lower systemic estrogen levels were previously reported with TX-004HR vs an approved low-dose vaginal estradiol tablet. The present studies show that VVA efficacy can be achieved with negligible systemic absorption as measured by PK in postmenopausal women with moderate-to-severe dyspareunia. The terms “minimal systemic effect,” “low systemic absorption,” and “negligible systemic absorption,” as used herein, mean that the disclosed formulations and methods result in low to minimal absorption of estradiol in women, especially women with VVA and/or dyspareunia. In fact, it has surprisingly been found that the disclosed formulations and methods result in negligible to very low systemic absorption of estradiol, which remains in the postmenopausal range. The finding is borne out by the examples provided herein that demonstrate that the Cmax and AUC levels of estradiol relative to placebo were not statistically differentiable, which indicates that the formulations disclosed herein have a negligible systemic effect. As such, the disclosed formulations and methods advantageously provide local benefits in patients with VVA and/or dyspareunia (i.e., the disclosed formulations are extremely effective in increasing the superficial cells, decreasing parabasal cells, and decreasing pH) without increasing systemic levels. A PK substudy was part of a large, multicenter, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial evaluating the efficacy and safety of TX-004HR (4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 μg) compared with placebo for treating postmenopausal moderate-to-severe dyspareunia. Women received TX-004HR or placebo once daily for 2 weeks then twice weekly for 10 wks. In this study, the systemic exposure to estradiol following once daily intravaginal administration of estradiol 25 μg, 10 μg, 4 μg, and placebo were investigated on days 1, 14, and 84 as described herein. Descriptive statistics of the plasma estradiol concentrations taken at each sampling time and the observed Cmax values were recorded, as shown in the tables below and FIG. 21 and FIG. 22, for estradiol, estrone, and estrone conjugates for all three doses. Serum estradiol, estrone, estrone conjugates, and sex hormone binding globulin were measured. For PK, serum was sampled pre-dose and at 2, 4, 6, 10, and 24 h post-dose on days 1 and 14 for estradiol, estrone (E1), and estrone conjugates (E1Cs). Baseline-adjusted results are shown here; unadjusted data will be presented. Efficacy endpoints were change from baseline to week 12 for vaginal superficial cells (%), vaginal parabasal cells (%), vaginal pH, and severity of dyspareunia. Secondary endpoints were severity of dryness and itching/irritation. Blood chemistry was tested at week 12. The substudy randomized 72 women (mean age 59 y) at 11 centers. Mean area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) and average concentration (Cavg) for estradiol were not significantly different vs placebo with 4 μg and 10 μg TX-004HR, but were significantly higher with 25 μg at day 1 (AUC 130 vs 13.8 h*pg/mL and Cavg 5.4 vs 0.4 pg/mL) and day 14 (AUC 84.6 vs 7.1 h*pg/mL and Cavg 3.5 vs −0.2 pg/mL). Mean estradiol peak concentration (Cmax) was not significantly different with 4 μg (day 1: 2.6 pg/mL; day 14: 1.3 pg/mL) vs placebo (day 1: 2.1 pg/mL; day 14: 1.0 pg/mL), and although significant, was negligible with 10 μg (day 1: 6.0 pg/mL; day 14: 3.0 pg/mL) and very low for 25 μg (day 1: 26.2 pg/mL; day 14: 12.0 pg/mL). E1 and E1Cs AUC, Cavg, Cmax, Cmin did not differ vs placebo, except for E1Cs on day 1 when AUC was significantly higher with 25 μg (2454 vs 83.0 h*pg/mL), Cmax with 10 μg and 25 μg (90.2 and 198.6 pg/mL, respectively vs 27.1 pg/mL), and Cavg with 10 μg (8.0 vs −33.7 pg/mL). In the overall study TX004-HR showed robust efficacy for symptoms of dyspareunia, vaginal dryness and irritation at 12 weeks with all 3 doses compared with placebo. Vaginal TX-004HR resulted in negligible to very low systemic absorption of estradiol, which remained in the postmenopausal range. TX-004HR improved the signs and symptoms of VVA. This study supports local benefits of estradiol without increasing systemic exposure. The pharmacokinetic data for estradiol demonstrates the rapid absorption of the formulations disclosed herein for all three doses. Surprisingly, while the pharmacokinetic data was extremely low for all three doses, each dose was extremely effective in increasing the superficial cells, decreasing parabasal cells, and decreasing pH. The pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein provide an improved safety profile over other options for treating VVA. The combination of low systemic estradiol, while retaining efficacy was a surprising result for all three doses. Estradiol Concentration TABLE 58 Pharmacokinetics Estradiol Baseline (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Baseline 4.7 (4.41) 5 (3.52) 3.6 (1.86) 4.6 (2.56) TABLE 59 Pharmacokinetics Estradiol Day 1 (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Predose 3.1 (1.56) 4.9 (3.47) 3.6 (1.81) 4.1 (2.45) 2 hour 6.1 (2.3) 10.4 (4.89) 28.7 (17.91) 4.8 (3.33) 4 hour 4.3 (1.68) 6.7 (3.59) 16.1 (14.75) 5 (3.59) 6 hour 3.7 (1.96) 5.7 (3.16) 9.7 (6.86) 4.8 (3.53) 10 hour 3.7 (1.47) 5.5 (2.92) 6.2 (2.37) 5.2 (3.61) 24 hour 4.2 (2.02) 5.4 (4.44) 6.2 (8.43) 5.1 (4.42) TABLE 60 Pharmacokinetics Estradiol Day 14 (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Predose 3.5 (1.63) 3.8 (2.56) 5.2 (2.89) 4.2 (3.07) 2 hour 4.3 (2.01) 6.3 (2.29) 15.3 (7.72) 4.2 (2.44) 4 hour 4 (1.7) 5.9 (2.55) 11 (4.86) 4.7 (3.2) 6 hour 3.9 (1.92) 5.1 (2.32) 7.9 (3.35) 4.7 (2.97) 10 hour 3.8 (2.12) 5 (3) 6.8 (3.76) 5.1 (3.53) 24 hour 3.6 (1.89) 3.7 (2.05) 4.9 (4.35) 3.9 (2.43) TABLE 61 Pharmacokinetics Estradiol End of Study (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Post Dosing 4.3 (2.69) 4.8 (2.57) 6.7 (11.51) 4.4 (2.6) Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 Hours) TABLE 62 Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) (h * pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 91.7 (37.86) 138.2 (75.22) 217.4 (99.02) 116.6 (77.3) Day 14 87.2 (42.77) 110.1 (54.57) 171.6 (80.13) 104.2 (66.39) TABLE 63 Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) (Baseline Adjusted) (h * pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 12 (13.89) 21.9 (19.16) 130.4 (111.95) 13.8 (28.86) Day 14 7.2 (12.08) 13.7 (18.77) 84.6 (62.7) 7.1 (20.28) TABLE 64 Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0242 <0.0001 Day 14 0.1777 0.0005 TABLE 65 Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.2292 0.4028 0.0021 Day 14 0.3829 0.7724 0.0108 TABLE 66 Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.082 0.0001 Day 14 0.2373 <0.0001 TABLE 67 Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.8134 0.3238 0.0002 Day 14 0.979 0.3235 <0.0001 TABLE 68 Estradiol Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo AUC Ratio of Day 14 0.971 (0.2358) 0.876 (0.1937) 0.955 (0.6633) 0.949 (0.225) to Day 1 Pairwise test vs 4 ug — 0.2022 0.9246 — Pairwise test vs 0.7859 0.3101 0.9748 — Placebo Estradiol Cmax TABLE 69 Cmax (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 6.5 (2.13) 10.9 (5) 29.8 (17.51) 6.6 (4.85) Day 14 4.8 (2.31) 7.3 (2.36) 15.7 (7.61) 5.5 (3.43) TABLE 70 Cmax (Baseline Adjusted) (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 2.6 (2.17) 6 (4.44) 26.2 (18.19) 2.1 (3.48) Day 14 1.3 (1.08) 3 (1.73) 12 (7.32) 1 (1.81) TABLE 71 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0013 <0.0001 Day 14 0.0033 <0.0001 TABLE 72 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.9586 0.0116 <0.0001 Day 14 0.5174 0.0702 <0.0001 TABLE 73 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0055 <0.0001 Day 14 0.002 <0.0001 TABLE 74 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.6074 0.0059 <0.0001 Day 14 0.5088 0.0022 <0.0001 TABLE 75 Cmax Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Cmax Ratio of Day 14 to 0.77 0.804 0.929 0.933 Day 1 (0.2633) (0.3245) (1.5011) (0.2406) Pairwise test vs — 0.7399 0.6702 — Pairwise test vs 0.0702 0.1946 0.9931 — Placebo Estradiol Cavg TABLE 76 Cavg (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 3.9 (1.46) 5.8 (3.13) 9.1 (4.13) 4.9 (3.22) Day 14 3.6 (1.78) 4.6 (2.27) 7.1 (3.34) 4.3 (2.77) TABLE 77 Cavg (Baseline Adjusted) (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 0 (1.93) 0.8 (0.95) 5.4 (4.66) 0.4 (1.35) Day 14 0.1 (0.68) 0.2 (1.22) 3.5 (2.61) −0.2 (1.28) TABLE 78 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0294 <0.0001 Day 14 0.1777 0.0005 TABLE 79 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.267 0.4028 0.0021 Day 14 0.3829 0.7724 0.0108 TABLE 80 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.1076 0.0001 Day 14 0.7759 <0.0001 TABLE 81 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5126 0.2564 0.0001 Day 14 0.4098 0.3629 <0.0001 TABLE 82 Cavg Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Cavg Ratio of Day 14 to 0.77 0.804 0.929 0.933 Day 1 (0.2633) (0.3245) (1.5011) (0.2406) Pairwise test vs — 0.7399 0.6702 — Pairwise test vs 0.0702 0.1946 0.9931 — Placebo Estradiol Tmax TABLE 83 Tmax (h) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 7 (9.36) 6.1 (8.04) 4.6 (7.09) 8.6 (6.74) Day 14 9.3 (8.86) 4 (2.57) 2.7 (1.94) 7.2 (3) TABLE 84 Tmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.7566 0.3834 Day 14 0.0206 0.004 TABLE 85 Tmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5705 0.3255 0.0943 Day 14 0.3576 0.0019 <0.0001 Estrone Concentration TABLE 86 Pharmacokinetics Estrone Baseline (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Baseline 15.9 (6.02) 19.7 (9.18) 16.3 (7.71) 20.4 (9.67) TABLE 87 Pharmacokinetics Estrone Day 1 (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Predose 14.7 (4.44) 21 (8.51) 17.2 (8.5) 18.3 (8.54) 2 hour 13.3 (4.52) 20 (8.53) 18.9 (6.7) 18.9 (11.25) 4 hour 13 (4.68) 19.3 (7.4) 19.4 (7.06) 19.9 (13.87) 6 hour 13.9 (6.04) 19.6 (8.89) 19.1 (8.1) 19 (11.69) 10 hour 13.4 (4.94) 19.7 (8.53) 18.8 (7.18) 19.3 (11.65) 24 hour 14.3 (5.92) 21.2 (9.89) 16.6 (6.06) 22.9 (17.18) TABLE 88 Pharmacokinetics Estrone Day 14 (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Predose 15.8 (5.15) 21.7 (14.25) 18.6 (8.49) 18.7 (9.38) 2 hour 13.6 (5.3) 19.7 (10.2) 19.8 (9.08) 17.3 (7.99) 4 hour 14 (5.25) 21 (13.46) 19.9 (7.26) 20.4 (11.41) 6 hour 14 (5.11) 20.7 (10.4) 19.3 (6.47) 16.1 (7.54) 10 hour 14.2 (5.51) 20.1 (11.93) 19.3 (8.24) 19 (8.17) 24 hour 14.5 (4.69) 20.1 (9.34) 16.7 (6.09) 18.9 (8.24) TABLE 89 Pharmacokinetics Estrone End of Study (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Post 4.328 (2.7619) 4.643 (2.5807) 6.652 (11.508) 4.363 Dosing (2.5982) Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 Hours) TABLE 90 Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) (h * pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 290.2 (123.67) 462.7 (195.64) 419.1 (147.85) 467.9 (278.78) 1 Day 326.6 (114.09) 464.1 (243.92) 428.7 (161.75) 426.8 (180.67) 14 TABLE 91 Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) (Baseline Adjusted) (h * pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 7.2 (20.91) 10.9 (24.55) 44.3 (54.27) 43.5 (97.41) Day 14 15 (41.53) 43.2 (84.87) 55.6 (78.06) 17.4 (45.27) TABLE 92 Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.003 0.0076 Day 14 0.042 0.0393 TABLE 93 Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0193 0.9487 0.519 Day 14 0.0621 0.6117 0.9738 TABLE 94 Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.6195 0.0104 Day 14 0.2251 0.0658 TABLE 95 Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.1311 0.167 0.9761 Day 14 0.8721 0.2746 0.0886 TABLE 96 Estrone Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo AUC Ratio of Day 14 1.234 1.023 1.039 1.006 to Day 1 (0.5824) (0.2675) (0.1941) (0.2316) Pairwise test vs — 0.1722 0.1866 — Pairwise test vs 0.1432 0.848 0.6544 — Placebo Estrone Cmax TABLE 97 Cmax (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 15.7 (6.07) 23.5 (9.87) 21.9 (7.73) 25.7 (18.43) Day 14 16 (5.5) 23.9 (13.45) 22.4 (8.95) 22.8 (10.89) TABLE 98 Cmax (Baseline Adjusted) (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 0.4 (3.05) 3.2 (2.99) 5.1 (4.78) 6.3 (12.81) Day 14 0.6 (3.49) 3.7 (8.79) 5.6 (4.81) 3.4 (5.69) TABLE 99 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.007 0.0126 Day 14 0.0301 0.0163 TABLE 100 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0373 0.6567 0.4223 Day 14 0.0275 0.7878 0.8979 TABLE 101 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0087 0.0013 Day 14 0.1975 0.0014 TABLE 102 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0659 0.3046 0.71 Day 14 0.0938 0.933 0.2249 TABLE 103 Cmax Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Cmax Ratio of 1.029 1.042 1.041 1.039 Day 14 to Day 1 (0.2346) (0.3436) (0.2179) (0.2916) Pairwise test vs — 0.9035 0.8835 — Pairwise test vs 0.9188 0.9788 0.982 — Placebo Estrone Cavg TABLE 104 Cavg (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 13 (4.72) 19.3 (8.15) 17.5 (6.16) 19.5 (11.62) Day 14 13.6 (4.75) 19.3 (10.16) 17.9 (6.74) 17.8 (7.53) TABLE 105 Cavg (Baseline Adjusted) (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 −2.3 (2.26) −1.1 (2.66) 0.7 (3.73) 0.1 (5.03) Day 14 −1.7 (3.25) −0.9 (5.91) 1.1 (4.81) −1.6 (3.8) TABLE 106 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0075 0.0207 Day 14 0.042 0.0393 TABLE 107 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0363 0.9487 0.519 Day 14 0.0621 0.6117 0.9738 TABLE 108 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.1345 0.0057 Day 14 0.6351 0.0495 TABLE 109 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.0712 0.3751 0.691 Day 14 0.912 0.7058 0.0742 TABLE 110 Cavg Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Cavg Ratio of 1.029 1.042 1.041 1.039 Day 14 to Day 1 (0.2346) (0.3436) (0.2179) (0.2916) Pairwise test vs — 0.9035 0.8835 — Pairwise test vs 0.9188 0.9788 0.982 — Placebo Estrone Tmax TABLE 111 Tmax (h) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 14.1 (9.37) 11.9 (9.76) 9.1 (7.43) 12.1 (9.39) Day 14 10.9 (9.03) 10.4 (8.93) 6.3 (6.9) 12.2 (9.24) TABLE 112 Tmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.4862 0.0849 Day 14 0.8711 0.0982 TABLE 113 Tmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5341 0.9449 0.2997 Day 14 0.6824 0.5639 0.0391 Estrone Conjugates TABLE 114 Pharmacokinetics Estrone Conjugates Baseline (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Baseline 250.3 (162.91) 259.7 (208.51) 374.4 (586.45) 280.7 (171.26) TABLE 115 Pharmacokinetics Estrone Conjugates Day 1 (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Predose 225.1 (215.01) 218.6 (147.84) 312.4 (410.38) 271.2 (153.33) 2 hour 206.8 (163.2) 273.1 (176.59) 396.6 (408.16) 223.4 (162.11) 4 hour 241.7 (176.87) 267.2 (161.79) 413.3 (343.25) 241.8 (139.77) 6 hour 240.6 (181.14) 266 (184.92) 477.8 (472.66) 265 (154.01) 10 hour 223 (150.42) 243.5 (173.71) 436.4 (461) 258 (133.21) 24 hour 229.4 (186.79) 268.4 (221.29) 306.4 (322.91) 268.8 (153.22) TABLE 116 Pharmacokinetics Estrone Conjugates Day 14 (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Predose 212.7 (140.19) 319.1 (326.71) 411.1 (624.14) 256.1 (133.07) 2 hour 212.4 (145.02) 420.4 (560.53) 434.3 (491.31) 285.6 (158.61) 4 hour 240.2 (155.7) 429.3 (506.01) 505.1 (618.47) 273.1 (148.76) 6 hour 225.8 (164.76) 359.2 (346.26) 483.8 (515.95) 267.7 (181.53) 10 hour 238.3 (152.45) 417.6 (517.51) 492.5 (598.16) 306.9 (178.68) 24 hour 206.4 (154.26) 349 (345.91) 309.6 (380.88) 240.1 (115.84) TABLE 117 Pharmacokinetics Estrone Conjugates End of Study (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Post 237.4 (151.19) 221.7 (188.05) 499.7 (1089.67) 250 (148.72) Dosing Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 Hours) TABLE 118 Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) (h*pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 5077.5 (3798.39) 5931.9 (4209.95) 9126 (9186.37) 5637.9 (3151.49) Day 14 5172.9 (3382.89) 8978 (9811.23) 9930.2 (11711.99) 6275.2 (3397.54) TABLE 119 Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) (Baseline Adjusted) (h*pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 375.5 (843.98) 422.4 (473.83) 2454.3 (2600.25) 83 (229.06) Day 14 660.5 (1230.69) 3767.2 (7671.38) 3059 (4792.46) 665.4 (1552.19) TABLE 120 Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5219 0.0931 Day 14 0.1392 0.1166 TABLE 121 Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.639 0.8157 0.1472 Day 14 0.3503 0.2898 0.2246 TABLE 122 Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.8349 0.0028 Day 14 0.1087 0.0537 TABLE 123 Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) P- values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.1894 0.0134 0.001 Day 14 0.992 0.1225 0.0654 TABLE 124 Estrone Conjugates Area Under the Curve (0-24 hours) Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo AUC Ratio of 1.115 (0.4539) 1.444 (1.0121) 1.107 (0.3545) 1.125 (0.4522) Day 14 to Day 1 Pairwise test vs — 0.2279 0.9587 — Pairwise test vs 0.9459 0.2427 0.8975 — Placebo Estrone Conjugates Cmax TABLE 125 Cmax (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 273.1 (196.36) 329.4 (226.58) 542.1 (475.49) 309.8 (146.07) Day 14 289 (183.79) 511.7 (568.75) 579.5 (610.1) 343.6 (182.2) TABLE 126 Cmax (Baseline Adjusted) (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 35.4 (89.09) 90.2 (65.2) 198.6 (301.53) 27.1 (49.69) Day 14 48.2 (132.61) 277.8 (493.64) 236.1 (372.42) 67 (121.81) TABLE 127 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.4261 0.0333 Day 14 0.1332 0.0685 TABLE 128 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5369 0.7629 0.0625 Day 14 0.3902 0.2533 0.1356 TABLE 129 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.039 0.0345 Day 14 0.0726 0.0579 TABLE 130 Cmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.7444 0.0033 0.0318 Day 14 0.6735 0.1065 0.0928 TABLE 131 Cmax Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Cmax Ratio 1.13 (0.4068) 1.524 (1.1682) 1.144 (0.4569) 1.11 (0.5404) of Day 14 to Day 1 Pairwise — 0.1969 0.9226 — test vs Pairwise 0.9043 0.1919 0.8406 — test vs Placebo Estrone Conjugates C TABLE 132 Cavg (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 215.9 (154.77) 247.2 (175.41) 380.3 (382.77) 244.6 (128.1) Day 14 215.5 (140.95) 374.1 (408.8) 413.8 (488) 261.5 (141.56) TABLE 133 Cavg (Baseline Adjusted) (pg/mL) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 −21.8 (88.41) 8 (34.21) 36.8 (291.72) −33.7 (46.95) Day 14 −25.3 (120.69) 140.2 (330.6) 70.3 (300.36) −7.9 (89.89) TABLE 134 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5701 0.1004 Day 14 0.1392 0.1166 TABLE 135 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5562 0.9602 0.1741 Day 14 0.3503 0.2898 0.2246 TABLE 136 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg (Baseline Adjusted) 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.1804 0.4201 Day 14 0.0606 0.2305 TABLE 137 Cavg P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo (Baseline Adjusted) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.6353 0.0047 0.3473 Day 14 0.6439 0.0928 0.3244 TABLE 138 Cavg Ratio (Day 14) of Day 14 to Day 1 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Cavg Ratio 1.13 (0.4068) 1.524 (1.1682) 1.144 (0.4569) 1.11 (0.5404) of Day 14 to Day 1 Pairwise — 0.1969 0.9226 — test vs Pairwise 0.9043 0.1919 0.8406 — test vs Placebo Estrone Conjugates Tmax TABLE 139 Tmax (h) 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Day 1 10.9 (8.66) 9.2 (9.25) 5.4 (2.64) 13.1 (9.7) Day 14 8.4 (7.79) 9 (8.6) 5.9 (2.87) 8.1 (6.76) TABLE 140 Tmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.5609 0.0154 Day 14 0.8173 0.2178 TABLE 141 Tmax P-values Pairwise Test vs. Placebo 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Day 1 0.4893 0.2253 0.003 Day 14 0.9256 0.739 0.2087 In the phase 3 trial, all doses of TX-004HR compared with placebo (MITT n=747) significantly improved the 4 co-primary endpoints at week 2 through week 12, as well as the secondary endpoints of vaginal dryness by week 6 and vulvar and/or vaginal itching or irritation by week 12 (except 4 μg, p=0.0503), and was well-tolerated with no treatment-related serious AEs reported. The phase 3 PK study (n=72) showed no difference in systemic E2 levels for 4 μg and 10 μg TX-004HR vs placebo, as measured by AUC and Cavg. E2 AUC and Cavg with 25 μg TX-004HR was higher than placebo, but average concentrations remained within the normal postmenopausal range (Table 142). E2 levels at day 84 were similar to placebo indicating no systemic drug accumulation. SHBG concentrations did not change with treatment. The two phase 2 studies (n=36 for each) of TX-004HR 10 μg and 25 resulted in statistically significantly lower E2 absorption than an approved E2 tablet at identical doses, with 25 μg TX-004HR demonstrating AUC less than 1/3 that of the approved product (Table 143). TABLE 142 Phase 3 study PK parameters for E2 (unadjusted mean ± SD). AUC0-24 (pg*hr/mL) Cavg (pg/mL) Day Dose (μg) TX-004HR Placebo p-value TX-004HR Placebo p-value 1 4 91.7 ± 37.9 116.6 ± 77.3 NS 3.92 ± 1.46 4.86 ± 3.22 NS 10 138.2 ± 75.2 116.6 ± 77.3 NS 5.76 ± 3.13 4.86 ± 3.22 NS 25 217.4 ± 99.0 116.6 ± 77.3 0.0021 9.06 ± 4.13 4.86 ± 3.22 0.0021 14 4 87.2 ± 42.8 104.2 ± 66.4 NS 3.63 ± 1.78 4.34 ± 2.77 NS 10 110.1 ± 54.6 104.2 ± 66.4 NS 4.59 ± 2.27 4.34 ± 2.77 NS 25 171.6 ± 80.1 104.2 ± 66.4 0.0108 7.15 ± 3.34 4.34 ± 2.77 0.0108 TABLE 143 Phase 2 studies PK parameters for E2 (baseline adjusted geometric mean). AUC0-24 (pg*hr/mL) Cmax (pg/mL) Dose (μg) TX-004HR Vaginal Tablet p-value TX-004HR Vaginal Tablet p-value 10 49.62 132.92 <0.0001 14.38 20.38 0.0194 25 89.21 292.06 <0.0001 23.08 42.70 <0.0001 With robust efficacy demonstrated as early as 2 weeks and up to 12 weeks at all 3 doses, TX-004HR 4 μg and 10 μg showed negligible systemic E2 absorption, while 25 μg resulted in very low systemic absorption of E2 in the phase 3 trial. TX-004HR 10 μg and 25 showed lower systemic E2 exposure than equivalent doses of an approved E2 tablet. The absence of clinically meaningful increases in E2 concentrations paired with data consistent with a lack of systemic effects (e.g., no increase in SHBG) shows that TX-004HR delivers excellent efficacy with negligible to very low systemic exposure. The impact of normal daily activities for 4 hours post dose was evaluated, in comparison with the impact of remaining in the supine position for 4 hours post dose on the pharmacokinetic (PK) profile of TX-004HR 25 mcg. In two studies, at the same site, the same sixteen healthy postmenopausal female subjects were fasted for at least 10 hours prior to dosing through 4 hours following dosing. Subjects received a 25 mcg dose of TX-004HR administered intravaginally by trained female study personnel. Following their first dose, the subjects were required to remain in a supine position for 4 hours following dosing. Following the second dose, after 5 minutes resting time, the subjects were instructed to be ambulatory in the clinic and refrain from reclining for the 4 hours following dosing. Blood samples were collected at pre-defined intervals up to 24 hours after dosing. Plasma samples were analyzed for estradiol using LC-MS/MS. See, e.g., FIG. 23. PK parameters were calculated on an individual and group mean basis with baseline correction. The mean Cmax and AUC0-24 of estradiol was not significantly different with ambulation than with supination. On an individual subject basis, the majority showed similar Cmax and AUC0-24 levels with ambulation as with supination. There were no signs of posture having an effect on absorption rate as evidenced by the similarity in group average and individual subject Tmax. In addition, there was no difference between the group mean profiles when compared on an individual time point basis, further demonstrating that posture had no effect on absorption. The systemic exposure of estradiol in TX-004HR 25 mcg was generally low and occurred regardless of whether the subjects were ambulatory or supine for 4 hours after dosing. An important advantage of the formulation is that a woman can be ambulatory almost immediately after the formulation is administered, as opposed to other known formulations that require a subject to remain in a supine position after administration. Generally, other known formulations direct administration before bed at night because of the requirement to be supine, which requirement is unnecessary in the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein because the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein adhere to the vaginal tissue, the capsule dissolves rapidly, and the formulation is released into the vagina and rapidly absorbed by the vaginal tissue. Because activity level does not adversely affect the systemic absorption of estradiol, the formulation of the invention gives the patient more flexibility with her dosing regimen. Example 13 Safety Results in Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Multicenter Study Safety endpoints in the study included vital signs, clinical laboratory tests (blood chemistry, hematology, hormone levels, urine analysis), ECG, physical and gynecological examination findings, pap smears, endometrial biopsies, and adverse events (AEs). AEs included undesirable medical conditions occurring at any time during all study phases including the washout period, whether or not a study treatment had been administered. An AE was considered treatment emergent if it occurred after study drug administration, or if it was pre-existing and worsened during 120 days post-dose follow up. Participants were given a diary with instructions to record product use, sexual activity, symptoms/complaints, and other medications. AEs, concomitant medications, and vital signs were recorded and assessed at each study visit from screening to week 12. TX-004HR had a favorable safety profile and was well tolerated. No clinically significant differences in AEs were observed between treatment and placebo groups (Table 144). Headache was the most commonly reported TEAE, followed by vaginal discharge, nasopharyngitis, and vulvovaginal pruritus (Table 144). Headache was the only treatment-related TEAE that was numerically more frequent in women receiving TX-004HR than those receiving placebo (3.7% for 4-μg dose vs 3.1% for placebo). Vaginal discharge was reported by numerically fewer women in any of the TX-004HR groups than by women in the placebo group. Most TEAEs were mild to moderate in severity. Few participants (1.8%) discontinued the study due to AEs. TABLE 144 Number (%) of treatment emergent adverse events (TEAE) reported for ≥3% in any treatment arm of the safety population. TX- TX- TX- 004HR 004HR 004HR 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Preferred Term (n = 191) (n = 191) (n = 190) (n = 192) Any subject with 97 (50.8) 94 (49.2) 93 (48.9) 111 (57.8) reported TEAE Headache 12 (6.3) 14 (7.3) 6 (3.2) 15 (7.8) Vaginal discharge 5 (2.6) 6 (3.1) 4 (2.1) 13 (6.8) Nasopharyngitis 5 (2.6) 6 (3.1) 7 (3.7) 10 (5.2) Vulvovaginal pruritus 4 (2.1) 3 (1.6) 7 (3.7) 10 (5.2) Back pain 9 (4.7) 1 (0.5) 4 (2.1) 8 (4.2) Urinary tract infection 5 (2.6) 5 (2.6) 8 (4.2) 4 (2.1) Upper respiratory tract 5 (2.6) 6 (3.1) 3 (1.6) 5 (2.6) infection Oropharyngeal pain 1 (0.5) 0 (0) 6 (3.2) 1 (0.5) Nine serious TEAEs were reported in 8 subjects; however, none were considered related to treatment. Complete heart block, appendicitis, endophthalmitis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease were each reported by a different participant in the 25 group. Sinus node dysfunction and ankle fracture were both reported for one women, and arthralgia and malignant melanoma were each reported for one women in the 10 μg group. None of the women in the 4 μg group had reports of serious TEAEs. One woman in the placebo group was reported to have a cervical myelopathy. No deaths occurred during the study. No diagnoses of endometrial hyperplasia or malignancy from endometrial biopsies were observed at week 12. Total cholesterol numerically decreased from baseline to week 12 by a mean of 0.024 mmol/L to 0.07 mmol/L in the treatment groups, and by 0.008 mmol/L in the placebo group. No clinically meaningful increases in triglycerides were observed in any active treatment groups compared with placebo. Sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) concentrations (measured in a subset of 72 women) did not increase with treatment relative to placebo or baseline at week 12. No clinically significant changes in any laboratory parameters were found. The phase 3 clinical trial demonstrated that TX-004HR at 4 μg, 10 μg, and 25 doses is safe and effective for treating vaginal changes and self-reported symptoms of VVA in postmenopausal women. Statistically significant and clinically meaningful improvements in all of the 4 pre-specified co-primary endpoints (increase in the percentage of vaginal superficial cells, decrease in the percentage of vaginal parabasal cells and vaginal pH, and decrease in severity of the MBS of dyspareunia) occurred as early as 2 weeks with all 3 doses of TX-004HR as compared with placebo, and were sustained throughout the 12-week trial. Additionally, improvements were found for the secondary endpoints of vaginal dryness and vulvar or vaginal irritation and itching. These improvements were achieved without increasing systemic estrogen concentrations (4 μg and 10 μg) or with negligible (25 μg) systemic estrogen exposure, as found in pharmacokinetic studies. TX-004HR was also well-tolerated with no clinically significant differences found between treatment and placebo groups in any AEs or treatment-related AEs, and no treatment-related serious AEs. The results demonstrate early onset of action in the clinical signs of VVA with statistically significantly improved changes compared with placebo. The efficacy results here were somewhat numerically higher than data from a 12-week, randomized, controlled trial that compared a 10-μg vaginal estradiol tablet with placebo, which showed significant improvements in the percentages of superficial and parabasal cells, and in pH compared with placebo (see, Simon et al. Obstet Gynecol. 2008; 112:1053-1060). At 12 weeks, improvements were smaller with the 10-μg estradiol tablet (change of 13% in superficial cells, −37% in parabasal cells, and −1.3 in vaginal pH) than what was observed in this study with the 10-μg TX-004HR dose (change of 17% in superficial cells, −44% in parabasal cells, and −1.4 in vaginal pH). While improvements in some objective (cell and pH) endpoints were seen with the estradiol tablet within 2 weeks of treatment, the patient-reported improvements in a composite score of subjective symptoms were not observed until 8 weeks of therapy, which can be perceived as a disadvantage for many users. That clinical trial did not assess individual symptoms. A second randomized, controlled trial of 10-μg and 25-μg estradiol tablets similarly did not find significant improvements over placebo in the composite score of vaginal symptoms with either dose until 7 weeks of treatment (week 2, NS). Likewise, the SERM, ospemifene, was evaluated in a clinical trial for the treatment of dyspareunia, and statistically significant improvements were not observed until week 12. See, Bachmann et al. Obstet Gynecol. 2008; 111:67-76; Portman et al. Menopause. 2013; 20:623-630. Importantly, the results reported here showed significant improvement in dyspareunia within 2 weeks with all 3 doses of TX-004HR, with reductions in severity scores from 1.5 to 1.7 points at week 12, which were comparable or superior to reductions of 1.2 to 1.6 points reported for other currently approved dyspareunia treatments. See, VAGIFEM® (estradiol vaginal tablets) Prescribing Information. Bagsvaerd, Denmark: Novo Nordisk Pharmaceuticals Inc.; 2012; PREMARIN® (conjugated estrogens tablets, USP) Prescribing Information. Philadelphia, Pa.: Wyeth Pharmaceuticals Inc.; 2010; OSPHENA® (ospemifene) tablets, for oral use. Prescribing Information. Shionogi, Inc. 2013. Additionally, vaginal dryness improved from week 2 with 10 μg and 25 μg TX-004HR. None of the currently available products reported as early an onset of action for the symptom of vaginal dryness associated with VVA as did TX-004HR. Furthermore, TX-004HR 10 μg and 25 μg showed significant improvement in vaginal irritation and/or itching at week 12, while none of the currently available products on the market are reported to improve these symptoms. See, Portman et al. Maturitas. 2014; 78:91-98; Eriksen et al. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1992; 44:137-144. Based on a large survey of postmenopausal women in the United States, only a small proportion (7%) of women are thought to receive prescription vaginal estrogen therapy alone for their VVA, probably due to lack of information about available treatments, avoidance of discussion of the topic with health care practitioners, or dissatisfaction with currently available products (see, e.g., Kingsberg et al. J Sex Med. 2013; 10:1790-1799). Eliminating the need for an applicator or individually measuring doses is intended to give women a more positive user experience and thus potentially better compliance, resulting in overall better efficacy of treatment. The results with TX-004HR in this study exemplify one of the advantages of local vaginal estrogen therapies: rapid symptom resolution without increasing systemic estrogen concentrations. The mean area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) and average concentration (Cavg) for estradiol were not significantly different from placebo with 4 μg and 10 μg TX-004HR. Although statistically higher AUC for estradiol was observed with the 25 μg dose, estradiol levels remained within the postmenopausal range with no evidence of accumulation by day 84. Although there was negligible systemic absorption, rapid efficacy was observed within 2 weeks of dosing with all doses of TX-004HR. TX-004HR was well-tolerated. The 4 most commonly reported TEAEs, including vaginal discharge and vulvovaginal pruritus, were experienced by fewer women in any TX-004HR group than in the placebo group, and were mostly mild to moderate in severity. By comparison, in a 12-week study of the efficacy of ospemifene, vaginal discharge was reported more than 6-times more frequently in the ospemifene group than in the placebo group (see, Portman et al. Menopause. 2013; 20:623-630). Genital pruritus was also reported 4-times more frequently in women treated with Vagifem 10-μg tablets than with placebo in a 12-month randomized study (see, Vagifem® (estradiol vaginal tablets) Prescribing Information. Bagsvaerd, Denmark: Novo Nordisk Pharmaceuticals Inc.; 2012). Importantly, endometrial findings after TX-004HR were benign as no hyperplasia or malignancies were reported in biopsies at 12 weeks. Onset of effect was seen as early as 2 weeks and was maintained throughout the study. TX-004HR was well tolerated as reported here and systemic estrogen exposure was negligible to very low as demonstrated by the pharmacokinetic study. Example 14 Results of Female Sexual Function Index in Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Multicenter Study The trial was a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled, multicenter, phase 3 study. Treatments were self-administered vaginally, once daily, for 2 weeks and then twice weekly, for 10 weeks. Female sexual dysfunction (FSD) was evaluated using the multidimensional Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) at baseline and at week 12. The FSFI is a brief, validated, self-reporting questionnaire consisting of 19 questions designed to assess the areas of arousal, desire, orgasm, lubrication, and pain. The Index defines sexual dysfunction by a total FSFI score (the sum of the individual domain scores) of ≤26.55 out of a possible maximum score of 36. Postmenopausal women (40-75 years; BMI≤38 kg/m2) were included if they had ≤5% superficial cells on vaginal cytological smear; vaginal pH>5.0; self-identified most bothersome symptom (MBS) of moderate-to severe dyspareunia; and anticipated sexual activity (with vaginal penetration) during the trial period. Vulvar and vaginal atrophy (VVA) treatments, including vaginal lubricants and moisturizers, were discontinued within 7 days prior to screening. Use of oral estrogen-, progestin-, androgen-, or SERM-containing drug products were prohibited within 8 weeks of study start. Changes from baseline in total and individual domain FSFI scores for each dose were compared with placebo using ANCOVA with baseline as a covariate. 764 postmenopausal women were randomized to 4 μg (n=191), 10 μg (n=191), or 25 μg (n=190) vaginal estradiol softgel capsules or placebo (n=192). The majority of the women were white (87%) with a mean age of 59 years and a mean BMI of 26.7 kg/m2 (Table 145). The FSFI questionnaire was completed by those who were not in the PK sub-study (n=692; 90.6%). The average baseline total FSFI score of 14.8 for all women indicated FSD in the subjects. TABLE 145 Summary of subjects enrolled in study Com- Com- Com- position position position Com- 4 5 6 position 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg 7 (n = 186) (n = 188) (n = 186) (n = 187) Age, years Mean ± SD 59.8 ± 6.0 58.6 ± 6.3 58.8 ± 6.2 59.4 ± 6.0 Race, n (%) White 162 (87.1) 165 (87.8) 161 (86.6) 160 (85.6) Black or 20 (10.8) 21 (11.2) 24 (12.9) 21 (11.2) African American Asian 3 (1.6) 2 (1.1) 1 (0.5) 1 (0.5) BMI, kg/m2 Mean ± SD 26.6 ± 4.9 26.8 ± 4.7 26.9 ± 4.8 26.6 ± 4.6 Baseline total FSFI Score Mean ± SD 14.8 ± 6.13 15.8 ± 6.24 14.2 ± 6.21 14.4 ± 6.61 Baseline FSFI Pain Score Mean ± SD 1.6 ± 1.11 1.8 ± 1.22 1.7 ± 1.17 1.7 ± 1.20 The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI) total summary score is a numerically continuous measure that was descriptively summarized at Visits 2 and 6 and the change in the total summary score (Visit 6 minus Visit 2) was also descriptively summarized. The domain sub-scores and the changes in the domain sub-scores were also descriptively summarized. Summaries were by treatment arm, and all active treatment arms combined. In addition, the change in mean from baseline of each active treatment group from the placebo group for each numerically continuous endpoint was evaluated. The least square (LS) mean changes and the 95% CI for the difference in LS Mean changes between treated and placebo are provided. The FSFI Questionnaire consists of 19 questions divided among 6 domains, and has a minimum total score of 2.0 and a maximum score of 36.0 points. The FSFI questionnaire was administered to the randomized population except for those subjects in the PK sub-study. At Baseline, the overall mean Total Score was 14.8 (14.8 for the 4 μg group; 15.8 for the 10 μg group; 14.2 for the 25 μg group; and 14.4 for the placebo group). The LS mean change in the FSFI Total Score and domain scores from Baseline to Week 12 are summarized in Table 146. Change from Baseline to Week 12 in FSFI total score and domains compared to placebo was assessed. After 12 weeks, total FSFI scores numerically improved from baseline in all groups, including placebo. Total FSFI score significantly increased with the 10 μg group (P<0.05) and the 25 μg group (P=0.0019) versus placebo (FIG. 24). FSFI lubrication and pain domain scores improved numerically in all groups including placebo from baseline to 12 weeks; improvements for the 10 μg group and the 25 μg group were statistically significantly greater than with placebo (FIG. 25A). The 25 μg composition significantly improved FSFI arousal (P=0.0085) and satisfaction (P=0.0073) domain scores at 12 weeks (FIG. 25B, FIG. 25C). All three doses were comparable to placebo in their effect on the FSFI domains of desire and orgasm (FIG. 25D, FIG. 25E). The 4 μg composition and placebo provided similar levels of improvement. The compositions improved FSFI in a dose-dependent manner, with the 25 μg dose having the greatest improvement. All three doses were efficacious, and the numeric improvement in subjective symptoms was highest for subjects in the 10 and 25 μg groups. The observed placebo response could be attributed to the coconut oil (Miglyol) in the formulation for the placebo and the estradiol compositions, which may also contribute to the observed benefits. TABLE 146 Female Sexual Function Index Total and Domain Scores: 4 μg 10 μg 25 μg Placebo Category Score Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Total Baseline 14.8 6.13 15.8 6.24 14.2 6.21 14.4 6.61 Week 12 22.6 8.4 24.8 7.59 24.8 7.59 22 8.54 Change 7.98 7.551 8.85 7.361 10.49 8.176 7.74 8.41 LS Mean 7.909 0.9075 9.431 0.0492 10.283 0.0019 7.458 — Arousal Baseline 2.8 1.44 2.9 1.43 2.7 1.5 2.7 1.41 Week 12 3.6 1.61 4.1 1.47 4.1 1.39 3.6 1.52 Change 0.88 1.615 1.16 1.632 1.43 1.646 1.02 1.607 LS Mean 0.876 0.9777 1.288 0.0581 1.393 0.008 0.927 — Desire Baseline 2.6 1.01 2.7 1.13 2.6 1.09 2.7 1.07 Week 12 3.3 1.11 3.5 1.13 3.5 1.06 3.3 1.21 Change 0.64 1.065 0.78 1.113 0.87 1.105 0.62 1.102 LS Mean 0.626 1 0.801 0.2753 0.849 0.1139 0.628 — Lubrication Baseline 2.1 1.25 2.3 1.25 2 1.19 2 1.29 Week 12 3.9 1.84 4.4 1.56 4.3 1.65 3.6 1.77 Change 1.84 1.782 2.12 1.612 2.36 1.744 1.64 1.871 LS Mean 1.835 0.4023 2.243 0.0012 2.3 0.0003 1.591 — Orgasm Baseline 2.7 1.74 2.9 1.74 2.4 1.68 2.4 1.73 Week 12 3.8 1.89 4.1 1.75 4.1 1.66 3.7 1.97 Change 1.12 1.93 1.09 1.821 1.68 1.857 1.31 1.86 LS Mean 1.162 0.9978 1.273 0.9424 1.59 0.0763 1.189 — Satisfaction Baseline 2.9 1.37 3.2 1.43 2.9 1.37 2.9 1.49 Week 12 4.2 1.54 4.4 1.37 4.6 1.35 4.1 1.55 Change 1.31 1.512 1.24 1.534 1.64 1.613 1.23 1.661 LS Mean 1.256 0.8798 1.382 0.3484 1.628 0.0063 1.165 — While the pharmaceutical compositions and methods have been described in terms of what are presently considered to be practical and preferred embodiments, it is to be understood that the disclosure need not be limited to the disclosed embodiments. It is intended to cover various modifications and similar arrangements included within the spirit and scope of the claims, the scope of which should be accorded the broadest interpretation so as to encompass all such modifications and similar embodiments. This disclosure includes any and all embodiments of the following claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Postmenopausal women frequently suffer from atrophic vaginitis or vulvar and vaginal atrophy (hereinafter “vulvovaginal atrophy” or “VVA”) with symptoms including, for example, vaginal dryness, vaginal odor, vaginal or vulvar irritation or itching, dysuria (pain, burning, or stinging when urinating), dyspareunia (vaginal pain associated with sexual activity), or vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Other symptoms include soreness; with urinary frequency and urgency; urinary discomfort and incontinence also occurring (“estrogen-deficient urinary state(s)”). One symptom of vaginal atrophy is an increased vaginal pH, which creates an environment more susceptible to infections. The mucosal epithelium of the VVA patients also reported to show signs of severe atrophy and upon cytological examination accompanied by an increased number of the parabasal cells and a reduced number of superficial cells. Each of these VVA-related states manifest symptoms associated with decreased estrogenization of the vulvovaginal tissue, and can even occur in women treated with oral administration of an estrogen-based pharmaceutical drug product. Although VVA is most common with menopausal women, it can occur at any time in a woman's life cycle. VVA symptoms also interfere with sexual activity and satisfaction. Women with female sexual dysfunction (FSD) are almost 4 times more likely to have VVA than those without FSD. Estrogen treatment has proven to be very successful in controlling menopausal symptoms, including VVA and FSD. Several studies have shown that the symptoms connected with vaginal atrophy are often relieved by estrogen treatment given either systemically or topically. The existing treatments have numerous problems, for example compliance issues with patients not completing or continuing treatment due to the problems associated with the form of treatment. Accordingly, there remains a need in the art for treatments for VVA and FSD that overcome these limitations.

<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Disclosed herein is, among other things, a new soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition and dosage form containing solubilized estradiol for the treatment of VVA. The soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition has been designed to mitigate common limitations found with other vaginal forms of estradiol. The soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition eases vaginal administration, provides improved safety of insertion, minimizes vaginal discharge following administration, and provides a more effective dosage form having improved efficacy, safety and patient compliance. According to various aspects and embodiments of this disclosure, a soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition as a treatment for post-menopausal women suffering with moderate to severe symptoms of VVA is provided. Provided herein is a suppository comprising: a) a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; and b) a solubilizing agent comprising a medium chain oil. In some embodiments, the suppository includes about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. For example, the suppository can include about 1 μg to about 10 μg of estradiol; and about 10 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the estradiol is solubilized. In some embodiments, the medium chain oil includes at least one C6-C12 fatty acid or a glycol, monoglyceride, diglyceride, or triglyceride ester thereof. In some embodiments, the solubilizing agent includes at least one ester selected from the group consisting of: an ester of caproic fatty acid, an ester of caprylic fatty acid, an ester of capric fatty acid, and combinations thereof. For example, the solubilizing agent can include a caprylic/capric triglyceride. In some embodiments, the suppository further includes a capsule. For example, the capsule can be a soft gelatin capsule. Also provided herein is a suppository comprising: a) a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; b) a caprylic/capric triglyceride; c) a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate; and d) a soft gelatin capsule. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol of about 19 pg*hr/mL to about 29 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estradiol of about 75 pg*hr/mL to about 112 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone of about 9 pg*hr/mL to about 14 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone of about 43 pg*hr/mL to about 65 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate of about 416 pg*hr/mL to about 613 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 3598 pg*hr/mL to about 5291 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol of about 12 pg*hr/mL to about 18 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estradiol of about 42 pg*hr/mL to about 63 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estradiol of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 7 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone of about 20 pg*hr/mL to about 31 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estrone of about 4 hrs to about 8 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate of about 10 pg*hr/mL to about 16 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 56 pg*hr/mL to about 84 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estrone sulfate of about 4 hrs to about 7 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 8 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estradiol of about 16 pg*hr/mL to about 26 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estradiol of about 0.25 hrs to about 2 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone of about 1 pg*hr/mL to about 3 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone of about 8 pg*hr/mL to about 13 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estrone of about 1 hrs to about 4 hrs. In some embodiments, a suppository provided herein includes about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate of about 4 pg*hr/mL to about 7 pg*hr/mL; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 22 pg*hr/mL to about 34 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, the suppository further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estrone sulfate of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. Also provided herein is a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol that is less than about 30 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol that is less than about 18 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 112 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 63 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone that is less than about 14 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone that is less than about 7 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 65 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 31 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 613 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 16 pg*hr/mL. In some embodiments, a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 5291 pg*hr/mL. For example, administration of the suppository to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 84 pg*hr/mL. Further provided herein is a suppository comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the suppository to the proximal region of the vagina of a patient provides a therapeutically effective concentration of estradiol over 24 hours in the proximal region of the vagina. This disclosure also provides a method of treating an estrogen-deficient state, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a suppository as provided herein. In some embodiments, a method of treating vulvovaginal atrophy is provided, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a suppository as provided herein. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein, treatment includes reducing the severity of one or more symptoms selected from the group consisting of: vaginal dryness, dyspareunia, vaginal or vulvar irritation, vaginal or vulvar burning, vaginal or vulvar itching, dysuria, and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein treatment includes reducing the vaginal pH of the patient. For example, treatment includes reducing the vaginal pH of the patient to a pH of less than about 5.0. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein treatment includes a change in cell composition of the patient. For example, the change in cell composition includes reducing the number of parabasal vaginal cells or increasing the number of superficial vaginal cells. In some embodiments, the number of parabasal vaginal cells in the patient are reduced by at least about 35% (e.g., at least about 50%). In some embodiments, the number of superficial vaginal cells are increased by at least about 5% (e.g., at least about 35%). Further provided herein is a method for reducing vaginal discharge following administration of a suppository, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a suppository provided herein, wherein the vaginal discharge following administration of the suppository is compared to the vaginal discharge following administration of a reference drug. Also provided herein is a method for treating female sexual dysfunction in a female subject in need thereof. The method includes administering to the subject a vaginal suppository as described herein. In some embodiments, the method includes administering to the subject a vaginal suppository comprising: (a) a pharmaceutical composition comprising: a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; a caprylic/capric triglyceride; a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate; and (b) a soft gelatin capsule; wherein the vaginal suppository includes from about 1 microgram to about 25 micrograms of estradiol; wherein estradiol is the only active hormone in the vaginal suppository. In some embodiments, the vaginal suppository does not include a hydrophilic gel-forming bioadhesive agent in the solubilizing agent. In some embodiments, treating female sexual dysfunction includes increasing the subject's desire, arousal, lubrication, satisfaction, and or/orgasms.

A61K31565

20180209

20180614

60258.0

A61K31565

PARAD, DENNIS J

VAGINAL INSERTED ESTRADIOL PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

A61K

PENDING

VAGINAL INSERTED ESTRADIOL PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS

In one aspect, pharmaceutical compositions and methods for the treatment of vulvovaginal atrophy (VVA) are provided. In one embodiment, the method comprises digitally inserting into the lower third of the vagina of a subject having VVA a soft gelatin capsule containing a liquid pharmaceutical composition.

1. A method for treating vulvovaginal atrophy (VVA) in a subject, the method comprising: digitally inserting into the lower third of the vagina of the subject a soft gelatin capsule containing a liquid pharmaceutical composition, wherein the composition comprises estrogen and an excipient that increases the viscosity of the composition, and wherein the composition spreads over the vaginal tissue and is absorbed by the vaginal tissue with no vaginal discharge of the composition. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the composition comprises about 4 μg to about 25 μg of solubilized estradiol. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is in a reclined position while digitally inserting the soft gelatin capsule. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is in a standing position while digitally inserting the soft gelatin capsule. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the viscosity of the composition is from about 50 cps to about 1000 cps at 25° C. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the viscosity of the composition is from about 50 cps to about 380 cps at 25° C. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the excipient that increases the viscosity is selected from the group consisting of TEFOSE® 63, OVUCIRE® 3460, OVUCIRE® WL3264, OVUCIRE WL 2944, and WITESPOL®. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the excipient that increases the viscosity is TEFOSE®63.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/521,230, filed Oct. 22, 2014, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 61/894,411, filed Oct. 22, 2013, and 61/932,140, filed Jan. 27, 2014, and which is a continuation-in-part of International Patent Application No. PCT/US2013/046443, filed Jun. 18, 2013, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/745,313, filed Dec. 21, 2012. All aforementioned applications are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. BACKGROUND This application is directed to pharmaceutical compositions, methods, and devices related to hormone replacement therapy. Postmenopausal women frequently suffer from atrophic vaginitis or vulvar and vaginal atrophy (hereinafter “vulvovaginal atrophy” or “VVA”) with symptoms including, for example, vaginal dryness, vaginal odor, vaginal or vulvar irritation or itching, dysuria (pain, burning, or stinging when urinating), dysparuenia (vaginal pain associated with sexual activity), or vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Other symptoms include soreness; with urinary frequency and urgency; urinary discomfort and incontinence also occurring (“estrogen-deficient urinary state(s)”). One symptom of vaginal atrophy is an increased vaginal pH, which creates an environment more susceptible to infections. The mucosal epithelium of the VVA patients also reported to show signs of severe atrophy and upon cytological examination accompanied by an increased number of the parabasal cells and a reduced number of superficial cells. Each of these VVA-related states manifest symptoms associated with decreased estrogenization of the vulvovaginal tissue, and can even occur in women treated with oral administration of an estrogen-based pharmaceutical drug product. Although VVA is most common with menopausal women, it can occur at any time in a woman's life cycle. Estrogen treatment has proven to be very successful in controlling menopausal symptoms, including vaginal atrophy (VVA). Several studies have shown that the symptoms connected with vaginal atrophy are often relieved by estrogen treatment given either systemically or topically. The existing treatments have numerous problems, for example compliance issues with patients not completing or continuing treatment due to the problems associated with the form of treatment. Accordingly, disclosed herein is, among other things, a new soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition and dosage form containing solubilized estradiol for the treatment of VVA. The soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition has been designed to mitigate common limitations found with other vaginal forms of estradiol. The soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition is expected to ease vaginal administration, provide improved safety of insertion, minimize vaginal discharge following administration, and provide a more effective dosage form with improved efficacy, safety and patient compliance. SUMMARY According to various aspects and embodiments of this disclosure, a soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition as a potential treatment for post-menopausal women suffering with moderate to severe symptoms of VVA is provided. Provided herein is a pessary comprising: a) a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; and b) a solubilizing agent comprising a medium chain oil. In some embodiments, the pessary comprises about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. For example, the pessary can include about 1 μg to about 10 μg of estradiol; and about 10 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the estradiol is solubilized. In some embodiments, the medium chain oil comprises at least one C6-C12 fatty acid or a glycol, monoglyceride, diglyceride, or triglyceride ester thereof. In some embodiments, the solubilizing agent comprises at least one ester selected from the group consisting of: an ester of caproic fatty acid, an ester of caprylic fatty acid, an ester of capric fatty acid, and combinations thereof. For example, the solubilizing agent can include a caprylic/capric triglyceride. In some embodiments, the pessary further comprises a capsule. For example, the capsule can be a soft gelatin capsule. Also provided herein is a pessary comprising: a) a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; b) a caprylic/capric triglyceride; c) a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate; and d) a soft gelatin capsule. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 19 pg*hr/ml to about 29 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 75 pg*hr/ml to about 112 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 9 pg*hr/ml to about 14 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 43 pg*hr/ml to about 65 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 416 pg*hr/ml to about 613 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 3598 pg*hr/ml to about 5291 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 12 pg*hr/ml to about 18 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 42 pg*hr/ml to about 63 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, the pessary further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estradiol of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 4 pg*hr/ml to about 7 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 20 pg*hr/ml to about 31 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, the pessary further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone of about 4 hrs to about 8 hrs. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 10 pg*hr/ml to about 16 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 56 pg*hr/ml to about 84 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, the pessary further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone sulfate of about 4 hrs to about 7 hrs. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 4 pg*hr/ml to about 8 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 16 pg*hr/ml to about 26 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, the pessary further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estradiol of about 0.25 hrs to about 2 hrs. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 1 pg*hr/ml to about 3 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 8 pg*hr/ml to about 13 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, the pessary further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone of about 1 hrs to about 4 hrs. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 4 pg*hr/ml to about 7 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 22 pg*hr/ml to about 34 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, the pessary further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone sulfate of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. Also provided herein is a pessary comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol that is less than about 30 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol that is less than about 18 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 112 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 63 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone that is less than about 14 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone that is less than about 7 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 65 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 31 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 613 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 16 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 5291 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 84 pg*hr/ml. Further provided herein is a pessary comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to the proximal region of the vagina of a patient provides a therapeutically effective concentration of estradiol over 24 hours in the proximal region of the vagina. This disclosure also provides a method of treating an estrogen-deficient state, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a pessary as provided herein. In some embodiments, a method of treating vulvovaginal atrophy is provided, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a pessary as provided herein. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein, treatment comprises reducing the severity of one or more symptoms selected from the group consisting of: vaginal dryness, dyspareunia, vaginal or vulvar irritation, vaginal or vulvar burning, vaginal or vulvar itching, dysuria, and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein treatment comprises reducing the vaginal pH of the patient. For example, treatment comprises reducing the vaginal pH of the patient to a pH of less than about 5.0. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein treatment comprises a change in cell composition of the patient. For example, the change in cell composition comprises reducing the number of parabasal vaginal cells or increasing the number of superficial vaginal cells. In some embodiments, the number of parabasal vaginal cells in the patient are reduced by at least about 35% (e.g., at least about 50%). In some embodiments, the number of superficial vaginal cells are increased by at least about 5% (e.g., at least about 35%). Further provided herein is a method for reducing vaginal discharge following administration of a pessary, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a pessary provided herein, wherein the vaginal discharge following administration of the pessary is compared to the vaginal discharge following administration of a reference drug. DRAWINGS The above-mentioned features and objects of the this disclosure will become more apparent with reference to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein like reference numerals denote like elements and in which: FIG. 1 is a flow diagram illustrating a process in accordance with various embodiments of the invention; FIG. 2 illustrates a suppository in accordance with various embodiments of the invention; FIG. 3 is a linear plot of mean plasma estradiol-baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=36); FIG. 4 is a semi-logarithmic plot of mean plasma estradiol-baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=36); FIG. 5 is a linear plot of mean plasma estrone-baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=36); FIG. 6 is a semi-logarithmic plot of mean plasma estrone-baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=36); FIG. 7 is a linear plot of mean plasma estrone sulfate-baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=36); FIG. 8 is a semi-logarithmic plot of mean plasma estrone sulfate-baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=36); FIG. 9 is a linear plot of mean plasma estradiol-baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=34); FIG. 10 is a semi-logarithmic plot of mean plasma estradiol-baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=34); FIG. 11 is a linear plot of mean plasma estrone-baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=33); FIG. 12 is a semi-logarithmic plot of mean plasma estrone-baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=33); FIG. 13 is a linear plot of mean plasma estrone sulfate-baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=24); and FIG. 14 is a semi-logarithmic plot of mean plasma estrone sulfate-baseline adjusted concentrations versus time (N=24). DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following detailed description of embodiments of this disclosure, reference is made to the accompanying drawings in which like references indicate similar elements, and in which is shown by way of illustration specific embodiments in which the this disclosure may be practiced. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the this disclosure, and it is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and that other changes may be made without departing from the scope of the this disclosure. The following detailed description is, therefore, not to be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of this disclosure is defined only by the appended claims. As used in this disclosure, the term “or” shall be understood to be defined as a logical disjunction (i.e., and/or) and shall not indicate an exclusive disjunction unless expressly indicated as such with the terms “either,” “unless,” “alternatively,” and words of similar effect. DEFINITIONS The term “active pharmaceutical ingredient” (“API”) as used herein, means the active compound(s) used in formulating a drug product. The term “co-administered” as used herein, means that two or more drug products are administered simultaneously or sequentially on the same or different days. The term “drug product” as used herein means at least one active pharmaceutical ingredient in combination with at least one excipient and provided in unit dosage form. The term “area under the curve” (“AUC”) refers to the area under the curve defined by changes in the blood concentration of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (e.g., estradiol or progesterone), or a metabolite of the active pharmaceutical ingredient, over time following the administration of a dose of the active pharmaceutical ingredient. “AUC0-∞” is the area under the concentration-time curve extrapolated to infinity following the administration of a dose. “AUC0-t” is the area under the concentration-time curve from time zero to time t following the administration of a dose, wherein t is the last time point with a measurable concentration. The term “Cmax” refers to the maximum value of blood concentration shown on the curve that represents changes in blood concentrations of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (e.g., progesterone or estradiol), or a metabolite of the active pharmaceutical ingredient, over time. The term “Tmax” refers to the time that it takes for the blood concentration an active pharmaceutical ingredient (e.g., estradiol or progesterone), or a metabolite of the active pharmaceutical ingredient, to reach the maximum value. The term “bioavailability,” which has the meaning defined in 21 C.F.R. § 320.1(a), refers to the rate and extent to which an API or active ingredient or active moiety is absorbed from a drug product and becomes available at the site of action. For example, bioavailability can be measured as the amount of API in the blood (serum or plasma) as a function of time. Pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters such as AUC, Cmax, or Tmax may be used to measure and assess bioavailability. For drug products that are not intended to be absorbed into the bloodstream, bioavailability may be assessed by measurements intended to reflect the rate and extent to which the API or active ingredient or active moiety becomes available at the site of action. The term “bioequivalent,” which has the meaning defined in 21 C.F.R. § 320.1(e), refers to the absence of a significant difference in the rate and extent to which the API or active ingredient or active moiety in pharmaceutical equivalents or pharmaceutical alternatives becomes available at the site of drug action when administered at the same molar dose under similar conditions in an appropriately designed study. Where there is an intentional difference in rate (e.g., in certain extended release dosage forms), certain pharmaceutical equivalents or alternatives may be considered bioequivalent if there is no significant difference in the extent to which the active ingredient or moiety from each product becomes available at the site of drug action. This applies only if the difference in the rate at which the active ingredient or moiety becomes available at the site of drug action is intentional and is reflected in the proposed labeling, is not essential to the attainment of effective body drug concentrations on chronic use, and is considered medically insignificant for the drug. In practice, two products are considered bioequivalent if the 90% confidence interval of the AUC, Cmax, or optionally Tmax is within 80.00% to 125.00%. The term “bio-identical,” “body-identical,” or “natural” used in conjunction with the hormones disclosed herein, means hormones that match the chemical structure and effect of those that occur naturally or endogenously in the human body. An exemplary natural estrogen is estradiol. The term “bio-identical hormone” or “body-identical hormone” refers to an active pharmaceutical ingredient that is structurally identical to a hormone naturally or endogenously found in the human body (e.g., estradiol and progesterone). The term “estradiol” refers to (17β)-estra-1,3,5(10)-triene-3,17-diol. Estradiol is also interchangeably called 17β-estradiol, oestradiol, or E2, and is found endogenously in the human body. As used herein, estradiol refers to the bio-identical or body-identical form of estradiol found in the human body having the structure: Estradiol is supplied in an anhydrous or hemi-hydrate form. For the purposes of this disclosure, the anhydrous form or the hemihydrate form can be substituted for the other by accounting for the water or lack of water according to well-known and understood techniques. The term “solubilized estradiol” means that the estradiol or a portion thereof is solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent(s) or the formulations disclosed herein. Solubilized estradiol may include estradiol that is about 80% solubilized, about 85% solubilized, about 90% solubilized, about 95% solubilized, about 96% solubilized, about 97% solubilized, about 98% solubilized, about 99% solubilized or about 100% solubilized. In some embodiments, the estradiol is “fully solubilized” with all or substantially all of the estradiol being solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent. Fully solubilized estradiol may include estradiol that is about 97% solubilized, about 98% solubilized, about 99% solubilized or about 100% solubilized. Solubility can be expressed as a mass fraction (% w/w, which is also referred to as wt %). The term “progesterone” refers to pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione. Progesterone is also interchangeably called P4 and is found endogenously in the human body. As used herein, progesterone refers to the bio-identical or body-identical form of progesterone found in the human body having the structure: The term “solubilized progesterone” means that the progesterone or a portion thereof is solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent(s) or the formulations disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the progesterone is “partially solubilized” with a portion of the progesterone being solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent and a portion of the progesterone being suspended in the solubilizing agent. Partially solubilized progesterone may include progesterone that is about 1% solubilized, about 5% solubilized, about 10% solubilized, about 15% solubilized, about 20% solubilized, about 30% solubilized, about 40% solubilized, about 50% solubilized, about 60% solubilized, about 70% solubilized, about 80% solubilized, about 85% solubilized, about 90% solubilized or about 95% solubilized. In other embodiments, the progesterone is “fully solubilized” with all or substantially all of the progesterone being solubilized or dissolved in the solubilizing agent. Fully solubilized progesterone may include progesterone that is about 97% solubilized, about 98% solubilized, about 99% solubilized or about 100% solubilized. Solubility can be expressed as a mass fraction (% w/w, which is also referred to as wt %). The terms “micronized progesterone” and “micronized estradiol,” as used herein, include micronized progesterone and micronized estradiol having an X50 particle size value below about 15 microns or having an X90 particle size value below about 25 microns. The term “X50” means that one-half of the particles in a sample are smaller in diameter than a given number. For example, micronized progesterone having an X50 of 5 microns means that, for a given sample of micronized progesterone, one-half of the particles have a diameter of less than 5 microns. Similarly, the term “X90” means that ninety percent (90%) of the particles in a sample are smaller in diameter than a given number. The term “glyceride” is an ester of glycerol (1,2,3-propanetriol) with acyl radicals of fatty acids and is also known as an acylglycerol. If only one position of the glycerol molecule is esterified with a fatty acid, a “monoglyceride” or “monoacylglycerol” is produced; if two positions are esterified, a “diglyceride” or “diacylglycerol” is produced; and if all three positions of the glycerol are esterified with fatty acids, a “triglyceride” or “triacylglycerol” is produced. A glyceride is “simple” if all esterified positions contain the same fatty acid; whereas a glyceride is “mixed” if the esterified positions contained different fatty acids. The carbons of the glycerol backbone are designated sn-1, sn-2 and sn-3, with sn-2 being in the middle carbon and sn-1 and sn-3 being the end carbons of the glycerol backbone. The term “solubilizing agent” refers to an agent or combination of agents that solubilize an active pharmaceutical ingredient (e.g., estradiol or progesterone). For example and without limitation, suitable solubilizing agents include medium chain oils and other solvents and co-solvents that solubilize or dissolve an active pharmaceutical ingredient to a desirable extent. Solubilizing agents suitable for use in the formulations disclosed herein are pharmaceutical grade solubilizing agents (e.g., pharmaceutical grade medium chain oils). It will be understood by those of skill in the art that other excipients or components can be added to or mixed with the solubilizing agent to enhance the properties or performance of the solubilizing agent or resulting formulation. Examples of such excipients include, but are not limited to, surfactants, emulsifiers, thickeners, colorants, flavoring agents, etc. In some embodiments, the solubilizing agent is a medium chain oil and, in some other embodiments, the medium chain oil is combined with a co-solvent(s) or other excipient(s). The term “medium chain” is used to describe the aliphatic chain length of fatty acid containing molecules. “Medium chain” specifically refers to fatty acids, fatty acid esters, or fatty acid derivatives that contain fatty acid aliphatic tails or carbon chains that contain 6 (C6) to 14 (C14) carbon atoms, 8 (C8) to 12 (C12) carbon atoms, or 8 (C8) to 10 (C10) carbon atoms. The terms “medium chain fatty acid” and “medium chain fatty acid derivative” are used to describe fatty acids or fatty acid derivatives with aliphatic tails (i.e., carbon chains) having 6 to 14 carbon atoms. Fatty acids consist of an unbranched or branched aliphatic tail attached to a carboxylic acid functional group. Fatty acid derivatives include, for example, fatty acid esters and fatty acid containing molecules, including, without limitation, mono-, di- and triglycerides that include components derived from fatty acids. Fatty acid derivatives also include fatty acid esters of ethylene or propylene glycol. The aliphatic tails can be saturated or unsaturated (i.e., having one or more double bonds between carbon atoms). In some embodiments, the aliphatic tails are saturated (i.e., no double bonds between carbon atoms). Medium chain fatty acids or medium chain fatty acid derivatives include those with aliphatic tails having 6-14 carbons, including those that are C6-C14, C6-C12, C8-C14, C8-C12, C6-C10, C8-C10, or others. Examples of medium chain fatty acids include, without limitation, caproic acid, caprylic acid, capric acid, lauric acid, myristic acid, and derivatives thereof. The term “oil,” as used herein, refers to any pharmaceutically acceptable oil, especially medium chain oils, and specifically excluding peanut oil, that can suspend or solubilize bioidentical progesterone or estradiol, including starting materials or precursors thereof, including micronized progesterone or micronized estradiol as described herein. The term “medium chain oil” refers to an oil wherein the composition of the fatty acid fraction of the oil is substantially medium chain (i.e., C6 to C14) fatty acids, i.e., the composition profile of fatty acids in the oil is substantially medium chain. As used herein, “substantially” means that between 20% and 100% (inclusive of the upper and lower limits) of the fatty acid fraction of the oil is made up of medium chain fatty acids, i.e., fatty acids with aliphatic tails (i.e., carbon chains) having 6 to 14 carbons. In some embodiments, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 85%, about 90% or about 95% of the fatty acid fraction of the oil is made up of medium chain fatty acids. Those of skill in the art that will readily appreciate that the terms “alkyl content” or “alkyl distribution” of an oil can be used in place of the term “fatty acid fraction” of an oil in characterizing a given oil or solubilizing agent, and these terms are used interchangeable herein. As such, medium chain oils suitable for use in the formulations disclosed herein include medium chain oils wherein the fatty acid fraction of the oil is substantially medium chain fatty acids, or medium chain oils wherein the alkyl content or alkyl distribution of the oil is substantially medium chain alkyls (C6-C12 alkyls). It will be understood by those of skill in the art that the medium chain oils suitable for use in the formulations disclosed herein are pharmaceutical grade (e.g., pharmaceutical grade medium chain oils). Examples of medium chain oils include, for example and without limitation, medium chain fatty acids, medium chain fatty acid esters of glycerol (e.g., for example, mono-, di-, and triglycerides), medium chain fatty acid esters of propylene glycol, medium chain fatty acid derivatives of polyethylene glycol, and combinations thereof. The term “ECN” or “equivalent carbon number” means the sum of the number of carbon atoms in the fatty acid chains of an oil, and can be used to characterize an oil as, for example, a medium chain oil or a long-chain oil. For example, tripalmitin (tripalmitic glycerol), which is a simple triglyceride containing three fatty acid chains of 16 carbon atoms, has an ECN of 3×16=48. Conversely, a triglyceride with an ECN=40 may have “mixed” fatty acid chain lengths of 8, 16 and 16; 10, 14 and 16; 8, 14 and 18; etc. Naturally occurring oils are frequently “mixed” with respect to specific fatty acids, but tend not to contain both long chain fatty acids and medium chain fatty acids in the same glycerol backbone. Thus, triglycerides with ECN's of 21-42 typically contain predominately medium chain fatty acids; while triglycerides with ECN's of greater than 43 typically contain predominantly long chain fatty acids. For example, the ECN of corn oil triglyceride in the USP would be in the range of 51-54. Medium chain diglycerides with ECN's of 12-28 will often contain predominately medium chain fatty chains, while diglycerides with ECN's of 32 or greater will typically contain predominately long chain fatty acid tails. Monoglycerides will have an ECN that matches the chain length of the sole fatty acid chain. Thus, monoglyceride ECN's in the range of 6-14 contain mainly medium chain fatty acids, and monoglycerides with ECN's 16 or greater will contain mainly long chain fatty acids. The average ECN of a medium chain triglyceride oil is typically 21-42. For example, as listed in the US Pharmacopeia (USP), medium chain triglycerides have the following composition as the exemplary oil set forth in the table below: Fatty-acid Tail Length % of oil Exemplary Oil 6 ≤2.0 2.0 8 50.0-80.0 70.0 10 20.0-50.0 25.0 12 ≤3.0 2.0 14 ≤1.0 1.0 and would have an average ECN of 3*[(6*0.02)+(8*0.70)+(10*0.25)+(12*0.02)+(14*0.01)]=25.8. The ECN of the exemplary medium chain triglycerides oil can also be expressed as a range (per the ranges set forth in the USP) of 24.9-27.0. For oils that have mixed mono-, di-, and trigylcerides, or single and double fatty acid glycols, the ECN of the entire oil can be determined by calculating the ECN of each individual component (e.g., C8 monoglycerics, C8 diglycerides, C10 monoglycerides, and C10 monoglycerides) and taking the sum of the relative percentage of the component multiplied by the ECN normalized to a monoglyceride for each component. For example, the oil having C8 and C10 mono- and diglycerides shown in the table below has an ECN of 8.3, and is thus a medium chain oil. ECN as % of oil ECN as % of oil Fatty-acid (chain length) × (% in normalized to ChainLength % of oil oil) monoglyceride C8 monoglyceride 47 8 × 0.47 = 3.76 3.76 C10 monoglyceride 8 10 × 0.08 = 0.8 0.8 C8 diglyceride 38 2 × (8 × 0.38) = 6.08 6.08/2 = 3.04 C10 diglyceride 7 2 × (10 × 0.07) = 1.4 1.4/2 = 0.7 OIL ECN 8.3 (normalized to monoglycerides) Expressed differently, ECN can be calculated as each chain length in the composition multiplied by its relative percentage in the oil: (8*0.85)+(10*0.15)=8.3. The term “excipients,” as used herein, refers to non-API ingredients such as solubilizing agents, anti-oxidants, oils, lubricants, and others used in formulating pharmaceutical products. The term “patient” or “subject” refers to an individual to whom the pharmaceutical composition is administered. The term “pharmaceutical composition” refers to a pharmaceutical composition comprising at least a solubilizing agent and estradiol. As used herein, pharmaceutical compositions are delivered, for example via pessary (i.e., vaginal suppository), or absorbed vaginally. The term “progestin” means any natural or man-made substance that has pharmacological properties similar to progesterone. The term “reference listed drug product” (“RLD”) means VAGIFEM® (estradiol vaginal tablets) or ESTRACE® vaginal cream. The terms “treat,” “treating,” and “treatment” refer to any indicia of success in the treatment or amelioration of an injury, disease, or condition, including any objective or subjective parameter such as abatement; remission; diminishing of symptoms or making the injury, disease, or condition more tolerable to the patient; slowing in the rate of degeneration or decline; or improving a patient's physical or mental well-being. The treatment or amelioration of symptoms can be based on objective or subject parameters, including the results of a physical examination, neuropsychiatric examinations, or psychiatric evaluation. The terms “atrophic vaginitis,” “vulvovaginal atrophy,” “vaginal atrophy,” and “VVA” are used herein interchangeably. The molecular morphology of VVA is well known in the medical field. INTRODUCTION Provided herein are pharmaceutical compositions comprising solubilized estradiol designed to be absorbed vaginally. The pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are designed to be absorbed and have their therapeutic effect locally, e.g., in vaginal or surrounding tissue. Further disclosed herein are data demonstrating efficacy of the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed, as well as methods relating to the pharmaceutical compositions. Generally, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are useful in VVA, dyspareunia, and other indications caused by decrease or lack of estrogen. Additional aspects and embodiments of this disclosure include: providing increased patient ease of use while potentially minimizing certain side effects from inappropriate insertion, minimizing incidence of vulvovaginal mycotic infection compared to incidence of vulvovaginal mycotic infection due to usage of other vaginally applied estradiol products; and, improved side effect profile (e.g., pruritus) compared to the reference drug: VAGIFEM® (estradiol vaginal tablets, Novo Nordisk; Princeton, N.J.). PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITION Functionality According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are alcohol-free or substantially alcohol-free. The pharmaceutical compositions offer provide for improved patient compliance because of improvements over the prior offering. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are encapsulated in soft gelatin capsules, which improve comfort during use. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are substantially liquid, which are more readily absorbed in the vaginal tissue, and also are dispersed over a larger surface area of the vaginal tissue. Estradiol According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are for vaginal insertion in a single or multiple unit dosage form. According to embodiments, the estradiol in the pharmaceutical compositions is at least about: 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% solubilized. According to embodiments and where the estradiol is not 100% solubilized, the remaining estradiol is present in a micronized (crystalline) form that is absorbable by the body and retains biological functionality, either in its micronized form or in another form which the micronized form is converted to after administration. According to embodiments, all or some of the estradiol is solubilized in a solubilizing agent during manufacturing process. According to embodiments, all or some of the estradiol is solubilized following administration (e.g., the micronized portion where the estradiol is not 100% solubilized is solubilized in a body fluid after administration). According to embodiments, because the estradiol is solubilized, the solubilizing agents taught herein, with or without additional excipients other than the solubilizing agents, are liquid or semi-solid. To the extent the estradiol is not fully solubilized at the time of administration/insertion, the estradiol should be substantially solubilized at a body temperature (average of 37° C.) and, generally, at the pH of the vagina (ranges from 3.8 to 4.5 in healthy patients; and 4.6 to 6.5 in VVA patients). According to embodiments, the estradiol can be added to the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein as estradiol, estradiol hemihydrate, or other grade estradiol forms used in pharmaceutical compositions or formulations. According to embodiments, estradiol dosage strengths vary. Estradiol (or estradiol hemihydrate, for example, to the extent the water content of the estradiol hemihydrate is accounted for) dosage strength of is from at least about 1 microgram (μg or μg) to at least about 50 μg. Specific dosage embodiments contain at least about: 1 μg, 2 μg, 3 μg, 4 μg, 5 μg, 6 μg, 7 μg, 8 μg, 9 μg, 10 μg, 11 μg, 12 μg, 13 μg, 14 μg, 15 μg, 16 μg, 17 μg, 18 μg, 19 μg, 20 μg, 21 μg, 22 μg, 23 μg, 24 μg, 25 μg, 26 μg, 27 μg, 28 μg, 29 μg, 30 μg, 31 μg, 32 μg, 33 μg, 34 μg, 35 μg, 36 μg, 37 μg, 38 μg, 39 μg, 40 μg, 41 μg, 42 μg, 43 μg, 44 μg, 45 μg, 46 μg, 47 μg, 48 μg, 49 μg, or 50 μg estradiol. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions contain at least about 2.5 μg; 4 μg 6.25 μg, 7.5 μg, 12.5 μg, 18.75 μg of estradiol. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions contain from about 1 μg to about 10 μg, from 3 μg to 7 μg, from about 7.5 μg to 12.5 μg, from about 10 μg to about 25 μg, about 1 μg, about 2.5 μg, from about 23.5 μg to 27.5 μg, from about 7.5 μg to 22.5 μg, from 10 μg to 25 μg of estradiol. The lowest clinically effective dose of estradiol is used for treatment of VVA and other indications set forth herein. In some embodiments, the estradiol dosage is about 4 μg. In one embodiment, the estradiol dosage is about 10 μg. In another embodiment, the estradiol dosage is about 25 μg. Solvent System According to embodiments, the solvent system that solubilizes the estradiol are medium chain fatty acid based solvents, together with other excipients. According to embodiments, the solvent system comprises non-toxic, pharmaceutically acceptable solvents, co-solvents, surfactants, and other excipients suitable for vaginal delivery or absorption. According to embodiments, oils having medium chain fatty acids as a majority component are used as solubilizing agents to solubilize estradiol. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agents comprise medium chain fatty acid esters (e.g., esters of glycerol, ethylene glycol, or propylene glycol) or mixtures thereof. According to embodiments, the medium chain fatty acids comprise chain lengths from C6 to C14. According to embodiments the medium chain fatty acids comprise chain lengths from C6 to C12. According to embodiments the medium chain fatty acids substantially comprise chain lengths from C8-C10. ECN's for medium chain oils will be in the range of 21-42 for triglycerides, 12-28 for diglycerides, and 6-14 for monoglycerides. According to embodiments, the medium chain fatty acids are saturated. According to embodiments, the medium chain fatty acids are predominantly saturated, i.e., greater than about 60% or greater than about 75% saturated. According to embodiments, estradiol is soluble in the solubilizing agent at room temperature, although it may be desirable to warm certain solubilizing agents during manufacture to improve viscosity. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent is liquid at between room temperature and about 50° C., at or below 50° C., at or below 40° C., or at or below 30° C. According to embodiments, the solubility of estradiol in the medium chain oil, medium chain fatty acid, or solubilizing agent (or oil/surfactant) is at least about 0.01 wt %, 0.02 wt %, 0.05 wt %, 0.06 wt %, 0.08 wt %, 0.1 wt %, 0.2 wt %, 0.3 wt %, 0.4 wt %, 0.5 wt %, 0.6 wt %, 0.7 wt %, 0.8 wt %, 0.9 wt %, 1.0 wt %, or higher. According to embodiments, medium chain solubilizing agents include, for example and without limitation saturated medium chain fatty acids: caproic acid (C6), enanthic acid (C7), caprylic acid (C8), pelargonic acid (C9), capric acid (C10), undecylic acid (C11), lauric acid (C12), tridecylic acid (C13), or myristic acid (C14). According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent comprises oils made of these free medium chain fatty acids, oils of medium chain fatty acid esters of glycerin, propylene glycol, or ethylene glycol, or combinations thereof. These examples comprise predominantly saturated medium chain fatty acids (i.e., greater than 50% of the fatty acids are medium chain saturated fatty acids). According to embodiments, predominantly C6 to C12 saturated fatty acids are contemplated. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent is selected from at least one of a solvent or co-solvent. According to embodiments, glycerin based solubilizing agents include: mono-, di-, or triglycerides and combinations and derivatives thereof. Exemplary glycerin based solubilizing agents include MIGLYOLs®, which are caprylic/capric triglycerides (SASOL Germany GMBH, Hamburg). MIGLYOLs includes MIGLYOL Bio (caprylic/capric triglyceride), MIGLYOL 812 (caprylic/capric triglyceride), MIGLYOL 816 (caprylic/capric triglyceride), and MIGLYOL 829 (caprylic/capric/succinic triglyceride). Other caprylic/capric triglyceride solubilizing agents are likewise contemplated, including, for example: caproic/caprylic/capric/lauric triglycerides; caprylic/capric/linoleic triglycerides; caprylic/capric/succinic triglycerides. According to embodiments, CAPMUL MCM, medium chain mono- and di-glycerides, is the solubilizing agent. Other and triglycerides of fractionated vegetable fatty acids, and combinations or derivatives thereof can be the solubilizing agent, according to embodiments. For example, the solubilizing agent can be 1,2,3-propanetriol (glycerol, glycerin, glycerine) esters of saturated coconut and palm kernel oil and derivatives thereof. Ethylene and propylene glycols (which include polyethylene and polypropylene glycols) solubilizing agents include: glyceryl mono- and di-caprylates; propylene glycol monocaprylate (e.g., CAPMUL® PG-8 (the CAPMUL brands are owned by ABITEC, Columbus, Ohio)); propylene glycol monocaprate (e.g., CAPMUL PG-10); propylene glycol mono- and dicaprylates; propylene glycol mono- and dicaprate; diethylene glycol mono ester (e.g., TRANSCUTOL®, 2-(2-Ethoxyethoxy)ethanol, GATTEFOSSÉ SAS); and diethylene glycol monoethyl ether. Other combinations of mono- and di-esters of propylene glycol or ethylene glycol are expressly contemplated are the solubilizing agent. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent comprises combinations of mono- and di-propylene and ethylene glycols and mono-, di-, and triglyceride combinations. According to embodiments, polyethylene glycol glyceride (GELUCIRE®, GATTEFOSSÉ, SAS, Saint-Priest, France) can be used herein as the solubilizing agent or as a surfactant. For example, GELUCIRE 44/14 (PEG-32 glyceryl laurate EP), a medium chain fatty acid esters of polyethylene glycol, is a polyethylene glycol glyceride composed of mono-, di- and triglycerides and mono- and diesters of polyethylene glycol. According to embodiments, commercially available fatty acid glycerol and glycol ester solubilizing agents are often prepared from natural oils and therefore may comprise components in addition to the fatty acid esters that predominantly comprise and characterize the solubilizing agent. Such other components may be, e.g., other fatty acid mono-, di-, and triglycerides; fatty acid mono- and diester ethylene or propylene glycols, free glycerols or glycols, or free fatty acids, for example. In some embodiments, when an oil/solubilizing agent is described herein as a saturated C8 fatty acid mono- or diester of glycerol, the predominant component of the oil, i.e., >50 wt % (e.g., >75 wt %, >85 wt % or >90 wt %) is caprylic monoglycerides and caprylic diglycerides. For example, the Technical Data Sheet by ABITEC for CAPMUL MCM C8 describes CAPMUL MCM C8 as being composed of mono and diglycerides of medium chain fatty acids (mainly caprylic) and describes the alkyl content as 1% C6, ≥95% C8, ≤5% C10, and ≤1.5% C12 and higher. For example, MIGLYOL 812 is a solubilizing agent that is generally described as a C8-C10 triglyceride because the fatty acid composition is at least about 80% triglyceride esters of caprylic acid (C8) and capric acid (C10). However, it also comprises small amounts of other fatty acids, e.g., less than about 5% of caproic acid (C6), lauric acid (C12), and myristic acid (C14). The product information sheet for various MIGLYOLs illustrate the various fatty acid components as follows: Tests 810 812 818 829 840 Caproic max. 2.0 max. 2.0 max. 2 max. 2 max. 2 acid (C6:0) Caprylic 65.0-80.0 50.0-65.0 45-65 45-55 65-80 acid (C8:0) Capric 20.0-35.0 30.0-45.0 30-45 30-40 20-35 acid (C10:0) Lauric max. 2 max. 2 max. 3 max. 3 max. 2 acid (C12:0) Myristic max. 1.0 max. 1.0 max. 1 max. 1 max. 1 acid (C14:0) Linoleic — — 2-5 — — acid (C18:2) Succinic — — — 15-20 — acid ECN 25.5-26.4 26.1-27 26.52-28.56 26-27.6 25.5-26.4 According to embodiments, anionic or non-ionic surfactants may be used in pharmaceutical compositions containing solubilized estradiol. Ratios of solubilizing agent(s) to surfactant(s) vary depending upon the respective solubilizing agent(s) and the respective surfactant(s) and the desired physical characteristics of the resultant pharmaceutical composition. For example and without limitation, CAPMUL MCM and a non-ionic surfactant may be used at ratios including 65:35, 70:30, 75:25, 80:20, 85:15 and 90:10. Other non-limiting examples include: CAPMUL MCM and GELUCIRE 39/01 used in ratios including, for example and without limitation, 6:4, 7:3, and 8:2; CAPMUL MCM and GELUCIRE 43/01 used in ratios including, for example and without limitation, 7:3, and 8:2; CAPMUL MCM and GELUCIRE 50/13 used in ratios including, for example and without limitation, 7:3, and 8:2, and 9:1. Other Excipients According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises a surfactant. The surfactant can be a nonionic surfactant, cationic surfactant, anionic surfactant, or mixtures thereof. Suitable surfactants include, for example, water-insoluble surfactants having a hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) value less than 12 and water-soluble surfactants having a HLB value greater than 12. Surfactants that have a high HLB and hydrophilicity, aid the formation of oil-water droplets. The surfactants are amphiphilic in nature and are capable of dissolving or solubilizing relatively high amounts of hydrophobic drug compounds. Non-limiting examples, include, Tween, Dimethylacetamide (DMA), Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), Ethanol, Glycerin, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), PEG 300, PEG 400, Poloxamer 407, Propylene glycol, Phospholipids, Hydrogenated soy phosphatidylcholine (HSPC), Distearoylphosphatidylglycerol (DSPG), L-α-dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC), L-α-dimyristoylphosphatidylglycerol (DMPG), Polyoxyl 35 castor oil (CREMOPHOR EL, CREMOPHOR ELP), Polyoxyl 40 hydrogenated castor oil (Cremophor RH 40), Polyoxyl 60 hydrogenated castor oil (CREMOPHOR RH 60), Polysorbate 20 (TWEEN 20), Polysorbate 80 (TWEEN 80), d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS), Solutol HS-15, Sorbitan monooleate (SPAN 20), PEG 300 caprylic/capric glycerides (SOFTIGEN 767), PEG 400 caprylic/capric glycerides (LABRASOL), PEG 300 oleic glycerides (LABRAFIL M-1944CS), Polyoxyl 35 Castor oil (ETOCAS 35), Glyceryl Caprylate (Mono- and Diglycerides) (IMWITOR), PEG 300 linoleic glycerides (LABRAFIL M-2125CS), Polyoxyl 8 stearate (PEG 400 monosterate), Polyoxyl 40 stearate (PEG 1750 monosterate), and combinations thereof. Additionally, suitable surfactants include, for example, polyoxyethylene derivative of sorbitan monolaurate such as polysorbate, caprylcaproyl macrogol glycerides, polyglycolyzed glycerides, and the like. According to embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant is selected from one or more of glycerol and polyethylene glycol esters of long chain fatty acids, for example, lauroyl macrogol-32 glycerides or lauroyl polyoxyl-32 glycerides, commercially available as GELUCIRE, including, for example, GELUCIRE 39/01 (glycerol esters of saturated C12-C18 fatty acids), GELUCIRE 43/01 (hard fat NF/JPE) and GELUCIRE 50/13 (stearoyl macrogol-32 glycerides EP, stearoyl polyoxyl-32 glycerides NF, stearoyl polyoxylglycerides (USA FDA IIG)). These surfactants may be used at concentrations greater than about 0.01%, and typically in various amounts of about 0.01%-10.0%, 10.1%-20%, and 20.1%-30%. In some embodiments, surfactants may be used at concentrations of about 1% to about 10% (e.g., about 1% to about 5%, about 2% to about 4%, about 3% to about 8%). According to embodiments, non-ionic surfactants include, for example and without limitation: one or more of oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid. According to embodiments, non-ionic surfactants comprise polyethylene sorbitol esters, including polysorbate 80, which is commercially available under the trademark TWEEN® 80 (polysorbate 80) (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.). Polysorbate 80 comprises approximately 60%-70% oleic acid with the remainder comprising primarily linoleic acids, palmitic acids, and stearic acids. Polysorbate 80 may be used in amounts ranging from about 5 to 50%, and according to embodiments, about 30% of the pharmaceutical composition total mass. According to embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant includes PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate, which are available commercially as TEFOSE® 63 (GATTEFOSSÉ SAS, Saint-Priest, France), which can be used with, for example, CAPMUL MCM having ratios of MCM to TEFOSE 63 of, for example, 8:2 or 9:1. According to embodiments, other solubilizing agents/non-ionic surfactants combinations include, for example, MIGLYOL 812:GELUCIRE 50/13 or MIGLYOL 812:TEFOSE 63. According to embodiments, the surfactant can be an anionic surfactant, for example: ammonium lauryl sulfate, dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate, perfluoro-octane sulfonic acid, potassium lauryl sulfate, or sodium stearate. Cationic surfactants are also contemplated. According to embodiments, non-ionic or anionic surfactants can be used alone with at least one solubilizing agent or can be used in combination with other surfactants. Accordingly, such surfactants, or any other excipient as set forth herein, may be used to solubilize estradiol. The combination of solubilizing agent, surfactant, and other excipients should be designed whereby the estradiol is absorbed into the vaginal tissue. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition will result in minimal vaginal discharge. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises at least one thickening agent. Generally, a thickening agent is added when the viscosity of the pharmaceutical composition results less than desirable absorption. According to embodiments, the surfactant(s) disclosed herein may also provide thickening of the pharmaceutical composition that, upon release, will aid the estradiol in being absorbed by the vaginal mucosa while minimizing vaginal discharge. Examples of thickening agents include: hard fats; propylene glycol; a mixture of hard fat EP/NF/JPE, glyceryl ricinoleate, ethoxylated fatty alcohols (ceteth-20, steareth-20) EP/NF (available as OVUCIRE® 3460, GATTEFOSSÉ, Saint-Priest, France); a mixture of hard fat EP/NF/JPE, glycerol monooleate (type 40) EP/NF (OVUCIRE WL 3264; a mixture of hard fat EP/NF/JPE, glyceryle monooleate (type 40) EP/NF (OVUCIRE WL 2944); a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 stearate, ethylene glycol palmitostearate, and PEG-32 stearate; TEFOSE 63 or a similar product; and a mixture of various hard fats (WITEPSOL®, Sasol Germany GmbH, Hamburg, Germany). Other thickening agents such as the alginates, certain gums such as xanthan gums, agar-agar, iota carrageenans, kappa carrageenans, etc. Several other compounds can act as thickening agents like gelatin, and polymers like HPMC, PVC, and CMC, According to embodiments, the viscosity of pharmaceutical compositions in accordance with various embodiments may comprise from about 50 cps to about 1000 cps at 25° C. A person of ordinary skill in the art will readily understand and select from suitable thickening agents. According to embodiments, the thickening agent is a non-ionic surfactant. For example, polyethylene glycol saturated or unsaturated fatty acid ester or diester is the non-ionic surfactant thickening agent. In embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant comprises a polyethylene glycol long chain (C16-C20) fatty acid ester and further comprises an ethylene glycol long chain fatty acid ester, such as PEG-fatty acid esters or diesters of saturated or unsaturated C16-C18 fatty acids, e.g., oleic, lauric, palmitic, and stearic acids. In embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant comprises a polyethylene glycol long chain saturated fatty acid ester and further comprises an ethylene glycol long chain saturated fatty acid ester, such as PEG- and ethylene glycol-fatty acid esters of saturated C16-C18 fatty acids, e.g., palmitic and stearic acids. Such non-ionic surfactant can comprise PEG-6 stearate, ethylene glycol palmitostearate, and PEG-32 stearate, such as but not limited to TEFOSE 63. According to embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant used as a thickening agent is not hydrophilic and has good emulsion properties. An illustrative example of such surfactant is TEFOSE 63, which has a hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) value of about 9-10. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises one or more mucoadherent agents to improve vaginal absorption of the estradiol. For example, a mucoadherent agent can be present to aid the pharmaceutical composition with adherence to the mucosa upon activation with water. According to embodiments, polycarbophil is the mucoadherent agent. According to embodiments, other mucoadherent agents include, for example and without limitation: poly (ethylene oxide) polymers having a molecular weight of from about 100,000 to about 900,000; chitosans carbopols including polymers of acrylic acid crosslinked with allyl sucrose or allyl pentaerythritol; polymers of acrylic acid and C10-C30 alkyl acrylate crosslinked with allyl pentaerythritol; carbomer homopolymer or copolymer that contains a block copolymer of polyethylene glycol and a long chain alkyl acid ester; and the like. According to embodiments, various hydrophilic polymers and hydrogels may be used as the mucoadherent agent. According to certain embodiments, the polymers or hydrogels can swell in response to contact with vaginal tissue or secretions, enhancing moisturizing and mucoadherent effects. The selection and amount of hydrophilic polymer may be based on the selection and amount of solubilizing agent. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition includes a hydrophilic polymer but optionally excludes a gelling agent. In embodiments having a hydrogel, from about 5% to about 10% of the total mass may comprise the hydrophilic polymer. In further embodiments, hydrogels may be employed. A hydrogel may comprise chitosan, which swell in response to contact with water. In various embodiments, a cream pharmaceutical composition may comprise PEG-90M. In some embodiments, a mucoadherent agent is present in the pharmaceutical formulation, in the soft gel capsule, or both. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions include one or more thermoreversible gels, typically of the hydrophilic nature including for example and without limitation, hydrophilic sucrose and other saccharide-based monomers (U.S. Pat. No. 6,018,033, which is incorporated by reference). According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises a lubricant. In some embodiments, a lubricant can be present to aid in formulation of a dosage form. For example, a lubricant may be added to ensure that capsules or tablets do not stick to one another during processing or upon storage. Any suitable lubricant may be used. For example, lecithin, which is a mixture of phospholipids, is the lubricant. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises an antioxidant. Any suitable anti-oxidant may be used. For example, butylated hydroxytoluene, butylated hydroxyanisole, and Vitamin E TPGS. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises about 20% to about 80% solubilizing agent by weight, about 0.1% to about 5% lubricant by weight, and about 0.01% to about 0.1% antioxidant by weight. The choice of excipient will depend on factors such as, for example, the effect of the excipient on solubility and stability. Additional excipients used in various embodiments may include colorants and preservatives. Examples of colorants include FD&C colors (e.g., blue No. 1 and Red No. 40), D&C colors (e.g., Yellow No. 10), and opacifiers (e.g., Titanium dioxide). According to embodiments, colorants, comprise about 0.1% to about 2% of the pharmaceutical composition by weight. According to embodiments, preservatives in the pharmaceutical composition comprise methyl and propyl paraben, in a ratio of about 10:1, and at a proportion of about 0.005% and 0.05% by weight. Generally, the solubilizing agents, excipients, other additives used in the pharmaceutical compositions described herein, are non-toxic, pharmaceutically acceptable, compatible with each other, and maintain stability of the pharmaceutical composition and the various components with respect to each other. Additionally, the combination of various components that comprise the pharmaceutical compositions will maintain will result in the desired therapeutic effect when administered to a subject. Solubility of Estradiol According to embodiments, solubilizing agents comprising mixtures of medium chain fatty acid glycerides, e.g., C6-C12, C8-C12, or C8-C10 fatty acid mono- and diglycerides or mono-, di-, and triglycerides dissolve estradiol. As illustrated in the Examples, good results were obtained with solubilizing agents that are predominantly a mixture of C8-C10 saturated fatty acid mono- and diglycerides, or medium chain triglycerides (e.g., Miglyol 810 or 812). Longer chain glycerides appear to be not as well suited for dissolution of estradiol. A solubilizing agent comprising propylene glycol monocaprylate (e.g., CAPRYOL) and 2-(2-Ethoxyethoxy)ethanol (e.g., TRANSCUTOL) solubilized estradiol well. Manufacture of the Pharmaceutical Composition According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is prepared via blending estradiol with a pharmaceutically acceptable solubilizing agent, including for example and without limitation, at least one medium chain fatty acid such as medium chain fatty acids consisting of at least one mono-, di-, or triglyceride, or derivatives thereof, or combinations thereof. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition also comprises at least one glycol or derivatives thereof or combinations thereof or combinations of at least one glyceride and glycol. The glycol(s) may be used as solubilizing agents or to adjust viscosity and, thus, may be considered thickening agents, as discussed further herein. Optionally added are other excipients including, for example and without limitation, anti-oxidants, lubricants, and the like. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises sufficient solubilizing agent to fully solubilize the estradiol. It is expressly understood, however, the other volumes of solubilizing agent can be used depending on the level of estradiol solubilization desired. Persons of ordinary skill in the art will know and understand how to determine the volume of solubilizing agent and other excipients depending on the desired percent of estradiol to be solubilized in the pharmaceutical composition. In illustrative embodiments, GELUCIRE 44/14 (lauroyl macrogol-32 glycerides EP, lauroyl polyoxyl-32 glycerides NF, lauroyl polyoxylglycerides (USA FDA IIG)) is heated to about 65° C. and CAPMUL MCM is heated to about 40° C. to facilitate mixing of the oil and non-ionic surfactant, although such heating is not necessary to dissolve the estradiol. Specific Examples disclosed herein provide additional principles and embodiments illustrating the manufactures of the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein. Delivery Vehicle Generally, the pharmaceutical compositions described herein delivered intravaginally inside of a delivery vehicle, for example a capsule. According to embodiments, the capsules are soft capsules made of materials well known in the pharmaceutical arts, for example, gelatin. However, according to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is integral with the pharmaceutical composition (i.e., the pharmaceutical composition is the delivery vehicle). In such embodiments the pharmaceutical compositions is a gel, cream, ointment, tablet, or other preparation that is directly applied and absorbed vaginally. According to embodiments, pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are contained in capsules, such as soft gelatin capsules. According to embodiments, the capsules contain one or more of the following: hydrophilic gel-forming bioadhesive (e.g., mucoadhesive) agents; a lipophilic agent; a gelling agent for the lipophilic agent, or a hydrodispersible agent. According to embodiments, the hydrophilic gel-forming bioadhesive agent is carboxyvinylic acid; hydroxypropylcellulose; carboxymethylcellulose; gelatin; xanthane gum; guar gum; aluminum silicate; or mixtures thereof. According to embodiments, the lipophilic agent is a liquid triglyceride; solid triglyceride (e.g., with a melting point of about 35° C.); carnauba wax; cocoa butter; or mixtures thereof. According to embodiments, the gelling agent is a hydrophobic colloidal silica. According to embodiments, the hydrodispersible agent is: polyoxyethylene glycol; polyoxyethylene glycol 7-glyceryl-cocoate; or mixtures thereof. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is designed for ease of insertion. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is sized whereby it can be comfortably inserted into the vagina. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is prepared in a variety of geometries. For example, the delivery vehicle is shaped as a tear drop, a cone with frustoconical end, a cylinder, a cylinder with larger “cap” portion, or other shapes suitable for and that ease insertion into the vagina. According to embodiments, delivery vehicle is used in connection with an applicator. According to other embodiments, delivery vehicle is inserted digitally. With reference to FIG. 2, delivery vehicle 200 comprises pharmaceutical composition 202 and capsule 204. Width 208 represents the thickness of capsule 204, for example about 0.108 inches. The distance from one end of delivery vehicle 200 to another is represented by distance 206, for example about 0.690 inches. The size of delivery vehicle 200 may also be described by the arc swept by a radius of a given length. For example, arc 210, which is defined by the exterior of gelatin 204, is an arc swept by a radius of about 0.189 inches. Arc 212, which is defined by the interior of capsule 204, is an arc swept by a radius of about 0.0938 inches. Arc 214, which is defined by the exterior of gelatin 204 opposite arc 210, is an arc swept by a radius of about 0.108 inches. Suitable capsules of other dimensions may be provided. According to embodiments, capsule 204 has dimensions the same as or similar to the ratios as provided above relative to each other. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is designed to remaining in the vagina until the pharmaceutical compositions are released. According to embodiments, delivery vehicle dissolves intravaginally and is absorbed into the vaginal tissue with the pharmaceutical composition, which minimizes vaginal discharge. In such embodiments, delivery mechanism is made from constituents that are non-toxic, for example, gelatin. Design Factors for Vaginally Inserted Pharmaceutical Compositions According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is designed to maximize favorable characteristics that lead to patient compliance (patients that discontinue treatment prior to completion of the prescribed course of therapy), without sacrificing efficacy. Favorable characteristics include, for example, lack of or reduction of irritation relative to other hormone replacement pessaries, lack of or reduction in vaginal discharge of the pharmaceutical composition and delivery vehicle relative to other hormone replacement pessaries, lack of or reduction of pharmaceutical composition or delivery vehicle residue inside the vagina, ease of administration compared to other hormone replacement pessaries, or improved efficacy of drug product relative to otherwise similar pharmaceutical compositions. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is non-irritating or minimizes irritation. Patient irritation comprises pain, pruritis (itching), soreness, excessive discharge, swelling, or other similar conditions. Patient irritation results in poor compliance. Non-irritating or reduced irritation pharmaceutical compositions are measured relative to competing hormone pessaries, including tablets, creams, or other intravaginal estrogen delivery forms. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions does not result in systemic exposure (e.g., blood circulation of estradiol), which improves safety. According to other embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein result in significantly reduced systemic exposure (e.g., blood circulation of estradiol) when compared to RLDs. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition does not leave residue inside the vagina. Rather, the pharmaceutical composition and delivery vehicle are substantially absorbed or dispersed without resulting in unabsorbed residue or unpleasant sensations of non-absorbed or non-dispersed drug product. Measurement of lack of residue is relative to other vaginally inserted products or can be measured objectively with inspection of the vaginal tissues. For example, certain other vaginally inserted products contain starch which can result in greater discharge from the vagina following administration than. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions provided herein provide a lower amount, duration, or frequency of discharge following administration compared to other vaginally inserted products (e.g., compressed tablets). According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition improves vaginal discharge compared to other pessaries, including pessaries that deliver hormones. Ideally, vaginal discharge is eliminated, minimized, or improved compared to competing products. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are inserted digitally. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are digitally inserted approximately two inches into the vagina without a need for an applicator. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are designed to be also inserted with an applicator, if desired. According to some embodiments, because the site of VVA is in the proximal region of the vagina (towards the vaginal opening), the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are designed to be inserted in the proximal portion of the vagina. Through extensive experimentation, various medium chain fatty acid esters of glycerol and propylene glycol demonstrated one or more favorable characteristics for development as a human drug product. According to embodiments, the solubilizing agent was selected from at least one of a solvent or co-solvent. Suitable solvents and co-solvents include any mono-, di- or triglyceride and glycols, and combinations thereof. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is delivered via a gelatin capsule delivery vehicle. According to these embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is a liquid pharmaceutical composition. According to embodiments, the delivery vehicle is a soft capsule, for example a soft gelatin capsule. Thus, the pharmaceutical composition of such embodiments is encapsulated in the soft gelatin capsule or other soft capsule. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises estradiol that is at least about 80% solubilized in a solubilizing agent comprising one or more C6 to C14 medium chain fatty acid mono-, di-, or triglycerides and, optionally, a thickening agent. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises estradiol that is at least about 80% solubilized one or more C6 to C12 medium chain fatty acid mono-, di-, or triglycerides, e.g., one or more C6 to C14 triglycerides, e.g., one or more C6 to C12 triglycerides, such as one or more C8-C10 triglycerides. These embodiments specifically contemplate the estradiol being at least 80% solubilized. These embodiments specifically contemplate the estradiol being at least 90% solubilized. These embodiments specifically contemplate the estradiol being at least 95% solubilized. These embodiments specifically contemplate the estradiol being fully solubilized. As noted above, liquid pharmaceutical compositions are liquid at room temperature or at body temperature. For example, in some embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition provided herein is a liquid formulation contained within a soft gel capsule. Gels, hard fats, or other solid forms that are not liquid at room or body temperature are less desirable in embodiments of the pharmaceutical composition that are liquid. The thickening agent serves to increase viscosity, e.g., up to about 10,000 cP (10,000 mPa-s), typically to no more than about 5000 cP, and more typically to between about 50 and 1000 cP. In embodiments, the non-ionic surfactant, e.g., GELUCIRE or TEFOSE, may be solid at room temperature and require melting to effectively mix with the solubilizing agent. However, in these embodiments, the resultant pharmaceutical composition remains liquid, albeit with greater viscosity, not solid. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises estradiol, the medium chain solubilizing agent, and the thickening agent as the ingredients delivered via a soft capsule delivery vehicle. Other ingredients, e.g., colorants, antioxidants, preservatives, or other ingredients may be included as well. However, the addition of other ingredients should be in amounts that do not materially change the solubility of the estradiol, the pharmacokinetics of the pharmaceutical composition, or efficacy of the pharmaceutical composition. Other factors that should be considered when adjusting the ingredients of the pharmaceutical composition include the irritation, vaginal discharge, intravaginal residue, and other relevant factors, for example those that would lead to reduced patient compliance. Other contemplated ingredients include: oils or fatty acid esters, lecithin, mucoadherent agents, gelling agents, dispersing agents, or the like. Methods According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein can be used for the treatment of VVA, including the treatment of at least one VVA symptom including: vaginal dryness, vaginal or vulvar irritation or itching, dysuria, dysparuenia, and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity, among others. According to embodiments the methods of treatment are generally applicable to females. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein can be used for the treatment of estrogen-deficient urinary states. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein can be used for the treatment of dyspareunia, or vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. According to embodiments, treatment of the VVA, estrogen-deficient urinary states, and dyspareunia and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity occurs by administering the pharmaceutical compositions intravaginally. According to embodiments where the delivery vehicle is a capsule, the patient obtains the capsule and inserts the capsule into vagina, where the capsule dissolves and the pharmaceutical composition is releases into the vagina where it is absorbed into the vaginal tissue. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is completely absorbed into the vaginal tissue. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is substantially absorbed into the vaginal tissue (e.g., at least about 80% by weight, at least about 85% by weight, at least about 90% by weight, at least about 95% by weight, at least about 97% by weight, at least about 98% by weight, or at least about 99% by weight of the composition is absorbed). According to embodiments, the capsule is inserted about two inches into the vagina digitally, however the depth of insertion is generally any depth that allows for adsorption of substantially all of the pharmaceutical composition. According to embodiments, the capsule can also be applied using an applicator that deposits the capsule at an appropriate vaginal depth as disclosed herein. According to embodiments where the pharmaceutical composition is a cream, gel, ointment, or other similar preparation, the pharmaceutical composition is applied digitally, as is well known and understood in the art. Upon release of the pharmaceutical composition in the vagina, estradiol is locally absorbed. For example, following administration of the pessary to the proximal region of the vagina of a patient provides a therapeutically effective concentration of estradiol over 24 hours in the proximal region of the vagina. According to embodiments, the timing of administration of the pharmaceutical composition of this disclosure may be conducted by any safe means as prescribed by an attending physician. According to embodiments, a patient will administer the pharmaceutical composition (e.g., a capsule) intravaginally each day for 14 days, then twice weekly thereafter. According to embodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are vaginally administered with co-administration of an orally administered estrogen-based (or progestin-based or progestin- and estrogen-based) pharmaceutical drug product, or patch, cream, gel, spray, transdermal delivery system or other parenterally-administered estrogen-based pharmaceutical drug product, each of which can include natural, bio-similar, or synthetic or other derived estrogens or progestins. According to embodiments, modulation of circulating estrogen levels provided via the administration of the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein, if any, are not intended to be additive to any co-administered estrogen product and its associated circulating blood levels. According to other embodiments, co-administrated estrogen products are intended to have an additive effect as would be determined by the patient physician. According to embodiments, the efficacy and safety of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein in the treatment of the symptoms of VVA may be determined. According to embodiments, the size, effect, cytology, histology, and variability of the VVA may be determined using various endpoints to determine efficacy and safety of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein or as otherwise accepted in the art, at present or as further developed. On source of endpoints is with the US Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) published guidelines for treatment of VVA with estradiol. Measurement of Efficacy According to embodiments, administration of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein resulted in treatment of the VVA, as well as improvement of one or more of the associated symptoms. Patients with VVA experience shrinking of the vaginal canal in both length and diameter and the vaginal canal has fewer glycogen-rich vaginal cells to maintain moisture and suppleness. In addition, the vaginal wall can become thin, pale, dry, or sometimes inflamed (atrophic vaginitis). These changes can manifest as a variety of symptoms collectively referred to as VVA. Such symptoms include, without limitations, an increase in vaginal pH; reduction of vaginal epithelial integrity, vaginal secretions, or epithelial surface thickness; pruritis; vaginal dryness; dyspareunia (pain or bleeding during sexual intercourse); urinary tract infections; or a change in vaginal color. According to embodiments, efficacy is measured as a reduction of vulvar and vaginal atrophy in a patient back to premenopausal conditions. According to embodiments, the change is measured as a reduction in the severity of one or more atrophic effects measured at baseline (screening, Day 1) and compared to a measurement taken at Day 15 (end of treatment). Severity of the atrophic effect may be measured using a scale of 0 to 3 where, for example, none=0, mild=1, moderate=2, or severe=3. Such scoring is implemented to evaluate the pre-treatment condition of patients; to determine the appropriate course of a treatment regime; such as dosage, dosing frequency, and duration, among others; and post-treatment outcomes. One of the symptoms of VVA is increased vaginal pH. In further aspects of this disclosure, treatment with the pharmaceutical compositions described herein resulted in a decrease in vaginal pH. A decrease in vaginal pH is measured as a decrease from the vaginal pH at baseline (screening) to the vaginal pH at Day 15, according to embodiments. In some embodiments, a pH of 5 or greater may be associated with VVA. In some embodiments, pH is measured using a pH indicator strip placed against the vaginal wall. In some embodiments, a change in vaginal pH is a change in a patient's vaginal pH to a pH of less than about pH 5.0. In some embodiments, a subject's vaginal pH may be less than about pH 4.9, pH 4.8, pH 4.7, pH 4.6, pH 4.5, pH 4.4, pH 4.3, pH 4.2, pH 4.1, pH 4.0, pH 3.9, pH 3.8, pH 3.7, pH 3.6, or pH 3.5. According to embodiments, treatment with the pharmaceutical compositions described herein resulted in improvements in the vaginal Maturation Index. The Maturation Index is measured as a change in cell composition. According to embodiments and as related to VVA, a change in cell composition is measured as the change in percent of composition or amount of parabasal vaginal cells, intermediate cells, and superficial vaginal cells, such as a change in the composition or amount of parabasal vaginal cells compared with or, relative to, a change in superficial vaginal cells. A subject having VVA symptoms often has an increased number of parabasal cells and a reduced number of superficial cells (e.g., less than about 5%) compared with women who do not suffer from VVA. Conversely, a subject having decreasing VVA symptoms, or as otherwise responding to treatment, may demonstrate an improvement in the Maturation Index, specifically a decrease in the amount of parabasal cells or an increase in the amount of superficial cells compared to baseline (screening). In embodiments, a decrease in parabasal cells is measured as a reduction in the percent of parabasal cells; the percent reduction may be at least about an 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15% or 10% reduction in the number of parabasal cells. In embodiments, a percent reduction may be at least about a 54% reduction in the number of parabasal cells. In embodiments, an increase in superficial cells is measured as an increase in the percent of superficial cells; the percent increase in superficial cells may be at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% increase in the number of superficial cells. In further embodiments, a percent increase may be at least about a 35% increase in the number of superficial cells. In some embodiments, an improvement in the Maturation Index is assessed as a change over time. For example, as a change in cell composition measured at a baseline (screening) at Day 1 compared to the cell composition measured at Day 15. The change in cell composition may also be assessed as a change in the amount of parabasal cells over time, optionally in addition to measuring changes in parabasal cells and superficial cells as described above. Such cells may be obtained from the vaginal mucosal epithelium through routine gynecological examination and examined by means of a vaginal smear. In various further aspects of this disclosure, treatment with the pharmaceutical compositions described herein resulted in any of: an increase in superficial cells; a decrease in parabasal cells; and an increase in intermediate cells. In further aspects of this disclosure, samples may be collected to determine hormone levels, in particular, estradiol levels. In some embodiments, blood samples may be taken from a subject and the level of estradiol measured (pg/ml). In some embodiments, estradiol levels may be measured at 0 hours (for example, at time of first treatment), at 1 hour (for example, post first treatment), at 3 hours, and at 6 hours. In some embodiments, samples may be taken at day 8 (for example, post first treatment) and at day 15 (for example, one day post the last treatment on day 14). In some embodiments, descriptive statistics of plasma estradiol concentrations at each sampling time and observed Cmax and Tmax values may be measured and the AUC calculated. In some embodiments, a pessary can comprise about 25 μg of estradiol. In such cases, administration of the pessary to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, parameters including one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 19 pg*hr/ml to about 29 pg*hr/ml (e.g., 19.55 pg*hr/ml to about 28.75 pg*hr/ml); or 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 75 pg*hr/ml to about 112 pg*hr/ml (e.g., 75.82 pg*hr/ml to about 111.50). In some embodiments, administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 9 pg*hr/ml to about 14 pg*hr/ml (e.g., 9.17 pg*hr/ml to about 13.49 pg*hr/ml); and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 43 pg*hr/ml to about 65 pg*hr/ml (e.g., 43.56 pg*hr/ml to about 64.06 pg*hr/ml). In some embodiments, administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, provides one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 416 pg*hr/ml to about 613 pg*hr/ml (e.g., 416.53 pg*hr/ml to about 612.55 pg*hr/ml); and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 3598 pg*hr/ml to about 5291 pg*hr/ml (e.g., 3598.04 pg*hr/ml to about 5291.24 pg*hr/ml). In some embodiments, a pessary can comprise about 10 μg of estradiol. In such cases, administration of the pessary to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 12 pg*hr/ml to about 18 pg*hr/ml (e.g., 12.22 pg*hr/ml to about 17.98 pg*hr/ml); 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 42 pg*hr/ml to about 63 pg*hr/ml (e.g., 42.18 pg*hr/ml to about 62.02 pg*hr/ml); and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estradiol of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs (e.g., 1.49 hrs to about 2.19 hrs). In some embodiments, administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 4 pg*hr/ml to about 7 pg*hr/ml (e.g., 4.38 pg*hr/ml to about 6.44 pg*hr/ml); 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 20 pg*hr/ml to about 31 pg*hr/ml (e.g., 20.60 pg*hr/ml to about 30.30 pg*hr/ml); and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone of about 4 hrs to about 8 hrs (e.g., 4.99 hrs to about 7.34 hrs). In some embodiments, administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 10 pg*hr/ml to about 16 pg*hr/ml (e.g., 10.34 pg*hr/ml to about 15.20 pg*hr/ml); 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 56 pg*hr/ml to about 84 pg*hr/ml (e.g., 56.61 pg*hr/ml to about 83.25 pg*hr/ml); and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone sulfate of about 4 hrs to about 7 hrs (e.g., 4.67 hrs to about 6.86 hrs). In some embodiments, a pessary can comprise about 4 μg of estradiol. In such cases, administration of the pessary to a patient can provide, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol of about 4 pg*hr/ml to about 8 pg*hr/ml; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol of about 16 pg*hr/ml to about 26 pg*hr/ml; and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estradiol of about 0.25 hrs to about 2 hrs. In some embodiments, administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone of about 1 pg*hr/ml to about 3 pg*hr/ml; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone of about 8 pg*hr/ml to about 13 pg*hr/ml; and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone of about 1 hrs to about 4 hrs. In some embodiments, administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient, one or more parameters selected from: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate of about 4 pg*hr/ml to about 7 pg*hr/ml; 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 22 pg*hr/ml to about 34 pg*hr/ml; and 3) a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (Tmax) of estrone sulfate of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. A pharmaceutical composition provided herein can result in substantially local delivery of estradiol. For example, plasma concentrations of estradiol, estrone, and estrone sulfate measured in the plasma of a patient following administration of a pharmaceutical composition as provided herein be statistically similar to those measured following administration of a placebo formulation (i.e. a similar formulation lacking the estradiol). Accordingly, in some embodiments, the plasma concentrations of estradiol, estrone, or estrone sulfate measured following administration of a pharmaceutical composition provided herein may be low compared to RLD formulations. In some embodiments, a pessary can include about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. Upon administration the pessary to a patient, a plasma sample from the patient can provide a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol that is less than about 30 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estradiol that is less than about 18 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 112 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 63 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone that is less than about 14 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone that is less than about 7 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 65 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone that is less than about 31 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 613 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 16 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 5291 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC)0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 84 pg*hr/ml. In further aspects of this disclosure, capsule disintegration may be determined. In some embodiments, delivery vehicle disintegration or absorption (presence or absence of the delivery vehicle after administration) at day 1 of treatment (for example, at 6 hours post first treatment) and at day 15 (for example, one day post the last treatment on day 14). Statistical Measurements According to embodiments, pharmacokinetics of the pharmaceutical composition disclosed herein are measured using statistical analysis. According to embodiments, Analysis of Variance (“ANOVA”) or Analysis of CoVariance (“ANCOVA”) are used to evaluate differences between a patient receiving treatment with a pharmaceutical composition comprising an active pharmaceutical composition (for example, a pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol) and a patient receiving treatment with a placebo (for example, the same pharmaceutical composition but without estradiol) or a reference drug. A person of ordinary skill in the art will understand how to perform statistical analysis of the data collected. EXAMPLES The following examples are of pharmaceutical compositions, delivery vehicles, and combinations thereof. Methods of making are also disclosed. Data generated using the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein are also disclosed. Example 1 Pharmaceutical Composition In embodiments, estradiol is procured and combined with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable solubilizing agents. The estradiol is purchased as a pharmaceutical grade ingredient, often as micronized estradiol, although other forms can also be used. In embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises estradiol in a dosage strength of from about 1 μg to about 50 μg. In embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises 10 μg of estradiol. In embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises 25 μg of estradiol. In embodiments, the estradiol is combined with pharmaceutically acceptable solubilizing agents, and, optionally, other excipients, to form a pharmaceutical composition. In embodiments, the solubilizing agent is one or more of CAPMUL MCM, MIGLYOL 812, GELUCIRE 39/01, GELUCIRE 43/01, GELUCIRE 50/13, and TEFOSE 63. GELUCIRE 39/01 and GELUCIRE 43/01 each have an HLB value of 1. GELUCIRE 50/13 has an HLB value of 13. TEFOSE 63 has an HLB value of between 9 and 10. Various combinations of pharmaceutically acceptable solubilizing agents were combined with estradiol and examined as shown in Table 1. Pharmaceutical compositions in Table 1 that were liquid or semisolid at room temperature were tested using a Brookfield viscometer (Brookfield Engineering Laboratories, Middleboro, Mass.) at room temperature. Pharmaceutical compositions appearing in Table 1 that were solid at ambient temperature were tested using a Brookfield viscometer at 37° C. Pharmaceutical compositions appearing in Table 1 that were solid at room temperature were assessed at 37° C. to determine their melting characteristics. The viscosity of the gels can be important during encapsulation of the formulation. For example, in some cases, it is necessary to warm the formulation prior to filing of the gelatin capsules. In addition, the melting characteristics of the composition can have important implications following administration of the formulation into the body. For example, in some embodiments, the formulation will melt at temperatures below about 37° C. Pharmaceutical Composition 11 (Capmul MCM/Tefose 63), for example, did not melt at 37° C. or 41° C. A dispersion assessment of the pharmaceutical compositions appearing in Table 1 was performed. The dispersion assessment was performed by transferring 300 mg of each vehicle system in 100 ml of 37° C. water, without agitation, and observing for mixing characteristics. Results varied from formation of oil drops on the top to separation of phases to uniform, but cloudy dispersions. Generally speaking, it is believed that formulations able to readily disperse in aqueous solution will have better dispersion characteristics upon administration. It was surprisingly found, however, as shown below in Examples 7-9, that formulations that did not readily disperse in aqueous solution (e.g., Formulation 13) and instead formed two phases upon introduction to the aqueous solution were found to be the most effective when administered to the human body. Example 2 Delivery Vehicle In embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition is delivered in a gelatin capsule delivery vehicle. The gelatin capsule delivery vehicle comprises, for example, gelatin (e.g., Gelatin, NF (150 Bloom, Type B)), hydrolyzed collagen (e.g., GELITA®, GELITA AG, Eberbach, Germany), glycerin, sorbitol special, or other excipients in proportions that are well known and understood by persons of ordinary skill in the art. Sorbitol special may be obtained commercially and may tend to act as a plasticizer and humectant. A variety of delivery vehicles were developed, as show in Table 2, Gels A through F. In Table 2, each delivery vehicle A through F differs in the proportion of one or more components. Each delivery vehicle A through F was prepared at a temperature range from about 45° C. to about 85° C. Each molten delivery vehicle A through F was cast into a film, dried, and cut into strips. The strips were cut into uniform pieces weighing about 0.5 g, with about 0.5 mm thickness. Strips were placed into a USP Type 2 dissolution vessel in either water or pH 4 buffer solution and the time for them to completely dissolve was recorded (see TABLE 2). Delivery vehicle A had the fastest dissolution in both water and pH 4 buffer solution. Example 3 Pharmaceutical Compositions and Delivery Vehicle Various combinations of the pharmaceutical compositions from TABLE 1 and from TABLE 2 were prepared. The combinations are shown in TABLE 3. TABLE 3 Delivery Trial Pharmaceutical Composition Ratio Batch Size g Vehicle 1 MCM:39/01 8:2 750 A 2 MCM:50/13 8:2 750 A 3 MCM:TEFOSE 63 8:2 750 A 4 MCM:TEFOSE 63 8:2 750 B 5 MIGLYOL 812:TEFOSE 63 9:1 750 A Each aliquot of the pharmaceutical compositions of Table 3 about 300 mg to about 310 mg. Batch size was as listed in TABLE 3. To encapsulate the vehicle system, each 300 mg to about 310 mg pharmaceutical composition aliquot was encapsulated in about 200 mg of the gelatin capsule delivery vehicle. Thus, for example, in Trial 1, the pharmaceutical composition denoted by MCM:39/01 was encapsulated in gelatin capsule delivery vehicle A for a total encapsulated weight of about 500 mg to about 510 mg. The aliquot size is arbitrary depending on the concentration of the estradiol and the desired gelatin capsule delivery vehicle size. Artisans will readily understand how to adjust the amount of estradiol in the pharmaceutical composition to accommodate a given size of delivery vehicle, when the delivery vehicle encapsulates the pharmaceutical composition. Example 4 Estradiol Solubility In various experiments, solubilizing agents were tested to determine whether they were able to solubilize 2 mg of estradiol for a total pharmaceutical composition weight of 100 mg. The solubilizing agents were considered suitable if estradiol solubility in the solubilizing agent was greater than or equal to about 20 mg/g. Initial solubility was measured by dissolving micronized estradiol into various solubilizing agents until the estradiol was saturated (the estradiol/solubilizing agent equilibrated for three days), filtering the undissolved estradiol, and analyzing the resulting pharmaceutical composition for estradiol concentration by HPLC. TABLE 4 Solubility of Solubilizing Agents (* denotes literature reference) Ingredient Solubility (mg/g) PEG 400 105* Propylene Glycol 75* Polysorbate 80 36* TRANSCUTOL HP 141 CAPMUL PG8 31.2 Example 5 Pharmaceutical Compositions The following pharmaceutical compositions are contemplated. Gel Mass Ingredient % w/w Qty/Batch (kg) Gelatin 150 Bloom Limed Bone, NF 41.00 82.00 Hydrolyzed Gelatin 3.00 6.00 Glycerin 99.7% 6.00 12.00 Sorbitol Special, NF 15.00 30.00 Opatint White G-18006 1.20 2.40 Opatine Red DG-15001 0.06 0.12 Purified Water, USP 33.74 67.48 Total 100.00 200.00 Kg Pharmaceutical Composition 1: 10 μg Estradiol Qty/Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, 0.010 0.003 0.10 g USP CAPMUL ® MCM, NF (Glyceryl 240.0 79.997 2.40 kg Caprylate/Caprate or Medium Chain Mono- and Diglycerides) GELUCIRE ® 50/13 (stearoyl 60.0 20.0 600.0 g polyoxyl-32 glycerides NF) Total 300.0 100.0 3.0 kg Pharmaceutical Composition 2: 10 μg Estradiol Qty/Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, 0.010 0.003 0.10 g USP MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 270.0 89.997 2.70 kg triglyceride) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.0 10.0 300.0 g stearate or ethylene glycol palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 3.00 kg Pharmaceutical Composition 3: 25 μg Estradiol Qty/Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, 0.026* 0.009 0.26 g USP MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 270.0 89.991 2.70 kg triglyceride) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.02 10.0 300.0 g stearate or ethylene glycol palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 3.00 kg *1.0 mg estradiol is equivalent to 1.03 mg estradiol hemihydrate Pharmaceutical Composition 4: 4 μg Estradiol Qty/Capsule Ingredients (mg) % w/w Qty/Batch Estradiol hemihydrate micronized, 0.0041* 0.001 0.041 g USP MIGLOYL ® 812 (medium chain 269.99 89.999 2700.0 g triglyceride) TEFOSE ® 63 (mixture of PEG-6 30.0 10.0 300.0 g stearate or ethylene glycol palmitostearate or PEG-32 stearate; polyoxyl 6 and polyoxyl 32 palmitostearate/glycol stearate) Total 300.0 100.0 3000.0 g *1.0 mg estradiol is equivalent to 1.03 mg estradiol hemihydrate Example 6 Process FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of a method making pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol solubilized in CapmulMCM/Gelucire solubilizing agent encapsulated in a soft gelatin delivery vehicle 100. In operation 102, the CapmulMCM is heated to 40° C.±5° C. Heating may be accomplished through any suitable means. The heating may be performed in any suitable vessel, such as a stainless steel vessel. Other pharmaceutical compositions can be made using the same general method by substituting various excipients, including the solubilizing agent. In operation 104, GELUCIRE is mixed with the CapmulMCM to form the finished solubilizing agent. As used herein, any form of GELUCIRE may be used in operation 104. For example, one or more of GELUCIRE 39/01, GELUCIRE 43/01, GELUCIRE 50/13 may be used in operation 104. Mixing is performed as would be known to persons of ordinary skill in the art, for example by impeller, agitator, stirrer, or other like devices used to mix pharmaceutical compositions. Operation 104 may be performed under an inert or relatively inert gas atmosphere, such as nitrogen gas. Mixing may be performed in any vessels that are known to persons of ordinary skill in the art, such as a stainless steel vessel or a steel tank. In operation 106 estradiol is mixed into the solubilizing agent. In embodiments, the estradiol in micronized when mixed into the solubilizing agent. In other embodiments, the estradiol added is in a non-micronized form. Mixing may be facilitated by an impeller, agitator, stirrer, or other like devices used to mix pharmaceutical compositions. Operation 106 may be performed under an inert or relatively inert gas atmosphere, such as nitrogen gas. In embodiments, however, the addition of estradiol may be performed prior to operation 104. In that regard, operations 104 and 106 are interchangeable with respect to timing or can be performed contemporaneously with each other. In operation 110, the gelatin delivery vehicle is prepared. Any of the gelatin delivery vehicles described herein may be used in operation 110. In embodiments, gelatin, hydrolyzed collagen, glyercin, and other excipients are combined at a temperature range from about 45° C. to about 85° C. and prepared as a film. Mixing may occur in a steel tank or other container used for preparing gelatin delivery vehicles. Mixing may be facilitated by an impellor, agitator, stirrer, or other devices used to combine the contents of gelatin delivery vehicles. Operation 110 may be performed under an inert or relatively inert gas atmosphere, such as nitrogen gas. In embodiments, the gelatin delivery vehicle mixture is degassed prior to being used to encapsulate the pharmaceutical composition. In operation 112, the gelatin delivery vehicle encapsulates the pharmaceutical composition, according to protocols well known to persons of ordinary skill in the art. In operation 112, a soft gelatin capsule delivery vehicle is prepared by combining the pharmaceutical composition made in operation 106 with the gelatin delivery vehicle made in operation 110. The gelatin may be wrapped around the material, partially or fully encapsulating it or the gelatin can also be injected or otherwise filled with the pharmaceutical composition made in operation 106. In embodiments, operation 112 is completed in a suitable die to provide a desired shape. Vaginal soft gel capsules may be prepared in a variety of geometries. For example, vaginal soft gel capsules may be shaped as a tear drop, a cone with frustoconical end, a cylinder, a cylinder with larger “cap” portion as illustrated in FIG. 2, or other shapes suitable for insertion into the vagina. The resulting pharmaceutical composition encapsulated in the soft gelatin delivery vehicle may be inserted digitally or with an applicator. Example 7 Study of Estradiol Pharmaceutical Composition on the Improvement of Vulvovaginal Atrophy (VVA) The objective of this study was designed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a pharmaceutical composition comprising 10 μg estradiol (i.e., Pharmaceutical Composition 2) in treating moderate to severe symptoms of VVA associated with menopause after 14 days of treatment, and to estimate the effect size and variability of vulvovaginal atrophy endpoints. In addition, the systemic exposure to estradiol from single and multiple doses of the pharmaceutical composition was investigated. This study was a phase 1, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to evaluate safety and efficacy of the pharmaceutical composition in reducing moderate to severe symptoms of vaginal atrophy associated with menopause and to investigate the systemic exposure to estradiol following once daily intravaginal administrations of a pharmaceutical composition for 14 days. Postmenopausal subjects who met the study entry criteria were randomized to one of two treatment groups (pharmaceutical composition or placebo). During the screening period subjects were asked to self-assess the symptoms of VVA, including vaginal dryness, vaginal or vulvar irritation or itching, dysuria, vaginal pain associated with sexual activity, and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Subjects with at least one self-assessed moderate to severe symptom of VVA identified by the subject as being most bothersome to her were eligible to participate in the study. Clinical evaluations were performed at the following time points: Screening Period (up to 28 days); Visit 1—Randomization/Baseline (day 1); Visit 2—Interim (day 8); and Visit 3—End of the treatment (day 15). Eligible subjects were randomized in a 1:1 ratio to receive either pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol 10 μg or a matching placebo vaginal softgel capsule, and self-administered their first dose of study medication at the clinical facility under the supervision of the study personnel. Serial blood samples for monitoring of estradiol level were collected at 0.0, 1.0, 3.0, and 6.0 hours relative to first dose administration on day 1. Subjects remained at the clinical site until completion of the 6-hour blood draw and returned to clinical facility for additional single blood draws for measurement of estradiol concentration on day 8 (before the morning dose) and day 15. Subjects were provided with enough study medication until the next scheduled visit and were instructed to self-administer their assigned study treatment once a day intravaginally at approximately the same time (±1 hour) every morning. Each subject was provided with a diary in which she was required to daily record investigational drug dosing dates and times. Subjects returned to clinical facility on day 8 for interim visit and on day 15 for end of treatment assessments and post study examinations. Capsule disintegration state was assessed by the investigator at day 1 (6 hours post-dose) and day 15. The study involved a screening period of up to 28 days before randomization and treatment period of 14 days. Selection of dosage strength (estradiol 10 μg) and treatment regimen (once daily for two weeks) was based on the FDA findings on safety and efficacy of the RLD. Number of Subjects (Planned and Analyzed) Up to 50 (25 per treatment group) postmenopausal female subjects 40 to 75 years old with symptoms of moderate to severe VVA were randomized. 50 subjects were enrolled, 48 subjects completed the study, and 48 subjects were analyzed. Diagnosis and Main Criteria for Inclusion Fifty female subjects were enrolled in the study. Post-menopausal female subjects 40 to 75 years of age, with a mean age was 62.3 years were enrolled. Subjects' mean weight (kg) was 71.2 kg with a range of 44.5-100 kg. Subjects' mean height (cm) was 162.6 cm with a range of 149.9-175.2 cm, and the mean BMI (kg/m2) was 26.8 kg/m2 with a range of 19-33 kg/m2. Criteria of inclusion in the study included: self-identification of at least one moderate to severe symptom of VVA, for example, vaginal dryness, dysparuenia, vaginal or vulvar irritation, burning, or itching, dysuria, vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity, that was identified by the subject as being most bothersome to her; ≤5% superficial cells on vaginal smear cytology; vaginal pH>5.0; and estradiol level ≤50 pg/ml. Subject who were judged as being in otherwise generally good health on the basis of a pre-study physical examination, clinical laboratory tests, pelvic examination, and mammography were enrolled. Estradiol 10 μg or Placebo, Dose, and Mode of Administration Subjects were randomly assigned (in 1:1 allocation) to self-administer one of the following treatments intravaginally once daily for 14 days: Treatment A: The pharmaceutical composition of Example 5 (Pharmaceutical Composition 2: 10 μg estradiol); or Treatment B: Placebo vaginal softgel capsule, containing the same formulation as Treatment A, except for the 10 μg of estradiol. The estradiol formulation was a tear drop shaped light pink soft gel capsule. Treatment B had the same composition, appearance, and route of administration as the Treatment A, but contained no estradiol. Duration of Treatment The study involved a screening period of up to 28 days before randomization and a treatment period of 14 days. Criteria for Evaluation Efficacy Endpoints: Change from baseline (screening) to day 15 in the Maturation Index (percent of parabasal vaginal cells, superficial vaginal cells, and intermediate vaginal cells) of the vaginal smear. Data for this endpoint are shown in Tables 6-8. Change from baseline (screening) to day 15 in vaginal pH. Data for this endpoint are shown in Table 9. Change from baseline (randomization) to day 15 in severity of the most bothersome symptoms: (1) vaginal dryness; (2) vaginal or vulvar irritation, burning, or itching; (3) dysuria; (4) dysparuenia; (5) vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Data for this endpoint are shown in Tables 13 and 15. Change from baseline (randomization) to day 15 in investigator's assessment of the vaginal mucosa. Data for this endpoint are shown in Tables 18-21. Unless otherwise noted, the efficacy endpoints were measured as a change-from Visit 1—Randomization/Baseline (day 1) to Visit 3—End of the treatment (day 15), except for vaginal bleeding which was expressed as either treatment success or failure. Other endpoints include: Vital signs, weight, changes in physical exam, pelvic and breast exam, and adverse events were evaluated as part of the safety endpoints. Concentration of estradiol at each sampling time. Peak concentration of estradiol on day 1 and sampling time at which peak occurred. Delivery vehicle disintegration to measure the amount of residual delivery vehicle remains in the vagina post treatment. Results from the assessment of plasma concentrations of estradiol are presented in Table 5. TABLE 5 Safety Results: The descriptive statistics for Day 1 plasma estradiol Cmax and Tmax are provided below. Estradiol 10 μg Placebo Cmax Tmax Cmax Tmax N 24 24 26 26 Mean ± SD 30.7 ± 7.47 2.12 ± 1.73 27.5 ± 17.26 4.00 ± 2.68 Geometric 29.9 — 24.7 — Mean Median 29.8 1.00 22.1 6.00 Min, Max 19.7, 52.3 1.00, 6.00 15.1, 90.0 0.00, 6.00 CV % 24.3% 81.3% 62.9% 67.1% Other Endpoints: Maturation Index Results Vaginal cytology data was collected as vaginal smears from the lateral vaginal walls according to standard procedures to evaluate vaginal cytology at screening and Visit 3—End of treatment (day 15). The change in the Maturation Index was assessed as a change in cell composition measured at Visit 1—Baseline (day 1) compared to the cell composition measured at Visit 3—End of treatment (day 15). The change in percentage of superficial, parabasal, and intermediate cells obtained from the vaginal mucosal epithelium from a vaginal smear was recorded. Results from these assessments are presented in Tables 6, 7, and 8. TABLE 6 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Screening) to Day 15 in the Maturation Index of the Vaginal Smear (Percent Parabasal Cells) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference P-value Intent-to-Treat N 24 24 — — — Least-Squares −54.4 −4.80 −49.6 (-60.4, −38.8) <0.0001 Mean Mean ± SD −53.8 ± 39.7 −5.4 ± 22.3 — — — Median −60.0 −5.0 — — — Min, Max −100.0, 0.0 −60.0, 60.0 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covanate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. TABLE 7 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Screening) to Day 15 in the Maturation Index of the Vaginal Smear (Superficial Cells) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference P-value Intent-to-Treat N 24 24 — — — Least-Squares 35.2 8.75 26.5 (15.4, 37.6) 0.0002 Mean Mean ± SD 35.2 ± 26.4 8.8 ± 18.7 — — — Median 40.0 0.0 — — — Min, Max 0.0, 80.0 0.0, 90.0 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANOVA with treatment as a fixed effect. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANOVA with treatment as a fixed effect. TABLE 8 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Screening) to Day 15 in the Maturation Index of the Vaginal Smear (Intermediate Cells) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference P-value2 Intent-to-Treat N 24 24 — — — Least-Squares 18.7 −3.54 22.3 (11.1, 33.5) 0.0017 Mean Mean ± SD 18.5 ± 42.7 −3.3 ± 21.6 — — — Median 22.5 −5.0 — — — Min, Max −60.0, 100.0 −60.0, 20.0 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covanate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. Change in pH Results Vaginal pH was measured at Screening and Visit 3—End of treatment (day 15). The pH measurement was obtained by pressing a pH indicator strip against the vaginal wall. The subjects entering the study were required to have a vaginal pH value greater than 5.0 at screening. pH values were recorded on the subject's case report form. The subjects were advised not to have sexual activity and to refrain from using vaginal douching within 24 hours prior to the measurement. Results from these assessments are presented in Table 9. TABLE 9 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Screening) to Day 15 in Vaginal pH Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent-to-Treat N 24 24 — — — Least-Squares −0.974 −0.339 −0.635 ( −0.900, −0.368) 0.0002 Mean Mean ± SD −0.917 ± 0.686 −0.396 ± 0.659 — — — Median −1.00 −0.500 — — — Min, Max −2.00, 0.500 −1.50, 0.500 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. Most Bothersome Symptoms Data Subjects were asked to specify the symptom that she identified as the “most bothersome symptom.” During the screening period all of the subjects were provided with a questionnaire to self-assess the symptoms of VVA: (1) vaginal dryness; (2) vaginal or vulvar irritation, burning, or itching; (3) dysuria; (4) dysparuenia; (5) vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Each symptom, with the exception of vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity, was measured on a scale of 0 to 3, where 0=none, 1=mild, 2=moderate, and 3=severe. Vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity was measured in a binary scale: N=no bleeding; Y=bleeding. The subject's responses were recorded. All randomized subjects were also provided a questionnaire to self-assess the symptoms of VVA at Visit 1—Randomization/Baseline (day 1) and at Visit 3—End of the treatment (day 15). Subjects recorded their self-assessments daily in a diary and answers were collected on days 8 and 15 (end of treatment). Pre-dose evaluation results obtained at Visit 1 were considered as baseline data for the statistical analyses. Data from these assessments are presented in Tables 10 and 11. TABLE 10 Baseline Characteristics for Vaginal Atrophy Symptoms (ITT Population) Estradiol 10 μg vs. Placebo VVA Symptom Statistics Estradiol 10 μg Placebo P-value1 Vaginal dryness N of Subjects 24 24 — Mean 2.292 2.375 0.68231 Vaginal or vulvar irritation/ N of Subjects 24 24 — burning/itching Mean 0.875 1.333 0.08721 Pain, burning or stinging N of Subjects 24 24 — when urinating Mean 0.583 0.625 0.87681 Vaginal pain associated N of Subjects2 12 12 — with sexual activity Mean 2.083 2.333 0.54281 Vaginal bleeding N of Subjects2 12 12 associated with sexual Percent3 25.00 33.33 0.31463 activity 1P-value for treatment comparison from ANOVA/ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and Baseline as a covariate when appropriate. 2N = number of subjects sexually active at baseline. 3Percent of subjects with bleeding, evaluated using Fisher's Exact Test. TABLE 11 Additional Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Severity of Vaginal Atrophy Symptoms Difference Estradiol Least-Squares Mean Between 10 μg vs. Statistical Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Symptom Method1 10 μg Placebo Means Difference2 P-value Vaginal dryness ANCOVA 0.980 0.729 0.251 −0.706, 0.204) 0.3597 Vaginal or ANCOVA 0.694 0.514 0.180 −0.549, 0.189) 0.4159 vulvar Irritation/buring/ itching Pain/Burning/ ANCOVA 0.391 0.359 0.032 −0.263, 0.200) 0.8185 Stinging (Urination) Vaginal pain ANOVA 0.800 0.500 0.300 −1.033, 0.433) 0.4872 associated with sexual activity 1ANOVA model contained a fixed effect for treatment. ANCOVA added baseline as a covariate to the model. 2Confidence interval for the difference between estradiol 10 μg and Placebo treatment least-squares means. Changes to the most bothersome symptom from the baseline was scored according to the evaluation of VVA symptoms generally set forth above. Tables 13 and 14 show a comparison between the pharmaceutical composition 1 and placebo generally for most bothersome symptom and vaginal atrophy symptom. It is noteworthy to point out that these measurement demonstrated a trend of improvement, though not statistically significant, at day 15. TABLE 13 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Severity of the Most Bothersome VVA Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent-to-Treat N 24 24 — — — Least-Squares −1.043 −1.042 −0.002 (−0.497, 0.493) 0.9951 Mean Mean ± SD −1.043 ± 0.928 −1.042 ± 1.08 — — — Median −1.00 −1.00 — — — Min, Max −3.00, 0.00 −3.00, 0.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANOVA with treatment as a fixed effect. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANOVA with treatment as a fixed effect. TABLE 14 Additional Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Severity of Vaginal Atrophy Symptoms Symptom TX-12- Difference 004-HR Least-Squares Mean Between vs. Statistical TX-12- Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Symptom Method1 004-HR Placebo Means Difference2 P-value Dryness ANCOVA −0.980 −0.729 −0.251 (−0.706, 0.204) 0.3597 Irritation ANCOVA −0.694 −0.514 −0.180 (−0.549, 0.189) 0.4159 Pain (Sex) ANOVA −0.800 −0.500 −0.300 (−1.033, 0.433) 0.4872 Pain/Burning/ ANOVA −0.391 −0.359 −0.032 (−0.263, 0.200) 0.8185 Stinging (Urination) 1ANOVA model contained a fixed effect for treatment. ANCOVA added baseline as a covariate to the model. 2Confidence interval for the difference between TX-12-004-HR and Placebo treatment least-squares means. With respect to the most bothersome symptoms data presented in Tables 13 and 14, the period over which the data was measured is generally considered insufficient to make meaningful conclusions. However, the trends observed as part of this study suggest that the data will show improvement of the most bothersome symptoms when data for a longer time period is collected. The absence or presence of any vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity was also measured as one of the most bothersome symptoms. The data for vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity is reported in Table 15. TABLE 15 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Vaginal Bleeding Associated with Sexual Activity Baseline (Randomization) and Day 15 Summary of Vaginal Bleeding No Bleeding/No Bleeding/ Bleeding/ No Bleeding/ Bleeding Bleeding Bleeding No Bleeding Treatment N* (Success)a (Failure) (Failure) (NC) Estradiol 10 μg 10 2 (100%) 0 0 8 Placebo 10 1 (20%) 3 1 5 P-Value for 0.1429 — — — Estradiol 10 μg vs. Placebo1 *N = Total number of patients within each treatment group who were sexually active at both Baseline and Day 15 and provided a response at both visits. NC = No Change - not considered in the statistical comparison. 1P-value for treatment comparison from Fisher's Exact Test. 2Percent is based on the number of subjects classified as either a Success or a Failure (N = 2 for estradiol 10 μg; N = 5 for Placebo Estradiol Level/Pharmacokinetics Data In this study, the systemic exposure to estradiol following once daily intravaginal administration of estradiol 10 μg for 14 days was investigated. Descriptive statistics of the plasma estradiol concentrations taken at each sampling time and the observed Cmax and Tmax values were recorded in Tables 16 and 17. No statistically significant difference in the systemic concentration of estradiol 10 pμversus the placebo group was observed, which suggests the estradiol is not carried into the blood stream where it will have a systemic effect. Rather, it remains in localized tissues; the effect of estradiol is therefore believed be local to the location of administration (i.e., the vagina). The lower limits of detection of the assays used to measure the pharmacokinetic data may have affected the measured the accuracy of the pk values presented. Additional pk studies were performed with more accurate assays in Examples 8 and 9. For the purpose of monitoring the estradiol level during the study blood samples were collected at 0.0, 1.0, 3.0, and 6.0 hours relative to dosing on day 1; prior to dosing on day 8; and prior to dosing on day 15. Efforts were made to collect blood samples at their scheduled times. Sample collection and handling procedures for measurement of estradiol blood level was performed according to procedure approved by the sponsor and principal investigator. All baseline and post-treatment plasma estradiol concentrations were determined using a validated bioanalytical (UPLC-MS/MS) methods. These data are shown in Tables 16 and 17. TABLE 16 Descriptive Statistics of Estradiol Concentrations (pg/ml) at Each Sampling Time Sampling Time Pre-dose Pre-dose Treatment 0 Hour 1 Hour 3 Hours 6 Hours Day 8 Day 15 Estradiol 10 μg N 24 24 24 24 24 22 Mean ± SD 20.1 ± 5.74 28.7 ± 5.89 25.7 ± 5.71 23.4 ± 7.91 21.4 ± 9.28 23.4 ± 8.72 Median 20.2 28.9 24.7 22.3 20.7 20.7 Min, Max 2.63, 38.3 18.8, 43.9 19.3, 47.5 3.31, 52.3 2.09, 52.2 17.9, 54.7 Placebo N 26 26 26 26 25 24 Mean ± SD 20.5 ± 4.29 21.0 ± 6.14 19.0 ± 5.92 26.9 ± 17.36 29.9 ± 22.51 28.1 ± 16.80 Median 20.8 20.8 20.9 21.7 21.6 21.1 Min, Max 4.03, 29.1 3.19, 41.2 3.15, 26.9 15.1, 90.0 15.0, 116.2 14.7, 81.3 TABLE 17 Descriptive Statistics of Estradiol Cmax and Tmax on Day 1. Estradiol 10 μg Placebo Cmax Tmax Cmax Tmax N 24 24 26 26 Mean ± SD 30.7 ± 7.47 2.12 ± 1.73 27.5 ± 17.26 4.00 ± 2.68 Geometric 29.9 — 24.7 — Mean Median 29.8 1.00 22.1 6.00 Min, Max 19.7, 52.3 1.00, 6.00 15.1, 90.0 0.00, 6.00 CV % 24.3% 81.3% 62.9% 67.1% Assessment of Vaginal Mucosa Data The investigators rated the vaginal mucosal appearance at day 1 (pre-dose) and day 15. Vaginal color, vaginal epithelial integrity, vaginal epithelial surface thickness, and vaginal secretions were evaluated according to the following degrees of severity: none, mild, moderate, or severe using scales 0 to 3, where 0=none, 1=mild, 2=moderate, and 3=severe. Results from these investigators rated assessments are presented in Tables 18, 19, 20, and 21. Table 18 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Investigator's Assessment of the Vaginal Mucosa (Assessment of Vaginal Color) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent-to-Treat N 24 24 — — — Least-squares −0.199 −0.009 −0.191 (−0.434, 0.052) 0.1945 Mean Mean ± SD −0.333 ± 0.565 0.125 ± 0.741 Median 0.00 0.00 — — — Min, Max −2.00, 0.00 −1.00, 2.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. TABLE 19 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Investigator's Assessment of the Vaginal Mucosa (Assessment of Vaginal Epithelial Integrity) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent-to-Treat N 24 24 — — — Least-squares −0.342 0.176 −0.518 (−0.726, −0.311) 0.0001 Mean Mean ± SD −0.417 ± 0.584 0.250 ± 0.442 — — — Median 0.00 0.00 — — — Min, Max −1.00, 1.00 0.00, 1.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covanate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. TABLE 20 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Investigator's Assessment of the Vaginal Mucosa (Assessment of Vaginal Epithelial Surface Thickness) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent-to-Treat N 24 24 — — — Least-squares −0.034 −0.133 0.099 (−0.024, 0.221) 0.1820 Mean Mean ± SD −0.125 ± 0.338 −0.042 ± 0.550 — — — Median 0.00 0.00 — — — Min, Max −1.00, 0.00 −1.00, 1.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. TABLE 21 Primary Efficacy Analysis Results of Change from Baseline (Randomization) to Day 15 in Investigator's Assessment of the Vaginal Mucosa (Assessment of Vaginal Secretions) Difference Estradiol Between 10 μg vs. Estradiol Treatment 90% CI for Placebo Population Statistics 10 μg Placebo Means Difference1 P-value2 Intent-to-Treat N 24 24 — — — Least-squares −0.643 −0.274 −0.369 (−0.661, −0.076) 0.0401 Mean Mean ± SD −0.792 ± 0.779 −0.125 ± 0.741 — — — Median −1.00 0.00 — — — Min, Max −2.00, 1.00 −2.00, 2.00 — — — 1Confidence interval for the estradiol 10 μg-Placebo from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covanate. 2P-value for treatment comparison from ANCOVA with treatment as a fixed effect and baseline as a covariate. Delivery Vehicle Disintegration Data Assessment of capsule disintegration in the vagina (presence or absence) at Day 1 (6 hours after dosing) and Day 15. Results of this assessment is presented in Table 22. TABLE 22 Capsule Disintegration State in the Vagina on Day 1 and Day 15 Estradiol 10 μg Placebo Day 1 Day 15 Day 1 Day 15 No evidence 23 (95.8%) 24 (100.0%) 26 (100.0%) 24 (92.3%) of capsule present Evidence 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) of capsule present Assessment 1 (4.2%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 22 (7.7%) not done Serum hormone level data was collected to measure the serum concentrations of estradiol. These data were used for screening inclusion and were determined using standard clinical chemistry methods. Appropriateness of Measurements The selection of the efficacy measurements used in this study was based on FDA's recommendations for studies of estrogen and estrogen/progestin drug products for the treatment of moderate to severe vasomotor symptoms associated with the menopause and moderate to severe symptoms of vulvar and vaginal atrophy associated with the menopause (Food and Drug Administration, Guidance for Industry, Estrogen and Estrogen/Progestin Drug Products to Treat Vasomotor Symptoms and Vulvar and Vaginal Atrophy Symptoms—Recommendations for Clinical Evaluation. January 2003, hereby incorporated by reference). Standard clinical, laboratory, and statistical procedures were utilized in the trial. All clinical laboratory procedures were generally accepted and met quality standards. Statistical Methods: Efficacy: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate the change from baseline differences between the subjects receiving estradiol 10 μg and placebo capsules for all efficacy endpoints, except for vaginal bleeding, to estimate the effect size and variability of the effect. In some cases, for example, for some vaginal atrophy symptoms, the change from baseline (post dose response) was correlated with the baseline value (p<0.05), so baseline was included as a covariate to adjust for this correlation (Analysis of Covariance, ANCOVA). The 90% confidence intervals on the differences between estradiol 10 μg and placebo endpoint means were determined to evaluate the effect size. The change from baseline in vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity was evaluated in terms of the proportion of subjects who had treatment success or failure. Any subject reporting bleeding at baseline who did not report bleeding at Day 15 was considered to have been successfully treated. Any subject reporting bleeding at day 15 was considered a treatment failure, regardless of whether they reported baseline bleeding or not. Subjects reporting no bleeding at both baseline and day 15 were classified as no-change and were excluded from the statistical evaluation. The difference in the proportion of subjects with success between the two treatment groups was statistically evaluated using Fisher's Exact Test. Results of this difference in proportion are presented in Table 10. Measurements of Treatment Compliance Subjects were required to complete a diary in order to record treatment compliance. Diaries were reviewed for treatment compliance at day 8 and day 15 visits. A total of 45 subjects (21 subjects in the estradiol 10 μg group and 24 subjects in the placebo group) were 100% compliant with the treatment regimen. Due to the investigative nature of the study, no adjustments were made for multiplicity of endpoints. Safety: The frequency and severity of all adverse events were summarized descriptively by treatment group. Results: All forty eight (48) subjects who completed the study were included in the primary efficacy analyses. The results of efficacy analyses are presented throughout Tables 5, 6, and 7. Conclusions Efficacy The two-week treatment with pharmaceutical composition 10 μg led to a statistically significant greater mean decrease in percent of parabasal cells than did placebo treatment (54% vs. 5%, p<0.0001), as illustrated in Table 6. At the same time, a significantly greater mean increase in the percent of superficial cells was observed with the pharmaceutical composition (35%) than with the placebo capsules (9%), with the difference being highly statistically significant (p=0.0002), as illustrated in Table 7. The difference in pH reduction between the pharmaceutical composition (0.97 units) compared to that for the placebo (0.34 units) was only slightly greater than 0.5 units, but the difference was detected as statistically significant (p=0.0002), as illustrated in Table 9. While the decrease in severity of the most bothersome symptom was essentially the same (˜1 unit) for both pharmaceutical composition and placebo, the reductions in the severity of the individual symptoms of vaginal dryness, irritation and pain during sexual activity were all marginally better for the active treatment than for the placebo treatment. None of the differences between the two treatments, all of which were ≤0.3 units, were detected as statistically significant. There was no difference between the two treatments in regard to reduction of pain/burning/stinging during urination (˜0.4 unit reduction). The length of the study was not long enough to show a separation between the most bothersome symptoms in the pharmaceutical composition and placebo. However, the trends of most bothersome symptoms suggest that with a suitable period of time, significantly significant differences between the two treatments would be observed. The two-week treatment with estradiol 10 μg capsules showed no statistically detectable difference in regard to reduction of severity from baseline according to the investigator's assessment of vaginal color or vaginal epithelial surface thickness. Pharmaceutical composition capsules did demonstrate a statistically significant greater reduction than did placebo in severity of atrophic effects on vaginal epithelial integrity (−0.34 vs. 0.18, p=0.0001) and vaginal secretions (−0.64 vs. −0.27, p=0.0401). Descriptive statistical analyses (mean, median, geometric mean, standard deviation, CV, minimum and maximum, Cmax, and Tmax) were conducted on the estradiol concentrations at each sampling time, the peak concentration on day 1 and the time of peak concentration. Results from this assessment are presented in Tables 16 and 17. A pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol 10 μg outperformed placebo treatment in regard to improvement in the Maturation Index, reduction in vaginal pH, reduction in the atrophic effects on epithelial integrity and vaginal secretions. The lack of statistical significance between the two treatments in regard to reduction of severity for the most bothersome symptom, and the individual vaginal atrophy symptoms of dryness, irritation, pain associated with sexual activity, and pain/burning/stinging during urination, is not unexpected given the small number of subjects in the study and the short duration of therapy. Too few subjects in the study had vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity to permit any meaningful evaluation of this vaginal atrophy symptom. Of the 48 subjects enrolled in the study, 45 subjects were 100% compliant with the treatment regimen. Of the remaining three subjects, one removed herself from the study due to personal reasons and the other two subjects each missed one dose due to an adverse event. Safety Although the Day 1 mean plasma estradiol peak concentration for the pharmaceutical composition was somewhat higher than that for the Placebo (ratio of geometric means=1.21: Test Product (estradiol 10 μg) 21%>Placebo), no statistically significant difference was determined. However, the assay methods were questionable, resulting in questionable pk data. Additional pk studies were performed in Examples 8 and 9. There were no serious adverse events in the study. Overall, the pharmaceutical composition comprising estradiol 10 μg was well tolerated when administered intravaginally in once daily regimen for 14 days. Example 8 pk Study (25 μg Formulation) A pk study was undertaken to compare the 25 μg formulation disclosed herein (Pharmaceutical Composition 3) to the RLD. The results of the pk study for estradiol are summarized in Table 23. The p values for these data demonstrate statistical significance, as shown in Table 24. TABLE 23 Statistical Summary of the Comparative Bioavailability Data for Unscaled Average BE studies of Estradiol, Least Square Geometric Means of Estradiol, Ratio of Means and 90% Confidence Intervals, Fasting/Fed Bioequivalence Study (Study No.: ESTR-1K-500-12); Dose 25 μg estradiol Ratio Parameter Test N RLD N (%) 90% C.I. Cmax 23.0839 36 42.7024 36 54.06 44.18-66.14 (pg/mL) AUC0-24 89.2093 36 292.0606 36 30.54 23.72-39.34 (pg · hr/mL) TABLE 24 P-values for table 23 P-Value Effect Cmax AUC0-24 Treatment <.0001 <.0001 Sequence 0.4478 0.5124 Period 0.4104 0.7221 As illustrated in Table 23, baseline adjusted pk data illustrates that the formulations disclosed herein unexpectedly show a 54% decrease in Cmax and a 31% decrease in the AUC relative to the RLD. This result is desirable because the estradiol is intended only for local absorption. These data suggest a decrease in the circulating levels of estradiol relative to the RLD. Moreover, it is noteworthy to point out that the Cmax and AUC levels of estradiol relative to placebo are not statistically differentiable, which suggests that the formulations disclosed herein have a negligible systemic effect. As shown in Table 24, there was no significant difference between the test and reference products due to sequence and period effects. However, there was a significant difference due to treatment effect for both Cmax and AUC. Pharmacokinetics for circulating total estrone, a metabolite of estradiol, is show in Table 25. These data show that the total circulating estrone for the formulations disclosed herein resulted in a 55% decrease in the Cmax for circulating estrone, and a 70% decrease in the AUC for circulating estrone. TABLE 25 Statistical Summary of the Comparative Bioavailability Data for Unscaled Average BE studies of Estrone, Least Square Geometric Means, Ratio of Means and 90% Confidence Intervals, Fasting/Fed Bioequivalence Study (Study No.: ESTR-1K-500-12); Dose 25 μg estradiol Ratio Parameter Test N RLD N (%) 90% C.I. Cmax 10.7928 36 23.5794 36 45.77 32.95 to 63.59 (pg/mL) AUC0-24 51.2491 36 165.4664 36 30.97 19.8-48.45 (pg · hr/mL) TABLE 26 P-values for table 25 P-Value Effect Cmax AUC0-24 Treatment 0.0002 <.0001 Sequence 0.1524 0.0464 Period 0.0719 0.0118 There was a significant difference between test and reference products due to treatment effect whereas there was no significant difference due to sequence and period effects for Cmax. For AUC, there was a significant difference between test and reference products due to treatment, sequence, and period effects. pk for circulating total estrone sulfate is shown in Table 27. These data show that the total circulating estrone sulfate for the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein resulted in a 33% decrease in the Cmax and a 42% decrease in the AUC for circulating estrone sulfate. TABLE 27 Statistical Summary of the Comparative Bioavailability Data for Unsealed Average BE studies of Estrone Sulfate, Least Square Geometric Means of Estrone Sulfate, Ratio of Means and 90% Confidence Intervals, Fasting/Fed Bioequivalence Study (Study No.: ESTR-1K-500-12); Dose 25 μg estradiol Ratio Parameter Test N RLD N (%) 90% C.I. Cmax 490.0449 36 730.5605 36 67.08 53.84-83.57 (pg/mL) AUC0-24 4232.9914 36 7323.0827 36 57.80 43.23-77.29 (pg · hr/mL) TABLE 28 P-values for table 27 P-Value Effect Cmax AUC0-24 Treatment 0.0042 0.0031 Sequence 0.5035 0.9091 Period 0.1879 0.8804 There was a significant difference between test and reference products due to treatment effect whereas there was no significant difference due sequence and period effects for both Cmax and AUC. Example 9 pk Study (10 μg Formulation) A pk study was undertaken to compare the 10 μg formulation disclosed herein (Pharmaceutical Composition 2) to the RLD. The results of the pk study for estradiol are summarized in Table 29-40, and FIGS. 9-14. A pk study was undertaken to compare pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein having 10 μg of estradiol to the RLD. The results of the pk study for estradiol are summarized in tables 29-34, which demonstrate that the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein more effectively prevented systemic absorption of the estradiol. Table 35 shows that the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein had a 28% improvement over the RLD for systemic blood concentration Cmax and 72% AUC improvement over the RLD. TABLE 29 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Test product (T) of Estradiol - Baseline adjusted (N = 34) Arithmetic Pharmaco- Mean ± Coeffi- kinetic Standard cient of Me- Mini- Maxi- Parameter Deviation Variation dian mum mum Cmax 15.7176 ± 50.3761 13.9000 6.5000 49.6000 (pg/mL) 7.9179 AUC0-24 53.0100 ± 36.9041 49.9750 24.3000 95.1500 (pg · hr/mL) 19.5629 tmax (hr) 1.98 ± 65.34 2.00 1.00 8.05 1.29 TABLE 30 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Reference product (R) of Estradiol - Baseline adjusted (N = 34) Arithmetic Pharmaco- Mean ± Coeffi- kinetic Standard cient of Me- Mini- Maxi- Parameter Deviation Variation dian mum mum Cmax 24.1882 ± 49.2877 24.1500 1.0000 55.3000 (pg/mL) 11.9218 AUC0-24 163.8586 ± 43.9960 158.0375 2.0000 304.8500 (pg · hr/mL) 72.0913 tmax (hr) 10.53 ± 52.94 8.06 2.00 24.00 5.58 TABLE 31 Geometric Mean of Test Product (T) and Reference product (R) of Estradiol - Baseline adjusted (N = 34) Geometric Mean Pharmacokinetic Parameter Test Product (T) Reference Product (R) Cmax (pg/mL) 14.3774 20.3837 AUC0-24 (pg · hr/mL) 49.6231 132.9218 tmax (hr) 1.75 9.28 TABLE 32 Statistical Results of Test product (T) versus Reference product (R) for Estradiol - Baseline adjusted (N = 34) Geometric Least Square Mean Test Reference Intra 90% Pharmacokinetic Product Product Subject T/R Confidence Parameter (T) (R) CV % Ratio % Interval Cmax (pg/mL) 14.4490 20.1980 60.68 71.54* 56.82-90.08 AUC0-24 49.7310 131.0400 70.64 37.95* 29.21-49.31 (pg · hr/mL) *Comparison was detected as statistically significant by ANOVA (α = 0.05). The pk data for total estrone likewise demonstrated reduced systemic exposure when compared to the RLD. Table 33 shows the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein reduced systemic exposure by 25% for Cmax and 49% for AUC. TABLE 33 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Test product (T) of Estrone - Baseline adjusted (N = 33) Arithmetic Pharmaco- Mean ± Coeffi- kinetic Standard cient of Me- Mini- Maxi- Parameter Deviation Variation dian mum mum Cmax 6.8485 ± 96.1149 5.4000 1.3000 36.3000 (pg/mL) 6.5824 AUC0-24 34.7051 ± 80.5476 30.8500 3.3500 116.7500 (pg · hr/mL) 27.9541 tmax (hr) 9.12 ± 96.80 4.00 1.00 24.00 8.83 TABLE 34 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Reference product (R) of Estrone - Baseline adjusted (N = 33) Arithmetic Pharmaco- Mean ± Coeffi- kinetic Standard cient of Me- Mini- Maxi- Parameter Deviation Variation dian mum mum Cmax 8.8333 ± 80.9086 6.7000 2.7000 30.3000 (pg/mL) 7.1469 AUC0-24 63.0042 ± 73.8814 51.2800 8.8000 214.0000 (pg · hr/mL) 46.5484 tmax (hr) 11.16 ± 64.95 10.00 4.00 24.00 7.24 TABLE 35 Geometric Mean of Test Product (T) and Reference product (R) of Estrone - Baseline adjusted (N = 33) Geometric Mean Pharmacokinetic Parameter Test Product (T) Reference Product (R) Cmax (pg/mL) 5.1507 6.9773 AUC0-24 (pg · hr/mL) 24.2426 48.2377 tmax (hr) 5.87 9.07 TABLE 36 Statistical Results of Test product (T) versus Reference product (R) for Estrone - Baseline adjusted (N = 33) Geometric Least Square Mean Test Reference Intra 90% Pharmacokinetic Product Product Subject T/R Confidence Parameter (T) (R) CV % Ratio % Interval Cmax (pg/mL) 5.1620 6.9280 47.59 74.50* 61.69-89.97 AUC0-24 24.1960 47.9020 73.66 50.51* 38.37-66.50 (pg · hr/mL) *Comparison was detected as statistically significant by ANOVA (α = 0.05). The pk data for estrone sulfate likewise demonstrated reduced systemic exposure when compared to the RLD. Table 37 shows the pharmaceutical compositions disclosed herein reduced systemic exposure by 25% for Cmax and 42% for AUC. TABLE 37 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Test product (T) of Estrone Sulfate - Baseline adjusted (N = 24) Arithmetic Pharmaco- Mean ± Coeffi- kinetic Standard cient of Me- Mini- Maxi- Parameter Deviation Variation dian mum mum Cmax 13.9042 ± 50.6339 11.1500 1.3000 39.0000 (ng/mL) 7.0402 AUC0-24 97.9953 ± 82.5408 76.2750 5.1025 338.0000 (ng · hr/mL) 80.8861 tmax (hr) 6.33 ± 71.93 4.00 4.00 24.00 4.56 TABLE 38 Summary of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Reference product (R) of Estrone Sulfate - Baseline adjusted (N = 24) Arithmetic Pharmaco- Mean ± Coeffi- kinetic Standard cient of Me- Mini- Maxi- Parameter Deviation Variation dian mum mum Cmax 19.2542 ± 59.0173 15.2000 7.0000 53.7000 (ng/mL) 11.3633 AUC0-24 177.6208 ± 93.5931 124.0000 20.0000 683.0500 (ng · hr/mL) 166.2408 tmax (hr) 10.33 ± 54.05 10.00 2.00 24.00 5.58 TABLE 39 Geometric Mean of Test Product (T) and Reference product (R) of Estrone Sulfate - Baseline adjusted (N = 24) Geometric Mean Pharmacokinetic Parameter Test Product (T) Reference Product (R) Cmax (ng/mL) 12.1579 16.8587 AUC0-24 (ng · hr/mL) 66.5996 121.5597 tmax (hr) 5.49 8.83 TABLE 40 Statistical Results of Test product (T) versus Reference product (R) for Estrone Sulfate - Baseline adjusted (N = 24) Geometric Least Square Mean Test Reference Intra 90% Pharmacokinetic Product Product Subject T/R Confidence Parameter (T) (R) CV % Ratio % Interval Cmax (ng/mL) 12.3350 16.5470 48.02 74.55* 59.43-93.51 AUC0-24 68.5260 118.4170 73.87 57.87* 41.68-80.35 (ng · hr/mL) *Comparison was detected as statistically significant by ANOVA (α = 0.05). While the pharmaceutical compositions and methods have been described in terms of what are presently considered to be practical and preferred embodiments, it is to be understood that the disclosure need not be limited to the disclosed embodiments. It is intended to cover various modifications and similar arrangements included within the spirit and scope of the claims, the scope of which should be accorded the broadest interpretation so as to encompass all such modifications and similar embodiments. This disclosure includes any and all embodiments of the following claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>This application is directed to pharmaceutical compositions, methods, and devices related to hormone replacement therapy. Postmenopausal women frequently suffer from atrophic vaginitis or vulvar and vaginal atrophy (hereinafter “vulvovaginal atrophy” or “VVA”) with symptoms including, for example, vaginal dryness, vaginal odor, vaginal or vulvar irritation or itching, dysuria (pain, burning, or stinging when urinating), dysparuenia (vaginal pain associated with sexual activity), or vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. Other symptoms include soreness; with urinary frequency and urgency; urinary discomfort and incontinence also occurring (“estrogen-deficient urinary state(s)”). One symptom of vaginal atrophy is an increased vaginal pH, which creates an environment more susceptible to infections. The mucosal epithelium of the VVA patients also reported to show signs of severe atrophy and upon cytological examination accompanied by an increased number of the parabasal cells and a reduced number of superficial cells. Each of these VVA-related states manifest symptoms associated with decreased estrogenization of the vulvovaginal tissue, and can even occur in women treated with oral administration of an estrogen-based pharmaceutical drug product. Although VVA is most common with menopausal women, it can occur at any time in a woman's life cycle. Estrogen treatment has proven to be very successful in controlling menopausal symptoms, including vaginal atrophy (VVA). Several studies have shown that the symptoms connected with vaginal atrophy are often relieved by estrogen treatment given either systemically or topically. The existing treatments have numerous problems, for example compliance issues with patients not completing or continuing treatment due to the problems associated with the form of treatment. Accordingly, disclosed herein is, among other things, a new soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition and dosage form containing solubilized estradiol for the treatment of VVA. The soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition has been designed to mitigate common limitations found with other vaginal forms of estradiol. The soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition is expected to ease vaginal administration, provide improved safety of insertion, minimize vaginal discharge following administration, and provide a more effective dosage form with improved efficacy, safety and patient compliance.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>According to various aspects and embodiments of this disclosure, a soft gel vaginal pharmaceutical composition as a potential treatment for post-menopausal women suffering with moderate to severe symptoms of VVA is provided. Provided herein is a pessary comprising: a) a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; and b) a solubilizing agent comprising a medium chain oil. In some embodiments, the pessary comprises about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. For example, the pessary can include about 1 μg to about 10 μg of estradiol; and about 10 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol. In some embodiments, the estradiol is solubilized. In some embodiments, the medium chain oil comprises at least one C6-C12 fatty acid or a glycol, monoglyceride, diglyceride, or triglyceride ester thereof. In some embodiments, the solubilizing agent comprises at least one ester selected from the group consisting of: an ester of caproic fatty acid, an ester of caprylic fatty acid, an ester of capric fatty acid, and combinations thereof. For example, the solubilizing agent can include a caprylic/capric triglyceride. In some embodiments, the pessary further comprises a capsule. For example, the capsule can be a soft gelatin capsule. Also provided herein is a pessary comprising: a) a therapeutically effective amount of estradiol; b) a caprylic/capric triglyceride; c) a non-ionic surfactant comprising PEG-6 palmitostearate and ethylene glycol palmitostearate; and d) a soft gelatin capsule. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol of about 19 pg*hr/ml to about 29 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estradiol of about 75 pg*hr/ml to about 112 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone of about 9 pg*hr/ml to about 14 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone of about 43 pg*hr/ml to about 65 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate of about 416 pg*hr/ml to about 613 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 3598 pg*hr/ml to about 5291 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol of about 12 pg*hr/ml to about 18 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estradiol of about 42 pg*hr/ml to about 63 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, the pessary further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estradiol of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone of about 4 pg*hr/ml to about 7 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone of about 20 pg*hr/ml to about 31 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, the pessary further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estrone of about 4 hrs to about 8 hrs. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 10 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate of about 10 pg*hr/ml to about 16 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 56 pg*hr/ml to about 84 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, the pessary further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estrone sulfate of about 4 hrs to about 7 hrs. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol of about 4 pg*hr/ml to about 8 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estradiol of about 16 pg*hr/ml to about 26 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, the pessary further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estradiol of about 0.25 hrs to about 2 hrs. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone of about 1 pg*hr/ml to about 3 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone of about 8 pg*hr/ml to about 13 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, the pessary further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estrone of about 1 hrs to about 4 hrs. In some embodiments, a pessary provided herein comprises about 4 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides, in a plasma sample from the patient: 1) a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate of about 4 pg*hr/ml to about 7 pg*hr/ml; and 2) a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone sulfate of about 22 pg*hr/ml to about 34 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, the pessary further provides a corrected geometric mean time to peak plasma concentration (T max ) of estrone sulfate of about 1 hrs to about 3 hrs. Also provided herein is a pessary comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol that is less than about 30 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estradiol that is less than about 18 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 112 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estradiol that is less than about 63 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone that is less than about 14 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone that is less than about 7 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone that is less than about 65 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone that is less than about 31 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 613 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean peak plasma concentration (C max ) of estrone sulfate that is less than about 16 pg*hr/ml. In some embodiments, a pessary comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol is provided, wherein administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 5291 pg*hr/ml. For example, administration of the pessary to a patient provides a corrected geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) 0-24 of estrone sulfate that is less than about 84 pg*hr/ml. Further provided herein is a pessary comprising about 1 μg to about 25 μg of estradiol, wherein administration of the pessary to the proximal region of the vagina of a patient provides a therapeutically effective concentration of estradiol over 24 hours in the proximal region of the vagina. This disclosure also provides a method of treating an estrogen-deficient state, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a pessary as provided herein. In some embodiments, a method of treating vulvovaginal atrophy is provided, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a pessary as provided herein. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein, treatment comprises reducing the severity of one or more symptoms selected from the group consisting of: vaginal dryness, dyspareunia, vaginal or vulvar irritation, vaginal or vulvar burning, vaginal or vulvar itching, dysuria, and vaginal bleeding associated with sexual activity. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein treatment comprises reducing the vaginal pH of the patient. For example, treatment comprises reducing the vaginal pH of the patient to a pH of less than about 5.0. In some embodiments of the methods provided herein treatment comprises a change in cell composition of the patient. For example, the change in cell composition comprises reducing the number of parabasal vaginal cells or increasing the number of superficial vaginal cells. In some embodiments, the number of parabasal vaginal cells in the patient are reduced by at least about 35% (e.g., at least about 50%). In some embodiments, the number of superficial vaginal cells are increased by at least about 5% (e.g., at least about 35%). Further provided herein is a method for reducing vaginal discharge following administration of a pessary, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof, a pessary provided herein, wherein the vaginal discharge following administration of the pessary is compared to the vaginal discharge following administration of a reference drug.

A61K31565

20180209

20180614

60258.0

A61K31565

PARAD, DENNIS J

VAGINAL INSERTED ESTRADIOL PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

A61K

PENDING

THIN WALL PRODUCT DISPLAY TUBE

A thin-walled polypropylene product display tube. The thin-walled polypropylene product display tube includes a tubular member having a closed end, an open end, an inner diameter and, between the closed end and the open end, a first outer diameter, the open end terminating in a flared portion having a second outer diameter, the tubular member having a wall thickness sufficient to yield a level of haze equal to or less than 8%. A process for forming a thin-walled polypropylene product display tube is also provided.

1. A thin-walled polypropylene product display tube comprising a tubular member having a closed end, an open end, an inner diameter and, between the closed end and the open end, a first outer diameter, the open end terminating in a flared portion having a second outer diameter at a greatest circumference thereof, and a closure cap fitted to the open end, the greatest circumference of the flared portion mating with an outermost circumference of the closure cap to form a smooth transition with no ledge between the greatest circumference of the flared portion and the outermost circumference of the closure cap. 2. The thin-walled polypropylene product display tube of claim 1, wherein the inner diameter is substantially constant from a point where the closed end expands to the inner diameter to the open end of the tubular member. 3. The thin-walled polypropylene product display tube of claim 1, wherein the first outer diameter is substantially constant from a point where the closed end expands to the first outer diameter to a point where the flared portion begins. 4. The thin-walled polypropylene product display tube of claim 1, wherein the closure cap comprises a plug member for engaging against an inner surface of the open end of the tubular member and substantially forming a seal. 5. The thin-walled polypropylene product display tube of claim 4, wherein the product is a tobacco product and the seal formed by the engagement of the plug member against the inner surface of the open end of the tubular member is sufficient to maintain product shelf life for a period of at least one year. 6. The thin-walled polypropylene product display tube of claim 1, wherein the tubular member has a wall thickness of less than about 0.061 inch. 7. The thin-walled polypropylene product display tube of claim 6, wherein the tubular member has a wall thickness of less than about 0.050 inch. 8. The thin-walled polypropylene product display tube of claim 7, wherein the tubular member has a wall thickness of less than about 0.030 inch. 9. The thin-walled polypropylene product display tube of claim 1, wherein the tubular member is formed from a material comprising polypropylene random copolymer, polypropylene-ethylene impact copolymer, polypropylene homopolymer, polypropylene copolymer and blends thereof. 10. The thin-walled polypropylene product display tube of claim 9, wherein the tubular member is formed from a material comprising polypropylene random copolymer. 11. A process for forming a thin-walled polypropylene product display tube, the process comprising forming a tubular member having a closed end, an open end, an inner diameter and, between the closed end and the open end, a first outer diameter, the open end terminating in a flared portion having a second outer diameter at a greatest circumference thereof and providing a closure cap fitted to the open end, the greatest circumference of the flared portion mating with an outermost circumference of the closure cap to form a smooth transition with no ledge between the greatest circumference of the flared portion and the outermost circumference of the closure cap. 12. The process of claim 11, wherein the inner diameter is substantially constant from a point where the closed end expands to the inner diameter to the open end of the tubular member. 13. The process of claim 11, wherein the first outer diameter is substantially constant from a point where the closed end expands to the first outer diameter to a point where the flared portion begins. 14. The process of claim 11, wherein the closure cap includes a plug member for engaging against an inner surface of the open end of the tubular member and substantially forming a seal. 15. The process of claim 14, wherein the product is a tobacco product and the seal formed by the engagement of the plug member against the inner surface of the open end of the tubular member is sufficient to maintain product shelf life for a period of at least one year. 16. The process of claim 11, wherein the tubular member has a wall thickness of less than about 0.061 inch. 17. The process of claim 16, wherein the tubular member has a wall thickness of less than about 0.050 inch. 18. The process of claim 17, wherein the tubular member has a wall thickness of less than about 0.030 inch. 19. The process of claim 11, wherein the tubular member is formed from a material comprising polypropylene random copolymer, polypropylene-ethylene impact copolymer, polypropylene homopolymer, polypropylene copolymer and blends thereof. 20. The process of claim 19, wherein the tubular member is formed from a material comprising polypropylene random copolymer. 21. A thin-walled polypropylene product display tube comprising a tubular member having a closed top end, an open bottom end, an inner diameter and, between the closed top end and the open bottom end, a first outer diameter, the open bottom end terminating in a flared portion having a second outer diameter and a greatest circumference and wherein the diameter greatest circumference of the flared portion is selected to correspond to an outer diameter outermost circumference of a closure cap for the tubular member such that no ledge exists between the tubular member and the closure cap.

RELATED APPLICATION This application is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/584,594, filed Dec. 29, 2014, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/920,986, filed on Dec. 26, 2013, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. FIELD Disclosed herein is a tobacco product display tube with improved clarity. ENVIRONMENT Cigars have been sold by others individually in glass tubes which may be sealed with stoppers. The tubes tend to somewhat resemble test tubes used for chemical samples. Such clear tubing permits the purchaser at the point-of-sale to view the contents and select the cigar which is most appealing. It is desirable to replace glass with a material more suited for the packaging of tobacco products, such as polypropylene (PP). However heretofore, tubes constructed of PP tended to be hazy and milky in appearance, and unacceptable to a discerning, adult, tobacco consumer. It would be advantageous if a polypropylene tobacco display tube could be developed which had enhanced clarity and appearance. SUMMARY In one aspect, a thin-walled polypropylene product display tube is provided. The thin-walled polypropylene product display tube includes a tubular member having a closed end, an open end, an inner diameter and, between the closed end and the open end, a first outer diameter, the open end terminating in a flared portion having a second outer diameter, the tubular member having a wall thickness sufficient to yield a level of haze equal to or less than 8%, as measured by ASTM D1003. In one form, the inner diameter is substantially constant from a point where the closed end expands to the inner diameter to the open end of the tubular member. In another form, the first outer diameter is substantially constant from a point where the closed end expands to the first outer diameter to a point where the flared portion begins. In yet another form, the second outer diameter is selected to correspond to an outer diameter of a closure cap for the tubular member. In still yet another form, the thin-walled polypropylene product display further includes a closure cap fitted to the open end, the second outer diameter of the flared portion of the tubular member mating with an outer diameter of the closure cap to form a smooth transition between the tubular member and the cap. In a further form, the closure cap comprises a plug member for engaging against an inner surface of the open end of the tubular member and substantially forming a seal. In a yet further form, the product is a tobacco product and the seal formed by the engagement of the plug member against the inner surface of the open end of the tubular member is sufficient to maintain product shelf life for a period of at least one year. In a still yet further form, the tubular member has a wall thickness of less than about 0.061 inch. In one form, the tubular member has a wall thickness of less than about 0.050 inch. In another form, the tubular member has a wall thickness of less than about 0.030 inch. In yet another form, the tubular member is formed from a material comprising polypropylene random copolymer, polypropylene-ethylene impact copolymer, polypropylene homopolymer, polypropylene copolymer and blends thereof. In still yet another form, the tubular member is formed from a material comprising polypropylene random copolymer. In another aspect, a process for forming a thin-walled polypropylene product display tube is provided. The process includes the step of forming a tubular member having a closed end, an open end, an inner diameter and, between the closed end and the open end, a first outer diameter, the open end terminating in a flared portion having a second outer diameter, wherein the forming step yields tubular member having a wall thickness sufficient to yield a level of haze equal to or less than 8%, as measured by ASTM D1003. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The forms disclosed herein are illustrated by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings and in which like reference numerals refer to similar elements. FIG. 1 is a plan view of a typical point-of-sale cigar display. FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of a cigar display tube/closure cap combination, configured with a thin-walled tube. FIG. 3A is a cross-sectional view of the inventive cigar display tube, and FIG. 3B is a larger, detail view of the open end of the cigar display tube of FIG. 3A. FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view of the inventive cigar display tube/ closure cap combination. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Various aspects will now be described with reference to specific forms selected for purposes of illustration. It will be appreciated that the spirit and scope of the apparatus, system and methods disclosed herein are not limited to the selected forms. Moreover, it is to be noted that the figures provided herein are not drawn to any particular proportion or scale, and that many variations can be made to the illustrated forms. Reference is now made to FIGS. 1-4, wherein like numerals are used to designate like elements throughout. Each of the following terms written in singular grammatical form: “a,” “an,” and “the,” as used herein, may also refer to, and encompass, a plurality of the stated entity or object, unless otherwise specifically defined or stated herein, or, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. For example, the phrases “a device,” “an assembly,” “a mechanism,” “a component,” and “an element,” as used herein, may also refer to, and encompass, a plurality of devices, a plurality of assemblies, a plurality of mechanisms, a plurality of components, and a plurality of elements, respectively. Each of the following terms: “includes,” “including,” “has,” “'having,” “comprises,” and “comprising,” and, their linguistic or grammatical variants, derivatives, and/or conjugates, as used herein, means “including, but not limited to.” Throughout the illustrative description, the examples, and the appended claims, a numerical value of a parameter, feature, object, or dimension, may be stated or described in terms of a numerical range format. It is to be fully understood that the stated numerical range format is provided for illustrating implementation of the forms disclosed herein, and is not to be understood or construed as inflexibly limiting the scope of the forms disclosed herein. Moreover, for stating or describing a numerical range, the phrase “in a range of between about a first numerical value and about a second numerical value,” is considered equivalent to, and means the same as, the phrase “in a range of from about a first numerical value to about a second numerical value,” and, thus, the two equivalently meaning phrases may be used interchangeably. It is to be understood that the various forms disclosed herein are not limited in their application to the details of the order or sequence, and number, of steps or procedures, and sub-steps or sub-procedures, of operation or implementation of forms of the method or to the details of type, composition, construction, arrangement, order and number of the system, system sub-units, devices, assemblies, sub-assemblies, mechanisms, structures, components, elements, and configurations, and, peripheral equipment, utilities, accessories, and materials of forms of the system, set forth in the following illustrative description, accompanying drawings, and examples, unless otherwise specifically stated herein. The apparatus, systems and methods disclosed herein can be practiced or implemented according to various other alternative forms and in various other alternative ways. It is also to be understood that all technical and scientific words, terms, and/or phrases, used herein throughout the present disclosure have either the identical or similar meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art, unless otherwise specifically defined or stated herein. Phraseology, terminology, and, notation, employed herein throughout the present disclosure are for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting. Provided is a product display apparatus, in particular a thin-walled, polypropylene tube for display of tobacco products, comprising a tubular member having a closed end, an open end, an inner diameter and, between the closed end and the open end, a first outer diameter, the open end terminating in a flared portion having a second outer diameter, the tubular member having a wall thickness sufficient to yield a level of haze equal to or less than 8%, as measured by ASTM D1003. Resistance to moisture permeation is important in maintaining the quality of tobacco products. The moisture content of a cigar is an important factor in determining how well the cigar will smoke and realize its potential. It is well known that cigars stored in an arid environment become dry and hard and are undesirable to smoke. Dry cigars burn too rapidly and taste hot and unpleasant, and are often described as dusty and acrid. Once dry, a cigar looses most of its bouquet and cannot compare to a well-kept cigar. Conversely, a cigar smoked when too wet will not burn well and will require frequent relighting. Also, overly moist cigars taste sharp and aggressive. Therefore, for the optimum smoking experience, cigars should be kept at some intermediate ideal condition. The ideal conditions in which to keep cigars are 65 to 70 percent relative humidity and 61 to 64 degrees Fahrenheit, the most important being the relative humidity. Fine cigars are made of delicate high quality natural leaf tobacco possessing a smooth and rich flavor and should be consumed within these ideal conditions to realize the fullest enjoyment. Cigar humidors are well known in the prior art and many cigar smokers own a tabletop model. The typical prior art humidor is a wooden box with a hinged top containing a source of moisture which is allowed to evaporate. The evaporating moisture is absorbed by the air within the humidor which in turn is absorbed by the dry cigars contained therein. The moisture source within these types of humidors can be water-absorbent stones, sponges, or plastic storage vessels. This technique of humidification is adequate for bulk cigars placed within the humidor, but is problematic for cigars sold individually within prepackaged tubes or containers because the moisture will be unable to penetrate the prepackaged container seal. More recently, it has been found that packaging individual cigars in a moisture permeation resistant polypropylene tube permits not only a pleasing visual display of the cigar at a point-of-sale location, but also maintains the proper humidity within the display tube for periods in excess of about one year. In arid environments, adequate moisture is retained within the tube, while in a humid environment; excess moisture is excluded from the tube. Many natural and synthetic polymers can be attacked by ultra-violet radiation and products made using these materials may crack or disintegrate, if they're not UV-stable. Over time polypropylene can discolor, becoming hazy, inhibiting the transparency or clarity. The problem is known as UV degradation, and is a common problem in products exposed to sunlight. The ultra-violet rays activate the tertiary carbon bonds to form free radicals, which then react further with oxygen in the atmosphere, producing carbonyl groups in the main chain. The exposed surfaces of such products may then discolor and crack. While not affecting tobacco product quality contained within the tube, such discoloration can negatively affect the prospective purchaser's perception of product freshness and even quality. It has been found that a polypropylene cigar display tube can be made having thin walls such that a display tube will have a high degree of clarity and retain its clarity over time. Moreover, due to an effective seal, the product can retain its freshness, for a period in excess of at least about one year. Thus, in one form, a thin-walled polypropylene (tobacco) product display tube is provided. While cigars are discussed in connection with the display tubes disclosed herein, any similarly-sized product could be stored and displayed in such a point-of-sale tube display. Point-of-sale product displays may be made of stiff paperboard or cardboard, and may have an array of die cut holes on at least one substantially horizontal surface for vertically holding the tobacco display tubes. The most advantageous and visually pleasing manner of displaying the cigars in the tubes is to place the tubes cap-end down within the product display, such that the clear, closed end of the display tube, and therefore the cigar within, is visually accessible to the prospective purchaser. Upon selection of a product by the purchaser, the tube is withdrawn from the product display vertically. In one form, a thin-walled tube and an effective commercially available closure cap are employed. In the aforementioned point-of-sale product displays, any difference between the outer diameter (O.D.) of the tube and that of the cap resulting in a small ledge may impede the withdrawal of the tube from the cardboard display. During withdrawal of a cigar, the ledge may catch (snag) an edge of the die cut hole in the display box and frustrate the smooth withdrawal of the cigar. In some instances, the snag may possibly upset the entire display. In order to remedy this difficulty, a product display tube comprising a thin-walled, cylindrical polypropylene tube having a closed end, an open end and inner and outer diameters between the ends, the open end terminating with a flared outer circumference is provided. Advantageously, the outer diameter at the flared outer circumference is predetermined to correspond and mate to the outer diameter of a closure cap for the tube. In this way, a smooth transition is provided between the outer surfaces of the thinner-walled cigar tube and the end cap, such that no ledge is created between the two, and the cigar tube can be withdrawn smoothly and evenly from a point-of-sale product display. As shown in FIG. 1, a tobacco product display apparatus 110, such as for display of cigars at a point-of-sale location, is provided. A cardboard point-of-sale display box 100 has an array of die cut holes 102 for holding and displaying tobacco products within display tubes 110. The apparatus of FIGS. 3A and 3B takes the form of a thin-walled cylindrical polypropylene tube 110, which includes a tubular member 118, having a rounded, closed end 112 and an open end 113, similar in form to a test tube. A tobacco product, such as a cigar (not shown), is placed into the display tube 110 through the open end 113, and a closure cap 111 is placed into the open end 113 so as to seal the cigar within the display tube 110 against both the ingress and egress of moisture. As best seen in FIG. 2, closure cap 111 includes a plug section 114, designed to penetrate a short distance into open end 113 of display tube 110. Plug section 114 has at least one moisture sealing ring 116 formed around its circumference, such that the at least one moisture sealing ring 116 is forced into circumferential contact with the inner diameter (I.D.) of the display tube 110. Advantageously, display tube 110 is made of polypropylene, a moisture permeation resistant polymer that is easily and inexpensively molded into the appropriate size and shape, as well as being resistant to moisture penetration, both into and out of the tube, once sealed. It has been found that polypropylene tubes used for tobacco product containment can be optimized for clarity by reducing the wall thickness of the tubing without compromising the long term moisture permeation resistance of the tubing. Advantageously, the thin-walled polypropylene product tubes disclosed herein demonstrate long term clarity, such as retaining a level of haze equal to or less than 8%, as measured by ASTM D1003, for periods exceeding one year. Cigar display tubes may have wall thicknesses in excess of about 0.120″. The tubing outer diameter may match that of the closure caps, which is about 0.689″. However, as seen in FIG. 2, when the wall thickness of the display tube 110 is reduced, a problem may occur. That problem relates to the fact that a ledge 115 may be created between the contact points of the closure cap 111 and the open end of the display tube 110. As shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B, in order to eliminate this problem, the inner diameter of the display tube 110 is keep substantially constant from a point where the closed end 112 expands to the inner diameter to the open end 113 of the display tube 110, and the outer diameter (O.D.) is constant from a point where the closed end 112 expands to said outer diameter to a point where the flared outer circumference 120 begins. FIG. 4 illustrates how the flared outer circumference 120, at its greatest circumference, matches (essentially equals) the outer circumference of the closure cap 111, so as to form a smooth transition between display tube 110 and closure cap 111. The overall wall thickness of the polypropylene tube between the ends can be limited to less than about 0.061″, or even less than about 0.050″, or even less than about 0.030″, which results in improved tube clarity and product visibility for the purchaser. Even with these thinner wall diameters it has been observed that the shelf life of the tobacco product contained in the tube is in excess of about 12 months. In one form, tubular member 118 is formed from a polypropylene material comprising polypropylene random copolymer, polypropylene-ethylene impact copolymer, polypropylene homopolymer, polypropylene copolymer and blends thereof. In another form, tubular member 118 is formed from a material comprising polypropylene random copolymer. In another form, tubular member 118 is injection molded from a high clarity polypropylene copolymer. One suitable material is Metocene RM2231 resin, available from LyondellBasell Industries, of Houston, Tex. Another is Borclear RB709CF, a random copolymer polypropylene available from Borealis Inc. of Port Murray, N.J. In another aspect, a process for forming a thin-walled polypropylene product display tube is provided. The process includes the step of forming a tubular member having a closed end, an open end, an inner diameter and, between the closed end and the open end, a first outer diameter, the open end terminating in a flared portion having a second outer diameter, wherein the forming step yields tubular member having a wall thickness sufficient to yield a level of haze equal to or less than 8%, as measured by ASTM D1003. Illustrative, non-exclusive examples of systems and methods according to the present disclosure have been presented. It is within the scope of the present disclosure that an individual step of a method recited herein, including in the following enumerated paragraphs, may additionally or alternatively be referred to as a “step for” performing the recited action. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The assemblies and processes disclosed herein are applicable to the tobacco industry, in particular that portion directed to products for smoking enjoyment. Although many of the teachings herein are addressed to the packaging and display of cigars, the teachings are equally applicable to any other forms of tobacco product, including cigarettes, cigarillos, pipes, e-vapor products and other smoking articles in any form or shape, all of which are contemplated herein with reference to a “tobacco product.” While the present invention has been described and illustrated by reference to particular forms, those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the invention lends itself to variations not necessarily illustrated herein. For this reason, then, reference should be made solely to the appended claims for purposes of determining the true scope of the present invention.

<SOH> FIELD <EOH>Disclosed herein is a tobacco product display tube with improved clarity.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In one aspect, a thin-walled polypropylene product display tube is provided. The thin-walled polypropylene product display tube includes a tubular member having a closed end, an open end, an inner diameter and, between the closed end and the open end, a first outer diameter, the open end terminating in a flared portion having a second outer diameter, the tubular member having a wall thickness sufficient to yield a level of haze equal to or less than 8%, as measured by ASTM D1003. In one form, the inner diameter is substantially constant from a point where the closed end expands to the inner diameter to the open end of the tubular member. In another form, the first outer diameter is substantially constant from a point where the closed end expands to the first outer diameter to a point where the flared portion begins. In yet another form, the second outer diameter is selected to correspond to an outer diameter of a closure cap for the tubular member. In still yet another form, the thin-walled polypropylene product display further includes a closure cap fitted to the open end, the second outer diameter of the flared portion of the tubular member mating with an outer diameter of the closure cap to form a smooth transition between the tubular member and the cap. In a further form, the closure cap comprises a plug member for engaging against an inner surface of the open end of the tubular member and substantially forming a seal. In a yet further form, the product is a tobacco product and the seal formed by the engagement of the plug member against the inner surface of the open end of the tubular member is sufficient to maintain product shelf life for a period of at least one year. In a still yet further form, the tubular member has a wall thickness of less than about 0.061 inch. In one form, the tubular member has a wall thickness of less than about 0.050 inch. In another form, the tubular member has a wall thickness of less than about 0 . 030 inch. In yet another form, the tubular member is formed from a material comprising polypropylene random copolymer, polypropylene-ethylene impact copolymer, polypropylene homopolymer, polypropylene copolymer and blends thereof. In still yet another form, the tubular member is formed from a material comprising polypropylene random copolymer. In another aspect, a process for forming a thin-walled polypropylene product display tube is provided. The process includes the step of forming a tubular member having a closed end, an open end, an inner diameter and, between the closed end and the open end, a first outer diameter, the open end terminating in a flared portion having a second outer diameter, wherein the forming step yields tubular member having a wall thickness sufficient to yield a level of haze equal to or less than 8%, as measured by ASTM D1003.

A24F1500

20180212

20180614

71467.0

A24F1500

PAGAN, JAVIER A

THIN WALL PRODUCT DISPLAY TUBE

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

A24F

PENDING

MULTI-POSITIONAL MOUNT FOR PERSONAL ELECTRONIC DEVICES WITH A MAGNETIC INTERFACE

A stand assembly for holding handheld electronic devices in a multitude of positions or locations having a first section with a curved end magnetically attached to second section having and indented surface. The first section also attaches to a surface, the second section either is contiguous with a portable electronic device, a carrying case, or other item; or has a means to attach to another surface. A high-friction elastomeric material, or similar friction producing material, helps to secure the first and second sections together, or the second section against another flat magnetic surface.

1. A stand assembly comprising: a first section having a first end shaped with a curved surface, said curved surface of said first section constructed of a first magnetic material; and a second section having a front surface, said front surface having an indentation, said indentation capable of receiving said curved end of said first section and being of a size which can encompass a portion, but less than the whole diameter, of said curved end of said first section, said second section having a second magnetic material capable of holding said first and said second sections together, wherein the second section includes a first piece of friction producing material, the friction producing material on an outer contact surface of the second section, adjacent to the second magnetic material and further from a center point of the indentation than the second magnetic material. 2. The stand assembly of claim 1, wherein the second magnetic material directly interfaces with the curved surface. 3. The stand assembly of claim 1, wherein the second magnetic material contacts the curved surface. 4. The stand assembly of claim 1, wherein the front surface having an indentation, said indentation capable of receiving said curved end of said first section and being of a size which can encompass a portion, but less than the whole diameter, of said curved surface of said first section, said second section having the second magnetic material configured to securely attach to the first section through magnetic interaction of the curved surface of the first section with the indentation on the front surface of the second section. 5. The stand assembly of claim 1, wherein said first section further comprises a means for laying stably flat on a surface. 6. The stand assembly of claim 1, wherein the friction producing material is high-friction material 7. A stand assembly comprising: a first section having a first end shaped with a curved surface, said curved surface of said first section constructed of a first magnetic material; and a second section having a front surface, said front surface having an indentation, said indentation capable of receiving said curved end of said first section and being of a size which can encompass a portion, but less than the whole diameter, of said curved end of said first section, said second section having a second magnetic material capable of holding said first and said second sections together, wherein the second section includes a first piece of friction producing material, the friction producing material on an outer contact surface of the second section, having a ring shape adjacent to the second magnetic material. 8. The stand assembly of claim 7, wherein the second magnetic material directly interfaces with the curved surface. 9. The stand assembly of claim 7, wherein the second magnetic material contacts the curved surface. 10. The stand assembly of claim 7, wherein the front surface having an indentation, said indentation capable of receiving said curved end of said first section and being of a size which can encompass a portion, but less than the whole diameter, of said curved surface of said first section, said second section having the second magnetic material configured to securely attach to the first section through magnetic interaction of the curved surface of the first section with the indentation on the front surface of the second section. 11. The stand assembly of claim 7, wherein said first section further comprises a means for laying stably flat on a surface. 12. A stand assembly comprising: a first section having a first end shaped with a curved surface, said curved surface of said first section constructed of a first magnetic material; and a second section having a front surface, said front surface having an indentation, said indentation capable of receiving said curved end of said first section and being of a size which can encompass a portion, but less than the whole diameter, of said curved end of said first section, said second section having a second magnetic material capable of holding said first and said second sections together, wherein the second section includes a first piece of friction producing material, the friction producing material on an outer contact surface of the second section, surrounding the second magnetic material. 13. The stand assembly of claim 12, wherein the second magnetic material directly interfaces with the curved surface. 14. The stand assembly of claim 12, wherein the second magnetic material contacts the curved surface. 15. The stand assembly of claim 12, wherein the front surface having an indentation, said indentation capable of receiving said curved end of said first section and being of a size which can encompass a portion, but less than the whole diameter, of said curved surface of said first section, said second section having the second magnetic material configured to securely attach to the first section through magnetic interaction of the curved surface of the first section with the indentation on the front surface of the second section. 16. The stand assembly of claim 12, wherein said second section further comprises a back surface with a means for attaching to a surface. 17. The stand assembly of claim 12, wherein said second section further comprises being contiguous with a protective cover. 18. The stand assembly of claim 12, wherein said first section further comprises a means for attaching to a flat surface. 19. The stand assembly of claim 12, wherein said first section further comprises a means for laying stably flat on a surface.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/689,632 filed Aug. 29, 2017 which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/526,350 filed Oct. 28, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,765,921 issued Sep. 19, 2017, which is a continuation of Ser. No. 14/098,043 filed Dec. 5, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,870,146 issued Oct. 28, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/485,894 filed May 31, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,602,376 issued Dec. 10, 2013, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/491,640, filed May 31, 2011, all of which applications are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety for all purposes. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention Embodiments of the present invention relate to a stand for holding handheld electronic devices; and more specifically, a stand that can hold the device in a multitude of positions or locations. 2. Description of Related Art Personal electronic equipment such as cellular phones and handheld touch screen computers are generally designed so as to be held by the operator in one hand while screen input is given to the device with the thumb or with the other free hand. While these methods of touch screen operation are good while on the go, or during a quick interaction with the device; the operator may wish to use the touch screen to display information without holding it or to type with one or both hands without holding the device. Prior methods of holding handheld electronic devices have proved limited in either the positions the devices can be held or to which surfaces the devices can be quickly attached. SUMMARY The present invention relates to a stand assembly for holding handheld electronic devices in a multitude of positions or locations. In one embodiment of the present invention, the stand assembly is comprised of two sections: the first section is comprised of a first end shaped to rest stably on a flat surface and a second end with a generally curved shape and constructed of a magnetic material; the second section being comprised of a front surface having an indentation to accept the generally curved end of the first section and a back surface comprising either a means for attaching to a surface or said front and back surfaces being contiguous with a handheld electronic device, a protective cover, or other item. The second section is further comprised of either being made from or including a magnet to attract magnetic material. The first and second sections of this embodiment of the invention are capable of being securely attached through the magnetic interaction of the curved end of the first section and the indentation on the front surface of the second section. Another embodiment of the present invention also comprises a first section with an end shaped to rest stably on a flat surface that can has a means to mount to surfaces such as: screws, glue, epoxy, two sided tape, hooks, snaps, links, clasps, ties, Velcro, or any suitable means commonly known to those who practice in the art. Another embodiment of the present invention also comprises a second section with a back surface with a means to mount a surface such as: screws, glue, epoxy, two sided tape, hooks, snaps, links, clasps, ties, Velcro, or any suitable means commonly known to those who practice in the art. Another embodiment of the present invention also comprises a first section with an end shaped to rest stably on a flat surface that can be shaped to fit into the socket of an automobile cigarette lighter outlet. Another embodiment of the present invention would also comprises a first section with an end shaped to rest stably on a flat surface that can be shaped to attach to irregular surfaces by way of a spring loaded or screw type clamp. Another embodiment of the present invention also comprises a high-friction elastomeric material, or similar friction producing material, on the outer contact surface of the front of the magnetized second section. This allows the handheld electronic device to be removed from the first section and placed on a vertical magnetic surface without slipping. Another embodiment of the present invention also comprises a high-friction elastomeric material, or similar friction producing material, on either the indentation on the front surface of the second section or the curved end of the first section. This prevents the indentation on the front surface of the second section from slipping on the curved end of the first section by creating friction to oppose gravity or other forces that may act on the magnetic coupling. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 1. FIGURES FIG. 1A (on Sheet 1) illustrates a side view of a stand assembly which includes the first and second sections attached together and to a handheld device according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 1B (on Sheet 1) illustrates a side view of the stand assembly of FIG. 1A rotated 90 degrees according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 1C (on Sheet 1) illustrates an oblique side view of a stand assembly showing the back surface of a second section where it attaches to a handheld device according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 1D (on Sheet 1) illustrates a cross-sectional view of a stand assembly showing a high-friction elastomeric material that rubs against a generally curved end of a first section according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 (on Sheet 2) illustrates a stand assembly placed on a flat surface and attached to a handheld electronic device according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 (on Sheet 3) illustrates a stand assembly adapted to connect to the cigarette lighter receptacle of an automobile according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 (on Sheet 3) illustrates a stand assembly adapted to include a spring loaded clamp for attaching a stand assembly to an irregular surface according to an embodiment of the present invention. 2. REFERENCES 1. First Section of Stand Assembly 2. Indentation In Second Section of Stand Assembly 3. Curved end of the First Section 4. Second Section of Stand Assembly 5. End of First Section Shaped To Rest Stably On a Flat Surface 6. Means For Attaching to Second Section to a Surface 7. Handheld Device 8. Flat Surface 9. High-Friction Elastomeric Material, or Similar friction Producing Material, On The Indentation On The Front Surface of The Second Section 10. High-Friction Elastomeric Material, or Similar Friction Producing Material, On The Outer Contact Surface of The Front of The Second Section 11. Magnetic Material 12. Stem to Engage Into The Cigarette Lighter Receptacle of an Automobile 13. Spring Loaded Jaws To Clamp Onto Irregular Surfaces DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF A PREFERRED EMBODIMENT For the purposes of promoting an understanding of the principles of the invention, reference will now be made to the embodiments illustrated in the drawings and specific language will be used to describe the same. However, the illustrated embodiments are merely exemplary and many additional embodiments of this invention are possible. For example this invention is shown in use with portable electronic devises; however this invention is not intended to be limited to portable electronic devices. It is understood that no limitation of the scope of the invention is thereby intended. Any alterations and further modifications in the illustrated devices, and such further application of the principles of the invention as illustrated herein are contemplated as would normally occur to one skilled in the art to which the invention relates. Unless otherwise indicated, the drawings are intended to be read (e.g., arrangement of parts, proportion, degree, etc.) together with the specification, and are to be considered a portion of the entire written description of this invention. As used in the following description, the terms “horizontal”, “vertical”, “left”, “right”, “up” and “down”, as well as adjectival and adverbial derivatives thereof (e.g., “horizontally”, “rightwardly”, “upwardly”, etc.), simply refer to the orientation of the illustrated structure as the particular drawing figure faces the reader. Similarly, the terms “inwardly” and “outwardly” generally refer to the orientation of a surface relative to its axis of elongation, or axis of rotation, as appropriate. FIGS. 1A, 1B, 1C and 1D all depict an embodiment of a multi-positional stand assembly for a handheld device comprised of two sections. The 1 first section has a 5 first end shaped so as to rest stably on a flat surface and a 3 second curved end constructed of a magnetic material. The 4 second section includes an 2 indentation for receiving the 3 second curved end of the 1 first section, a 6 means for connecting the 4 second section to an optional 7 handheld device, a 11 magnetic material for attracting the 3 second curved end of the 1 first section, a 9 high-friction elastomeric material, or similar friction producing material on the indentation on the front surface of the 4 second section for arresting slipping of the 4 second section relative to the 1 first section, and a 10 high-friction elastomeric material, or similar friction producing material on the outer contact surface of the 4 second section to hold the 4 second section to a vertical surface when the 1 first section is removed. The 1 first and 4 second sections of this embodiment of the invention are capable of being securely attached through the magnetic interaction of the 3 curved end of the first section and the 2 indentation on the front surface of the 4 second section. While not pictured, the 4 second section can also comprise either a means for attaching to a surface such as: screws, glue, epoxy, two sided tape, hooks, snaps, links, clasps, ties, Velcro, or any suitable means commonly known to those who practice in the art; or the front and back surfaces of the 4 second section can be contiguous with a 7 handheld electronic device, a protective cover, or other item. The second section can also be comprised of either being made from a magnetic material. While not pictured, the 1 first section can also comprise a flat end suitable for resting on a flat surface with a means for attaching to a surface such as: screws, glue, epoxy, two sided tape, hooks, snaps, links, clasps, ties, Velcro, or any suitable means commonly known to those who practice in the art. When the 1 first section is connected to the 4 second section and attached to a 7 handheld device, the 7 handheld device can be moved freely to a multitude of positions. Since the amount of leverage the 7 handheld device has on the 3 curved end of the first section and 2 indentation on the front surface of the second section varies depending on the 7 handheld device's position, the use of a 9 high-friction elastomeric material, or similar friction producing material on the indentation on the front surface of the 4 second section for arresting slipping of the 4 second section relative to the 1 first section eliminates the potential slipping of the 1 first and 4 second sections, or the need for use of 11 magnetic material of such strength as to make disconnecting the 1 first and 4 second sections difficult. FIG. 2 depicts an embodiment of the invention where the 1 first section has a 5 second end shaped to rest stably on a 8 flat surface such as a table, desk or the like. FIG. 3 depicts another embodiment of the invention where the 1 first section includes a 12 stem to engage into the cigarette lighter receptacle of an automobile, this stem could also be adapted to engage any sort of plug. FIG. 4 depicts another embodiment of the invention where the 1 first section also comprises 13 spring loaded jaws to clamp onto irregular surfaces although any similar means for clamping could be used. Various modifications and additions can be made to the exemplary embodiments discussed without departing from the scope of the present invention. For example, while the embodiments described above refer to particular features, the scope of this invention also includes embodiments having different combinations of features and embodiments that do not include all of the described features. Accordingly, the scope of the present invention is intended to embrace all such alternatives, modifications, and variations as fall within the scope of the claims, together with all equivalents thereof. While the above description contains many specificities, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of the invention, but rather as an exemplification of one preferred embodiment thereof. Many other variations are possible. Accordingly, the scope of this invention should be determined not by the embodiments, but by the applied claims and their legal equivalents.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present invention relates to a stand assembly for holding handheld electronic devices in a multitude of positions or locations. In one embodiment of the present invention, the stand assembly is comprised of two sections: the first section is comprised of a first end shaped to rest stably on a flat surface and a second end with a generally curved shape and constructed of a magnetic material; the second section being comprised of a front surface having an indentation to accept the generally curved end of the first section and a back surface comprising either a means for attaching to a surface or said front and back surfaces being contiguous with a handheld electronic device, a protective cover, or other item. The second section is further comprised of either being made from or including a magnet to attract magnetic material. The first and second sections of this embodiment of the invention are capable of being securely attached through the magnetic interaction of the curved end of the first section and the indentation on the front surface of the second section. Another embodiment of the present invention also comprises a first section with an end shaped to rest stably on a flat surface that can has a means to mount to surfaces such as: screws, glue, epoxy, two sided tape, hooks, snaps, links, clasps, ties, Velcro, or any suitable means commonly known to those who practice in the art. Another embodiment of the present invention also comprises a second section with a back surface with a means to mount a surface such as: screws, glue, epoxy, two sided tape, hooks, snaps, links, clasps, ties, Velcro, or any suitable means commonly known to those who practice in the art. Another embodiment of the present invention also comprises a first section with an end shaped to rest stably on a flat surface that can be shaped to fit into the socket of an automobile cigarette lighter outlet. Another embodiment of the present invention would also comprises a first section with an end shaped to rest stably on a flat surface that can be shaped to attach to irregular surfaces by way of a spring loaded or screw type clamp. Another embodiment of the present invention also comprises a high-friction elastomeric material, or similar friction producing material, on the outer contact surface of the front of the magnetized second section. This allows the handheld electronic device to be removed from the first section and placed on a vertical magnetic surface without slipping. Another embodiment of the present invention also comprises a high-friction elastomeric material, or similar friction producing material, on either the indentation on the front surface of the second section or the curved end of the first section. This prevents the indentation on the front surface of the second section from slipping on the curved end of the first section by creating friction to oppose gravity or other forces that may act on the magnetic coupling.

F16M1114

20180212

20180614

61065.0

F16M1114

MILLNER, MONICA E

MULTI-POSITIONAL MOUNT FOR PERSONAL ELECTRONIC DEVICES WITH A MAGNETIC INTERFACE

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

F16M

PENDING

ELECTRONIC CIGARETTE

An electronic cigarette comprises nicotine without harmful tar. The cigarette includes a shell, a cell, nicotine solution, control circuit, and an electro-thermal vaporization nozzle installed in the air suction end of the shell. The advantages of the present invention are smoking without tar, reducing the risk of cancer, the user still gets a smoking experience, the cigarette is not lit, and there is no fire danger.

1-21. (canceled) 22. A vaporizing device, comprising: a rechargeable battery in a housing, the rechargeable battery electrically connected to a control circuit; a charging connector in the housing for charging the battery; an LED in the housing electrically connected to the control circuit; at least one air inlet for allowing air to flow into the housing; a spiral metal wire heating element inside of the housing, the spiral metal wire heating element electrically connected to the control circuit, and with the spiral metal wire heating element having a length aligned along and in contact with a length of fiber material; a liquid storage container holding a liquid movable into contact with the fiber material; and the at least one air inlet leading into an air flow path in the housing to an outlet on the housing, with the length of fiber material in the air flow path. 23. The device of claim 22 further including a sensor positioned to sense air flow in the air flow path, with the sensor electrically connected to the control circuit. 24. The device of claim 22 further including a switch electrically connected to the control circuit for switching on the heating element. 25. The device of claim 22 with the charging connector at a first end of the first housing. 26. The device of claim 22 wherein the spiral metal wire heating element is wrapped around the length of fiber material. 27. The device of claim 22 wherein the fiber material comprises glass fiber. 28. The device of claim 22 further comprising a passageway providing liquid to the length of fiber material. 29. The device of claim 22 further comprising a tube through which vapor flows to an outlet on a mouthpiece. 30. The device of claim 22 further comprising a tube extending from the spiral metal wire through which vapor flows to an outlet on a mouthpiece. 31. The device of claim 30 further comprising a base at an end of the tube. 32. The device of claim 31 wherein the base holds tube in place. 33. The device of claim 31 wherein vapor flows away from base towards the outlet. 34. The device of claim 30 wherein the tube is centered on a longitudinal axis of the device. 35. A vaporizing device, comprising: a first housing attachable to and detachable from a second housing; a rechargeable battery in the first housing electrically connected to a control circuit; a charging connector on the first housing electrically connected to the battery; the first housing having an LED electrically connected to the control circuit; at least one air inlet for allowing air to flow into the second housing; a heating element comprising a spiral metal wire inside of the second housing, the heating element electrically connected to the control circuit, and with the heating element contacting a fiber material; the second housing containing a liquid movable into contact with the fiber material; and the at least one air inlet connecting into an air flow path in the second housing leading to an outlet on the second housing. 36. The device of claim 35 further including an air flow sensor electrically connected to the control circuit. 37. The device of claim 35 further including a switch electrically connected to the control circuit for switching on the heating element. 38. The device of claim 35 with the liquid in a liquid container in the second housing. 39. The device of claim 35 wherein the heating element is wrapped around the fiber material. 40. The device of claim 39 wherein the fiber material comprises glass fiber. 41. The device of claim 35 further comprising a passageway providing liquid to the fiber material. 42. An electronic vaporizing device, comprising: a housing; a control circuit electrically connected to a battery, an airflow sensor, an atomizer and an LED; a liquid storage container adjacent to the atomizer; the atomizer including a spiral heating wire wrapped around a length of fiber material; a tube through which vapor flows, the tube extending from the spiral heating wire to an outlet on a mouthpiece, wherein the tube is centered along a longitudinal axis of the device. 43. The device of claim 42 further including a base at an end of the tube, with the base supporting the tube and wherein vapor flows away from base and towards the outlet. 44. The device of claim 42 with the control circuit configured such that luminance of the LED changes based on an output of the airflow sensor. 45. The device of claim 42 with the control circuit configured to control luminance of the LED when the airflow sensor senses airflow, such that the LED simulates the appearance of a conventional burning cigarette tip. 46. The device of claim 42 with the housing having a first section attached to a second section, and with the battery in the first section.

This Application is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/632,030, filed Jun. 23, 2017 and now pending, which is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/091,296 filed Apr. 5, 2016, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,713,346, which is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/328,561 filed Jul. 10, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,364,027, which is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/921,582 filed Jun. 19, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,910,641, which is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/088,276 filed Apr. 15, 2011, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,511,318, which is a Division of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/547,244 filed Feb. 27, 2006 and now abandoned, which is the U.S. National Phase Application of International Patent Application No. PCT/CN2004/000182 filed Mar. 8, 2004, which claims priority to Chinese Patent Application No. 03111582.9 filed Apr. 29, 2003. These applications are incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD The invention relates to an electronic cigarette which contains only nicotine without tar. BACKGROUND ART Despite it is commonly known that “smoking is harmful to your health”, the number of smokers worldwide is up to 1 billion, and the number is increasing every year. According to the statistical data from the World Health Organization, about 4.9 million people die of diseases caused by smoking each year. Although smoking may cause serious respiratory diseases and cancer, it remains extremely difficult for smokers to quit smoking completely. The active ingredient in a cigarette is nicotine. During smoking, nicotine, along with tar aerosol droplets produced in the burning cigarette, enters smoker's alveolus and is rapidly absorbed. After being absorbed into the blood of a smoker, nicotine then produces an effect on the receptors of the smoker's central nervous system. Nicotine is a kind of alkaloid with low molecular weight. A small dose of nicotine is essentially harmless to human body and its half-life in blood is quite short. The major harmful substance in tobacco is tar, and the tar in tobacco is composed of thousands of ingredients, tens of which are cancerogenic substances. At present, it has been proven that passive smoking can be harmful to non-smokers. Some cigarette substitutes that contain only nicotine without tar have been proposed, and many of them, such as “nicotine patch”, “nicotine mouthwash”, “nicotine chewing gum”, “nicotine drink” etc., are made of pure nicotine. Although these cigarette substitutes are free from tar, their major disadvantage is that an effective peak concentration cannot be reached in the blood of a smoker due to slow absorption of nicotine. In addition, these cigarette substitutes cannot satisfy habitual smoking actions of a smoker, for example, inhaling action or sucking action, and thus are not likely to be widely accepted as effective substitutes for quitting smoking. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An objective of the present invention is to provide an electronic cigarette that overcomes the above-mentioned disadvantages and provides a cigarette that looks like a normal cigarette. The electronic cigarette, which is an integrated assembly resembling a cigarette holder, includes a shell, a cell, nicotine solution, a control circuit, a high temperature vaporization nozzle and accessories. An electro-thermal vaporization nozzle is arranged within an air suction end of the shell. The control circuit provides starting current to the electric heater within the vaporization nozzle. Under the high temperature in the vaporization nozzle, the liquid is rapidly vaporized to form a puff of smoke. The cell which provides power to the electric heater via the control circuit can be a disposable battery or a rechargeable battery. The advantages of the present invention include smoking without tar, significantly reducing the cancerogenic risk. Furthermore, users still feel as if they are smoking, and the cigarette has no need to be lit and has no fire risk. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a structural diagram of the device in the first example in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of the circuit structure. FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of the structure of the high temperature vaporization nozzle and the electric-thermal element. FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of the valve made of memory alloy. FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of the peristaltic pump made of memory alloy. FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of the peristaltic pump. FIG. 7 is a structural diagram of the electronic cigarette in a second example. FIG. 8 is a structural diagram of the electronic cigarette in a third example. FIG. 9 is a structural diagram of the electronic cigarette in a fourth example. FIG. 10 is a structural diagram of the metering cavity in the fourth example. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The high frequency generator of a control circuit board 8 is composed of a capacitance connecting three point type oscillator, an inductance connecting three point type oscillator, or a transformer-type oscillating circuit, which has the frequency of 35 KHz to 3.3 MHz. The circuit includes an automatic frequency fine-adjusting circuit resonating with a piezoelectric element 20. A nicotine solution storage container 13 is made of silicon rubber, alternatively, other polymers that can be protected against the penetration of nicotine can be used. A one-way valve for liquid injection 12 is sealed by a ball or cone member under the pressure of a spring. An airflow sensor 18 can be comprised of an array of integrated thermal sensitive resistors in the shape of film. The electrode of a resistance or capacitance sensor 19, which is sensitive to touches of human body, is composed of an upper metal film and a lower metal film and located at the end of the cigarette holder. The changes of the resistance or capacitance parameters due to human touch are inputted into the control circuit to perform the operation of a body sensitive switch. The electric controlled pump 11, driven by a motor or a linear motor, drives a retarder that has a large speed ratio, via a shaft coupling, to revolve at a low speed but with large torque. The pump can be a peristaltic pump, a plunger pump, an eccentric pump or a screw pump. Alternatively, the liquid pump can use piezoelectric pump, a super magnetostrictive pump, a thermal expansion drive pump, a thermal contraction drive pump, a thermal bubble pump. The electric control pump or valve may be thermal contractible. The valve is formed on a silicon rubber tube by nickel-titanium memory alloy or copper-based memory alloy under the force of electro-thermal contractions. The electro-thermal vaporization nozzle 17 is made of high-temperature resistant materials with low thermal conductivity. The nozzle 17 is a tubule, with the internal diameter of 0.05-2 mm and the effective working length of 3-20 mm. An electric heating element is provided within the nozzle, and the shapes of the electric heating element and the cavity of the nozzle are designed to facilitate vaporization and ejection of liquid. The vaporization nozzle 17 may be made of conventional ceramics, or be made of aluminum silicate ceramics, titanium oxide, zirconium dioxide, yttrium oxide ceramics, molten silicon, silicon dioxide, molten aluminum oxide. The vaporization nozzle 17 may be in the shape of straight tube or spiral, and may also be made from polytetrafluoethylene, carbon fiber, glass fiber or other materials with similar properties. The electric heating element arranged within the vaporization nozzle 17 may be made of wires of nickel chromium alloy, iron chromium aluminum alloy, stainless steel, gold, platinum, tungsten molybdenum alloy, etc., and may be in the shape of straight line, single spiral, double spiral, cluster or spiral cluster, wherein the straight line and cluster are preferred. The heating function of the electric heating element may be achieved by applying a heating coating on the inner wall of the tube, and the coating may be made from electro-thermal ceramic materials, semiconductor materials, corrosion-resistant metal films, such as gold, nickel, chromium, platinum and molybdenum. The method for coating can include a coat sintering process, a chemical deposition sintering process and an ion spraying process. The materials mentioned above can be provided within the inner wall of vaporization nozzle in any of the processes mentioned above. The nozzle with high resistance, made of metal, can have no electric heating element being attached, and can be directly applied with heating current. Alternatively, the materials mentioned above can be arranged outside of the nozzle in any of the ways mentioned above, and an appropriate response time can also be achieved in the power supply mode of short-term preheating. Nicotine solution used in the atomization process comprises nicotine, propylene glycol, glycerol, organic acids, anti-oxidation agents, essence, water and alcohol, in which the nicotine content is 0.1%-6%, propylene glycol content 80%-90%, organic acids 0.2%-20%, the rest is glycerol, essence, anti-oxidation agents, water and alcohol. EXAMPLE 1 The Structural Diagram of the Device Shown in FIG. 1 When a smoker puts the cigarette holder on his/her mouth, the resistance sensor 19 activates the control circuit board 8. The control circuit board 8 then outputs two driving voltages respectively, one used to supply power to the electric heating element of the vaporization nozzle 17 and the other used to activate the micro pump 11 (shown in FIG. 6). The stored solution is then pumped to the nozzle 17 by the solution storage container 13. On the electric heating element of the nozzle 17, the nicotine solution is then vaporized into high temperature vapor which is subsequently ejected from the opening end. In the air, the vapor ejected out is then expanded and condensed into micro aerosol droplets. The effect of the ultrasonic piezoelectric element 20 mounting on the nozzle is that, firstly, the large liquid droplets in the unstable thermal airflow under high pressure will be in sufficient contact with the electric heating element, and thereby be vaporized. Secondly, the liquid droplets in the nozzle 17 are directly fragmented and atomized. Thirdly, possible bumping when the liquid is above a boiling point will be avoided. The effect of integrated atomization will allow aerosol droplets with diameters of 0.2-3 um to enter into the alveolus easily and be absorbed. The airflow sensor 18 is sensitive to the diluted air which enters through air inlet 16 when a “suction” action take places. The sensed signals are transmitted to the control circuit, and the control circuit then stops supplying power to the micro pump and the electric heater after a certain time delay. The relay relationship between the time delays of the micro pump and electric heater is as follows: after the electric heater is activated, the micro pump is activated after a time delay of 0.1-0.5 seconds; the electric heater is then turned off after a time delay of 0.2-0.5 seconds when the control circuit of the micro pump is turned off, so as to guarantee a complete vaporization of the liquid after quantitative liquid injection without any leftovers. The nicotine solution container may be designed to be different sizes as required. The nicotine solution may be refilled once a day, or once a couple of days. The liquid crystal display screen 10 can show operating state parameters, such as cell capacity, smoking times per day, average using cycle and warnings for over smoking. A red LED 3 blinks for each smoking action, and a sawtooth wave signal that lasts for 1.2 seconds is given by the control circuit for blinking signals, which provides a gradual change of luminance to imitate the ignition and combustion process of a conventional cigarette. The charger 1, charging jack 2, spring 4, shell 6, threads 7, switch 9, passage tube 14 and baffle plate 15 are shown in FIG. 1. The silicon gel tube 601, pinch roller 602, worm 603 and motor 604 are shown in FIG. 6. The control circuit and the ultrasonic micro pump may be integrated on one single chip by using a Micro Electronic Mechanical System (MEMS). EXAMPLE 2 The Simplified Electronic Cigarette FIG. 7 is a structural diagram of the simplified device in which the ultrasonic atomization high frequency generator and the piezoelectric ceramic element 20 are omitted. To achieve a desirable atomization effect, tiny heating wires are used in combination with the nozzle (see FIG. 3), so that the maximum diameters of one or more vaporization cavities formed between the heating wire and the inner wall of the nozzle range from 0.02 mm to 0.6 mm. The function of the airflow sensor 18 omitted is replaced by the manner that the initial signal of the resistance or capacitance sensor 119 is delayed a certain time via the control circuit and acts as the ending signal. The electronic cigarette is configured as follows: the vaporization nozzle 117, the thermal drive pump 111 (see FIG. 5) made of nickel titanium memory alloy wire, and the liquid storage container 113 connected to the thermal drive pump constitute a liquid transmission system. Two outputs of the control circuit board 108 are respectively connected to the electric heater and the pump or valve. A body sensitive resistance sensor 119 is connected to the input of the control circuit. The cell 105 and red LED 103 are provided in the front end within the shell, and resemble a cigarette holder, a pipe or a pen. The thermal drive pump is an electro-thermal shrinkable peristaltic pump, made of wires of nickel titanium memory alloy or copper based alloy, with gel tube which is pressed at three points respectively during the process of electro-thermal contraction to form a pressure cavity for pumping out liquid. The change of volume of the cavity within the thermal drive pump determines the quantity of the solution to be atomized each time. Upon contacting with user's mouth, the resistance sensor 119 activates the control circuit 108, the control circuit 108 then provides operating current to the thermal drive pump and the electric heater, and the output of the control circuit is turned off after the delay of 2 seconds for reactivation at the next smoking action. Alternatively, a thermal expansion drive pump or a thermal bubble pump is also applicable. The thermal expansion drive pump forms a pressure cavity for pumping out liquid by allowing a micro hydrogen container with an embedded electric heating element to block the liquid inlet and open the liquid outlet at the time of thermal expansion. The charging jack 102, LED 103, cell 105, switch 109, liquid-refilling valve 112 and air hole 116 are shown in FIG. 7. The electrode lead wire 401, heating wire 402, thread 403, base 404 and nozzle 405 are shown in FIG. 3. The support 501, extension spring 502, pumping-out pressure plate 503, silicon gel tube 504, stop pressure plate 505, supporting spring 506, memory alloy wire 507, electrode A 508, electrode B 509 and electrode 510 are shown in FIG. 5. EXAMPLE 3 The Electronic Cigarette Made of a Ni—Ti Memory Alloy FIG. 8 is a structural diagram of the electronic cigarette. The electro-thermal vaporization nozzle 217 of the device is connected to the liquid storage container 213 via a pneumatic valve 220. The super elastic member 210 is connected to the pressure plate 211 which is connected to the liquid storage container 213. The pneumatic valve is composed of a pneumatic film 214, a magnetic steel ring 218, a steel valve needle 220 and a reset spring 221. The super elastic member 210, which is made of Ni-Ti memory alloy, is used to apply a constant pressure on the liquid storage container via the pressure plate 211. When the pneumatic valve opens, the liquid with nicotine enters the vaporization nozzle from the liquid storage container via the pneumatic valve and is vaporized and condensed subsequently to form a puff of smoke at high temperature. Upon contacting with user's mouth, the resistance sensor activates the control circuit to supply power to the electric heater. When the user performs suction action, the Nd—Fe—B permanent magnetic alloy ring attracts the valve needle to move in response to the pneumatic film being subjected to negative pressure. Liquid is supplied when the valve needle opens, and after the pneumatic valve is reset, power supply to the electric heater is turned off after the delay of 0.5 seconds by the control circuit. The LED 203, charging jack 202, cell 205, control circuit 208, switch 209, refilling valve 212, baffle plate 215, air hole 216 and resistance sensor 219 are shown in FIG. 8 EXAMPLE 4 The Electronic Spray Cigarette Utilizing the Pressure of a Container In the device (see FIG. 9), the electro-thermal vaporization nozzle 317, the electronic valve 311 connected with the metering cavity 320, and the liquid storage container 313 form a liquid transmission passage. A gas vessel filled with high-pressure nitrogen is arranged around the periphery of the liquid storage container to exert pressure thereon to facilitate the transmission of the liquid. When a control signal is applied to the electronic valve, the electronic valve is activated, and the solution with nicotine enters the metering cavity from the liquid storage container under pressure. The solution pushes a piston so as to allow a constant volume of liquid at the other side of the piston to enter the vaporization nozzle via the electronic valve. The metering cavity provided at the valve is a cylinder having a liquid inlet and a liquid outlet. Located within the cylinder are the piston micro holes and the reset spring connected onto the piston. The control circuit which is activated by the resistance sensor 319 controls the states of the electronic valve and the electric heater respectively. Due to slow infiltration of the micro hole of the piston in the metering cavity and the force of the reset spring, the piston returns to its original position within 5-8 seconds after each atomization process. The cell 305, pressure vessel 321, pressure chamber 322, seal threaded-opening 323, control circuit board 308 and air hole 316 are showed in FIG. 9. The silicon gel tube 406, pressure-stopping plate 407, memory alloy wires 408, support 409, electrode lead wire 410 and pressure spring 411 are shown in FIG. 4. The inlet 701, piston 702, micro hole of the piston 703, metering cavity 704, reset spring 705 and outlet 706 are shown in FIG. 10. The recipes of nicotine solution used are: 1. 6% nicotine, 85% propylene glycol, 2% glycerol, 2% essence, 1% organic acid and 1% anti-oxidation agent; 2. 4% nicotine, 80% propylene glycol, 5% glycerol, 1% butyl valerate, 1% isopentyl hexonate, 0.6% lauryl laurate, 0.4% benzyl benzoate, 0.5% methyl octynicate, 0.2% ethyl heptylate, 0.3% hexyl hexanoate, 2% geranyl butyrate, 0.5% menthol, 0.5% citric acid and 4% tobacco essence; 3. 2% nicotine, 90% propylene glycol, 2.5% citric acid, 1% essence and 4.5% tobacco essence; 4. 0.1% nicotine, 80% propylene glycol, 5% glycerol, 8% alcohol, 2.9% water, 1% essence, 1% tobacco essence and 2% organic acid.

<SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>Despite it is commonly known that “smoking is harmful to your health”, the number of smokers worldwide is up to 1 billion, and the number is increasing every year. According to the statistical data from the World Health Organization, about 4.9 million people die of diseases caused by smoking each year. Although smoking may cause serious respiratory diseases and cancer, it remains extremely difficult for smokers to quit smoking completely. The active ingredient in a cigarette is nicotine. During smoking, nicotine, along with tar aerosol droplets produced in the burning cigarette, enters smoker's alveolus and is rapidly absorbed. After being absorbed into the blood of a smoker, nicotine then produces an effect on the receptors of the smoker's central nervous system. Nicotine is a kind of alkaloid with low molecular weight. A small dose of nicotine is essentially harmless to human body and its half-life in blood is quite short. The major harmful substance in tobacco is tar, and the tar in tobacco is composed of thousands of ingredients, tens of which are cancerogenic substances. At present, it has been proven that passive smoking can be harmful to non-smokers. Some cigarette substitutes that contain only nicotine without tar have been proposed, and many of them, such as “nicotine patch”, “nicotine mouthwash”, “nicotine chewing gum”, “nicotine drink” etc., are made of pure nicotine. Although these cigarette substitutes are free from tar, their major disadvantage is that an effective peak concentration cannot be reached in the blood of a smoker due to slow absorption of nicotine. In addition, these cigarette substitutes cannot satisfy habitual smoking actions of a smoker, for example, inhaling action or sucking action, and thus are not likely to be widely accepted as effective substitutes for quitting smoking.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An objective of the present invention is to provide an electronic cigarette that overcomes the above-mentioned disadvantages and provides a cigarette that looks like a normal cigarette. The electronic cigarette, which is an integrated assembly resembling a cigarette holder, includes a shell, a cell, nicotine solution, a control circuit, a high temperature vaporization nozzle and accessories. An electro-thermal vaporization nozzle is arranged within an air suction end of the shell. The control circuit provides starting current to the electric heater within the vaporization nozzle. Under the high temperature in the vaporization nozzle, the liquid is rapidly vaporized to form a puff of smoke. The cell which provides power to the electric heater via the control circuit can be a disposable battery or a rechargeable battery. The advantages of the present invention include smoking without tar, significantly reducing the cancerogenic risk. Furthermore, users still feel as if they are smoking, and the cigarette has no need to be lit and has no fire risk.

A24F47008

20180213

20180621

70695.0

A24F4700

CAMPBELL, THOR S

ELECTRONIC CIGARETTE

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

A24F

PENDING

BI-DIRECTIONAL FIXATING TRANSVERTEBRAL BODY SCREWS, ZERO-PROFILE HORIZONTAL INTERVERTEBRAL MINIPLATES, TOTAL INTERVERTEBRAL BODY FUSION DEVICES, AND POSTERIOR MOTION-CALIBRATING INTERARTICULATING JOINT STAPLING DEVICE FOR SPINAL FUSION

An apparatus and method for joining members together using a self-drilling screw apparatus or stapling apparatus are disclosed. The screw apparatus includes a worm drive screw, a spur gear and superior and inferior screws which turn simultaneously in a bi-directional manner. A rotating mechanism drives the first and second screw members in opposite directions and causes the screw members to embed themselves in the members to be joined. The screw apparatus can be used to join members such as bones, portions of the spinal column, vertebral bodies, wood, building materials, metals, masonry, or plastics. A device employing two screws (two-in-one) can be combined with a capping horizontal mini-plate. A device employing three screws can be combined in enclosures (three-in-one). The stapling apparatus includes grip handles, transmission linkages, a drive rod a fulcrum and a cylinder. The staple has superior and inferior segments with serrated interfaces, a teethed unidirectional locking mechanism and four facet piercing elements. The staples can be also be used to join members such as bones, portions of the spinal column, or vertebral bodies.

1-20. (canceled) 21. A bidirectional fixating intervertebral implant system, the system comprising: at least one implant body made of polyethylene-ketol (PEEK) configured to act to reduce subsidence of a disc space between first and second vertebral bodies when implanted into the disc space, the implant body having a first vertebral body-facing surface and an opposing second vertebral body-facing surface configured for engaging the first and second vertebral bodies, having a plate-facing surface, and having side surfaces extending between the first and second vertebral body-facing surfaces; a plate having a top surface and an opposing body-facing surface, wherein the plate is configured to engage with the implant body with the body-facing surface of the plate abutting against the plate-facing surface of the implant body, wherein the plate comprise a plurality of plate holes aligned with a plurality of body holes of the implant body, wherein the plate has a depth between its top surface and its body-facing surface that varies at different portions of the plate such that at least a portion of the body-facing surface of the plate is shaped to wrap around at least a portion of the implant body, wherein the implant body and the plate are sized to fit within the disc space when the implant body and the plate are combined and implanted in the disc space; a superior bone-piercing screw extendable from the at least one implant body in a first direction so as to pierce and engage with the first vertebral body when implanted in the disc space; and an inferior bone-piercing screw extendable from the at least one implant body in a second direction different than the first direction so as to pierce and engage with the second vertebral body when implanted in the disc space. 22. The system of claim 21, wherein the plate is a zero to sub-zero-profile plate configured to be either flush with or below surfaces of the first and second vertebral bodies when implanted. 23. The system of claim 21, wherein the body thickness is greater than the plate thickness. 24. The system of claim 21, wherein at least one of the plate holes extends through the plate orthogonally with respect to the top surface. 25. The system of claim 21, wherein the plate holes and the body holes are substantially cylindrical. 26. A method of operating the system of claim 21, the method comprising: positioning the implant body and the plate in the disc space such that the plate is either flush with ore below surfaces of the first and second vertebral bodies; extending the superior bone-piercing screw into the first vertebral body and extending the inferior bone-piercing screw into the second vertebral body so as to secure the system in the disc space. 27. A bidirectional fixating intervertebral implant system, the system comprising: at least one implant body made of polyethylene-ketol (PEEK) configured to act to reduce subsidence of a disc space between first and second vertebral bodies when implanted into the disc space, the implant body having a first vertebral body-facing surface and an opposing second vertebral body-facing surface configured for engaging the first and second vertebral bodies, having a plate-facing surface, and having side surfaces extending between the first and second vertebral body-facing surfaces; a plate having a top surface and a body-facing surface, wherein the plate is configured to engage with the implant body with the body-facing surface of the plate abutting against the plate-facing surface of the implant body, wherein the plate comprise four plate holes with at least two of the four plate holes aligned with at least two body holes of the implant body, wherein the body-facing surface of the plate has a first portion abutting the implant body and a second portion abutting the implant body, wherein the first portion of the body-facing surface of the plate is positioned opposite the top surface of the plate and the second portion of the body-facing surface of the plate is angled with respect to the first portion of the body-facing surface of the plate so as to abut a different portion of the implant body, wherein both the implant body and the plate are sized to fit within the disc space when the implant body and the plate are combined and implanted in the disc space; a superior bone-piercing screw extendable from the implant body in a first direction so as to pierce and engage with the first vertebral body when implanted in the disc space; and an inferior bone-piercing screw extendable from the implant body in a second direction different than the first direction so as to pierce and engage with the second vertebral body when implanted in the disc space. 28. The system of claim 27, wherein the plate is a zero to sub-zero-profile plate configured to be either flush with or below surfaces of the first and second vertebral bodies when implanted. 29. The system of claim 27, wherein at least two of the four plate holes are screw holes. 30. The system of claim 27, wherein at least one of the plate holes extends through the plate orthogonally with respect to the top surface. 31. The system of claim 27, wherein the plate holes and the body holes are substantially cylindrical. 32. A method of operating the system of claim 27, the method comprising: positioning the implant body and the plate in the disc space such that the plate is either flush with ore below surfaces of the first and second vertebral bodies; and extending the superior bone-piercing screw into the first vertebral body and extending the inferior bone-piercing screw into the second vertebral body so as to secure the system in the disc space. 33. The system of claim 27, wherein the first portion of the body-facing surface is substantially perpendicular to the second portion of the body-facing surface of the plate. 34. A bidirectional fixating intervertebral implant system, the system comprising: at least one implant body made of polyethylene-ketol (PEEK) configured to act to reduce subsidence of a disc space between first and second vertebral bodies when implanted into the disc space, the implant body having a first vertebral body-facing surface and an opposing second vertebral body-facing surface configured for engaging the first and second vertebral bodies, having a plate-facing surface, and having side surfaces extending between the first and second vertebral body-facing surfaces; a plate having a top surface and a body-facing surface, wherein the plate is configured to engage with the implant body with the body-facing surface of the plate abutting against the plate-facing surface of the implant body, wherein the plate comprise a plurality of plate holes aligned with a plurality of body holes of the implant body, wherein the body-facing surface of the plate has a first portion abutting the implant body and a second portion abutting the implant body, wherein the first portion of the body-facing surface of the plate is positioned opposite the top surface of the plate and the second portion of the body-facing surface of the plate is angled with respect to the first portion of the body-facing surface of the plate so as to abut a different portion of the implant body, wherein both the implant body and the plate are sized to fit within the disc space when the implant body and the plate are combined and implanted in the disc space; and a plurality of bone-piercing screws extendable from the system bidirectionally such that a first of the bone-piercing screws extends in a first direction so as to pierce and engage with the first vertebral body when implanted in the disc space and a second of the bone-piercing screws extends in a second direction different than the first direction so as to pierce and engage with the second vertebral body when implanted in the disc space. 35. The system of claim 34, wherein the plate is a zero to sub-zero-profile plate configured to be either flush with or below surfaces of the first and second vertebral bodies when implanted. 36. The system of claim 34, wherein at least one of the plate holes extends through the plate orthogonally with respect to the top surface. 37. The system of claim 34, wherein the first portion of the body-facing surface is substantially perpendicular to the second portion of the body-facing surface of the plate. 38. The system of claim 34, wherein the plate comprises at least four plate holes. 39. The system of claim 34, wherein the implant body has a body thickness between its first and second vertebral body-facing surfaces and the plate has a plate thickness across the top surface of the plate that is similar to the body thickness of the implant body.

The present Application is a Continuation Application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/868,451 filed Aug. 25, 2010, which is a Divisional Application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/536,815 filed on Sep. 29, 2006, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,846,188 issued Dec. 7, 2010, which is a Continuation-In-Part Application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/208,644, filed on Aug. 23, 2005, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,704,279 issued on Apr. 27, 2010, for which priority is claimed under 35 U.S.C. § 120; and this application also claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. provisional application No. 60/670,231, filed on Apr. 12, 2005; the entire contents of all the above identified patent applications are hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF INVENTION The present invention relates to a unique universal bidirectional screw (UBS) system , and in particular its application to the spine, also referred to as bi-directional fixating transvertebral (BDFT) screws which can be used to supplement other intervertebral spacers and/or bone fusion materials. BDFT screws can be incorporated into anterior and/or posterior cervical, thoracic and lumbosacral, novel, zero-profile, horizontal intervertebral mini-plates, and anterior cervical, thoracic and lumbosacral total interbody fusion devices (IBFD). In the lumbosacral and thoracic spine, BDFT screws can be used independently or supplemented with the horizontal intervertebral mini-plate or total IBFD, and are thus considered stand alone intervertebral body fusion constructs which may obviate the need for supplemental pedicle screw fixation. In the cervical spine these devices obviate the need for supplemental vertically oriented anterior plating, and can be used as stand alone interbody fusion devices. The present invention also relates to a stand-alone or supplemental, calibrating interarticular joint stapling device which can incrementally fine-tune posterior interarticular joint motion. DESCRIPTION OF THE RELEVANT ART Segmental spinal fusions which stabilize two or more adjacent segments of the spine are performed for painful degenerative disc disease, recurrent disc herniations, spinal stenosis, spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis. Over the past several decades a wide variety of fusion techniques and instrumentation have evolved. One of the earliest posterior fusion techniques entails non-instrumented in-situ on-lay posteriolateral fusion utilizing autologous iliac crest bone. Because of the high rate of imperfect fusions i.e. pseudoarthroses, transpedicular pedicle screw fixation which utilizes a variety of rods and interconnectors were developed to achieve less interbody motion and hence higher fusion rates. Pedicle screw fixation was initially combined with on-lay posteriolateral fusion. Because of the poor blood supply of the transverse processes, issues still remained with pseudoarthroses. In an attempt to address this problem, pedicle screw fixation has been supplemented with a variety of interbody fusion devices. This is based on the concept that axial loading enhances fusion and that the vertebral endplates have a better blood supply. Interbody lumbar fusion devices can be placed anteriorly via an anterior lumbar interbody fusion technique (ALIF) or posteriorly via a posterior lumbar interbody fusion technique (PLIF). Material options for interbody fusion devices have included autologous iliac crest/laminar bone, cylindrical threaded titanium interbody cages, cylindrical threaded cortical bone dowels, vertebral interbody rings or boxes, carbon fiber cages, or femoral ring allograft. To lessen the complication of prolonged nerve root retraction the technique of circumferential transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion technique (TLIF) has been introduced. This employs the transforaminal placement of an interbody spacer such as one kidney bean shaped allograft, two circular allografts, one or two titanium circular cages, a single titanium or Peek (poly-ether-ketone) boomerang spacer. The threaded spacers are usually supplemented with autologous bone and/or bone morphogenic protein (BMP), demineralized bone matrix (DBM) in the form of paste or cement, rh-BMP with collagen sponges, or similar osteoinductive biological agents which are known to enhance fusion. Currently all lumbosacral fusion techniques, ALIF, PLIF and TLIF, are typically supplemented by pedicle screw placement. In addition posterior transfacet screws also have been used to supplement ALIF procedures. Complications of pedicle screw placement include duration of procedure, significant tissue dissection and muscle retraction, misplaced screws with neural and/or vascular injury, excessive blood loss, need for transfusions, prolonged recovery, incomplete return to work, excess rigidity leading to adjacent segmental disease requiring further fusions and re-operations. Further advances of pedicle screw fixation including minimally invasive and image-guided technology, and the development of flexible rods have imperfectly addressed some but not all of these issues. Transfacet screws and similar embodiments entail the use of short or long screws which provide static facet alignment without motion calibration. Complications of all current interbody fusion devices is their lack of coverage of the majority of the cross sectional area of the vertebral endplates and their potential for extrusion. The recently described flexible fusion system which consists of flexible rods attached to transpedicular screws (Dionysis, Zimmer) suffers from a high pull-out rate, higher rate of re-operation than standard fusions, and does not rank high with patient satisfaction. See for example, Clinical experience with the Dynesys semirigid fixation system for the lumbar spine: Surgical and patient-oriented outcome in 50 cases after an average of 2 years; D, Grob, A. Benini and A. F. Mannion. Spine Volume 30, number 3, Fe. 1, 2005. Single or multiple level anterior cervical spinal fusions typically employ the replacement of the cervical disc or discs with autologous or allograft bone, or an intervertebral spacer filled with autologous or allograft bone, demineralized bone matrix, BMP or rh-BMP etc. Currently these anterior cervical fusions are augmented with anterior vertical titanium plates which cross the intervertebral space or spaces and are secured to the vertebral bodies above and below the disc space or spaces with perpendicularly penetrating vertebral body screws. The purpose of these plates is to serve as a barrier to prevent extrusion of the intervertebral disc replacement. Recently anterior vertical plating has also been employed in anterior lumbar fusion. Complications of anterior spinal plating include the potential for neurovascular injury with screw misplacement, screw and/or plate pull-out, and screw and/or plate breakage. Other complications include potential esophageal compression/injury in the cervical spine secondary to high plate profile or pull-out, and to potential devastating vascular injury in the lumbar spine with plate movement and/or dislodgement into anterior iliac vasculature. Recent advances in cervical plating have therefore concentrated on the creation of lower profile plates and even resorbable plates. These advances, however, have not eliminated the possibility of plate dislodgement and screw back out/breakage. OBJECTS OF THE INVENTION To achieve segmental fusion, applicants propose the use of novel bi-directional fixating transvertebral (BDFT) screws which can be strategically inserted via anterior or posterior surgical spinal approaches into the anterior and middle columns of the intervertebral disc space. The BDFT mechanism employs turning a wormed driving screw which then turns a spur gear which in turn simultaneously turns a rostrally oriented screw into the cephalad vertebral body, and a caudally directed screw into the caudal vertebral body. The vertebral bodies above and below the disc space by virtue of their engagement and penetration by the BDFT screws are thus linked and eventually fused. The gear box casings of the BDFT screws prevent vertebral body subsidence. The inside of the denuded intervertebral space can then be packed with autologous or allograft bone, BMP, DBX or similar osteoinductive material. Posteriorly or anteriorly in the lumbar spine, these screws can be capped with a horizontal mini-plate which will prevent bony growth into the thecal sac and nerves. We refer to this as a two-in-one design i.e. two BDFT screws combined with one horizontal mini-plate. Anteriorly a total intervertebral spacer containing three BDFT screws can be inserted. We refer to this as a three-in-one design i.e. three BDFT screws in one total fusion construct, i.e. an IBFD. Applicants postulate that BDFT screws provide as strong or stronger segmental fusion as pedicle screws without the complications arising from pedicle screw placement which include screw misplacement with potential nerve and/or vascular injury, violation of some healthy facets, possible pedicle destruction and blood loss. By placing screws across the intervertebral space from vertebral body to vertebral body engaging anterior and middle spinal columns, and not into the vertebral bodies via the transpedicular route, some of the healthy facet joints are preserved. Because this technique accomplishes both anterior and middle column fusion, without rigidly fixing the posterior column, it in essence creates a flexible fusion. This device therefore is a flexible fusion device because the preserved posterior joints retain their function achieving at least a modicum of mobility and hence a less rigid (i.e. a flexible) fusion. The very advantage of trans-pedicular screws which facilitate a strong solid fusion by rigidly engaging all three spinal columns (anterior, middle and posterior), is the same mechanical mechanism whereby complete inflexibility of all columns is incurred thereby leading to increasing rostral and caudal segmental stress which leads to an increased rate of re-operation. Transvertebral fusion also leads to far less muscle retraction, blood loss, and significant reduction in O.R. time. Thus the complication of pedicular screw pull-out and hence high re-operation rate associated with the current embodiment of flexible fusion pedicle screws/rods is obviated. The lumbosacral BDFT screws can be introduced via PLIF, TLIF or ALIF operative techniques. Although one can opt to supplement these screws with transpedicular screws there would be no absolute need for supplemental pedicle screw fixation with these operative techniques. Bi-directional fixating transvertebral (BDFT) screws can also be combined with novel zero-profile horizontal cervical and lumbar mini-plates. They can also be combined with a total IBFD with insertion spaces for bone material insertion. For the performance of anterior cervical, and lumbar anterior or posterior fusions one or two centrally placed BDFT screws anterior to an interverterbal graft or spacer, may be a sufficient barrier by itself to prevent device/graft extrusion. However, to further safeguard against graft/spacer extrusion, applicants have devised horizontal linear mini-plates which can be incorporated into two anteriorly placed BDFT screws. It can also be incorporated into two posteriorly BDFT screws which are inserted posteriorly, in addition to a third BDFT screw which has been inserted centrally and posteriorly. This achieves a total disc intervertebral construct placed posteriorly composed of three BDFT screws placed in a triangulating matter. The capping horizontal mini-plate would prevent the bony material which is packed into the interspace from growing into the ventral; aspect of the nerves. The horizontal linear mini-plates traverse the diameter of the disc space and most of the disc space height. Thus a horizontal mini-plate placed posteriorly immediately beneath the lumbosacral thecal sac and nerve roots which is capped and secured to right and left BDFT screws, would prevent intervertebral device/graft extrusion. This mini-plate is essentially a zero- to sub-zero-profile plate in that it is either flush with or below the rostral and caudal vertebral body surfaces. Because the BDFT screws engage a small percentage of the rostral and caudal vertebral body surface area, this plating system could be performed at multiple levels. This plating system which utilizes BDFT screws in the anterior cervical spine does not lead to any esophageal compression/injury, or vascular iliac vein injury in the lumbar spine. For the performance of two or three level intervertebral fusion with horizontal mini-plates there is virtually no possibility of plate breakage which can occur in long vertical anterior plates which are in current usage. Similarly, screw dislodgement, if it occurs would lead to minimal esophageal compression or injury compared to large vertical plate/screw dislodgement. In addition, in the cervical spine BDFT screw placement closer to the midline would avert any possibility of lateral neural or vertebral artery injury. Likewise multiple placement of IBFD devices can also be performed without the above mentioned risks and complications. If one were inclined to further enhance posterior column thoracolumbosacral fixation, applicants introduce a novel calibrated facet stapling device which staples the inferior articulating facet of the superior segment to the superior articulating facet of the caudal vertebral segment unilaterally or bilaterally, further minimizing motion until interbody fusion occurs. The degree of flexibility can be further modulated by varying the calibration strength and torque of facet stapling. This would be dictated by the need for greater or lesser degrees of motion preservation. All other know transfacet stabilizers are not calibrated, but are static. Currently, failed anterior lumbar arthoplasties are salvaged by combined anterior and posterior fusions. BDFT screws and/or IBFDs could be utilized as a one-step salvage operation for failed /extruded anteriorly placed lumbar artificial discs obviating the above salvage procedures which have greater morbidity. Likewise, for anterior cervical fusion, applying cervical BDFT screws alone or in combination with cervical mini-plates or IBFDs addresses the deficiencies and complications of current cervical plating technology as mentioned above. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A illustrates an isometric view of the universal bidirectional screw (UBS) alternatively referred to as the bi-directional fixating transvertebral screw (BDFT). FIG. 1B illustrates the lateral view of the UBS (BDFT) with rostral and caudal screws partially extended. FIG. 1C illustrates the lateral view of the UBS (BDFT) with the screws withdrawn. FIG. 2 illustrates a front view of the UBS (BDFT) without the gear box and cover. FIG. 3A and 3B illustrate perspective, and exploded perspective views, respectively, of the UBS (BDFT) without gear box and cover, with the screws fully extended. FIG. 4 illustrates a perspective view of the UBS (BDFT) without the gear box and cover, with screws partially extended. FIG. 5A illustrates a perspective view of a single insertion screw of the BDFT. FIG. 5B illustrates a perspective cross-sectional view of a BDFT insertion screw. FIG. 5C illustrates a perspective view of the spindle. FIG. 6A illustrates an exploded view of the two-in-one design consisting of two BDFT screws and a horizontal mini-plate. FIG. 6B illustrates the two-in-one design with the horizontal mini-plate secured and the screws extended. FIG. 6C illustrates the two-in-one design, and its position with respect to the vertebral body. FIG. 7A illustrates an exploded view of the three-in-one system (IBFD) which consists of three BDFT screws in an enclosure system. FIG. 7B illustrates the three-in-one system (IBFD) with screws extended. FIG. 7C illustrates the IBFD with an accompanying screw driver. FIGS. 8A and 8B illustrate perspective, and cross-sectional views of the interarticular joint stapling device with staple, respectively. FIGS. 9A and 9B illustrate perspective and exploded views of the staple, respectively. FIG. 10 illustrates a perspective view of the staple gun engaging the facet joint. FIG. 11 illustrates the remote action mechanism of the staple gun. FIG. 12 illustrates the different components of the staple gun. FIG. 12A illustrates the drive rod. FIG. 12B illustrates the fulcrum cylinder connector. FIG. 12C illustrates the grip handle. FIG. 12D illustrates the cylinder. FIG. 12E illustrates the cylinder with the drive rod. FIG. 13 illustrates the drive and insertion mechanism of the staple. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION 1. The Medical Device Referring to FIGS. 1A-5C the above described problem can be solved in the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine by insertion into the denuded intervertebral disc space a bi-directional fixating transvertebral (BDFT) screw or (UBS) screws 100. FIGS. 1A through 1C illustrate three-dimensional views of the UBS/BDFT screw 100. All its inner components are in the gear box casing 101. The internal mechanisms are illustrated in FIGS. 2-5C. FIG. 1A illustrates the isometric view of the UBS 100 showing the outer gear box 101 containing the external mechanism, with superior screw 102 and inferior screw 103 extended. There are serrations 104 on the superior and inferior surfaces of the box 101 intended to integrate with the surface of the superior and inferior vertebral body surfaces. The gear box 101 which is made either of PEEK (polyethylene-ketol) or titanium acts as a column preventing subsidence of the disc space. Also seen are the surface of the worm drive screw 105, and the horizontal mini-plate screw insert 106 for capping the horizontal mini-plate to the gear box's 101 surface (FIGS. 1A-C and 6A-C). FIGS. 1-4 illustrate the inner components of the BDFT/UBS 100 without the enclosing gear box 101. The inner components include a single wormed drive screw 105, a drive spindle 201, a spur gear 202, superior screw 102 and inferior screw 103 with superior and inferior screw spindles 205, 206 (FIGS. 1-4). The mechanism of operation is thus: The wormed drive screw 105 is rotated clockwise. This rotation in turn rotates the spur gear 202. The spur gear 202 interdigitates with the superior screw 102 on one side and the inferior screw 103 on the other side. Rotation of the spur gear 202 leads to simultaneous rotation of the superior and inferior screws 102, 103 in equal and opposite directions. The spindles in the wormed drive screw 105 and the superior and inferior screws 102, 103 maintain the axis of screw orientation. The screws 102, 103 are self drilling and hence there is no need for bony preparation. FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate in perspective and cross-sectional views the detailed elements of the superior and inferior screws 102, 103. These figures illustrate the external threading 501, the internal threading 502, the spindle socket and the spur gear teeth 503 which interdigitate with the spur gear 202. The screws 102, 103 are self drilling as noted. FIG. 5C illustrates the details of the spindle including its base 505, its rod 506 and its threaded segment 507. FIGS. 6A-6C illustrate the two-in-one design concept. This design concept includes two UBS/BDFT screws 100a, 100b which are placed in the left and right portions of the intervertebral disc space, which are then capped by a horizontal mini-plate 600. Note how the mini-plate has four perforations. There are two perforations 601, 602, one on each side to allow entry of the wormed screw drive into the gear box. There are an additional two perforations 603, 604, one on each side, to secure the plate to the two UBS boxes 100a, 100b with plate screw caps 605, 606. FIG. 6C demonstrates the position of the two-in-one system with respect to the vertebral body 610. In between the two BDFT/UBS screws 100a, 100b, bone fusion material is inserted. The horizontal mini-plate 600 prevents the bone from growing into the nerves above it. With this system it is also possible to place a third screw inferior and in the middle of the two other UBS screws 100a, 100b thereby providing additional screw intervertebaral fixation. FIGS. 7A through 7C illustrate the three-in-one design otherwise known as the IBFD. This device consists of five components. Three UBS/BDFT screws 100a, 100b, 100c, a superior and an inferior enclosure 701, 702. The enclosures 701, 702 are attached to the UBS/BDFT screws 100a, 100b, 100c. A screw driver 705 is used to actuate the screws 100a, 100b, 100c. There are also slots 703, 704 for bone fusion material. This device is only for anterior insertion into the spine, and it covers the entire cross-sectional area of the interspace, and is thus a total IBFD. The enclosures can be made out of PEEK, titanium, cobalt chromium or any other similar substance. The structure of the device provides significant three column stability and prevents subsidence of the construct. FIG. 8A and 8B illustrate the individual components of the facet joint staple gun 800. It consists of a remote action mechanism which includes grip handles 801, transmission linkages 802, a drive rod 803, a cylinder 804. The drive rod 803 has a force end 805 and an action end 806. FIGS. 9A and 9B illustrate the details of the facet joint stapler. The staple 900 has superior and inferior staple segments 901, 902. These segments 901, 902 are joined by a teethed unidirectional locking mechanism 903 having right triangular teeth 910, and a spring washer 904. The inferior surfaces 905, 906 of each staple segment 901, 902 are serrated to facilitate bony integration, and each segment has two bone piercing elements 907 with a base 908. FIG. 10 illustrates the staple 900 in the staple gun 800, in the opened position engaging the facet joints, prior to penetration and stapling. FIGS. 11-13 illustrate the different components of the staple gun 800 and staple 900 in a detailed manner. The mechanism of action of the staple gun 800 includes engaging the staple 900 in the action end 806 of the drive rod 803 and resting in the staple guide chamfers 1201 (FIGS. 12A-13). When the staple 900 is thus engaged in the staple gun 800, the grip handles 801 are squeezed together, bringing the linkages 802 together (FIGS. 11-12C). This action is transmitted to the force end 805 of the driving rod 803 which moves upwards. This leads to upward movement of the action end 806 of the drive rod 803 in which the staple 900 is nestled, leading to the opposition of the superior and inferior segments 901, 902 of the staple, 900 and the penetration of the pins 907 into the bone. The distance of bone penetration is modulated by the pressure put on the hand grips 801. Hence graded facet joint opposition leading to different degrees of opposition and hence rigidity can be accomplished. The greater the force the greater the opposition. Thus this is a modulated not a static stapling mechanism. 2. The Surgical Method The surgical steps necessary to practice the present invention will now be described. The posterior lumbar spine implantation of the BDFT (UBS) screws 100, horizontal mini-plate 600 and IBFD 100a, 100b, 100c can be implanted via previously described posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF) or posterior transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF) procedures. The procedure can be performed open, microscopic, closed, tubular or endoscopic. Fluoroscopic guidance can be used with any of these procedures. After the adequate induction of anesthesia, the patient is placed in the prone position. A midline incision is made for a PLIF, and one or two parallel paramedian incisions or a midline incision is made for a TLIF. For the PLIF a unilateral or bilateral facet sparing hemi-laminotomy is created to introduce the BDFT (UBS) screws 100, into the disc space after it is adequately prepared. For the TLIF procedure, after a unilateral dissection and drilling of the inferior articulating surface and the medial superior articulating facet, the far lateral disc space is entered and a circumferential discectomy is performed. The disc space is prepared and the endplates exposed. There are then multiple embodiments to choose from for an intervertebral body fusion. With the first and simplest choice, under direct or endoscopic guidance one. Two or three BDFT screws 100 can be placed. If two screws 100 are placed. One is placed on the right, and one on the left. If three are placed, the additional one can be placed more anterior and midline, such that the three screws 100a, 100b, 100c form a triangulation encompassing the anterior and middle columns of the vertebral bodies.(Figures 6B and 6C). Once the screws 100 are placed into the desirable intervertebral body positions, the worm drive screws 105 are turned clockwise which leads to the penetration and engagement of the superior and inferior bi-directional screws 102, 103 into the vertebral bodies above and below. BDFT screws can also be placed in angled positions if desirable (not illustrated). Bone material or alternative intervertebral fusion material can then be packed into the disc space around the BDFTs 100. The casing gear box 101 of the screws prevents subsidence of the vertebral bodies (FIGS. 1A-C). An additional option in the posterior lumbar spine is to place a horizontal mini-plate 600 underneath the thecal sac to prevent bone migration into the nerves. This plate 600 (FIGS. 6A-C) can be slid underneath the thecal sac, and secured to the right and left BDFT (UBS) screws 100. Once set, the plate 600 can be locked down with plate screw caps 606 thereby preventing movement (FIGS. 6A-C). If further posterior column stability or rigidity is required, unilateral or bilateral, single level or multiple level facet screw stapling 900 can be performed under open, microscopic flouroscopic or endoscopic vision. Radiographic confirmation of staple position is obtained. Calibrated stapling leads to opposition of the facet joints 1000 with incremental degrees of joint opposition. This can lead to variable degrees of posterior column rigidity and/or flexibility (FIGS. 8-13). The anterior cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine implantation of one, two or three UBS (BDFT) screws 100 can be performed in a similar manner to posterior application. Likewise a horizontal mini-plate 600 can be used to cap two BDFT screws 100. Anterior placement of the three-in-one device (IBFD) 100a, 100b, 100c into the L4/5 and L5/S1 interspaces can be performed on the supine anesthetized patient via previously described open micropscopic or endoscopic techniques. Once the disc space is exposed and discectomy and space preparation is performed, placement of one, two or three BDFT screws 100 with or without a mini-plate 600, or placement of the IBFD 100a, 100b, 100c is identical to that performed for the posterior approach. The posterior placement of the BDFT screws 100 alone or combined with horizontal mini-plates (two-in-one) 600 or with IBFD 100a, 100b, 100c into the thoracic spine can be performed via previously described transpedicular approaches; open or endoscopic. The anterior placement of the IBFD (three-in-one) into the thoracic spine can be accomplished via a trans-thoracic approach. Once disc space exposure is obtained via either approach, all of the above mentioned embodiments can be inserted. Engagement of the devices is identical to what was mentioned above. For anterior placement of the cervical embodiments of the BDFT screw(s) 100 with or without the horizontal cervical mini-plate 600, and the IBFD 100a, 100b, 100c embodiment, the anterior spine is exposed in the anesthetized patient as previously described for anterior cervical discectomies. Once the disc space is identified, discectomy is performed and the disc space prepared. Implantation and engagement of all devices is identical to that described for the anterior lumbar and thoracic spines. The present invention may provide an effective and safe technique that overcomes the problems associated with current tanspedicular-based thoracic and lumbar fusion technology, and with current vertical cervical plating technology, and for many degenerative stable and unstable spine diseases, and could replace many pedicle screw-based and anterior vertical-plate based instrumentation in many but not all degenerative spinal conditions. Calibrated facet joint screw staples 900 can facilitate flexible fusions and could replace current static trans-facet screws. To our knowledge there has not been any other previously described bi-directional screw 100 for use in the spine, other joints, or for any commercial or carpentry application. The bi-directional screw 100 described herein may indeed have applications in general commercial, industrial and carpentry industries. To our knowledge the description of zero to subzero profile anterior or posterior horizontal spinal plates which traverse the diameter of the disc space has not been previously described. To our knowledge an intervertebral three-in-one construct 100a, 100b, 100c has not been previously reported. To our knowledge calibrated facet joint staples 900 have not been previously described.

<SOH> FIELD OF INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a unique universal bidirectional screw (UBS) system , and in particular its application to the spine, also referred to as bi-directional fixating transvertebral (BDFT) screws which can be used to supplement other intervertebral spacers and/or bone fusion materials. BDFT screws can be incorporated into anterior and/or posterior cervical, thoracic and lumbosacral, novel, zero-profile, horizontal intervertebral mini-plates, and anterior cervical, thoracic and lumbosacral total interbody fusion devices (IBFD). In the lumbosacral and thoracic spine, BDFT screws can be used independently or supplemented with the horizontal intervertebral mini-plate or total IBFD, and are thus considered stand alone intervertebral body fusion constructs which may obviate the need for supplemental pedicle screw fixation. In the cervical spine these devices obviate the need for supplemental vertically oriented anterior plating, and can be used as stand alone interbody fusion devices. The present invention also relates to a stand-alone or supplemental, calibrating interarticular joint stapling device which can incrementally fine-tune posterior interarticular joint motion.

<SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1A illustrates an isometric view of the universal bidirectional screw (UBS) alternatively referred to as the bi-directional fixating transvertebral screw (BDFT). FIG. 1B illustrates the lateral view of the UBS (BDFT) with rostral and caudal screws partially extended. FIG. 1C illustrates the lateral view of the UBS (BDFT) with the screws withdrawn. FIG. 2 illustrates a front view of the UBS (BDFT) without the gear box and cover. FIG. 3A and 3B illustrate perspective, and exploded perspective views, respectively, of the UBS (BDFT) without gear box and cover, with the screws fully extended. FIG. 4 illustrates a perspective view of the UBS (BDFT) without the gear box and cover, with screws partially extended. FIG. 5A illustrates a perspective view of a single insertion screw of the BDFT. FIG. 5B illustrates a perspective cross-sectional view of a BDFT insertion screw. FIG. 5C illustrates a perspective view of the spindle. FIG. 6A illustrates an exploded view of the two-in-one design consisting of two BDFT screws and a horizontal mini-plate. FIG. 6B illustrates the two-in-one design with the horizontal mini-plate secured and the screws extended. FIG. 6C illustrates the two-in-one design, and its position with respect to the vertebral body. FIG. 7A illustrates an exploded view of the three-in-one system (IBFD) which consists of three BDFT screws in an enclosure system. FIG. 7B illustrates the three-in-one system (IBFD) with screws extended. FIG. 7C illustrates the IBFD with an accompanying screw driver. FIGS. 8A and 8B illustrate perspective, and cross-sectional views of the interarticular joint stapling device with staple, respectively. FIGS. 9A and 9B illustrate perspective and exploded views of the staple, respectively. FIG. 10 illustrates a perspective view of the staple gun engaging the facet joint. FIG. 11 illustrates the remote action mechanism of the staple gun. FIG. 12 illustrates the different components of the staple gun. FIG. 12A illustrates the drive rod. FIG. 12B illustrates the fulcrum cylinder connector. FIG. 12C illustrates the grip handle. FIG. 12D illustrates the cylinder. FIG. 12E illustrates the cylinder with the drive rod. FIG. 13 illustrates the drive and insertion mechanism of the staple. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"?

A61B177064

20180214

20180621

88077.0

A61B1770

PHILOGENE, PEDRO

BI-DIRECTIONAL FIXATING TRANSVERTEBRAL BODY SCREWS, ZERO-PROFILE HORIZONTAL INTERVERTEBRAL MINIPLATES, TOTAL INTERVERTEBRAL BODY FUSION DEVICES, AND POSTERIOR MOTION-CALIBRATING INTERARTICULATING JOINT STAPLING DEVICE FOR SPINAL FUSION

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

A61B

PENDING

DIFFERENTIAL HEALTH CHECKING OF AN INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Differential health-check systems and accompanying methods provide health-checking and reporting of one or more information management systems in reference to a first time period before and a second time period after a triggering event. A triggering event may be an upgrade of at least part of the information management system, or a restore operation completed in the information management system for example following a disaster, or any number of other events, etc. The health-checking and reporting may comprise a comparison of one or more performance metrics of one or more components and/or operations of the information management system during the first and second time periods.

1. An information management system comprising: a first storage component that participates in a first plurality of storage operations before a change in configuration of the first storage component, and also participates in a second plurality of storage operations after the change in configuration of the first storage component; a storage manager that controls the first plurality of storage operations and the second plurality of storage operations; a first computing device that comprises one or more processors and computer memory, wherein the computing device hosts a differential health-check module; wherein the first computing device is configured to use the differential health-check module to: evaluate a first value of a first performance metric that measures at least one characteristic of the first plurality of storage operations in which the first storage component participated before the change in configuration, evaluate a second value of the first performance metric that measures the at least one characteristic of the second plurality of storage operations in which the first storage component participated after the change in configuration, and based the first value of the first performance metric and the second value of the first performance metric, detect a change in performance of the first storage component after the change in configuration as compared to before the change in configuration. 2. The system of claim 1 wherein the first storage component is a data agent that arranges primary data into one or more secondary copy formats different from a primary data format and transmits the arranged data to a media agent that creates one or more secondary copies based on the arranged data received from the data agent and stores the one or more secondary copies to an associated secondary storage device, and wherein the data agent is hosted by a computing device comprising one or more processors and computer memory. 3. The system of claim 1 wherein the first storage component is a media agent that creates one or more secondary copies based on data received from a data agent and stores the one or more secondary copies to an associated secondary storage device, wherein the media agent is hosted by a computing device comprising one or more processors and computer memory, and wherein the data agent is hosted by a computing device comprising one or more processors and computer memory. 4. The system of claim 1 wherein the first storage component is a media agent that creates one or more secondary copies stores the one or more secondary copies to an associated secondary storage device, and wherein the media agent is hosted by a computing device comprising one or more processors and computer memory. 5. The system of claim 1 wherein the first storage component is the storage manager. 6. The system of claim 1 wherein the first storage component is a data storage device. 7. The system of claim 1 wherein the change in configuration of the first storage component triggers a request for the differential health-check module to report on a performance of the first storage component after the change in configuration as compared to before the change in configuration. 8. The system of claim 1 wherein the first plurality of storage operations and the second plurality of storage operations are determined by the differential health-check module based on a timeframe received with a request to report on a performance of the first storage component after the change in configuration as compared to before the change in configuration. 9. The system of claim 1 wherein the first performance metric measures for the first storage component one or more of: how many storage operation jobs were completed, how many of the completed storage operation jobs had errors, the average data throughput for the completed storage operation jobs, the average duration of the completed storage operation jobs, the average number of attempts to complete a storage operation job, how much data was transferred in a storage operation, how much disk space was consumed by a storage operation, and how much free disk space remains after a storage operation. 10. The system of claim 1 wherein the first value and the second value of the first performance metric are based on data extracted by the storage manager from one or more respective media agent components of the information management system, wherein the respective media agent participated in at least one of the first plurality of storage operations and the second plurality of storage operations. 11. The system of claim 1 wherein the differential health-check module is further configured to query the storage manager for information about the first plurality of storage operations and the second plurality of storage operations. 12. A computer-readable medium, excluding transitory propagating signals, storing instructions that, when executed by a computing device comprising one or more processors and computer memory, cause the computing device to perform operations within an information management system, the operations comprising: evaluating a first value of a first performance metric that measures at least one characteristic of a first plurality of storage operations in which a first storage component participated before a change in configuration of the first storage component; evaluating a second value of the first performance metric that measures the at least one characteristic of a second plurality of storage operations in which the first storage component participated after the change in configuration; and based the first value of the first performance metric and the second value of the first performance metric, detecting a change in performance of the first storage component after the change in configuration as compared to before the change in configuration; wherein a storage manager controls the first plurality of storage operations and the second plurality of storage operations in the information management system, wherein the storage manager executes on a computing device comprising one or more processors and computer memory; and wherein the first storage component comprises at least one of: (a) a data agent that arranges primary data into one or more secondary copy formats different from a primary data format and transmits the arranged data to a media agent, wherein the data agent executes on a computing device comprising one or more processors and computer memory, (b) the media agent that creates one or more secondary copies based on the arranged data received from the data agent and stores the one or more secondary copies to an associated secondary storage device, wherein the media agent executes on a computing device comprising one or more processors and computer memory, (c) the storage manager, and (d) a data storage device associated with at least one of the data agent and the media agent. 13. The computer-readable medium of claim 12 wherein the change in configuration of the first storage component triggers a request for a report on whether the change in configuration of the first storage component resulted in a change in performance of the first storage component as compared to before the change in configuration. 14. The computer-readable medium of claim 12 wherein the evaluating and the detecting operations are triggered by the change in configuration of the first storage management component. 15. The computer-readable medium of claim 12 wherein the evaluating and the detecting operations are triggered by the storage manager detecting the change in configuration of the first storage management component. 16. The computer-readable medium of claim 12 wherein the first performance metric measures for the first storage component one or more of: how many storage operation jobs were completed, how many of the completed storage operation jobs had errors, the average data throughput for the completed storage operation jobs, the average duration of the completed storage operation jobs, the average number of attempts to complete a storage operation job, how much data was transferred in a storage operation, how much disk space was consumed by a storage operation, and how much free disk space remains after a storage operation. 17. The computer-readable medium of claim 12 wherein the first value and the second value of the first performance metric are based on data extracted by the storage manager from the media agent, which participated in at least one of the first plurality of storage operations and the second plurality of storage operations. 18. The computer-readable medium of claim 12 wherein the operations further comprise: querying the storage manager for information about the first plurality of storage operations and the second plurality of storage operations. 19. The computer-readable medium of claim 12 wherein the data storage device associated with the data agent stores primary data. 20. The computer-readable medium of claim 12 wherein the data storage device associated with the media agent stores secondary data, including one or more secondary copies.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE TO ANY PRIORITY APPLICATIONS This application is a Continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/400,830 filed on Jan. 6, 2017 and entitled “Differential Health Checking Of An Information Management System,” which is a Continuation of U.S. Pat. No. 9,590,886 B2 filed on Nov. 1, 2013 and entitled “Systems and Methods for Differential Health Checking of an Information Management System.” Any and all applications for which a foreign or domestic priority claim is identified in the Application Data Sheet of the present application are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties under 37 CFR 1.57. BACKGROUND Businesses worldwide recognize the commercial value of their data and seek reliable, cost-effective ways to protect the information stored on their computer networks while minimizing impact on productivity. Protecting information is often part of a routine process that is performed within an organization. A company might back up critical computing systems such as databases, file servers, web servers, and so on as part of a daily, weekly, or monthly maintenance schedule. The company may similarly protect computing systems used by each of its employees, such as those used by an accounting department, marketing department, engineering department, and so forth. Given the rapidly expanding volume of data under management, companies also continue to seek innovative techniques for managing data growth, in addition to protecting data. For instance, companies often implement migration techniques for moving data to lower cost storage over time and data reduction techniques for reducing redundant data, pruning lower priority data, etc. Enterprises also increasingly view their stored data as a valuable asset. Along these lines, customers are looking for solutions that not only protect and manage, but also leverage their data. For instance, solutions providing data analysis capabilities, information management, improved data presentation and access features, and the like, are in increasing demand. SUMMARY A differential health-check system and accompanying methods provide health-checking and reporting on the performance of one or more information management systems in reference to a first time period before and a second time period after a triggering event. A triggering event may be an upgrade of all or part of the information management system, or a restore operation completed in the information management system such as following a disaster, or any number of other events, etc. The health-checking and reporting may comprise a comparison of one or more performance metrics of one or more components and/or operations of the information management system during the first and second time periods. An illustrative embodiment comprises a differential health-check module that communicates electronically with a storage manager that manages an information management system. In some embodiments the differential health-check module resides apart from and operates separately from the storage manager; in some embodiments the storage manager comprises the differential health-check module. In some embodiments, the storage manager provides the component-specific information needed by the health-check module to perform its differential health-check analysis; in some embodiments, the storage manager obtains the information from the targeted component (or from an associated index or other data structure) after receiving a request from the health-check module; in some embodiments, the storage manager obtains and/or pre-processes the information from the targeted component (or from an associated index or other data structure) in anticipation of information-request queries issued by the health-check module to the storage manager. Exemplary components of the information management system whose performance is health-checked include data agents and media agents, primary and secondary storage computing devices, primary and secondary storage devices, and storage manager(s), and/or individual components thereof, without limitation. Information about these components may be obtained from the component itself or from associated indexes or other data structures that store relevant information. An illustrative method according to an exemplary embodiment comprises: identifying, by a differential health-check module, a first time period wherein a first component in an information management system operated, at least in part, under the control of a storage manager; identifying, by the differential health-check module, a second time period that follows the first time period, wherein the first component operated, at least in part, under the control of the storage manager; evaluating, by the differential health-check module, a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period, wherein the first value is based on information provided by the storage manager; evaluating, by the differential health-check module, a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period, wherein the second value is based on information provided by the storage manager; generating, by the differential health-check module, an indication to a user of a comparison of the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes an upgrade, and further wherein the second time period occurs after the upgrade is completed. In some embodiments, the information provided by the storage manager is obtained from data stored in the storage manager. In some embodiments, the differential health-check module detects a change in performance of the first component in the second time period, based at least in part on the comparison. In some embodiments, the change in performance is evaluated based on a threshold value that is component-specific. In some embodiments, the method further comprises one or more of: requesting, by the differential health-check module before the upgrade is completed, pre-upgrade information about the information management system; and/or receiving, by the differential health-check module before the upgrade is completed, pre-upgrade information about the information management system from the storage manager; and/or receiving before the upgrade is completed, by a server that is remote from the differential health-check module, information about the information management system. In some embodiments, the upgrade comprises one or more of the following aspects: updating software that is associated with the information management system in one or more components of a primary storage subsystem in the information management system; and/or updating software that is associated with the information management system in one or more components of a secondary storage subsystem in the information management system; and/or updating software that is associated with the information management system in the storage manager; and/or updating hardware in one or more components of a secondary storage subsystem in the information management system; and/or replacing one or more components of a secondary storage subsystem in the information management system and/or adding one or more components to a primary storage subsystem in the information management system; and/or adding one or more components to a secondary storage subsystem in the information management system, etc. without limitation. Another exemplary method comprises: receiving, by a storage manager from a differential health-check module, one or more queries for information about a first component of an information management system that operates at least in part under the control of the storage manager, wherein the queried information is in reference to operations of the first component during a first time period and during a second time period; extracting, by the storage manager in response to the one or more queries, information from the first component; generating by the storage manager, based at least in part on the extracted information, one or more responses that are responsive to the one or more received queries; transmitting the one or more responses to the differential health-check module; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes an upgrade, and further wherein the second time period occurs after the upgrade is completed. The method may further comprise pre-extracting, by the storage manager in anticipation of the one or more queries, some information from one or more components in the information management system, wherein the one or more responses are also based on the pre-extracted information, and other aspects, without limitation. Another exemplary method comprises: pre-processing, by a storage manager, in anticipation of a query from a differential health-check module, some information extracted by the storage manager from a first component of an information management system, wherein the first component operates at least in part under the control of the storage manager; receiving, by the storage manager from the differential health-check module, one or more queries for information about the first component, wherein the queried information is in reference to operations of the first component during a first time period and during a second time period; generating by the storage manager, based at least in part on the pre-processed information, one or more responses to the one or more received queries; transmitting the one or more responses to the differential health-check module; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes an upgrade, and further wherein the second time period occurs after the upgrade is completed. In some embodiments, the extracted information is extracted by the storage manager from the first component before receiving the one or more queries. An illustrative differential health-check system according to an exemplary embodiment comprises a differential health-check module that is configured to: communicate electronically with a storage manager that manages an information management system; receive a request for a differential health-check report having a report timeframe; define a first time period and a second time period based on the report timeframe, wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes an upgrade, and wherein the second time period occurs after the upgrade is completed; generate one or more queries for the storage manager, the queries comprising requests for information about a first component of the information management system operating during the first time period and during the second time period; evaluate a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period, based on information received from the storage manager in response to the one or more queries; evaluate a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period, based on information provided by the storage manager in response to the one or more queries; and generate an indication to the user of a change in performance of the first component in the second time period, based at least in part on comparing the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric. Another illustrative system comprises a storage manager, wherein an information management system operates under the control of the storage manager; a differential health-check component that is configured to define, based on a request for a differential health-check report having a report timeframe that includes an event boundary, a first time period before the event boundary and a second time period after the event boundary, wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes an upgrade, and wherein the second time period occurs after the upgrade is completed; wherein the differential health-check component is further configured to receive, from the storage manager, information about a first component of the information management system operating during the first time period and during the second time period; wherein the differential health-check component is further configured to evaluate (i) a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period, based on information received from the storage manager, and (ii) a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period, based on information received from the storage manager; and wherein the differential health-check component is further configured to generate the differential health-check report for the user, based at least in part on comparing, by the differential health-check component, the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric. Another illustrative method comprises: detecting, by a differential health-check system, a change in performance of an information management system that operates at least in part under the control of a storage manager, wherein the detecting is based on: identifying, by the differential health-check system, a first time period wherein a first component in the information management system operated, at least in part, under the control of the storage manager, identifying, by the differential health-check system, a second time period that follows the first time period, wherein the first component operated, at least in part, under the control of the storage manager, comparing, by the differential health-check system, a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period to a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period, wherein the first value and the second value are based on information provided by the storage manager; and generating, by the differential health-check system, an indication to a user of whether the change in performance was detected based on the comparing of the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes an upgrade, and wherein the second time period occurs after the upgrade is completed. Other embodiments are directed at post-disaster recovery and data restoration in addition to or instead of upgrade scenarios. An illustrative method according to an exemplary embodiment comprises: identifying, by a differential health-check module, a first time period wherein a first component in an information management system operated, at least in part, under the control of a storage manager; identifying, by the differential health-check module, a second time period that follows the first time period, wherein the first component operated, at least in part, under the control of the storage manager; evaluating, by the differential health-check module, a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period, wherein the first value is based on information provided by the storage manager; evaluating, by the differential health-check module, a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period, wherein the second value is based on information provided by the storage manager; generating, by the differential health-check module, an indication to a user of a comparison of the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes a restore operation, and the second time period occurs after the restore operation is completed. The restore operation may be based on a previously-completed disaster recovery operation performed in the information management system under the control of the storage manager. The restored component(s) may be any component in the information management system, for example the storage manager. The restore operation may be based on one or more index components and/or the management database in the information management system. The restore operation may comprise restoring one or more: a component of a primary storage subsystem in the information management system; and/or a component of a primary storage subsystem in the information management system, and further wherein the component is restored from a first host computing device to a different second host computing device; and/or a component of a secondary storage subsystem in the information management system; and/or a component of a secondary storage subsystem in the information management system from a non-operational state to an operational state, and further wherein the component is restored from a first host computing device to a different second host computing device; and/or restoring at least part of the storage manager; and/or restoring at least part of the storage manager in the information management system, and further wherein the storage manager is restored from a first host computing device to a different second host computing device. In some embodiments, the first component is a secondary storage device. In some embodiments, the information provided by the storage manager is obtained from data stored in the storage manager. The differential health-check module may be a computing device, and furthermore the computing device may comprise circuitry for performing computer operations. The method may further comprise one or more of: requesting, by the differential health-check module before the restore operation is completed, information about the information management system; and/or receiving, by the differential health-check module before the restore operation is completed, information about the information management system from the storage manager; and/or receiving before the restore operation is completed, by a server that is remote from the differential health-check module, information about the information management system. Also, the information management system may be a data backup system. Another illustrative method comprises: receiving, by a storage manager from a differential health-check module, one or more queries for information about a first component of an information management system that operates at least in part under the control of the storage manager, wherein the queried information is in reference to operations of the first component during at least one of a first time period and a second time period; extracting, by the storage manager in response to the one or more queries, information from the first component; generating by the storage manager, based at least in part on the extracted information, one or more responses that are responsive to the one or more received queries; transmitting the one or more responses to the differential health-check module; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes a restore operation, and the second time period occurs after the restore operation is completed. Another illustrative method comprises: pre-processing, by a storage manager, in anticipation of a query from a differential health-check module, some information extracted by the storage manager from a first component of an information management system, wherein the first component operates at least in part under the control of the storage manager; receiving, by the storage manager from the differential health-check module, one or more queries for information about the first component, wherein the queried information is in reference to operations of the first component during at least one of a first time period and a second time period; generating by the storage manager, based at least in part on the pre-processed information, one or more responses to the one or more received queries; transmitting the one or more responses to the differential health-check module; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes a restore operation, and the second time period occurs after the restore operation is completed. An illustrative differential health-check system comprises a differential health-check module that is configured to: communicate electronically with a storage manager that manages an information management system; receive a request for a differential health-check report having a report timeframe; define a first time period and a second time period based on the report timeframe, wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes a restore operation, and wherein the second time period occurs after the restore operation is completed; generate one or more queries for the storage manager, the queries comprising requests for information about a first component of the information management system operating during the first time period and during the second time period; evaluate a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period, based on information received from the storage manager in response to the one or more queries; evaluate a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period, based on information provided by the storage manager in response to the one or more queries; and generate an indication to the user of a change in performance of the first component in the second time period, based at least in part on comparing the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric; and wherein the restore operation is based on a previously-completed disaster recovery operation performed in the information management system under the control of the storage manager. Another illustrative system comprises: a storage manager, wherein an information management system operates under the control of the storage manager; a differential health-check component that is configured to define, based on a request for a differential health-check report having a report timeframe, a first time period that occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes a restore operation, and wherein a second time period occurs after the restore operation is completed; wherein the differential health-check component is further configured to receive, from the storage manager, information about a first component of the information management system operating during the first time period and during the second time period; wherein the differential health-check component is further configured to evaluate, based on the information received from the storage manager, (i) a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period, and (ii) a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period; and wherein the differential health-check component is further configured to generate the differential health-check report, based at least in part on comparing, by the differential health-check component, the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric. A further illustrative method comprises: detecting, by a differential health-check system, a change in performance of an information management system that operates at least in part under the control of a storage manager, wherein the detecting is based on: identifying, by the differential health-check system, a first time period wherein a first component in the information management system operated, at least in part, under the control of the storage manager, identifying, by the differential health-check system, a second time period that follows the first time period, wherein the first component operated, at least in part, under the control of the storage manager, comparing, by the differential health-check system, a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period to a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period, wherein the first value and the second value are based on information provided by the storage manager; generating, by the differential health-check system, an indication to a user of the detected change in performance based on the comparing of the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes a restore operation, and wherein the second time period occurs after the restore operation is completed, and further wherein the restore operation is based on a previously-completed disaster recovery operation performed in the information management system under the control of the storage manager. The exemplary methods and systems may further comprise one or more other aspects as described above and elsewhere herein. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary information management system 100. FIG. 1B is a detailed view of a primary storage device, a secondary storage device, and some examples of primary data and secondary copy data. FIG. 1C is a block diagram of the exemplary information management system 100 including a storage manager, one or more data agents, and one or more media agents. FIG. 1D is a block diagram illustrating a scalable information management system. FIG. 1E illustrates certain secondary copy operations according to an exemplary storage policy. FIGS. 1F-1H are block diagrams illustrating suitable data structures that may be employed by the information management system 100. FIG. 2 depicts a diagram of an exemplary differential health-check system 200. FIG. 3A depicts a detailed view of part of differential health-check system 200. FIG. 3B depicts a detailed view of part of storage manager 140. FIG. 4 depicts some salient operations of exemplary method 400. FIG. 5 depicts some salient operations of block 409. FIG. 6 depicts some salient operations of block 411 in method 400. FIG. 7 depicts some salient operations of exemplary method 700. FIG. 8A depicts an exemplary visual presentation on display/user interface 321 that reports on jobs executed by data agents 142 in time periods P1 and P2. FIG. 8B depicts an exemplary visual presentation on display/user interface 321 that reports from indexes 153 that are associated with respective media agents 144 in time periods P1 and P2. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Information Management System Overview With the increasing importance of protecting and leveraging data, organizations simply cannot afford to take the risk of losing critical data. Moreover, runaway data growth and other modern realities make protecting and managing data an increasingly difficult task. There is therefore a need for efficient, powerful, and user-friendly solutions for protecting and managing data. Depending on the size of the organization, there are typically many data production sources which are under the purview of tens, hundreds, or even thousands of employees or other individuals. In the past, individual employees were sometimes responsible for managing and protecting their data. A patchwork of hardware and software point solutions has been applied in other cases. These solutions were often provided by different vendors and had limited or no interoperability. Certain embodiments described herein provide systems and methods capable of addressing these and other shortcomings of prior approaches by implementing unified, organization-wide information management. FIG. 1A shows one such information management system 100, which generally includes combinations of hardware and software configured to protect and manage data and metadata generated and used by the various computing devices in the information management system 100. The organization which employs the information management system 100 may be a corporation or other business entity, non-profit organization, educational institution, household, governmental agency, or the like. Generally, the systems and associated components described herein may be compatible with and/or provide some or all of the functionality of the systems and corresponding components described in one or more of the following U.S. patents and patent application publications assigned to CommVault Systems, Inc., each of which is hereby incorporated in its entirety by reference herein: U.S. Pat. No. 8,285,681, entitled “DATA OBJECT STORE AND SERVER FOR A CLOUD STORAGE ENVIRONMENT, INCLUDING DATA DEDUPLICATION AND DATA MANAGEMENT ACROSS MULTIPLE CLOUD STORAGE SITES”; U.S. Pat. No. 8,307,177, entitled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR MANAGEMENT OF VIRTUALIZATION DATA”; U.S. Pat. No. 7,035,880, entitled “MODULAR BACKUP AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH A STORAGE AREA NETWORK”; U.S. Pat. No. 7,343,453, entitled “HIERARCHICAL SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PROVIDING A UNIFIED VIEW OF STORAGE INFORMATION”; U.S. Pat. No. 7,395,282, entitled “HIERARCHICAL BACKUP AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEM”; U.S. Pat. No. 7,246,207, entitled “SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR DYNAMICALLY PERFORMING STORAGE OPERATIONS IN A COMPUTER NETWORK”; U.S. Pat. No. 7,747,579, entitled “METABASE FOR FACILITATING DATA CLASSIFICATION”; U.S. Pat. No. 8,229,954, entitled “MANAGING COPIES OF DATA”; U.S. Pat. No. 7,617,262, entitled “SYSTEM AND METHODS FOR MONITORING APPLICATION DATA IN A DATA REPLICATION SYSTEM”; U.S. Pat. No. 7,529,782, entitled “SYSTEM AND METHODS FOR PERFORMING A SNAPSHOT AND FOR RESTORING DATA”; U.S. Pat. No. 8,230,195, entitled “SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR PERFORMING AUXILIARY STORAGE OPERATIONS”; U.S. Pat. No. 7,315,923, entitled “SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR COMBINING DATA STREAMS IN PIPELINED STORAGE OPERATIONS IN A STORAGE NETWORK”; U.S. Pat. No. 8,364,652, entitled “CONTENT-ALIGNED, BLOCK-BASED DEDUPLICATION”; U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2006/0224846, entitled “SYSTEM AND METHOD TO SUPPORT SINGLE INSTANCE STORAGE OPERATIONS”; U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2010/0299490, entitled “BLOCK-LEVEL SINGLE INSTANCING”; U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2009/0319534, entitled “APPLICATION-AWARE AND REMOTE SINGLE INSTANCE DATA MANAGEMENT”; U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2012/0150826, entitled “DISTRIBUTED DEDUPLICATED STORAGE SYSTEM”; U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2012/0150818, entitled “CLIENT-SIDE REPOSITORY IN A NETWORKED DEDUPLICATED STORAGE SYSTEM”; U.S. Pat. No. 8,170,995, entitled “METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR OFFLINE INDEXING OF CONTENT AND CLASSIFYING STORED DATA”; U.S. Pat. No. 7,107,298, entitled “SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR ARCHIVING OBJECTS IN AN INFORMATION STORE”; U.S. Pat. No. 8,230,195, entitled “SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR PERFORMING AUXILIARY STORAGE OPERATIONS”; U.S. Pat. No. 8,229,954, entitled “MANAGING COPIES OF DATA”; and U.S. Pat. No. 8,156,086, entitled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR STORED DATA VERIFICATION”. The information management system 100 can include a variety of different computing devices. For instance, as will be described in greater detail herein, the information management system 100 can include one or more client computing devices 102 and secondary storage computing devices 106. Computing devices can include, without limitation, one or more: workstations, personal computers, desktop computers, or other types of generally fixed computing systems such as mainframe computers and minicomputers. Other computing devices can include mobile or portable computing devices, such as one or more laptops, tablet computers, personal data assistants, mobile phones (such as smartphones), and other mobile or portable computing devices such as embedded computers, set top boxes, vehicle-mounted devices, wearable computers, etc. Computing devices can include servers, such as mail servers, file servers, database servers, and web servers. In some cases, a computing device includes virtualized and/or cloud computing resources. For instance, one or more virtual machines may be provided to the organization by a third-party cloud service vendor. Or, in some embodiments, computing devices can include one or more virtual machine(s) running on a physical virtual machine host operated by the organization. As one example, the organization may use one virtual machine as a database server and another virtual or physical machine as a mail server. A virtual machine manager (VMM) (e.g., a Hypervisor) may manage the virtual machines, and reside and execute on the virtual machine host. Examples of techniques for implementing information management techniques in a cloud computing environment are described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,285,681, which is incorporated by reference herein. Examples of techniques for implementing information management techniques in a virtualized computing environment are described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,307,177, also incorporated by reference herein. The information management system 100 can also include a variety of storage devices, including primary storage devices 104 and secondary storage devices 108, for example. Storage devices can generally be of any suitable type including, without limitation, disk drives, hard-disk arrays, semiconductor memory (e.g., solid state storage devices), network attached storage (NAS) devices, tape libraries or other magnetic, non-tape storage devices, optical media storage devices, combinations of the same, and the like. In some embodiments, storage devices can form part of a distributed file system. In some cases, storage devices are provided in a cloud (e.g., a private cloud or one operated by a third-party vendor). A storage device in some cases comprises a disk array or portion thereof. The illustrated information management system 100 includes one or more client computing device 102 having at least one application 110 executing thereon, and one or more primary storage devices 104 storing primary data 112. The client computing device(s) 102 and the primary storage devices 104 may generally be referred to in some cases as a primary storage subsystem 117. Depending on the context, the term “information management system” can refer to generally all of the illustrated hardware and software components. Or, in other instances, the term may refer to only a subset of the illustrated components. For instance, in some cases, the information management system 100 generally refers to a combination of specialized components used to protect, move, manage, manipulate, analyze, and/or process data and metadata generated by the client computing devices 102. However, the information management system 100 in some cases does not include the underlying components that generate and/or store the primary data 112, such as the client computing devices 102 themselves, the applications 110 and operating system residing on the client computing devices 102, and the primary storage devices 104. As an example, “information management system” may sometimes refer to one or more of the following components and corresponding data structures: storage managers, data agents, and media agents. These components will be described in further detail below. Client Computing Devices There are typically a variety of sources in an organization that produce data to be protected and managed. As just one illustrative example, in a corporate environment such data sources can be employee workstations and company servers such as a mail server, a web server, or the like. In the information management system 100, the data generation sources include the one or more client computing devices 102. The client computing devices 102 may include any of the types of computing devices described above, without limitation, and in some cases the client computing devices 102 are associated with one or more users and/or corresponding user accounts, of employees or other individuals. The information management system 100 generally addresses and handles the data management and protection needs for the data generated by the client computing devices 102. However, the use of this term does not imply that the client computing devices 102 cannot be “servers” in other respects. For instance, a particular client computing device 102 may act as a server with respect to other devices, such as other client computing devices 102. As just a few examples, the client computing devices 102 can include mail servers, file servers, database servers, and web servers. Each client computing device 102 may have one or more applications 110 (e.g., software applications) executing thereon which generate and manipulate the data that is to be protected from loss and managed. The applications 110 generally facilitate the operations of an organization (or multiple affiliated organizations), and can include, without limitation, mail server applications (e.g., Microsoft Exchange Server), file server applications, mail client applications (e.g., Microsoft Exchange Client), database applications (e.g., SQL, Oracle, SAP, Lotus Notes Database), word processing applications (e.g., Microsoft Word), spreadsheet applications, financial applications, presentation applications, browser applications, mobile applications, entertainment applications, and so on. The client computing devices 102 can have at least one operating system (e.g., Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, iOS, IBM z/OS, Linux, other Unix-based operating systems, etc.) installed thereon, which may support or host one or more file systems and other applications 110. As shown, the client computing devices 102 and other components in the information management system 100 can be connected to one another via one or more communication pathways 114. The communication pathways 114 can include one or more networks or other connection types including as any of following, without limitation: the Internet, a wide area network (WAN), a local area network (LAN), a Storage Area Network (SAN), a Fibre Channel connection, a Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) connection, a virtual private network (VPN), a token ring or TCP/IP based network, an intranet network, a point-to-point link, a cellular network, a wireless data transmission system, a two-way cable system, an interactive kiosk network, a satellite network, a broadband network, a baseband network, a neural network, other appropriate wired, wireless, or partially wired/wireless computer or telecommunications networks, combinations of the same or the like. The communication pathways 114 in some cases may also include application programming interfaces (APIs) including, e.g., cloud service provider APIs, virtual machine management APIs, and hosted service provider APIs. Primary Data and Exemplary Primary Storage Devices Primary data 112 according to some embodiments is production data or other “live” data generated by the operating system and other applications 110 residing on a client computing device 102. The primary data 112 is generally stored on the primary storage device(s) 104 and is organized via a file system supported by the client computing device 102. For instance, the client computing device(s) 102 and corresponding applications 110 may create, access, modify, write, delete, and otherwise use primary data 112. In some cases, some or all of the primary data 112 can be stored in cloud storage resources. Primary data 112 is generally in the native format of the source application 110. According to certain aspects, primary data 112 is an initial or first (e.g., created before any other copies or before at least one other copy) stored copy of data generated by the source application 110. Primary data 112 in some cases is created substantially directly from data generated by the corresponding source applications 110. The primary data 112 may sometimes be referred to as a “primary copy” in the sense that it is a discrete set of data. However, the use of this term does not necessarily imply that the “primary copy” is a copy in the sense that it was copied or otherwise derived from another stored version. The primary storage devices 104 storing the primary data 112 may be relatively fast and/or expensive (e.g., a disk drive, a hard-disk array, solid state memory, etc.). In addition, primary data 112 may be intended for relatively short term retention (e.g., several hours, days, or weeks). According to some embodiments, the client computing device 102 can access primary data 112 from the primary storage device 104 by making conventional file system calls via the operating system. Primary data 112 representing files may include structured data (e.g., database files), unstructured data (e.g., documents), and/or semi-structured data. Some specific examples are described below with respect to FIG. 1B. It can be useful in performing certain tasks to organize the primary data 112 into units of different granularities. In general, primary data 112 can include files, directories, file system volumes, data blocks, extents, or any other hierarchies or organizations of data objects. As used herein, a “data object” can refer to both (1) any file that is currently addressable by a file system or that was previously addressable by the file system (e.g., an archive file) and (2) a subset of such a file (e.g., a data block). As will be described in further detail, it can also be useful in performing certain functions of the information management system 100 to access and modify metadata within the primary data 112. Metadata generally includes information about data objects or characteristics associated with the data objects. Metadata can include, without limitation, one or more of the following: the data owner (e.g., the client or user that generates the data), the last modified time (e.g., the time of the most recent modification of the data object), a data object name (e.g., a file name), a data object size (e.g., a number of bytes of data), information about the content (e.g., an indication as to the existence of a particular search term), to/from information for email (e.g., an email sender, recipient, etc.), creation date, file type (e.g., format or application type), last accessed time, application type (e.g., type of application that generated the data object), location/network (e.g., a current, past or future location of the data object and network pathways to/from the data object), frequency of change (e.g., a period in which the data object is modified), business unit (e.g., a group or department that generates, manages or is otherwise associated with the data object), aging information (e.g., a schedule, such as a time period, in which the data object is migrated to secondary or long term storage), boot sectors, partition layouts, file location within a file folder directory structure, user permissions, owners, groups, access control lists [ACLs]), system metadata (e.g., registry information), combinations of the same or the other similar information related to the data object. In addition to metadata generated by or related to file systems and operating systems, some of the applications 110 and/or other components of the information management system 100 maintain indices of metadata for data objects, e.g., metadata associated with individual email messages. Thus, each data object may be associated with corresponding metadata. The use of metadata to perform classification and other functions is described in greater detail below. Each of the client computing devices 102 are generally associated with and/or in communication with one or more of the primary storage devices 104 storing corresponding primary data 112. A client computing device 102 may be considered to be “associated with” or “in communication with” a primary storage device 104 if it is capable of one or more of: routing and/or storing data to the particular primary storage device 104, coordinating the routing and/or storing of data to the particular primary storage device 104, retrieving data from the particular primary storage device 104, coordinating the retrieval of data from the particular primary storage device 104, and modifying and/or deleting data retrieved from the particular primary storage device 104. The primary storage devices 104 can include any of the different types of storage devices described above, or some other kind of suitable storage device. The primary storage devices 104 may have relatively fast I/O times and/or are relatively expensive in comparison to the secondary storage devices 108. For example, the information management system 100 may generally regularly access data and metadata stored on primary storage devices 104, whereas data and metadata stored on the secondary storage devices 108 is accessed relatively less frequently. In some cases, each primary storage device 104 is dedicated to an associated client computing device 102. For instance, a primary storage device 104 in one embodiment is a local disk drive of a corresponding client computing device 102. In other cases, one or more primary storage devices 104 can be shared by multiple client computing devices 102, e.g., via a network such as in a cloud storage implementation. As one example, a primary storage device 104 can be a disk array shared by a group of client computing devices 102, such as one of the following types of disk arrays: EMC Clariion, EMC Symmetrix, EMC Celerra, Dell EqualLogic, IBM XIV, NetApp FAS, HP EVA, and HP 3PAR. The information management system 100 may also include hosted services (not shown), which may be hosted in some cases by an entity other than the organization that employs the other components of the information management system 100. For instance, the hosted services may be provided by various online service providers to the organization. Such service providers can provide services including social networking services, hosted email services, or hosted productivity applications or other hosted applications). Hosted services may include software-as-a-service (SaaS), platform-as-a-service (PaaS), application service providers (ASPs), cloud services, or other mechanisms for delivering functionality via a network. As it provides services to users, each hosted service may generate additional data and metadata under management of the information management system 100, e.g., as primary data 112. In some cases, the hosted services may be accessed using one of the applications 110. As an example, a hosted mail service may be accessed via browser running on a client computing device 102. The hosted services may be implemented in a variety of computing environments. In some cases, they are implemented in an environment having a similar arrangement to the information management system 100, where various physical and logical components are distributed over a network. Secondary Copies and Exemplary Secondary Storage Devices The primary data 112 stored on the primary storage devices 104 may be compromised in some cases, such as when an employee deliberately or accidentally deletes or overwrites primary data 112 during their normal course of work. Or the primary storage devices 104 can be damaged or otherwise corrupted. For recovery and/or regulatory compliance purposes, it is therefore useful to generate copies of the primary data 112. Accordingly, the information management system 100 includes one or more secondary storage computing devices 106 and one or more secondary storage devices 108 configured to create and store one or more secondary copies 116 of the primary data 112 and associated metadata. The secondary storage computing devices 106 and the secondary storage devices 108 may sometimes be referred to as a secondary storage subsystem 118. Creation of secondary copies 116 can help in search and analysis efforts and meet other information management goals, such as: restoring data and/or metadata if an original version (e.g., of primary data 112) is lost (e.g., by deletion, corruption, or disaster); allowing point-in-time recovery; complying with regulatory data retention and electronic discovery (e-discovery) requirements; reducing utilized storage capacity; facilitating organization and search of data; improving user access to data files across multiple computing devices and/or hosted services; and implementing data retention policies. The client computing devices 102 access or receive primary data 112 and communicate the data, e.g., over the communication pathways 114, for storage in the secondary storage device(s) 108. A secondary copy 116 can comprise a separate stored copy of application data that is derived from one or more earlier-created, stored copies (e.g., derived from primary data 112 or another secondary copy 116). Secondary copies 116 can include point-in-time data, and may be intended for relatively long-term retention (e.g., weeks, months or years), before some or all of the data is moved to other storage or is discarded. In some cases, a secondary copy 116 is a copy of application data created and stored subsequent to at least one other stored instance (e.g., subsequent to corresponding primary data 112 or to another secondary copy 116), in a different storage device than at least one previous stored copy, and/or remotely from at least one previous stored copy. In some other cases, secondary copies can be stored in the same storage device as primary data 112 and/or other previously stored copies. For example, in one embodiment a disk array capable of performing hardware snapshots stores primary data 112 and creates and stores hardware snapshots of the primary data 112 as secondary copies 116. Secondary copies 116 may be stored in relatively slow and/or low cost storage (e.g., magnetic tape). A secondary copy 116 may be stored in a backup or archive format, or in some other format different than the native source application format or other primary data format. In some cases, secondary copies 116 are indexed so users can browse and restore at another point in time. After creation of a secondary copy 116 representative of certain primary data 112, a pointer or other location indicia (e.g., a stub) may be placed in primary data 112, or be otherwise associated with primary data 112 to indicate the current location on the secondary storage device(s) 108. Since an instance of a data object or metadata in primary data 112 may change over time as it is modified by an application 110 (or hosted service or the operating system), the information management system 100 may create and manage multiple secondary copies 116 of a particular data object or metadata, each representing the state of the data object in primary data 112 at a particular point in time. Moreover, since an instance of a data object in primary data 112 may eventually be deleted from the primary storage device 104 and the file system, the information management system 100 may continue to manage point-in-time representations of that data object, even though the instance in primary data 112 no longer exists. For virtualized computing devices the operating system and other applications 110 of the client computing device(s) 102 may execute within or under the management of virtualization software (e.g., a VMM), and the primary storage device(s) 104 may comprise a virtual disk created on a physical storage device. The information management system 100 may create secondary copies 116 of the files or other data objects in a virtual disk file and/or secondary copies 116 of the entire virtual disk file itself (e.g., of an entire .vmdk file). Secondary copies 116 may be distinguished from corresponding primary data 112 in a variety of ways, some of which will now be described. First, as discussed, secondary copies 116 can be stored in a different format (e.g., backup, archive, or other non-native format) than primary data 112. For this or other reasons, secondary copies 116 may not be directly useable by the applications 110 of the client computing device 102, e.g., via standard system calls or otherwise without modification, processing, or other intervention by the information management system 100. Secondary copies 116 are also in some embodiments stored on a secondary storage device 108 that is inaccessible to the applications 110 running on the client computing devices 102 (and/or hosted services). Some secondary copies 116 may be “offline copies,” in that they are not readily available (e.g., not mounted to tape or disk). Offline copies can include copies of data that the information management system 100 can access without human intervention (e.g., tapes within an automated tape library, but not yet mounted in a drive), and copies that the information management system 100 can access only with at least some human intervention (e.g., tapes located at an offsite storage site). The Use of Intermediate Devices for Creating Secondary Copies Creating secondary copies can be a challenging task. For instance, there can be hundreds or thousands of client computing devices 102 continually generating large volumes of primary data 112 to be protected. Also, there can be significant overhead involved in the creation of secondary copies 116. Moreover, secondary storage devices 108 may be special purpose components, and interacting with them can require specialized intelligence. In some cases, the client computing devices 102 interact directly with the secondary storage device 108 to create the secondary copies 116. However, in view of the factors described above, this approach can negatively impact the ability of the client computing devices 102 to serve the applications 110 and produce primary data 112. Further, the client computing devices 102 may not be optimized for interaction with the secondary storage devices 108. Thus, in some embodiments, the information management system 100 includes one or more software and/or hardware components which generally act as intermediaries between the client computing devices 102 and the secondary storage devices 108. In addition to off-loading certain responsibilities from the client computing devices 102, these intermediate components can provide other benefits. For instance, as discussed further below with respect to FIG. 1D, distributing some of the work involved in creating secondary copies 116 can enhance scalability. The intermediate components can include one or more secondary storage computing devices 106 as shown in FIG. 1A and/or one or more media agents, which can be software modules residing on corresponding secondary storage computing devices 106 (or other appropriate devices). Media agents are discussed below (e.g., with respect to FIGS. 1C-1E). The secondary storage computing device(s) 106 can comprise any of the computing devices described above, without limitation. In some cases, the secondary storage computing device(s) 106 include specialized hardware and/or software componentry for interacting with the secondary storage devices 108. To create a secondary copy 116 involving the copying of data from the primary storage subsystem 117 to the secondary storage subsystem 118, the client computing device 102 in some embodiments communicates the primary data 112 to be copied (or a processed version thereof) to the designated secondary storage computing device 106, via the communication pathway 114. The secondary storage computing device 106 in turn conveys the received data (or a processed version thereof) to the secondary storage device 108. In some such configurations, the communication pathway 114 between the client computing device 102 and the secondary storage computing device 106 comprises a portion of a LAN, WAN or SAN. In other cases, at least some client computing devices 102 communicate directly with the secondary storage devices 108 (e.g., via Fibre Channel or SCSI connections). In some other cases, one or more secondary copies 116 are created from existing secondary copies, such as in the case of an auxiliary copy operation, described in greater detail below. Exemplary Primary Data and an Exemplary Secondary Copy FIG. 1B is a detailed view showing some specific examples of primary data stored on the primary storage device(s) 104 and secondary copy data stored on the secondary storage device(s) 108, with other components in the system removed for the purposes of illustration. Stored on the primary storage device(s) 104 are primary data objects including word processing documents 119A-B, spreadsheets 120, presentation documents 122, video files 124, image files 126, email mailboxes 128 (and corresponding email messages 129A-C), html/xml or other types of markup language files 130, databases 132 and corresponding tables or other data structures 133A-133C). Some or all primary data objects are associated with corresponding metadata (e.g., “Meta1-11”), which may include file system metadata and/or application specific metadata. Stored on the secondary storage device(s) 108 are secondary copy data objects 134A-C which may include copies of or otherwise represent corresponding primary data objects and metadata. As shown, the secondary copy data objects 134A-C can individually represent more than one primary data object. For example, secondary copy data object 134A represents three separate primary data objects 133C, 122 and 129C (represented as 133C′, 122′ and 129C′, respectively, and accompanied by the corresponding metadata Meta11, Meta3, and Meta8, respectively). Moreover, as indicated by the prime mark (′), a secondary copy object may store a representation of a primary data object or metadata differently than the original format, e.g., in a compressed, encrypted, deduplicated, or other modified format. Likewise, secondary data object 134B represents primary data objects 120, 133B, and 119A as 120′, 133B′, and 119A′, respectively and accompanied by corresponding metadata Meta2, Meta10, and Meta1, respectively. Also, secondary data object 134C represents primary data objects 133A, 119B, and 129A as 133A′, 119B′, and 129A′, respectively, accompanied by corresponding metadata Meta9, Meta5, and Meta6, respectively. Exemplary Information Management System Architecture The information management system 100 can incorporate a variety of different hardware and software components, which can in turn be organized with respect to one another in many different configurations, depending on the embodiment. There are critical design choices involved in specifying the functional responsibilities of the components and the role of each component in the information management system 100. For instance, as will be discussed, such design choices can impact performance as well as the adaptability of the information management system 100 to data growth or other changing circumstances. FIG. 1C shows an information management system 100 designed according to these considerations and which includes: storage manager 140, a centralized storage and/or information manager that is configured to perform certain control functions, one or more data agents 142 executing on the client computing device(s) 102 configured to process primary data 112, and one or more media agents 144 executing on the one or more secondary storage computing devices 106 for performing tasks involving the secondary storage devices 108. While distributing functionality amongst multiple computing devices can have certain advantages, in other contexts it can be beneficial to consolidate functionality on the same computing device. As such, in various other embodiments, one or more of the components shown in FIG. 1C as being implemented on separate computing devices are implemented on the same computing device. In one configuration, a storage manager 140, one or more data agents 142, and one or more media agents 144 are all implemented on the same computing device. In another embodiment, one or more data agents 142 and one or more media agents 144 are implemented on the same computing device, while the storage manager 140 is implemented on a separate computing device. Storage Manager As noted, the number of components in the information management system 100 and the amount of data under management can be quite large. Managing the components and data is therefore a significant task, and a task that can grow in an often unpredictable fashion as the quantity of components and data scale to meet the needs of the organization. For these and other reasons, according to certain embodiments, responsibility for controlling the information management system 100, or at least a significant portion of that responsibility, is allocated to the storage manager 140. By distributing control functionality in this manner, the storage manager 140 can be adapted independently according to changing circumstances. Moreover, a computing device for hosting the storage manager 140 can be selected to best suit the functions of the storage manager 140. These and other advantages are described in further detail below with respect to FIG. 1D. The storage manager 140 may be a software module or other application. In some embodiments, storage manager 140 is a computing device comprising circuitry for executing computer instructions and performs the functions described herein. The storage manager generally initiates, performs, coordinates and/or controls storage and other information management operations performed by the information management system 100, e.g., to protect and control the primary data 112 and secondary copies 116 of data and metadata. As shown by the dashed arrowed lines 114, the storage manager 140 may communicate with and/or control some or all elements of the information management system 100, such as the data agents 142 and media agents 144. Thus, in certain embodiments, control information originates from the storage manager 140, whereas payload data and payload metadata is generally communicated between the data agents 142 and the media agents 144 (or otherwise between the client computing device(s) 102 and the secondary storage computing device(s) 106), e.g., at the direction of the storage manager 140. Control information can generally include parameters and instructions for carrying out information management operations, such as, without limitation, instructions to perform a task associated with an operation, timing information specifying when to initiate a task associated with an operation, data path information specifying what components to communicate with or access in carrying out an operation, and the like. Payload data, on the other hand, can include the actual data involved in the storage operation, such as content data written to a secondary storage device 108 in a secondary copy operation. Payload metadata can include any of the types of metadata described herein, and may be written to a storage device along with the payload content data (e.g., in the form of a header). In other embodiments, some information management operations are controlled by other components in the information management system 100 (e.g., the media agent(s) 144 or data agent(s) 142), instead of or in combination with the storage manager 140. According to certain embodiments, the storage manager 140 provides one or more of the following functions: initiating execution of secondary copy operations; managing secondary storage devices 108 and inventory/capacity of the same; reporting, searching, and/or classification of data in the information management system 100; allocating secondary storage devices 108 for secondary storage operations; monitoring completion of and providing status reporting related to secondary storage operations; tracking age information relating to secondary copies 116, secondary storage devices 108, and comparing the age information against retention guidelines; tracking movement of data within the information management system 100; tracking logical associations between components in the information management system 100; protecting metadata associated with the information management system 100; and implementing operations management functionality. The storage manager 140 may maintain a database 146 (or “storage manager database 146” or “management database 146”) of management-related data and information management policies 148. The database 146 may include a management index 150 (or “index 150”) or other data structure that stores logical associations between components of the system, user preferences and/or profiles (e.g., preferences regarding encryption, compression, or deduplication of primary or secondary copy data, preferences regarding the scheduling, type, or other aspects of primary or secondary copy or other operations, mappings of particular information management users or user accounts to certain computing devices or other components, etc.), management tasks, media containerization, or other useful data. For example, the storage manager 140 may use the index 150 to track logical associations between media agents 144 and secondary storage devices 108 and/or movement of data from primary storage devices 104 to secondary storage devices 108. For instance, the index 150 may store data associating a client computing device 102 with a particular media agent 144 and/or secondary storage device 108, as specified in an information management policy 148 (e.g., a storage policy, which is defined in more detail below). Administrators and other employees may be able to manually configure and initiate certain information management operations on an individual basis. But while this may be acceptable for some recovery operations or other relatively less frequent tasks, it is often not workable for implementing on-going organization-wide data protection and management. Thus, the information management system 100 may utilize information management policies 148 for specifying and executing information management operations (e.g., on an automated basis). Generally, an information management policy 148 can include a data structure or other information source that specifies a set of parameters (e.g., criteria and rules) associated with storage or other information management operations. The storage manager database 146 may maintain the information management policies 148 and associated data, although the information management policies 148 can be stored in any appropriate location. For instance, an information management policy 148 such as a storage policy may be stored as metadata in a media agent database 152 or in a secondary storage device 108 (e.g., as an archive copy) for use in restore operations or other information management operations, depending on the embodiment. Information management policies 148 are described further below. According to certain embodiments, the storage manager database 146 comprises a relational database (e.g., an SQL database) for tracking metadata, such as metadata associated with secondary copy operations (e.g., what client computing devices 102 and corresponding data were protected). This and other metadata may additionally be stored in other locations, such as at the secondary storage computing devices 106 or on the secondary storage devices 108, allowing data recovery without the use of the storage manager 140. As shown, the storage manager 140 may include a jobs agent 156, a user interface 158, and a management agent 154, all of which may be implemented as interconnected software modules or application programs. The jobs agent 156 in some embodiments initiates, controls, and/or monitors the status of some or all storage or other information management operations previously performed, currently being performed, or scheduled to be performed by the information management system 100. For instance, the jobs agent 156 may access information management policies 148 to determine when and how to initiate and control secondary copy and other information management operations, as will be discussed further. The user interface 158 may include information processing and display software, such as a graphical user interface (“GUI”), an application program interface (“API”), or other interactive interface(s) through which users and system processes can retrieve information about the status of information management operations (e.g., storage operations) or issue instructions to the information management system 100 and its constituent components. Via the user interface 158, users may optionally issue instructions to the components in the information management system 100 regarding performance of storage and recovery operations. For example, a user may modify a schedule concerning the number of pending secondary copy operations. As another example, a user may employ the GUI to view the status of pending storage operations or to monitor the status of certain components in the information management system 100 (e.g., the amount of capacity left in a storage device). An information management “cell” may generally include a logical and/or physical grouping of a combination of hardware and software components associated with performing information management operations on electronic data. For instance, the components shown in FIG. 1C may together form an information management cell. Multiple cells may be organized hierarchically. With this configuration, cells may inherit properties from hierarchically superior cells or be controlled by other cells in the hierarchy (automatically or otherwise). Alternatively, in some embodiments, cells may inherit or otherwise be associated with information management policies, preferences, information management metrics, or other properties or characteristics according to their relative position in a hierarchy of cells. Cells may also be delineated and/or organized hierarchically according to function, geography, architectural considerations, or other factors useful or desirable in performing information management operations. A first cell may represent a geographic segment of an enterprise, such as a Chicago office, and a second cell may represent a different geographic segment, such as a New York office. Other cells may represent departments within a particular office. Where delineated by function, a first cell may perform one or more first types of information management operations (e.g., one or more first types of secondary or other copies), and a second cell may perform one or more second types of information management operations (e.g., one or more second types of secondary or other copies). The storage manager 140 may also track information that permits it to select, designate, or otherwise identify content indices, deduplication databases, or similar databases or resources or data sets within its information management cell (or another cell) to be searched in response to certain queries. Such queries may be entered by the user via interaction with the user interface 158. In general, the management agent 154 allows multiple information management cells to communicate with one another. For example, the information management system 100 in some cases may be one information management cell of a network of multiple cells adjacent to one another or otherwise logically related in a WAN or LAN. With this arrangement, the cells may be connected to one another through respective management agents 154. For instance, the management agent 154 can provide the storage manager 140 with the ability to communicate with other components within the information management system 100 (and/or other cells within a larger information management system) via network protocols and application programming interfaces (“APIs”) including, e.g., HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, REST, virtualization software APIs, cloud service provider APIs, and hosted service provider APIs. Inter-cell communication and hierarchy is described in greater detail in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,747,579 and 7,343,453, which are incorporated by reference herein. Data Agents As discussed, a variety of different types of applications 110 can reside on a given client computing device 102, including operating systems, database applications, e mail applications, and virtual machines, just to name a few. And, as part of the process of creating and restoring secondary copies 116, the client computing devices 102 may be tasked with processing and preparing the primary data 112 from these various different applications 110. Moreover, the nature of the processing/preparation can differ across clients and application types, e.g., due to inherent structural and formatting differences between applications 110. The one or more data agent(s) 142 are therefore advantageously configured in some embodiments to assist in the performance of information management operations based on the type of data that is being protected, at a client-specific and/or application-specific level. The data agent 142 may be a software module or component that is generally responsible for managing, initiating, or otherwise assisting in the performance of information management operations. For instance, the data agent 142 may take part in performing data storage operations such as the copying, archiving, migrating, replicating of primary data 112 stored in the primary storage device(s) 104. The data agent 142 may receive control information from the storage manager 140, such as commands to transfer copies of data objects, metadata, and other payload data to the media agents 144. In some embodiments, a data agent 142 may be distributed between the client computing device 102 and storage manager 140 (and any other intermediate components) or may be deployed from a remote location or its functions approximated by a remote process that performs some or all of the functions of data agent 142. In addition, a data agent 142 may perform some functions provided by a media agent 144, or may perform other functions such as encryption and deduplication. As indicated, each data agent 142 may be specialized for a particular application 110, and the system can employ multiple application-specific data agents 142, each of which may perform information management operations (e.g., perform backup, migration, and data recovery) associated with a different application 110. For instance, different individual data agents 142 may be designed to handle Microsoft Exchange data, Lotus Notes data, Microsoft Windows file system data, Microsoft Active Directory Objects data, SQL Server data, Share Point data, Oracle database data, SAP database data, virtual machines and/or associated data, and other types of data. A file system data agent, for example, may handle data files and/or other file system information. If a client computing device 102 has two or more types of data, one data agent 142 may be used for each data type to copy, archive, migrate, and restore the client computing device 102 data. For example, to backup, migrate, and restore all of the data on a Microsoft Exchange server, the client computing device 102 may use one Microsoft Exchange Mailbox data agent 142 to backup the Exchange mailboxes, one Microsoft Exchange Database data agent 142 to backup the Exchange databases, one Microsoft Exchange Public Folder data agent 142 to backup the Exchange Public Folders, and one Microsoft Windows File System data agent 142 to backup the file system of the client computing device 102. In such embodiments, these data agents 142 may be treated as four separate data agents 142 even though they reside on the same client computing device 102. Other embodiments may employ one or more generic data agents 142 that can handle and process data from two or more different applications 110, or that can handle and process multiple data types, instead of or in addition to using specialized data agents 142. For example, one generic data agent 142 may be used to back up, migrate and restore Microsoft Exchange Mailbox data and Microsoft Exchange Database data while another generic data agent may handle Microsoft Exchange Public Folder data and Microsoft Windows File System data. Each data agent 142 may be configured to access data and/or metadata stored in the primary storage device(s) 104 associated with the data agent 142 and process the data as appropriate. For example, during a secondary copy operation, the data agent 142 may arrange or assemble the data and metadata into one or more files having a certain format (e.g., a particular backup or archive format) before transferring the file(s) to a media agent 144 or other component. The file(s) may include a list of files or other metadata. Each data agent 142 can also assist in restoring data or metadata to primary storage devices 104 from a secondary copy 116. For instance, the data agent 142 may operate in conjunction with the storage manager 140 and one or more of the media agents 144 to restore data from secondary storage device(s) 108. Media Agents As indicated above with respect to FIG. 1A, off-loading certain responsibilities from the client computing devices 102 to intermediate components such as the media agent(s) 144 can provide a number of benefits including improved client computing device 102 operation, faster secondary copy operation performance, and enhanced scalability. As one specific example which will be discussed below in further detail, the media agent 144 can act as a local cache of copied data and/or metadata that it has stored to the secondary storage device(s) 108, providing improved restore capabilities. Generally speaking, a media agent 144 may be implemented as a software module that manages, coordinates, and facilitates the transmission of data, as directed by the storage manager 140, between a client computing device 102 and one or more secondary storage devices 108. Whereas the storage manager 140 controls the operation of the information management system 100, the media agent 144 generally provides a portal to secondary storage devices 108. For instance, other components in the system interact with the media agents 144 to gain access to data stored on the secondary storage devices 108, whether it be for the purposes of reading, writing, modifying, or deleting data. Moreover, as will be described further, media agents 144 can generate and store information relating to characteristics of the stored data and/or metadata, or can generate and store other types of information that generally provides insight into the contents of the secondary storage devices 108. Media agents 144 can comprise separate nodes in the information management system 100 (e.g., nodes that are separate from the client computing devices 102, storage manager 140, and/or secondary storage devices 108). In general, a node within the information management system 100 can be a logically and/or physically separate component, and in some cases is a component that is individually addressable or otherwise identifiable. In addition, each media agent 144 may reside on a dedicated secondary storage computing device 106 in some cases, while in other embodiments a plurality of media agents 144 reside on the same secondary storage computing device 106. A media agent 144 (and corresponding media agent database 152) may be considered to be “associated with” a particular secondary storage device 108 if that media agent 144 is capable of one or more of: routing and/or storing data to the particular secondary storage device 108, coordinating the routing and/or storing of data to the particular secondary storage device 108, retrieving data from the particular secondary storage device 108, coordinating the retrieval of data from a particular secondary storage device 108, and modifying and/or deleting data retrieved from the particular secondary storage device 108. While media agent(s) 144 are generally associated with one or more secondary storage devices 108, one or more media agents 144 in certain embodiments are physically separate from the secondary storage devices 108. For instance, the media agents 144 may reside on secondary storage computing devices 106 having different housings or packages than the secondary storage devices 108. In one example, a media agent 144 resides on a first server computer and is in communication with a secondary storage device(s) 108 residing in a separate, rack-mounted RAID-based system. Where the information management system 100 includes multiple media agents 144 (FIG. 1D), a first media agent 144 may provide failover functionality for a second, failed media agent 144. In addition, media agents 144 can be dynamically selected for storage operations to provide load balancing. Failover and load balancing are described in greater detail below. In operation, a media agent 144 associated with a particular secondary storage device 108 may instruct the secondary storage device 108 to perform an information management operation. For instance, a media agent 144 may instruct a tape library to use a robotic arm or other retrieval means to load or eject a certain storage media, and to subsequently archive, migrate, or retrieve data to or from that media, e.g., for the purpose of restoring the data to a client computing device 102. As another example, a secondary storage device 108 may include an array of hard disk drives or solid state drives organized in a RAID configuration, and the media agent 144 may forward a logical unit number (LUN) and other appropriate information to the array, which uses the received information to execute the desired storage operation. The media agent 144 may communicate with a secondary storage device 108 via a suitable communications link, such as a SCSI or Fiber Channel link. As shown, each media agent 144 may maintain an associated media agent database 152. The media agent database 152 may be stored in a disk or other storage device (not shown) that is local to the secondary storage computing device 106 on which the media agent 144 resides. In other cases, the media agent database 152 is stored remotely from the secondary storage computing device 106. The media agent database 152 can include, among other things, an index 153 including data generated during secondary copy operations and other storage or information management operations. The index 153 provides a media agent 144 or other component with a fast and efficient mechanism for locating secondary copies 116 or other data stored in the secondary storage devices 108. In some cases, the index 153 does not form a part of and is instead separate from the media agent database 152. A media agent index 153 or other data structure associated with the particular media agent 144 may include information about the stored data. For instance, for each secondary copy 116, the index 153 may include metadata such as a list of the data objects (e.g., files/subdirectories, database objects, mailbox objects, etc.), a path to the secondary copy 116 on the corresponding secondary storage device 108, location information indicating where the data objects are stored in the secondary storage device 108, when the data objects were created or modified, etc. Thus, the index 153 includes metadata associated with the secondary copies 116 that is readily available for use in storage operations and other activities without having to be first retrieved from the secondary storage device 108. In yet further embodiments, some or all of the data in the index 153 may instead or additionally be stored along with the data in a secondary storage device 108, e.g., with a copy of the index 153. In some embodiments, the secondary storage devices 108 can include sufficient information to perform a “bare metal restore”, where the operating system of a failed client computing device 102 or other restore target is automatically rebuilt as part of a restore operation. Because the index 153 maintained in the media agent database 152 may operate as a cache, it can also be referred to as “an index cache.” In such cases, information stored in the index cache 153 typically comprises data that reflects certain particulars about storage operations that have occurred relatively recently. After some triggering event, such as after a certain period of time elapses, or the index cache 153 reaches a particular size, the index cache 153 may be copied or migrated to a secondary storage device(s) 108. This information may need to be retrieved and uploaded back into the index cache 153 or otherwise restored to a media agent 144 to facilitate retrieval of data from the secondary storage device(s) 108. In some embodiments, the cached information may include format or containerization information related to archives or other files stored on the storage device(s) 108. In this manner, the index cache 153 allows for accelerated restores. In some alternative embodiments the media agent 144 generally acts as a coordinator or facilitator of storage operations between client computing devices 102 and corresponding secondary storage devices 108, but does not actually write the data to the secondary storage device 108. For instance, the storage manager 140 (or the media agent 144) may instruct a client computing device 102 and secondary storage device 108 to communicate with one another directly. In such a case the client computing device 102 transmits the data directly or via one or more intermediary components to the secondary storage device 108 according to the received instructions, and vice versa. In some such cases, the media agent 144 may still receive, process, and/or maintain metadata related to the storage operations. Moreover, in these embodiments, the payload data can flow through the media agent 144 for the purposes of populating the index cache 153 maintained in the media agent database 152, but not for writing to the secondary storage device 108. The media agent 144 and/or other components such as the storage manager 140 may in some cases incorporate additional functionality, such as data classification, content indexing, deduplication, encryption, compression, and the like. Further details regarding these and other functions are described below. Distributed, Scalable Architecture As described, certain functions of the information management system 100 can be distributed amongst various physical and/or logical components in the system. For instance, one or more of the storage manager 140, data agents 142, and media agents 144 may reside on computing devices that are physically separate from one another. This architecture can provide a number of benefits. For instance, hardware and software design choices for each distributed component can be targeted to suit its particular function. The secondary computing devices 106 on which the media agents 144 reside can be tailored for interaction with associated secondary storage devices 108 and provide fast index cache operation, among other specific tasks. Similarly, the client computing device(s) 102 can be selected to effectively service the applications 110 residing thereon, in order to efficiently produce and store primary data 112. Moreover, in some cases, one or more of the individual components in the information management system 100 can be distributed to multiple, separate computing devices. As one example, for large file systems where the amount of data stored in the database 146 is relatively large, the database 146 may be migrated to or otherwise reside on a specialized database server (e.g., an SQL server) separate from a server that implements the other functions of the storage manager 140. This configuration can provide added protection because the database 146 can be protected with standard database utilities (e.g., SQL log shipping or database replication) independent from other functions of the storage manager 140. The database 146 can be efficiently replicated to a remote site for use in the event of a disaster or other data loss incident at the primary site. Or the database 146 can be replicated to another computing device within the same site, such as to a higher performance machine in the event that a storage manager host device can no longer service the needs of a growing information management system 100. The distributed architecture also provides both scalability and efficient component utilization. FIG. 1D shows an embodiment of the information management system 100 including a plurality of client computing devices 102 and associated data agents 142 as well as a plurality of secondary storage computing devices 106 and associated media agents 144. Additional components can be added or subtracted based on the evolving needs of the information management system 100. For instance, depending on where bottlenecks are identified, administrators can add additional client computing devices 102, secondary storage computing devices 106 (and corresponding media agents 144), and/or secondary storage devices 108. Moreover, where multiple fungible components are available, load balancing can be implemented to dynamically address identified bottlenecks. As an example, the storage manager 140 may dynamically select which media agents 144 and/or secondary storage devices 108 to use for storage operations based on a processing load analysis of the media agents 144 and/or secondary storage devices 108, respectively. Moreover, each client computing device 102 in some embodiments can communicate with, among other components, any of the media agents 144, e.g., as directed by the storage manager 140. And each media agent 144 may be able to communicate with, among other components, any of the secondary storage devices 108, e.g., as directed by the storage manager 140. Thus, operations can be routed to the secondary storage devices 108 in a dynamic and highly flexible manner, to provide load balancing, failover, and the like. Further examples of scalable systems capable of dynamic storage operations, and of systems capable of performing load balancing and fail over are provided in U.S. Pat. No. 7,246,207, which is incorporated by reference herein. In alternative configurations, certain components are not distributed and may instead reside and execute on the same computing device. For example, in some embodiments one or more data agents 142 and the storage manager 140 reside on the same client computing device 102. In another embodiment, one or more data agents 142 and one or more media agents 144 reside on a single computing device. Exemplary Types of Information Management Operations In order to protect and leverage stored data, the information management system 100 can be configured to perform a variety of information management operations. As will be described, these operations can generally include secondary copy and other data movement operations, processing and data manipulation operations, analysis, reporting, and management operations. Data Movement Operations Data movement operations according to certain embodiments are generally operations that involve the copying or migration of data (e.g., payload data) between different locations in the information management system 100 in an original/native and/or one or more different formats. For example, data movement operations can include operations in which stored data is copied, migrated, or otherwise transferred from one or more first storage devices to one or more second storage devices, such as from primary storage device(s) 104 to secondary storage device(s) 108, from secondary storage device(s) 108 to different secondary storage device(s) 108, from secondary storage devices 108 to primary storage devices 104, or from primary storage device(s) 104 to different primary storage device(s) 104. Data movement operations can include by way of example, backup operations, archive operations, information lifecycle management operations such as hierarchical storage management operations, replication operations (e.g., continuous data replication operations), snapshot operations, deduplication or single instancing operations, auxiliary copy operations, and the like. As will be discussed, some of these operations involve the copying, migration or other movement of data, without actually creating multiple, distinct copies. Nonetheless, some or all of these operations are referred to as “copy” operations for simplicity. Backup Operations A backup operation creates a copy of a version of data (e.g., one or more files or other data units) in primary data 112 at a particular point in time. Each subsequent backup copy may be maintained independently of the first. Further, a backup copy in some embodiments is generally stored in a form that is different than the native format, e.g., a backup format. This can be in contrast to the version in primary data 112 from which the backup copy is derived, and which may instead be stored in a native format of the source application(s) 110. In various cases, backup copies can be stored in a format in which the data is compressed, encrypted, deduplicated, and/or otherwise modified from the original application format. For example, a backup copy may be stored in a backup format that facilitates compression and/or efficient long-term storage. Backup copies can have relatively long retention periods as compared to primary data 112, and may be stored on media with slower retrieval times than primary data 112 and certain other types of secondary copies 116. On the other hand, backups may have relatively shorter retention periods than some other types of secondary copies 116, such as archive copies (described below). Backups may sometimes be stored at on offsite location. Backup operations can include full, synthetic or incremental backups. A full backup in some embodiments is generally a complete image of the data to be protected. However, because full backup copies can consume a relatively large amount of storage, it can be useful to use a full backup copy as a baseline and only store changes relative to the full backup copy for subsequent backup copies. For instance, a differential backup operation (or cumulative incremental backup operation) tracks and stores changes that have occurred since the last full backup. Differential backups can grow quickly in size, but can provide relatively efficient restore times because a restore can be completed in some cases using only the full backup copy and the latest differential copy. An incremental backup operation generally tracks and stores changes since the most recent backup copy of any type, which can greatly reduce storage utilization. In some cases, however, restore times can be relatively long in comparison to full or differential backups because completing a restore operation may involve accessing a full backup in addition to multiple incremental backups. Any of the above types of backup operations can be at the volume-level, file-level, or block-level. Volume level backup operations generally involve the copying of a data volume (e.g., a logical disk or partition) as a whole. In a file-level backup, the information management system 100 may generally track changes to individual files at the file-level, and includes copies of files in the backup copy. In the case of a block-level backup, files are broken into constituent blocks, and changes are tracked at the block-level. Upon restore, the information management system 100 reassembles the blocks into files in a transparent fashion. Far less data may actually be transferred and copied to the secondary storage devices 108 during a file-level copy than a volume-level copy. Likewise, a block-level copy may involve the transfer of less data than a file-level copy, resulting in faster execution times. However, restoring a relatively higher-granularity copy can result in longer restore times. For instance, when restoring a block-level copy, the process of locating constituent blocks can sometimes result in longer restore times as compared to file-level backups. Similar to backup operations, the other types of secondary copy operations described herein can also be implemented at either the volume-level, file-level, or block-level. Archive Operations Because backup operations generally involve maintaining a version of the copied data in primary data 112 and also maintaining backup copies in secondary storage device(s) 108, they can consume significant storage capacity. To help reduce storage consumption, an archive operation according to certain embodiments creates a secondary copy 116 by both copying and removing source data. Or, seen another way, archive operations can involve moving some or all of the source data to the archive destination. Thus, data satisfying criteria for removal (e.g., data of a threshold age or size) from the source copy may be removed from source storage. Archive copies are sometimes stored in an archive format or other non-native application format. The source data may be primary data 112 or a secondary copy 116, depending on the situation. As with backup copies, archive copies can be stored in a format in which the data is compressed, encrypted, deduplicated, and/or otherwise modified from the original application format. In addition, archive copies may be retained for relatively long periods of time (e.g., years) and, in some cases, are never deleted. Archive copies are generally retained for longer periods of time than backup copies, for example. In certain embodiments, archive copies may be made and kept for extended periods in order to meet compliance regulations. Moreover, when primary data 112 is archived, in some cases the archived primary data 112 or a portion thereof is deleted when creating the archive copy. Thus, archiving can serve the purpose of freeing up space in the primary storage device(s) 104. Similarly, when a secondary copy 116 is archived, the secondary copy 116 may be deleted, and an archive copy can therefore serve the purpose of freeing up space in secondary storage device(s) 108. In contrast, source copies often remain intact when creating backup copies. Examples of compatible data archiving operations are provided in U.S. Pat. No. 7,107,298, which is incorporated by reference herein. Snapshot Operations Snapshot operations can provide a relatively lightweight, efficient mechanism for protecting data. From an end user viewpoint, a snapshot may be thought of as an “instant” image of the primary data 112 at a given point in time. In one embodiment, a snapshot may generally capture the directory structure of an object in primary data 112 such as a file or volume or other data set at a particular moment in time and may also preserve file attributes and contents. A snapshot in some cases is created relatively quickly, e.g., substantially instantly, using a minimum amount of file space, but may still function as a conventional file system backup. A “hardware” snapshot operation can be a snapshot operation where a target storage device (e.g., a primary storage device 104 or a secondary storage device 108) performs the snapshot operation in a self-contained fashion, substantially independently, using hardware, firmware and/or software residing on the storage device itself. For instance, the storage device may be capable of performing snapshot operations upon request, generally without intervention or oversight from any of the other components in the information management system 100. In this manner, using hardware snapshots can off-load processing involved in snapshot creation and management from other components in the system 100. A “software” snapshot operation, on the other hand, can be a snapshot operation in which one or more other components in the system (e.g., the client computing devices 102, data agents 142, etc.) implement a software layer that manages the snapshot operation via interaction with the target storage device. For instance, the component implementing the snapshot management software layer may derive a set of pointers and/or data that represents the snapshot. The snapshot management software layer may then transmit the same to the target storage device, along with appropriate instructions for writing the snapshot. Some types of snapshots do not actually create another physical copy of all the data as it existed at the particular point in time, but may simply create pointers that are able to map files and directories to specific memory locations (e.g., disk blocks) where the data resides, as it existed at the particular point in time. For example, a snapshot copy may include a set of pointers derived from the file system or an application. In some other cases, the snapshot may be created at the block level, such as where creation of the snapshot occurs without awareness of the file system. Each pointer points to a respective stored data block, so collectively, the set of pointers reflect the storage location and state of the data object (e.g., file(s) or volume(s) or data set(s)) at a particular point in time when the snapshot copy was created. In some embodiments, once a snapshot has been taken, subsequent changes to the file system typically do not overwrite the blocks in use at the time of the snapshot. Therefore, the initial snapshot may use only a small amount of disk space needed to record a mapping or other data structure representing or otherwise tracking the blocks that correspond to the current state of the file system. Additional disk space is usually required only when files and directories are actually modified later. Furthermore, when files are modified, typically only the pointers which map to blocks are copied, not the blocks themselves. In some embodiments, for example in the case of “copy-on-write” snapshots, when a block changes in primary storage, the block is copied to secondary storage or cached in primary storage before the block is overwritten in primary storage. The snapshot mapping of file system data is also updated to reflect the changed block(s) at that particular point in time. In some other cases, a snapshot includes a full physical copy of all or substantially all of the data represented by the snapshot. Further examples of snapshot operations are provided in U.S. Pat. No. 7,529,782, which is incorporated by reference herein. A snapshot copy in many cases can be made quickly and without significantly impacting primary computing resources because large amounts of data need not be copied or moved. In some embodiments, a snapshot may exist as a virtual file system, parallel to the actual file system. Users in some cases gain read-only access to the record of files and directories of the snapshot. By electing to restore primary data 112 from a snapshot taken at a given point in time, users may also return the current file system to the state of the file system that existed when the snapshot was taken. Replication Operations Another type of secondary copy operation is a replication operation. Some types of secondary copies 116 are used to periodically capture images of primary data 112 at particular points in time (e.g., backups, archives, and snapshots). However, it can also be useful for recovery purposes to protect primary data 112 in a more continuous fashion, by replicating the primary data 112 substantially as changes occur. In some cases a replication copy can be a mirror copy, for instance, where changes made to primary data 112 are mirrored or substantially immediately copied to another location (e.g., to secondary storage device(s) 108). By copying each write operation to the replication copy, two storage systems are kept synchronized or substantially synchronized so that they are virtually identical at approximately the same time. Where entire disk volumes are mirrored, however, mirroring can require significant amount of storage space and utilizes a large amount of processing resources. According to some embodiments storage operations are performed on replicated data that represents a recoverable state, or “known good state” of a particular application running on the source system. For instance, in certain embodiments, known good replication copies may be viewed as copies of primary data 112. This feature allows the system to directly access, copy, restore, backup or otherwise manipulate the replication copies as if the data was the “live”, primary data 112. This can reduce access time, storage utilization, and impact on source applications 110, among other benefits. Based on known good state information, the information management system 100 can replicate sections of application data that represent a recoverable state rather than rote copying of blocks of data. Examples of compatible replication operations (e.g., continuous data replication) are provided in U.S. Pat. No. 7,617,262, which is incorporated by reference herein. Deduplication/Single-Instancing Operations Another type of data movement operation is deduplication or single-instance storage, which is useful to reduce the amount of data within the system. For instance, some or all of the above-described secondary storage operations can involve deduplication in some fashion. New data is read, broken down into portions (e.g., sub-file level blocks, files, etc.) of a selected granularity, compared with blocks that are already stored, and only the new blocks are stored. Blocks that already exist are represented as pointers to the already stored data. In order to streamline the comparison process, the information management system 100 may calculate and/or store signatures (e.g., hashes) corresponding to the individual data blocks in a database and compare the signatures (e.g., hashes) instead of comparing entire data blocks. In some cases, only a single instance of each element is stored, and deduplication operations may therefore be referred to interchangeably as “single-instancing” operations. Depending on the implementation, however, deduplication or single-instancing operations can store more than one instance of certain data blocks, but nonetheless significantly reduce data redundancy. Depending on the embodiment, deduplication blocks can be of fixed or variable length. Using variable length blocks can provide enhanced deduplication by responding to changes in the data stream, but can involve complex processing. In some cases, the information management system 100 utilizes a technique for dynamically aligning deduplication blocks (e.g., fixed-length blocks) based on changing content in the data stream, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,364,652, which is incorporated by reference herein. The information management system 100 can perform deduplication in a variety of manners at a variety of locations in the information management system 100. For instance, in some embodiments, the information management system 100 implements “target-side” deduplication by deduplicating data (e.g., secondary copies 116) stored in the secondary storage devices 108. In some such cases, the media agents 144 are generally configured to manage the deduplication process. For instance, one or more of the media agents 144 maintain a corresponding deduplication database that stores deduplication information (e.g., datablock signatures). Examples of such a configuration are provided in U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2012/0150826, which is incorporated by reference herein. Instead of or in combination with “target-side” deduplication, deduplication can also be performed on the “source-side” (or “client-side”), e.g., to reduce the amount of traffic between the media agents 144 and the client computing device(s) 102 and/or reduce redundant data stored in the primary storage devices 104. Examples of such deduplication techniques are provided in U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2012/0150818, which is incorporated by reference herein. Some other compatible deduplication/single instancing techniques are described in U.S. Pat. Pub. Nos. 2006/0224846 and 2009/0319534, which are incorporated by reference herein. Information Lifecycle Management and Hierarchical Storage Management Operations In some embodiments, files and other data over their lifetime move from more expensive, quick access storage to less expensive, slower access storage. Operations associated with moving data through various tiers of storage are sometimes referred to as information lifecycle management (ILM) operations. One type of ILM operation is a hierarchical storage management (HSM) operation. A HSM operation is generally an operation for automatically moving data between classes of storage devices, such as between high-cost and low-cost storage devices. For instance, an HSM operation may involve movement of data from primary storage devices 104 to secondary storage devices 108, or between tiers of secondary storage devices 108. With each tier, the storage devices may be progressively relatively cheaper, have relatively slower access/restore times, etc. For example, movement of data between tiers may occur as data becomes less important over time. In some embodiments, an HSM operation is similar to an archive operation in that creating an HSM copy may (though not always) involve deleting some of the source data, e.g., according to one or more criteria related to the source data. For example, an HSM copy may include data from primary data 112 or a secondary copy 116 that is larger than a given size threshold or older than a given age threshold and that is stored in a backup format. Often, and unlike some types of archive copies, HSM data that is removed or aged from the source copy is replaced by a logical reference pointer or stub. The reference pointer or stub can be stored in the primary storage device 104 (or other source storage device, such as a secondary storage device 108) to replace the deleted data in primary data 112 (or other source copy) and to point to or otherwise indicate the new location in a secondary storage device 108. According to one example, files are generally moved between higher and lower cost storage depending on how often the files are accessed. When a user requests access to the HSM data that has been removed or migrated, the information management system 100 uses the stub to locate the data and often make recovery of the data appear transparent, even though the HSM data may be stored at a location different from the remaining source data. In this manner, the data appears to the user (e.g., in file system browsing windows and the like) as if it still resides in the source location (e.g., in a primary storage device 104). The stub may also include some metadata associated with the corresponding data, so that a file system and/or application can provide some information about the data object and/or a limited-functionality version (e.g., a preview) of the data object. An HSM copy may be stored in a format other than the native application format (e.g., where the data is compressed, encrypted, deduplicated, and/or otherwise modified from the original application format). In some cases, copies which involve the removal of data from source storage and the maintenance of stub or other logical reference information on source storage may be referred to generally as “on-line archive copies”. On the other hand, copies which involve the removal of data from source storage without the maintenance of stub or other logical reference information on source storage may be referred to as “off-line archive copies”. Examples of HSM and ILM techniques are provided in U.S. Pat. No. 7,343,453, which is incorporated by reference herein. Auxiliary Copy and Disaster Recovery Operations An auxiliary copy is generally a copy operation in which a copy is created of an existing secondary copy 116. For instance, an initial secondary copy 116 may be generated using or otherwise be derived from primary data 112 (or other data residing in the secondary storage subsystem 118), whereas an auxiliary copy is generated from the initial secondary copy 116. Auxiliary copies can be used to create additional standby copies of data and may reside on different secondary storage devices 108 than the initial secondary copies 116. Thus, auxiliary copies can be used for recovery purposes if initial secondary copies 116 become unavailable. Exemplary compatible auxiliary copy techniques are described in further detail in U.S. Pat. No. 8,230,195, which is incorporated by reference herein. The information management system 100 may also perform disaster recovery operations that make or retain disaster recovery copies, often as secondary, high availability disk copies. The information management system 100 may create secondary disk copies and store the copies at disaster recovery locations using auxiliary copy or replication operations, such as continuous data replication technologies. Depending on the particular data protection goals, disaster recovery locations can be remote from the client computing devices 102 and primary storage devices 104, remote from some or all of the secondary storage devices 108, or both. Data Analysis, Reporting, and Management Operations Data analysis, reporting, and management operations can be different than data movement operations in that they do not necessarily involve the copying, migration or other transfer of data (e.g., primary data 112 or secondary copies 116) between different locations in the system. For instance, data analysis operations may involve processing (e.g., offline processing) or modification of already stored primary data 112 and/or secondary copies 116. However, in some embodiments data analysis operations are performed in conjunction with data movement operations. Some data analysis operations include content indexing operations and classification operations which can be useful in leveraging the data under management to provide enhanced search and other features. Other data analysis operations such as compression and encryption can provide data reduction and security benefits, respectively. Classification Operations/Content Indexing In some embodiments, the information management system 100 analyzes and indexes characteristics, content, and metadata associated with the data stored within the primary data 112 and/or secondary copies 116, providing enhanced search and management capabilities for data discovery and other purposes. The content indexing can be used to identify files or other data objects having pre-defined content (e.g., user-defined keywords or phrases, other keywords/phrases that are not defined by a user, etc.), and/or metadata (e.g., email metadata such as “to”, “from”, “cc”, “bcc”, attachment name, received time, etc.). The information management system 100 generally organizes and catalogues the results in a content index, which may be stored within the media agent database 152, for example. The content index can also include the storage locations of (or pointer references to) the indexed data in the primary data 112 or secondary copies 116, as appropriate. The results may also be stored, in the form of a content index database or otherwise, elsewhere in the information management system 100 (e.g., in the primary storage devices 104, or in the secondary storage device 108). Such index data provides the storage manager 140 or another component with an efficient mechanism for locating primary data 112 and/or secondary copies 116 of data objects that match particular criteria. For instance, search criteria can be specified by a user through user interface 158 of the storage manager 140. In some cases, the information management system 100 analyzes data and/or metadata in secondary copies 116 to create an “off-line” content index, without significantly impacting the performance of the client computing devices 102. Depending on the embodiment, the system can also implement “on-line” content indexing, e.g., of primary data 112. Examples of compatible content indexing techniques are provided in U.S. Pat. No. 8,170,995, which is incorporated by reference herein. In order to further leverage the data stored in the information management system 100 to perform these and other tasks, one or more components can be configured to scan data and/or associated metadata for classification purposes to populate a database (or other data structure) of information (which can be referred to as a “data classification database” or a “metabase”). Depending on the embodiment, the data classification database(s) can be organized in a variety of different ways, including centralization, logical sub-divisions, and/or physical sub-divisions. For instance, one or more centralized data classification databases may be associated with different subsystems or tiers within the information management system 100. As an example, there may be a first centralized metabase associated with the primary storage subsystem 117 and a second centralized metabase associated with the secondary storage subsystem 118. In other cases, there may be one or more metabases associated with individual components. For instance, there may be a dedicated metabase associated with some or all of the client computing devices 102 and/or media agents 144. In some embodiments, a data classification database may reside as one or more data structures within management database 146, or may be otherwise associated with storage manager 140. In some cases, the metabase(s) may be included in separate database(s) and/or on separate storage device(s) from primary data 112 and/or secondary copies 116, such that operations related to the metabase do not significantly impact performance on other components in the information management system 100. In other cases, the metabase(s) may be stored along with primary data 112 and/or secondary copies 116. Files or other data objects can be associated with identifiers (e.g., tag entries, etc.) in the media agent 144 (or other indices) to facilitate searches of stored data objects. Among a number of other benefits, the metabase can also allow efficient, automatic identification of files or other data objects to associate with secondary copy or other information management operations (e.g., in lieu of scanning an entire file system). Examples of compatible metabases and data classification operations are provided in U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,229,954 and 7,747,579, which are incorporated by reference herein. Encryption Operations The information management system 100 in some cases is configured to process data (e.g., files or other data objects, secondary copies 116, etc.), according to an appropriate encryption algorithm (e.g., Blowfish, Advanced Encryption Standard [AES], Triple Data Encryption Standard [3-DES], etc.) to limit access and provide data security in the information management system 100. The information management system 100 in some cases encrypts the data at the client level, such that the client computing devices 102 (e.g., the data agents 142) encrypt the data prior to forwarding the data to other components, e.g., before sending the data to media agents 144 during a secondary copy operation. In such cases, the client computing device 102 may maintain or have access to an encryption key or passphrase for decrypting the data upon restore. Encryption can also occur when creating copies of secondary copies, e.g., when creating auxiliary copies or archive copies. In yet further embodiments, the secondary storage devices 108 can implement built-in, high performance hardware encryption. Management and Reporting Operations Certain embodiments leverage the integrated, ubiquitous nature of the information management system 100 to provide useful system-wide management and reporting functions. Examples of some compatible management and reporting techniques are provided in U.S. Pat. No. 7,343,453, which is incorporated by reference herein. Operations management can generally include monitoring and managing the health and performance of information management system 100 by, without limitation, performing error tracking, generating granular storage/performance metrics (e.g., job success/failure information, deduplication efficiency, etc.), generating storage modeling and costing information, and the like. As an example, a storage manager 140 or other component in the information management system 100 may analyze traffic patterns and suggest or automatically route data via a particular route to e.g., certain facilitate storage and minimize congestion. In some embodiments, the system can generate predictions relating to storage operations or storage operation information. Such predictions described may be based on a trending analysis that may be used to predict various network operations or use of network resources such as network traffic levels, storage media use, use of bandwidth of communication links, use of media agent components, etc. Further examples of traffic analysis, trend analysis, prediction generation, and the like are described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,343,453, which is incorporated by reference herein. In some configurations, a master storage manager 140 may track the status of a set of associated storage operation cells in a hierarchy of information management cells, such as the status of jobs, system components, system resources, and other items, by communicating with storage managers 140 (or other components) in the respective storage operation cells. Moreover, the master storage manager 140 may track the status of its associated storage operation cells and associated information management operations by receiving periodic status updates from the storage managers 140 (or other components) in the respective cells regarding jobs, system components, system resources, and other items. In some embodiments, a master storage manager 140 may store status information and other information regarding its associated storage operation cells and other system information in its index 150 (or other location). The master storage manager 140 or other component in the system may also determine whether a storage-related criteria or other criteria is satisfied, and perform an action or trigger event (e.g., data migration) in response to the criteria being satisfied, such as where a storage threshold is met for a particular volume, or where inadequate protection exists for certain data. For instance, in some embodiments, the system uses data from one or more storage operation cells to advise users of risks or indicates actions that can be used to mitigate or otherwise minimize these risks, and in some embodiments, dynamically takes action to mitigate or minimize these risks. For example, an information management policy may specify certain requirements (e.g., that a storage device should maintain a certain amount of free space, that secondary copies should occur at a particular interval, that data should be aged and migrated to other storage after a particular period, that data on a secondary volume should always have a certain level of availability and be able to be restored within a given time period, that data on a secondary volume may be mirrored or otherwise migrated to a specified number of other volumes, etc.). If a risk condition or other criteria is triggered, the system can notify the user of these conditions and may suggest (or automatically implement) an action to mitigate or otherwise address the condition or minimize risk. For example, the system may indicate that data from a primary copy 112 should be migrated to a secondary storage device 108 to free space on the primary storage device 104. Examples of the use of risk factors and other triggering criteria are described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,343,453, which is incorporated by reference herein. In some embodiments, the system 100 may also determine whether a metric or other indication satisfies a particular storage criteria and, if so, perform an action. For example, as previously described, a storage policy or other definition might indicate that a storage manager 140 should initiate a particular action if a storage metric or other indication drops below or otherwise fails to satisfy specified criteria such as a threshold of data protection. Examples of such metrics are described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,343,453, which is incorporated by reference herein. In some embodiments, risk factors may be quantified into certain measurable service or risk levels for ease of comprehension. For example, certain applications and associated data may be considered to be more important by an enterprise than other data and services. Financial compliance data, for example, may be of greater importance than marketing materials, etc. Network administrators may assign priorities or “weights” to certain data or applications, corresponding to its importance (priority value). The level of compliance with the storage operations specified for these applications may also be assigned a certain value. Thus, the health, impact and overall importance of a service on an enterprise may be determined, for example, by measuring the compliance value and calculating the product of the priority value and the compliance value to determine the “service level” and comparing it to certain operational thresholds to determine if the operation is being performed within a specified data protection service level. Further examples of the service level determination are provided in U.S. Pat. No. 7,343,453, which is incorporated by reference herein. The system 100 may additionally calculate data costing and data availability associated with information management operation cells according to an embodiment of the invention. For instance, data received from the cell may be used in conjunction with hardware-related information and other information about network elements to generate indications of costs associated with storage of particular data in the system or the availability of particular data in the system. In general, components in the system are identified and associated information is obtained (dynamically or manually). Characteristics or metrics associated with the network elements may be identified and associated with that component element for further use generating an indication of storage cost or data availability. Exemplary information generated could include how fast a particular department is using up available storage space, how long data would take to recover over a particular network pathway from a particular secondary storage device, costs over time, etc. Moreover, in some embodiments, such information may be used to determine or predict the overall cost associated with the storage of certain information. The cost associated with hosting a certain application may be based, at least in part, on the type of media on which the data resides. Storage devices may be assigned to a particular cost category which is indicative of the cost of storing information on that device. Further examples of costing techniques are described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,343,453, which is incorporated by reference herein. Any of the above types of information (e.g., information related to trending, predictions, job, cell or component status, risk, service level, costing, etc.) can generally be provided to users via the user interface 158 in a single, integrated view or console. The console may support a reporting capability that allows for the generation of a variety of reports, which may be tailored to a particular aspect of information management. Report types may include: scheduling, event management, media management and data aging. Available reports may also include backup history, data aging history, auxiliary copy history, job history, library and drive, media in library, restore history, and storage policy. Such reports may be specified and created at a certain point in time as a network analysis, forecasting, or provisioning tool. Integrated reports may also be generated that illustrate storage and performance metrics, risks and storage costing information. Moreover, users may create their own reports based on specific needs. The integrated user interface 158 can include an option to show a “virtual view” of the system that graphically depicts the various components in the system using appropriate icons. As one example, the user interface 158 may provide a graphical depiction of one or more primary storage devices 104, the secondary storage devices 108, data agents 142 and/or media agents 144, and their relationship to one another in the information management system 100. The operations management functionality can facilitate planning and decision-making. For example, in some embodiments, a user may view the status of some or all jobs as well as the status of each component of the information management system 100. Users may then plan and make decisions based on this data. For instance, a user may view high-level information regarding storage operations for the information management system 100, such as job status, component status, resource status (e.g., network pathways, etc.), and other information. The user may also drill down or use other means to obtain more detailed information regarding a particular component, job, or the like. Further examples of some reporting techniques and associated interfaces providing an integrated view of an information management system are provided in U.S. Pat. No. 7,343,453, which is incorporated by reference herein. The information management system 100 can also be configured to perform system-wide e-discovery operations in some embodiments. In general, e-discovery operations provide a unified collection and search capability for data in the system, such as data stored in the secondary storage devices 108 (e.g., backups, archives, or other secondary copies 116). For example, the information management system 100 may construct and maintain a virtual repository for data stored in the information management system 100 that is integrated across source applications 110, different storage device types, etc. According to some embodiments, e-discovery utilizes other techniques described herein, such as data classification and/or content indexing. Information Management Policies As indicated previously, an information management policy 148 can include a data structure or other information source that specifies a set of parameters (e.g., criteria and rules) associated with secondary copy or other information management operations. One type of information management policy 148 is a storage policy. According to certain embodiments, a storage policy generally comprises a data structure or other information source that defines (or includes information sufficient to determine) a set of preferences or other criteria for performing information management operations. Storage policies can include one or more of the following items: (1) what data will be associated with the storage policy; (2) a destination to which the data will be stored; (3) datapath information specifying how the data will be communicated to the destination; (4) the type of storage operation to be performed; and (5) retention information specifying how long the data will be retained at the destination. As an illustrative example, data associated with a storage policy can be logically organized into groups. In some cases, these logical groupings can be referred to as “sub-clients”. A sub-client may represent static or dynamic associations of portions of a data volume. Sub-clients may represent mutually exclusive portions. Thus, in certain embodiments, a portion of data may be given a label and the association is stored as a static entity in an index, database or other storage location. Sub-clients may also be used as an effective administrative scheme of organizing data according to data type, department within the enterprise, storage preferences, or the like. Depending on the configuration, sub-clients can correspond to files, folders, virtual machines, databases, etc. In one exemplary scenario, an administrator may find it preferable to separate e-mail data from financial data using two different sub-clients. A storage policy can define where data is stored by specifying a target or destination storage device (or group of storage devices). For instance, where the secondary storage device 108 includes a group of disk libraries, the storage policy may specify a particular disk library for storing the sub-clients associated with the policy. As another example, where the secondary storage devices 108 include one or more tape libraries, the storage policy may specify a particular tape library for storing the sub-clients associated with the storage policy, and may also specify a drive pool and a tape pool defining a group of tape drives and a group of tapes, respectively, for use in storing the sub-client data. While information in the storage policy can be statically assigned in some cases, some or all of the information in the storage policy can also be dynamically determined based on criteria, which can be set forth in the storage policy. For instance, based on such criteria, a particular destination storage device(s) (or other parameter of the storage policy) may be determined based on characteristics associated with the data involved in a particular storage operation, device availability (e.g., availability of a secondary storage device 108 or a media agent 144), network status and conditions (e.g., identified bottlenecks), user credentials, and the like). Datapath information can also be included in the storage policy. For instance, the storage policy may specify network pathways and components to utilize when moving the data to the destination storage device(s). In some embodiments, the storage policy specifies one or more media agents 144 for conveying data (e.g., one or more sub-clients) associated with the storage policy between the source (e.g., one or more host client computing devices 102) and destination (e.g., a particular target secondary storage device 108). A storage policy can also specify the type(s) of operations associated with the storage policy, such as a backup, archive, snapshot, auxiliary copy, or the like. Retention information can specify how long the data will be kept, depending on organizational needs (e.g., a number of days, months, years, etc.) The information management policies 148 may also include one or more scheduling policies specifying when and how often to perform operations. Scheduling information may specify with what frequency (e.g., hourly, weekly, daily, event-based, etc.) or under what triggering conditions secondary copy or other information management operations will take place. Scheduling policies in some cases are associated with particular components, such as particular logical groupings of data associated with a storage policy (e.g., a sub-client), client computing device 102, and the like. In one configuration, a separate scheduling policy is maintained for particular logical groupings of data on a client computing device 102. The scheduling policy specifies that those logical groupings are to be moved to secondary storage devices 108 every hour according to storage policies associated with the respective sub-clients. When adding a new client computing device 102, administrators can manually configure information management policies 148 and/or other settings, e.g., via the user interface 158. However, this can be an involved process resulting in delays, and it may be desirable to begin data protecting operations quickly. Thus, in some embodiments, the information management system 100 automatically applies a default configuration to client computing device 102. As one example, when one or more data agent(s) 142 are installed on one or more client computing devices 102, the installation script may register the client computing device 102 with the storage manager 140, which in turn applies the default configuration to the new client computing device 102. In this manner, data protection operations can begin substantially immediately. The default configuration can include a default storage policy, for example, and can specify any appropriate information sufficient to begin data protection operations. This can include a type of data protection operation, scheduling information, a target secondary storage device 108, data path information (e.g., a particular media agent 144), and the like. Other types of information management policies 148 are possible. For instance, the information management policies 148 can also include one or more audit or security policies. An audit policy is a set of preferences, rules and/or criteria that protect sensitive data in the information management system 100. For example, an audit policy may define “sensitive objects” as files or objects that contain particular keywords (e.g., “confidential,” or “privileged”) and/or are associated with particular keywords (e.g., in metadata) or particular flags (e.g., in metadata identifying a document or email as personal, confidential, etc.). An audit policy may further specify rules for handling sensitive objects. As an example, an audit policy may require that a reviewer approve the transfer of any sensitive objects to a cloud storage site, and that if approval is denied for a particular sensitive object, the sensitive object should be transferred to a local primary storage device 104 instead. To facilitate this approval, the audit policy may further specify how a secondary storage computing device 106 or other system component should notify a reviewer that a sensitive object is slated for transfer. In some implementations, the information management policies 148 may include one or more provisioning policies. A provisioning policy can include a set of preferences, priorities, rules, and/or criteria that specify how client computing devices 102 (or groups thereof) may utilize system resources, such as available storage on cloud storage and/or network bandwidth. A provisioning policy specifies, for example, data quotas for particular client computing devices 102 (e.g., a number of gigabytes that can be stored monthly, quarterly or annually). The storage manager 140 or other components may enforce the provisioning policy. For instance, the media agents 144 may enforce the policy when transferring data to secondary storage devices 108. If a client computing device 102 exceeds a quota, a budget for the client computing device 102 (or associated department) is adjusted accordingly or an alert may trigger. While the above types of information management policies 148 have been described as separate policies, one or more of these can be generally combined into a single information management policy 148. For instance, a storage policy may also include or otherwise be associated with one or more scheduling, audit, or provisioning policies. Moreover, while storage policies are typically associated with moving and storing data, other policies may be associated with other types of information management operations. The following is a non-exhaustive list of items the information management policies 148 may specify: schedules or other timing information, e.g., specifying when and/or how often to perform information management operations; the type of copy 116 (e.g., type of secondary copy) and/or copy format (e.g., snapshot, backup, archive, HSM, etc.); a location or a class or quality of storage for storing secondary copies 116 (e.g., one or more particular secondary storage devices 108); preferences regarding whether and how to encrypt, compress, deduplicate, or otherwise modify or transform secondary copies 116; which system components and/or network pathways (e.g., preferred media agents 144) should be used to perform secondary storage operations; resource allocation between different computing devices or other system components used in performing information management operations (e.g., bandwidth allocation, available storage capacity, etc.); whether and how to synchronize or otherwise distribute files or other data objects across multiple computing devices or hosted services; and retention information specifying the length of time primary data 112 and/or secondary copies 116 should be retained, e.g., in a particular class or tier of storage devices, or within the information management system 100. Policies can additionally specify or depend on a variety of historical or current criteria that may be used to determine which rules to apply to a particular data object, system component, or information management operation, such as: frequency with which primary data 112 or a secondary copy 116 of a data object or metadata has been or is predicted to be used, accessed, or modified; time-related factors (e.g., aging information such as time since the creation or modification of a data object); deduplication information (e.g., hashes, data blocks, deduplication block size, deduplication efficiency or other metrics); an estimated or historic usage or cost associated with different components (e.g., with secondary storage devices 108); the identity of users, applications 110, client computing devices 102 and/or other computing devices that created, accessed, modified, or otherwise utilized primary data 112 or secondary copies 116; a relative sensitivity (e.g., confidentiality) of a data object, e.g., as determined by its content and/or metadata; the current or historical storage capacity of various storage devices; the current or historical network capacity of network pathways connecting various components within the storage operation cell; access control lists or other security information; and the content of a particular data object (e.g., its textual content) or of metadata associated with the data object. Exemplary Storage Policy and Secondary Storage Operations FIG. 1E shows a data flow data diagram depicting performance of storage operations by an embodiment of an information management system 100, according to an exemplary storage policy 148A. The information management system 100 includes a storage manger 140, a client computing device 102 having a file system data agent 142A and an email data agent 142B residing thereon, a primary storage device 104, two media agents 144A, 144B, and two secondary storage devices 108A, 108B: a disk library 108A and a tape library 108B. As shown, the primary storage device 104 includes primary data 112A, 112B associated with a logical grouping of data associated with a file system) and a logical grouping of data associated with email data, respectively. Although for simplicity the logical grouping of data associated with the file system is referred to as a file system sub-client, and the logical grouping of data associated with the email data is referred to as an email sub-client, the techniques described with respect to FIG. 1E can be utilized in conjunction with data that is organized in a variety of other manners. As indicated by the dashed box, the second media agent 144B and the tape library 108B are “off-site”, and may therefore be remotely located from the other components in the information management system 100 (e.g., in a different city, office building, etc.). In this manner, information stored on the tape library 108B may provide protection in the event of a disaster or other failure. The file system sub-client and its associated primary data 112A in certain embodiments generally comprise information generated by the file system and/or operating system of the client computing device 102, and can include, for example, file system data (e.g., regular files, file tables, mount points, etc.), operating system data (e.g., registries, event logs, etc.), and the like. The e-mail sub-client, on the other hand, and its associated primary data 112B, include data generated by an e-mail client application operating on the client computing device 102, and can include mailbox information, folder information, emails, attachments, associated database information, and the like. As described above, the sub-clients can be logical containers, and the data included in the corresponding primary data 112A, 112B may or may not be stored contiguously. The exemplary storage policy 148A includes backup copy preferences or rule set 160, disaster recovery copy preferences rule set 162, and compliance copy preferences or rule set 164. The backup copy rule set 160 specifies that it is associated with a file system sub-client 166 and an email sub-client 168. Each of these sub-clients 166, 168 are associated with the particular client computing device 102. The backup copy rule set 160 further specifies that the backup operation will be written to the disk library 108A, and designates a particular media agent 144A to convey the data to the disk library 108A. Finally, the backup copy rule set 160 specifies that backup copies created according to the rule set 160 are scheduled to be generated on an hourly basis and to be retained for 30 days. In some other embodiments, scheduling information is not included in the storage policy 148A, and is instead specified by a separate scheduling policy. The disaster recovery copy rule set 162 is associated with the same two sub-clients 166, 168. However, the disaster recovery copy rule set 162 is associated with the tape library 108B, unlike the backup copy rule set 160. Moreover, the disaster recovery copy rule set 162 specifies that a different media agent 144B than the media agent 144A associated with the backup copy rule set 160 will be used to convey the data to the tape library 108B. As indicated, disaster recovery copies created according to the rule set 162 will be retained for 60 days, and will be generated on a daily basis. Disaster recovery copies generated according to the disaster recovery copy rule set 162 can provide protection in the event of a disaster or other data-loss event that would affect the backup copy 116A maintained on the disk library 108A. The compliance copy rule set 164 is only associated with the email sub-client 168, and not the file system sub-client 166. Compliance copies generated according to the compliance copy rule set 164 will therefore not include primary data 112A from the file system sub-client 166. For instance, the organization may be under an obligation to store and maintain copies of email data for a particular period of time (e.g., 10 years) to comply with state or federal regulations, while similar regulations do not apply to the file system data. The compliance copy rule set 164 is associated with the same tape library 108B and media agent 144B as the disaster recovery copy rule set 162, although a different storage device or media agent could be used in other embodiments. Finally, the compliance copy rule set 164 specifies that copies generated under the compliance copy rule set 164 will be retained for 10 years, and will be generated on a quarterly basis. At step 1, the storage manager 140 initiates a backup operation according to the backup copy rule set 160. For instance, a scheduling service running on the storage manager 140 accesses scheduling information from the backup copy rule set 160 or a separate scheduling policy associated with the client computing device 102, and initiates a backup copy operation on an hourly basis. Thus, at the scheduled time slot the storage manager 140 sends instructions to the client computing device 102 to begin the backup operation. At step 2, the file system data agent 142A and the email data agent 142B residing on the client computing device 102 respond to the instructions received from the storage manager 140 by accessing and processing the primary data 112A, 112B involved in the copy operation from the primary storage device 104. Because the operation is a backup copy operation, the data agent(s) 142A, 142B may format the data into a backup format or otherwise process the data. At step 3, the client computing device 102 communicates the retrieved, processed data to the first media agent 144A, as directed by the storage manager 140, according to the backup copy rule set 160. In some other embodiments, the information management system 100 may implement a load-balancing, availability-based, or other appropriate algorithm to select from the available set of media agents 144A, 144B. Regardless of the manner the media agent 144A is selected, the storage manager 140 may further keep a record in the storage manager database 146 of the association between the selected media agent 144A and the client computing device 102 and/or between the selected media agent 144A and the backup copy 116A. The target media agent 144A receives the data from the client computing device 102, and at step 4 conveys the data to the disk library 108A to create the backup copy 116A, again at the direction of the storage manager 140 and according to the backup copy rule set 160. The secondary storage device 108A can be selected in other ways. For instance, the media agent 144A may have a dedicated association with a particular secondary storage device(s), or the storage manager 140 or media agent 144A may select from a plurality of secondary storage devices, e.g., according to availability, using one of the techniques described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,246,207, which is incorporated by reference herein. The media agent 144A can also update its index 153 to include data and/or metadata related to the backup copy 116A, such as information indicating where the backup copy 116A resides on the disk library 108A, data and metadata for cache retrieval, etc. After the 30 day retention period expires, the storage manager 140 instructs the media agent 144A to delete the backup copy 116A from the disk library 108A. The storage manager 140 may similarly update its index 150 to include information relating to the storage operation, such as information relating to the type of storage operation, a physical location associated with one or more copies created by the storage operation, the time the storage operation was performed, status information relating to the storage operation, the components involved in the storage operation, and the like. In some cases, the storage manager 140 may update its index 150 to include some or all of the information stored in the index 153 of the media agent 144A. At step 5, the storage manager 140 initiates the creation of a disaster recovery copy 116B according to the disaster recovery copy rule set 162. For instance, at step 6, based on instructions received from the storage manager 140 at step 5, the specified media agent 144B retrieves the most recent backup copy 116A from the disk library 108A. At step 7, again at the direction of the storage manager 140 and as specified in the disaster recovery copy rule set 162, the media agent 144B uses the retrieved data to create a disaster recovery copy 116B on the tape library 108B. In some cases, the disaster recovery copy 116B is a direct, mirror copy of the backup copy 116A, and remains in the backup format. In other embodiments, the disaster recovery copy 116B may be generated in some other manner, such as by using the primary data 112A, 112B from the primary storage device 104 as source data. The disaster recovery copy operation is initiated once a day and the disaster recovery copies 116B are deleted after 60 days. At step 8, the storage manager 140 initiates the creation of a compliance copy 116C, according to the compliance copy rule set 164. For instance, the storage manager 140 instructs the media agent 144B to create the compliance copy 116C on the tape library 108B at step 9, as specified in the compliance copy rule set 164. In the example, the compliance copy 116C is generated using the disaster recovery copy 116B. In other embodiments, the compliance copy 116C is instead generated using either the primary data 112B corresponding to the email sub-client or using the backup copy 116A from the disk library 108A as source data. As specified, in the illustrated example, compliance copies 116C are created quarterly, and are deleted after ten years. While not shown in FIG. 1E, at some later point in time, a restore operation can be initiated involving one or more of the secondary copies 116A, 116B, 116C. As one example, a user may manually initiate a restore of the backup copy 116A by interacting with the user interface 158 of the storage manager 140. The storage manager 140 then accesses data in its index 150 (and/or the respective storage policy 148A) associated with the selected backup copy 116A to identify the appropriate media agent 144A and/or secondary storage device 108A. In other cases, a media agent may be selected for use in the restore operation based on a load balancing algorithm, an availability based algorithm, or other criteria. The selected media agent 144A retrieves the data from the disk library 108A. For instance, the media agent 144A may access its index 153 to identify a location of the backup copy 116A on the disk library 108A, or may access location information residing on the disk 108A itself. When the backup copy 116A was recently created or accessed, the media agent 144A accesses a cached version of the backup copy 116A residing in the index 153, without having to access the disk library 108A for some or all of the data. Once it has retrieved the backup copy 116A, the media agent 144A communicates the data to the source client computing device 102. Upon receipt, the file system data agent 142A and the email data agent 142B may unpackage (e.g., restore from a backup format to the native application format) the data in the backup copy 116A and restore the unpackaged data to the primary storage device 104. Exemplary Secondary Copy Formatting The formatting and structure of secondary copies 116 can vary, depending on the embodiment. In some cases, secondary copies 116 are formatted as a series of logical data units or “chunks” (e.g., 512 MB, 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB, or 8 GB chunks). This can facilitate efficient communication and writing to secondary storage devices 108, e.g., according to resource availability. For example, a single secondary copy 116 may be written on a chunk-by-chunk basis to a single secondary storage device 108 or across multiple secondary storage devices 108. In some cases, users can select different chunk sizes, e.g., to improve throughput to tape storage devices. Generally, each chunk can include a header and a payload. The payload can include files (or other data units) or subsets thereof included in the chunk, whereas the chunk header generally includes metadata relating to the chunk, some or all of which may be derived from the payload. For example, during a secondary copy operation, the media agent 144, storage manager 140, or other component may divide the associated files into chunks and generate headers for each chunk by processing the constituent files. The headers can include a variety of information such as file identifier(s), volume(s), offset(s), or other information associated with the payload data items, a chunk sequence number, etc. Importantly, in addition to being stored with the secondary copy 116 on the secondary storage device 108, the chunk headers can also be stored to the index 153 of the associated media agent(s) 144 and/or the index 150. This is useful in some cases for providing faster processing of secondary copies 116 during restores or other operations. In some cases, once a chunk is successfully transferred to a secondary storage device 108, the secondary storage device 108 returns an indication of receipt, e.g., to the media agent 144 and/or storage manager 140, which may update their respective indexes 153, 150 accordingly. During restore, chunks may be processed (e.g., by the media agent 144) according to the information in the chunk header to reassemble the files. Data can also be communicated within the information management system 100 in data channels that connect the client computing devices 102 to the secondary storage devices 108. These data channels can be referred to as “data streams”, and multiple data streams can be employed to parallelize an information management operation, improving data transfer rate, among providing other advantages. Example data formatting techniques including techniques involving data streaming, chunking, and the use of other data structures in creating copies (e.g., secondary copies) are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,315,923 and 8,156,086, and U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2010/0299490, each of which is incorporated by reference herein. FIGS. 1F and 1G are diagrams of example data streams 170 and 171, respectively, which may be employed for performing data storage operations. Referring to FIG. 1F, the data agent 142 forms the data stream 170 from the data associated with a client computing device 102 (e.g., primary data 112). The data stream 170 is composed of multiple pairs of stream header 172 and stream data (or stream payload) 174. The data streams 170 and 171 shown in the illustrated example are for a single-instanced storage operation, and a stream payload 174 therefore may include both single-instance (“SI”) data and/or non-SI data. A stream header 172 includes metadata about the stream payload 174. This metadata may include, for example, a length of the stream payload 174, an indication of whether the stream payload 174 is encrypted, an indication of whether the stream payload 174 is compressed, an archive file identifier (ID), an indication of whether the stream payload 174 is single instanceable, and an indication of whether the stream payload 174 is a start of a block of data. Referring to FIG. 1G, the data stream 171 has the stream header 172 and stream payload 174 aligned into multiple data blocks. In this example, the data blocks are of size 64 KB. The first two stream header 172 and stream payload 174 pairs comprise a first data block of size 64 KB. The first stream header 172 indicates that the length of the succeeding stream payload 174 is 63 KB and that it is the start of a data block. The next stream header 172 indicates that the succeeding stream payload 174 has a length of 1 KB and that it is not the start of a new data block. Immediately following stream payload 174 is a pair comprising an identifier header 176 and identifier data 178. The identifier header 176 includes an indication that the succeeding identifier data 178 includes the identifier for the immediately previous data block. The identifier data 178 includes the identifier that the data agent 142 generated for the data block. The data stream 171 also includes other stream header 172 and stream payload 174 pairs, which may be for SI data and/or for non-SI data. FIG. 1H is a diagram illustrating the data structures 180 that may be used to store blocks of SI data and non-SI data on the storage device (e.g., secondary storage device 108). According to certain embodiments, the data structures 180 do not form part of a native file system of the storage device. The data structures 180 include one or more volume folders 182, one or more chunk folders 184/185 within the volume folder 182, and multiple files within the chunk folder 184. Each chunk folder 184/185 includes a metadata file 186/187, a metadata index file 188/189, one or more container files 190/191/193, and a container index file 192/194. The metadata file 186/187 stores non-SI data blocks as well as links to SI data blocks stored in container files. The metadata index file 188/189 stores an index to the data in the metadata file 186/187. The container files 190/191/193 store SI data blocks. The container index file 192/194 stores an index to the container files 190/191/193. Among other things, the container index file 192/194 stores an indication of whether a corresponding block in a container file 190/191/193 is referred to by a link in a metadata file 186/187. For example, data block B2 in the container file 190 is referred to by a link in the metadata file 187 in the chunk folder 185. Accordingly, the corresponding index entry in the container index file 192 indicates that the data block B2 in the container file 190 is referred to. As another example, data block B1 in the container file 191 is referred to by a link in the metadata file 187, and so the corresponding index entry in the container index file 192 indicates that this data block is referred to. As an example, the data structures 180 illustrated in FIG. 1H may have been created as a result of two storage operations involving two client computing devices 102. For example, a first storage operation on a first client computing device 102 could result in the creation of the first chunk folder 184, and a second storage operation on a second client computing device 102 could result in the creation of the second chunk folder 185. The container files 190/191 in the first chunk folder 184 would contain the blocks of SI data of the first client computing device 102. If the two client computing devices 102 have substantially similar data, the second storage operation on the data of the second client computing device 102 would result in the media agent 144 storing primarily links to the data blocks of the first client computing device 102 that are already stored in the container files 190/191. Accordingly, while a first storage operation may result in storing nearly all of the data subject to the storage operation, subsequent storage operations involving similar data may result in substantial data storage space savings, because links to already stored data blocks can be stored instead of additional instances of data blocks. If the operating system of the secondary storage computing device 106 on which the media agent 144 resides supports sparse files, then when the media agent 144 creates container files 190/191/193, it can create them as sparse files. As previously described, a sparse file is type of file that may include empty space (e.g., a sparse file may have real data within it, such as at the beginning of the file and/or at the end of the file, but may also have empty space in it that is not storing actual data, such as a contiguous range of bytes all having a value of zero). Having the container files 190/191/193 be sparse files allows the media agent 144 to free up space in the container files 190/191/193 when blocks of data in the container files 190/191/193 no longer need to be stored on the storage devices. In some examples, the media agent 144 creates a new container file 190/191/193 when a container file 190/191/193 either includes 100 blocks of data or when the size of the container file 190 exceeds 50 MB. In other examples, the media agent 144 creates a new container file 190/191/193 when a container file 190/191/193 satisfies other criteria (e.g., it contains from approximately 100 to approximately 1000 blocks or when its size exceeds approximately 50 MB to 1 GB). In some cases, a file on which a storage operation is performed may comprise a large number of data blocks. For example, a 100 MB file may be comprised in 400 data blocks of size 256 KB. If such a file is to be stored, its data blocks may span more than one container file, or even more than one chunk folder. As another example, a database file of 20 GB may comprise over 40,000 data blocks of size 512 KB. If such a database file is to be stored, its data blocks will likely span multiple container files, multiple chunk folders, and potentially multiple volume folders. As described in detail herein, restoring such files may thus requiring accessing multiple container files, chunk folders, and/or volume folders to obtain the requisite data blocks. Exemplary Differential Health-Check System FIG. 2 depicts a diagram of an exemplary differential health-check system 200, according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 depicts information management system 100 operating during a first time period P1, then operating during a second time period P2 that occurs after period P1. In the depiction of FIG. 2, system 200 operates at a time T3 after time period P2 (though it should be noted that system 200 also may operate during time periods P1 and/or P2 without limitation). Some elements of information management system 100 were described in greater detail in the preceding figures and others shall be described in further detail below. Differential health-check system 200, according to the present exemplary embodiment comprises: differential health-check module 202 and information management system 100, which comprises storage manager 140, primary storage subsystem 117, and secondary storage subsystem 118 interconnected as shown. In some embodiments, system 100 is interconnected with, but not a part of, system 200. Information management system 100 may be configured differently during period P1 than during period P2. In some embodiments, there is no difference in the configuration of system 100 as between time period P1 versus period P2. Event boundary 211-1 represents a delineation in time between time period P1 and time period P2, and is typically defined by a triggering event. A triggering event may be an upgrade, or a disaster from which system 100 must recover via one or more restore operations, or changing a configuration of system 100 or any subsystem/element thereof; or an arbitrary point in time, e.g., the first of the month; or any other delineation between an earlier time period P1 and a later time period P2. An upgrade may comprise software, firmware, and/or hardware updates to system 100 or any subsystem/element thereof; an installation of a service pack to system 100 or any subsystem/element thereof; a replacement of equipment in any element(s) of system 100; an addition and/or removal of equipment in any element(s) of system 100; an installation/activation of a virtualized computing environment in any element(s) of system 100; etc. Any number of triggering event(s) may be envisioned within the scope of the present invention. Event boundary 211-2 represents a delineation in time between the end of period P2 and a later point in time, T3. T3 is defined, according to the illustrative embodiment, as the time when differential health-check system 200 is invoked to execute a differential-health check of information management system 100 relative to time period P1 versus time period P2. Time period P1 may be defined as having any duration, without limitation. Time period P2 may be defined as having any duration, without limitation. The delay between time periods P1 and P2 may be of any duration; likewise, the delay between time period P2 and time T3 may be any duration. The computing device(s) that host differential health-check module 202 and the computing device that hosts storage manager 140 are each configured to communicate electronically via at least queries 203 and responses 205 according to the illustrative embodiment; they may be in direct electronic communications, e.g., via dedicated lines, or may be connected via public and/or private telecommunications network(s) such as the Internet. Differential health-check module 202 may itself be a computing device that comprises circuitry for executing computer instructions. Likewise, the storage manager 140. It will be clear to those having ordinary skill in the art, after reading the present disclosure, how to make and use alternative embodiments wherein differential health-check system 200 may be differently configured and arranged. For example, a single computing device or a unified virtual computing environment may host storage manager 140 as well as differential health-check module 202 such that the queries 203 and responses 205 operate between modules within the same computing device/environment. For example, differential health-check module 202 may operate in a “cloud” computing environment that communicates and connects with storage manager 140 via public and/or private telecommunications network(s) such as the Internet; likewise, (the host of) module 202 may be located anywhere worldwide, apart from (the host of) storage manager 140, for example in a centralized configuration that communicates with a plurality of information management systems 100 and their constituent storage manager(s) 104. Exemplary uses of differential health-check system 200 include, without limitation, evaluating the performance of an information management system 100 after a triggering event that occurs at or about an event boundary 211-1. Exemplary triggering events include, without limitation, an upgrade to any element of the system, such as an upgrade to storage manager 140, or a hardware upgrade to the device hosting storage manager 140, or a disaster recovery operation for one or more elements of system 100, or an installation of new components in system 100 (e.g., client computing devices 102, secondary storage computing devices 106, secondary storage devices 108, etc.), etc. Illustratively, the exemplary analysis and reporting disclosed herein may provide the administrator of system 100 with useful information about the outcome of the triggering event. Advantageously, the disclosed analysis and reporting performed by system 200 may point to problems that were resolved by the triggering event such as an upgrade (e.g., increased throughput, better job success rate, improved disk usage, etc.), and/or may detect problems that were introduced by the upgrade (e.g., resource constraints, software bugs, decreased throughput, uncompleted jobs, etc.). Likewise, restoring system 100 after a disaster triggering event may have introduced problems that may be detected and reported on by differential health-check system 200. Performance of information management system 100 may be monitored on a regular basis (e.g., monthly) to detect whether ongoing performance is degrading—even when no triggering event is known to have occurred. Though not expressly depicted in the present figure, a remote server may operate apart (physically and/or logically apart) from differential health-check module 202 to request and/or receive information from storage manager 140 during one or more of the time periods illustrated herein. FIG. 3A depicts a detailed view of part of differential health-check system 200, according to the exemplary embodiment. Differential health-check system 200 comprises one or more computing devices 301 that host(s) differential health-check module 202; a display 321 having a user interface whereby a user may input a desired report timeframe 303; module 202 illustratively comprises a differential health-check analysis module 310 and a user interface/rendering module 315. Computing device(s) 301 may be one or more computing devices as described earlier in the present disclosure. In some embodiments, computing devices 301 operate in a virtualized computing environment; or in a cloud computing configuration; or comprise a hardware platform that is specially configured to execute the differential health-check functions disclosed herein; etc., without limitation. As noted above, in some embodiments, differential health-check module 202 is itself a computing device, i.e., a unified platform 202/301 having circuitry to execute computer instructions as appropriate to perform the functions disclosed herein. Display/user interface 321 may be any display unit that is known in the art and that is configured to present an interactive user interface to a user of exemplary system 200. For example, display/user interface 321 is capable of receiving user input that indicates a desired report timeframe 303 and is further capable of transmitting said user input to computing device 301. Display/user interface 321 is displays information that is presented to a user by module 202, such as the illustrative examples shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B. Differential health-check analysis module 310 is, according to the present embodiment, software that executes on computing device(s) 301 and that, in conjunction with user interface/rendering module 315 performs the salient tasks of method 400 as described in further detail below. User interface/rendering module 315 is, according to the present embodiment, software that executes on computing device(s) 301 and that performs the user interface interpretation and/or display rendering for the salient tasks of method 400 as described in further detail below. For example, module 315 may receive information from analysis module 310 and render the information into a visual format suitable for presentation to a user on display unit 321, e.g., as in FIGS. 8A and 8B herein. As noted earlier, computing device 301 is also configured to perform electronic communications with other components, e.g., transmitting signals comprising queries 203 to storage manager 140 and receiving signals comprising responses 205 from storage manager 140, etc. It will be clear to those having ordinary skill in the art, after reading the present disclosure, how to make and use alternative embodiments wherein the functionality of differential health-check system 200 is differently organized, grouped, sub-divided, and/or allocated to computing platforms. For example, modules 310 and 315 may be embodied by a single unified module. For example, modules 310 and 315 may execute on separate computing platforms or may be integrated with one or more other modules executing on computing device(s) 301 or on other computing devices, or may be differently organized or sub-divided. In some embodiments, modules 310 and/or 315 may be part of storage manager 140, e.g., the functionality of module 315 may be incorporated in user interface 158. FIG. 3B depicts a detailed view of part of storage manager 140 in accordance with the exemplary embodiment. Storage manager 140 comprises metrics reporting interface module 350, and data structure(s) 351 within management database 146, and is further capable of receiving queries 203 and transmitting responses 205 from/to differential health-check computing device(s) 301. Metrics reporting interface module 350 is, according to the exemplary embodiment, software that executes on the same host as storage manager 140, as a module within storage manager 140. Module 350 performs the salient tasks of method 700 as described in further detail below, for example, receiving and processing queries 203, extracting and processing data from data structure(s) 351, and generating responses 205. Module 350 is capable of communicating with management database 146 as well with other databases and indexes in information management system 100, such that it may extract the information necessary to properly respond to queries 203. For example, though not shown in the present figure, module 350 may extract information from one or more index 153 on secondary storage computing device 106, using communication pathways available in system 100. For example, though not shown in the present figure, module 350 may interrogate one or more media agents 144 for information necessary to properly respond to queries 203—using communication pathways available in system 100. Data structure 351, according to the exemplary embodiment, resides within management database 146 and comprises a plurality of data, statistics, diagnostics, and/or other information pertaining to information management operations in information management system 100. For example, data structure 351 may comprise raw data about the execution of storage policies; and/or pre-processed statistics about the execution of storage policies during a particular timeframe; and/or diagnostics that arose in reference to said storage policies; etc., without limitation. It will be clear to those having ordinary skill in the art, after reading the present disclosure, how to make and use alternative embodiments wherein the functionality of differential health-check system 200 is differently organized, grouped, sub-divided, and/or allocated to computing platforms. For example, module 350 may be integrated with other functional module(s) of storage manager 140. For example, module 350 may execute on a hardware platform other than storage manager 140. For example, data structure(s) 351 may be subdivided among a plurality of data structures within or without management database 146. For example, data structure(s) 351 may reside in whole or in part on computing or storage device(s) other than the one hosting management database 146 and/or apart from the host of storage manager 140. FIG. 4 depicts some salient operations of method 400 according to the exemplary embodiment of the present invention. According to the exemplary system 200, differential health-check module 202 (including any constituent elements thereof) illustratively performs the salient tasks of method 400 as described in further detail below. At block 401, module 310 receives a request for a differential health-check report for one or more storage managers 140. The request is based on report timeframe 303 that is input by a user. For example, the user having input timeframe 303 may request a report for the three days before and the three days after a system upgrade that occurred on a given date (see, e.g., FIGS. 8A and 8B for an illustrative graphical representation). Here, the user seeks to perform a health-check to detect performance improvements and/or deterioration and/or status quo relative to a triggering event, such as an upgrade or a post-disaster restore operation, or a periodic schedule, etc. At block 403, module 310 defines time period P1 and time period P2 based on the received timeframe 303. Continuing with the above-mentioned example, time period P1 is defined as the three days before the system upgrade, and time period P2 is defined as the three days after the system upgrade. The date of the upgrade represents event boundary 211-1 as depicted in FIGS. 8A and 8B. Having defined the time periods P1 and P2, module 310 generates one or more queries 203 for a storage manager 140 that manages and controls information management system 100, which is the subject of the user's interest. The queries 203 comprise requests for information about information management operations in and/or components of information management system 100, typically managed by and under the control of the storage manager 140. According to the exemplary embodiment, queries 203 pertain to operations performed by data agents 142 as well as media agents 144 in system 100. Examples of queried information may include, without limitation: For the time period P1, the number of jobs completed by each data agent, including any errored jobs; For the time period P1, throughput metrics, e.g., throughput per job or aggregate throughput for the time period, etc.; For the time period P1, time metrics for the completed jobs, e.g., duration per job or aggregate for the time period, etc.; For the time period P1, a count of the number of jobs attempted by each data agent; For the time period P1, the job count for each media agent; For the time period P1, the total data storage capacity available to each media agent; For the time period P1, the total disk (or other media) usage accessed by the respective media agent; For the time period P1, the free disk (or other media) space available to the media agent; For the time period P2, the data corresponding to the above queries. Notably, the information to be queried is merely illustrative, and the person skilled in the art, after reading the present disclosure, may cause system 200 to implement other/additional queries for relevant information as deemed suitable for the differential health-check system being implemented. For example, metrics associated with system upgrades may differ from metrics associated with post-disaster restoration and reconstruction. For example, thresholds for the various metrics may also differ by metric or by type of operation or by type of entity being measured or according to other schemes that may be devised by the implements of system 200. At block 405, module 310 sends queries 203 to storage manager 140, via electronic communications. The electronic communications may be transmitted from computing device 301 to the computing device that hosts storage manager 140, or from module 202 to storage manager 140, depending on the configuration and embodiment of system 100 and/or system 200. As noted above, the electronic communications may take the form of one or more electromagnetic signals that travel directly or indirectly from the transmitting entity to the receiving entity. For example, module 310 may transmit queries 203 requesting information about a particular media agent covering time period P1 and also time period P2. At block 407, module 310 receives responses 205 to queries 203, again, via electronic communications. The electronic communications may be transmitted from the computing device that hosts storage manager 140 to computing device 301, or from storage manager 140 to module 202, depending on the configuration and embodiment of system 100 and/or system 200. As noted above, the electronic communications may take the form of one or more electromagnetic signals that travel directly or indirectly from the transmitting entity to the receiving entity. Continuing the example above, responses 205 may comprise information about the particular media agent, about the secondary storage devices it interacted with, and also about the back-up operations that it performed covering the time periods P1 and P2. Any number of details pertaining to the particular media agent may be included in responses 205, without limitation. Notably, the responses may be based on one or more sources of information, such as data structure(s) 351 and/or other data residing on and/or associated with storage manager 140, and may also be sources from other components in information management system 100 that are not storage manager 140, such as from the media agent, from an index associated with the media agent, or from other data structures on a secondary storage computing device, or even from data in secondary storage on a secondary storage device. At block 409, module 310 analyzes the received responses 205. The extent and scope of the analysis depends on the details available from responses 205. For example, module 310 may reduce received data, e.g., computing aggregate throughput for a given data agent, or eliminating data outside of time periods P1 and P2, or filtering data according to certain conditions/parameters, etc. For example, module 310 may receive pre-processed or aggregated statistics available from storage manager 140. The analysis, as performed by module 310, produces a comparison of corresponding metrics as between time period P1 and time period P2. Block 409 is described in further detail below and in an accompanying figure. At block 411, user interface/rendering module 315 processes the comparison resulting from the preceding block and renders it into a graphical representation suitable for visual presentation to a user via display/user interface 321. The rendering is transmitted to display 321. Illustrative examples may be found in FIGS. 8A and 8B herein. At block 413, method 400 loops back to block 403 to repeat execution for any number of relevant storage managers 140. For example, in a hierarchical information management system 100 or in a multi-cell system, more than one storage manager 140 may be operational and managing one or more relevant components such as data agents and/or media agents, etc. Therefore, method 400 may capture data from any and all storage managers to provide reporting according to the exemplary embodiment. It will be clear to those having ordinary skill in the art, after reading the present disclosure, how to make and use alternative embodiments wherein method 400 is differently organized, executed, sequenced, sub-divided into sub-operations, and/or distributed among different modules and/or components and/or different computing platforms. It will be further clear, after reading the present disclosure, that any number, variations, and arrangements of different reports may be generated and presented to the user of differential health-check system 200, as defined by the implementers of the system. FIG. 5 depicts some salient operations of block 409 in method 400, according to the exemplary embodiment. At block 501, from responses 205, for each data agent 142 and for each media agent 144 associated with storage manager 140, one or more “health-check” performance metrics are evaluated for time period P1. The set of performance metrics evaluated as to time period P1 is designated PM(P1). For data agents, examples of health-check performance metrics include, without limitation: The number of completed jobs in the time period; The number of jobs completed with errors in the time period; The average data throughput of jobs in the time period, e.g., in GB/Hr.; The average time of a job in the time period, e.g., in minutes; The average number of job attempts per job completed in the time period. For media agents, examples of health-check performance metrics include, without limitation: The restore job count (in index 153) in the time period; The total data storage capacity available to the media agent in the time period, e.g., in GB; The total disk (or other media) storage capacity used in the time period, e.g., in GB; The total disk (or other media) storage capacity available in the time period, e.g., in GB. At block 503, from responses 205, for each data agent 142 and for each media agent 144 associated with storage manager 140, one or more “health-check” performance metrics are evaluated for time period P2. The set of performance metrics evaluated as to time period P2 is designated PM(P2). The metrics correspond to those for period P1. Additionally, system 200 may also generate and evaluate other health-check performance metrics in reference to the above-mentioned and other components of information management system 100 for time periods P1 and P2. Although the above-described performance metrics are based on information provided by storage manager 140, in some embodiments, one or more of the performance metrics may also be based on other information, such as information obtained by differential health-check system 200 at an earlier time, and/or information from remote server(s) that previously collected information from information management system 100. In some embodiments, storage manager 140 provides information that is extracts from a component in real-time or near-real-time in response to a given query, e.g., polling a media agent after receiving a query 203 requesting information about the media agent. In some embodiments, storage manager 140 provides information that is has pre-extracted and/or pre-processed in anticipation of receiving queries 203. At block 505, each metric in PM(P1) is compared to its counterpart in PM(P2). For example, for a given data agent (e.g., Active Directory), the number of completed jobs in period P1 is compared to the number of completed jobs in period P2; the average throughput of the data agent handling backup operations in period P1 is compared to the corresponding average throughput for period P2; etc. for any relevant performance metrics for the given data agent. For example, in regard to a media agent, the disk usage for period P1 is compared to the disk usage for period P2, and so on for other performance metrics that are relevant for media agents, without limitation. At block 507, when a PM(P2) metric indicates that a performance degradation occurred as compared to time period P1, i.e., as to a corresponding metric in PM(P1), the P1/P2 metric pair is flagged with a first flag, e.g., “needs attention,” or “deterioration detected,” etc. For example, when average throughput drops as between period P1 and period P2, this is defined as a deterioration in performance and the first flag is applied. Thus, system 200 and module 202 can be said to have detected a change in the “health” or performance of information management system 100 relative to the triggering event. In some embodiments, a “margin” threshold may be applied to avoid detecting a deterioration or an improvement that is only marginal, e.g., within 2%. At block 509, when the deterioration in performance exceeds a predetermined threshold, the metric pair is flagged with a second, more urgent flag, e.g., “critical,” or “severe deterioration detected,” etc. Depending on the implementation of system 200, there may be only one threshold for the second flag, e.g., a 15% deterioration for every metric from period P1 to period P2; or there may be metric-specific thresholds for the second flag, e.g., 15% for a throughput drop, and 10% for a time increase. Also, component-specific thresholds may be implemented, e.g., different thresholds for data agents from media agents. At block 511, when a PM(P2) metric indicates no degradation over its counterpart in PM(P1), the metric pair is flagged with a third flag, e.g., “normal,” or “no change,” etc. In some embodiments, the third flag, or another flag, is used for a perceived performance improvement, such as when the metric in PM(P2) substantially exceeds its counterpart in PM(P1), e.g., a 10% improvement in throughput after a system upgrade, which is illustratively flagged as an improvement. The threshold values, meanings, and designations of these and other flags in reference to the detected change (or no-change) in performance of any given metric from period P1 to period P2 shall be established by the implementers of system 200. For example, any change in performance of less than 3% may be designated “no change” or “normal.” At block 513, the resultant performance metrics in PM(P1) and PM(P2) and the associated flags are saved for rendering and display. The location and format of the saved results will be implementation-specific. Control passes out of block 409 to the next operation in method 400. FIG. 6 depicts some salient sub-operations of block 411 in method 400, according to the exemplary embodiment. At block 601, for each performance metric pair from set PM(P1) and set PM(P2) that corresponds to a given data agent 142 or media agent 144, a graphical comparison is generated that indicates at least one of: The value of the metric in PM(P1), i.e., in period P1; The value of the metric in PM(P2), i.e., in period P2; The flag associated with the metric pair, as determined in block 409, e.g., “needs attention,” “critical,” or “normal,” or “improvement,” etc. At block 603, when all metric pairs have been processed for graphical rendering, a full report is generated for visual presentation to a user and control passes to block 605. The format and rendering details of the full report shall be left to the discretion of the implementers of system 200. At block 605, the graphical comparison that was rendered in the preceding blocks is transmitted to display/user interface 321 for visual presentation to the user. Illustrative examples of visual presentations on display 321 appear in FIGS. 8A and 8B herein. FIG. 7 depicts some salient operations of method 700 according to the exemplary embodiment of the present invention. According to the exemplary embodiment, metrics reporting interface module 350 in storage manager 140, illustratively executing on the computing device that hosts storage manager 140, performs the salient tasks of method 700 as described in further detail below. In some embodiments, metrics reporting interface module 350 is a component of and executes within storage manager 140. Metrics reporting interface module 350 is specially purposed to support differential health-checking. Thus, it will clear to those having ordinary skill in the art, after reading the present disclosure, how to make and use embodiments wherein module 350 performs data extraction/processing in response to queries 203; or wherein module 350 additionally pre-processes some data as it arrives at storage manager 140 in support of differential health-checking, e.g., aggregating data; or wherein module 350 pro-actively queries system components outside storage manager 140 prior to receiving queries 203 for data that is relevant to differential health-checking, e.g., collecting throughput data from data agents 142, collecting capacity data from media agents 144, etc.; or any combination thereof. Depending on the implementation of differential health-check system 200, module 350 may be limited to data extraction/processing in response to queries 203, or, alternatively, may perform any number of predictive operations, such as pro-active data collection and/or pre-processing in anticipation of future queries 203. At block 701, which is optional, information is collected from data agents 142, and/or media agents 144, and/or indexes 153, and/or other components of system 100—and the information is stored, e.g., in data structure(s) 351, or in another data structure that is associated with storage manager 140. In some embodiments, the information may be collected from a remote server and/or transmitted to and stored at the remote server after it is obtained by the storage manager 140. At block 702, which is optional, information is pre-processed for differential health-checking and stored, e.g., in data structure(s) 351, or in another data structure that is associated with storage manager 140. For example, daily throughput metrics are calculated for each data agent 142, etc., without limitation. In some embodiments, the information may be collected from a remote server and/or transmitted to the remote server after it is obtained by the storage manager 140. At block 703, one or more queries 203 are received, illustratively from module 202. The queries 203 comprise requests for information about information management system 100 during time period P1 and time period P2, e.g., about operations in information management system 100, about operations under the control of storage manager 140, about components under the control of storage manager 140, etc. As described in more detail in reference to blocks 405 and 407, the queries are received via electronic communications between storage manager 140 and module 202. At block 704, the one or more received queries 203 are processed. This is accomplished by accessing and extracting available information, e.g., from management database 146, such as information stored in data structure(s) 351; information stored in data agents 142; information stored in media agents 144 or in associated indexes 153; information stored in other components of system 100, etc., or any combination thereof, without limitation. Thus the information may be available locally or may be retrieved from other components in the information management system under the control of storage manager 140, such as the targeted component itself or from associated indexes or other data structures that store the relevant information. For example, storage manager 140 may have information about a given data agent stored locally in data structure 351, or elsewhere in management database 146, or it may poll the data agent for information, etc. Furthermore, after extracting all the appropriate information, module 350 analyzes the information according to the query in order to formulate a proper response, for example, filtering out data outside time periods P1 and P2, reducing available data, summarizing data according to the received queries, etc. The purpose of this analysis is to gather information that is responsive to the queries. At block 705, one or more responses 205 are composed, based on the one or more queries 203 and the analysis that was performed in the preceding blocks. Here, module 350 takes the results of the preceding analysis and generates responses to the queries in the format and content that renders the responses 205 responsive to the queries 203. The detailed organizational scheme and formatting performed here is left to the implementers of system 200. For example, the responses may comprise packet headers, unique identifiers, and other aspects suitable for electronic communications between storage manager 140 and module 202. At block 707, the one or more responses 205 are transmitted to module 202 via electronic communications from storage manager 140, as described in more detail in reference to blocks 405 and 407. It will be clear to those having ordinary skill in the art, after reading the present disclosure, how to make and use alternative embodiments wherein method 700 is differently organized, executed, sequenced, sub-divided into sub-operations, distributed among different modules and/or different computing platforms. It will be further clear, after reading the present disclosure, that any number, variations, and arrangements of different data extraction, data collection, and/or information pre-processing operations may be configured in differential health-check system 200, as defined by the implementers of the system. FIG. 8A depicts an exemplary visual presentation on display/user interface 321 that reports on jobs executed by data agents 142 in time periods P1 and P2. Event boundary 211-1 is shown as Jan. 7, 2013, i.e., illustratively based on a triggering event that is a system upgrade that occurred on that date. The user-selected report timeframe 303 is to compare pre-upgrade and post-upgrade intervals of 3 days. Hence the time period P1 may be defined here as the three calendar days preceding the Jan. 7, 2013 upgrade—data for this period is shown in the lighter color bars, as indicated in the upper right legend. Furthermore, the time period P2 may be defined here as the three calendar days that follow the Jan. 7, 2013 upgrade—data for this period is shown in darker color bars, as indicated in the upper right legend. A fixed threshold of 15% is illustrated here. Performance deterioration of less than the 15% threshold in period P2 as compared to period P1 is flagged in a lighter background color behind the value bars, indicating “Needs Attention.” Performance deterioration that passes the 15% threshold in period P2 as compared to period P1 is flagged separately in a darker background color behind the value bars, indicating “Critical.” The illustrative presentation/report is presented in tabular form. Column 801 lists the plurality of data agents 142 being reported on. Examples of data agents shown here include without limitation: Active Directory AIX File System Exchange Compliance Archiver Exchange Mailbox Archiver SQL Server Windows 2003 32-bit File System Windows 2003 64-bit File System Windows File System. Any type and any number of data agents may be analyzed and reported on according to the illustrative embodiment. Column 802 reports on a performance metric of the number of completed jobs in period P1 and period P2, respectively. Illustratively, no change is measured as to data agents “Active Directory” and “AIX File System” and “Windows File System” in respect to this performance metric. Illustratively, data agents “Exchange Compliance Archiver,” “SQL Server,” “Windows 2003 32-bit File System,” and “Windows 2003 64-bit File System” all are flagged as needing attention in respect to this performance metric. Illustratively, data agent “Exchange Mailbox Archiver” is flagged as “critical” in respect to this performance metric. Column 803 reports on a performance metric of data agent jobs completed with errors, or errored jobs, in period P1 and period P2, respectively. Agents “SQL Server” and “Windows 2003 32-bit File System” are flagged as critical. Column 804 reports on a performance metric of the average throughput of data agent jobs, measured in GB/Hr. Agent “SQL Server” is flagged as needing attention. Agents “Active Directory,” Windows 2003 32-bit File System,” and “Windows 2003 64-bit File System” are flagged as critical. Column 805 reports on a performance metric of the average time of data agent jobs, measured in minutes. Agent “Active Directory” is flagged as needing attention. Agent “Exchange Compliance Archiver” is flagged as critical. Column 806 reports on a performance metric of the average number of attempted jobs by data agent. No performance deterioration is reported in this column. Thus, a deterioration in performance of certain data agents, some of it flagged as critical, has been detected by this exemplary differential health-check as executed by system 200. It is to be understood that the present figure depicts only one possible example according to the exemplary embodiment, and that any number of variations and different arrangements and presentations are possible within the scope of the present invention, e.g., flagging performance improvement relative to the triggering event. FIG. 8B depicts an exemplary visual presentation on display/user interface 321 that reports from indexes 153 that are associated with respective media agents 144 in time periods P1 and P2. Event boundary 211-1 is shown as Jan. 7, 2013, i.e., illustratively based on a triggering event that is a system upgrade that occurred on that date. The presentation scheme is analogous to the one described in FIG. 8A, including the user-selected report timeframe 303. Column 851 lists the plurality of media agents 144 being reported on, each having an identifier (e.g., name) as it appears within system 100. Column 852 reports on a performance metric of the number of jobs that were restored via the media agent as reported by the associated index 153. All count values are reported as zero and there is no change in performance as between time period P1 and time period P2. Column 853 reports on a performance metric of the total data storage capacity available to the media agent, measured in GB. No change is reported as between time period P1 and time period P2. Column 854 reports on a performance metric of the total disk usage of the media agent in the time period P1 versus P2, measured in GB. Media agent MA14402 is reported as critical, based on a substantial increase in usage in period P2 (247.18 GB) versus the pre-upgrade P1 period (81.86 GB) that exceeds the 15% threshold. The other media agents are shown with less disk usage in period P2 versus P1 and no attention/criticality flag is raised. Column 855 reports on a performance metric of the total free disk space available to the media agent in the time period, measured in GB. Media agents MA14401 and MA14404 are flagged as critical, because of a substantial increase in reported free disk space in the post-upgrade time period P2 as compared to the pre-upgrade time period P1 that exceeds the 15% threshold. As with FIG. 8A, is to be understood that FIG. 8B depicts only one possible example according to the exemplary embodiment, and that any number of variations and different arrangements and presentations are possible within the scope of the present invention. Terminology Conditional language, such as, among others, “can,” “could,” “might,” or “may,” unless specifically stated otherwise, or otherwise understood within the context as used, is generally intended to convey that certain embodiments include, while other embodiments do not include, certain features, elements and/or steps. Thus, such conditional language is not generally intended to imply that features, elements and/or steps are in any way required for one or more embodiments or that one or more embodiments necessarily include logic for deciding, with or without user input or prompting, whether these features, elements and/or steps are included or are to be performed in any particular embodiment. Depending on the embodiment, certain acts, events, or functions of any of the algorithms described herein can be performed in a different sequence, can be added, merged, or left out altogether (e.g., not all described acts or events are necessary for the practice of the algorithms). Moreover, in certain embodiments, acts or events can be performed concurrently, e.g., through multi-threaded processing, interrupt processing, or multiple processors or processor cores or on other parallel architectures, rather than sequentially. Systems and modules described herein may comprise software, firmware, hardware, or any combination(s) of software, firmware, or hardware suitable for the purposes described herein. Software and other modules may reside on servers, workstations, personal computers, computerized tablets, PDAs, and other devices suitable for the purposes described herein. Software and other modules may be accessible via local memory, via a network, via a browser, or via other means suitable for the purposes described herein. Data structures described herein may comprise computer files, variables, programming arrays, programming structures, or any electronic information storage schemes or methods, or any combinations thereof, suitable for the purposes described herein. User interface elements described herein may comprise elements from graphical user interfaces, command line interfaces, and other suitable interfaces. Further, the processing of the various components of the illustrated systems can be distributed across multiple machines, networks, and other computing resources. In addition, two or more components of a system can be combined into fewer components. Various components of the illustrated systems can be implemented in one or more virtual machines, rather than in dedicated computer hardware systems. Likewise, the data repositories shown can represent physical and/or logical data storage, including, for example, storage area networks or other distributed storage systems. Moreover, in some embodiments the connections between the components shown represent possible paths of data flow, rather than actual connections between hardware. While some examples of possible connections are shown, any of the subset of the components shown can communicate with any other subset of components in various implementations. Embodiments are also described above with reference to flow chart illustrations and/or block diagrams of methods, apparatus (systems) and computer program products. Each block of the flow chart illustrations and/or block diagrams, and combinations of blocks in the flow chart illustrations and/or block diagrams, may be implemented by computer program instructions. Such instructions may be provided to a processor of a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, or other programmable data processing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computer or other programmable data processing apparatus, create means for implementing the acts specified in the flow chart and/or block diagram block or blocks. These computer program instructions may also be stored in a computer-readable memory that can direct a computer or other programmable data processing apparatus to operate in a particular manner, such that the instructions stored in the computer-readable memory produce an article of manufacture including instruction means which implement the acts specified in the flow chart and/or block diagram block or blocks. The computer program instructions may also be loaded onto a computer or other programmable data processing apparatus to cause a series of operations to be performed on the computer or other programmable apparatus to produce a computer implemented process such that the instructions which execute on the computer or other programmable apparatus provide steps for implementing the acts specified in the flow chart and/or block diagram block or blocks. While certain embodiments have been described, these embodiments have been presented by way of example only, and are not intended to limit the scope of the disclosure. Indeed, the novel methods and systems described herein may be embodied in a variety of other forms; furthermore, various omissions, substitutions and changes in the form of the described methods and systems may be made without departing from the spirit of the disclosure. The accompanying claims and their equivalents are intended to cover such forms or modifications as would fall within the scope and spirit of the disclosure.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Businesses worldwide recognize the commercial value of their data and seek reliable, cost-effective ways to protect the information stored on their computer networks while minimizing impact on productivity. Protecting information is often part of a routine process that is performed within an organization. A company might back up critical computing systems such as databases, file servers, web servers, and so on as part of a daily, weekly, or monthly maintenance schedule. The company may similarly protect computing systems used by each of its employees, such as those used by an accounting department, marketing department, engineering department, and so forth. Given the rapidly expanding volume of data under management, companies also continue to seek innovative techniques for managing data growth, in addition to protecting data. For instance, companies often implement migration techniques for moving data to lower cost storage over time and data reduction techniques for reducing redundant data, pruning lower priority data, etc. Enterprises also increasingly view their stored data as a valuable asset. Along these lines, customers are looking for solutions that not only protect and manage, but also leverage their data. For instance, solutions providing data analysis capabilities, information management, improved data presentation and access features, and the like, are in increasing demand.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>A differential health-check system and accompanying methods provide health-checking and reporting on the performance of one or more information management systems in reference to a first time period before and a second time period after a triggering event. A triggering event may be an upgrade of all or part of the information management system, or a restore operation completed in the information management system such as following a disaster, or any number of other events, etc. The health-checking and reporting may comprise a comparison of one or more performance metrics of one or more components and/or operations of the information management system during the first and second time periods. An illustrative embodiment comprises a differential health-check module that communicates electronically with a storage manager that manages an information management system. In some embodiments the differential health-check module resides apart from and operates separately from the storage manager; in some embodiments the storage manager comprises the differential health-check module. In some embodiments, the storage manager provides the component-specific information needed by the health-check module to perform its differential health-check analysis; in some embodiments, the storage manager obtains the information from the targeted component (or from an associated index or other data structure) after receiving a request from the health-check module; in some embodiments, the storage manager obtains and/or pre-processes the information from the targeted component (or from an associated index or other data structure) in anticipation of information-request queries issued by the health-check module to the storage manager. Exemplary components of the information management system whose performance is health-checked include data agents and media agents, primary and secondary storage computing devices, primary and secondary storage devices, and storage manager(s), and/or individual components thereof, without limitation. Information about these components may be obtained from the component itself or from associated indexes or other data structures that store relevant information. An illustrative method according to an exemplary embodiment comprises: identifying, by a differential health-check module, a first time period wherein a first component in an information management system operated, at least in part, under the control of a storage manager; identifying, by the differential health-check module, a second time period that follows the first time period, wherein the first component operated, at least in part, under the control of the storage manager; evaluating, by the differential health-check module, a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period, wherein the first value is based on information provided by the storage manager; evaluating, by the differential health-check module, a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period, wherein the second value is based on information provided by the storage manager; generating, by the differential health-check module, an indication to a user of a comparison of the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes an upgrade, and further wherein the second time period occurs after the upgrade is completed. In some embodiments, the information provided by the storage manager is obtained from data stored in the storage manager. In some embodiments, the differential health-check module detects a change in performance of the first component in the second time period, based at least in part on the comparison. In some embodiments, the change in performance is evaluated based on a threshold value that is component-specific. In some embodiments, the method further comprises one or more of: requesting, by the differential health-check module before the upgrade is completed, pre-upgrade information about the information management system; and/or receiving, by the differential health-check module before the upgrade is completed, pre-upgrade information about the information management system from the storage manager; and/or receiving before the upgrade is completed, by a server that is remote from the differential health-check module, information about the information management system. In some embodiments, the upgrade comprises one or more of the following aspects: updating software that is associated with the information management system in one or more components of a primary storage subsystem in the information management system; and/or updating software that is associated with the information management system in one or more components of a secondary storage subsystem in the information management system; and/or updating software that is associated with the information management system in the storage manager; and/or updating hardware in one or more components of a secondary storage subsystem in the information management system; and/or replacing one or more components of a secondary storage subsystem in the information management system and/or adding one or more components to a primary storage subsystem in the information management system; and/or adding one or more components to a secondary storage subsystem in the information management system, etc. without limitation. Another exemplary method comprises: receiving, by a storage manager from a differential health-check module, one or more queries for information about a first component of an information management system that operates at least in part under the control of the storage manager, wherein the queried information is in reference to operations of the first component during a first time period and during a second time period; extracting, by the storage manager in response to the one or more queries, information from the first component; generating by the storage manager, based at least in part on the extracted information, one or more responses that are responsive to the one or more received queries; transmitting the one or more responses to the differential health-check module; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes an upgrade, and further wherein the second time period occurs after the upgrade is completed. The method may further comprise pre-extracting, by the storage manager in anticipation of the one or more queries, some information from one or more components in the information management system, wherein the one or more responses are also based on the pre-extracted information, and other aspects, without limitation. Another exemplary method comprises: pre-processing, by a storage manager, in anticipation of a query from a differential health-check module, some information extracted by the storage manager from a first component of an information management system, wherein the first component operates at least in part under the control of the storage manager; receiving, by the storage manager from the differential health-check module, one or more queries for information about the first component, wherein the queried information is in reference to operations of the first component during a first time period and during a second time period; generating by the storage manager, based at least in part on the pre-processed information, one or more responses to the one or more received queries; transmitting the one or more responses to the differential health-check module; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes an upgrade, and further wherein the second time period occurs after the upgrade is completed. In some embodiments, the extracted information is extracted by the storage manager from the first component before receiving the one or more queries. An illustrative differential health-check system according to an exemplary embodiment comprises a differential health-check module that is configured to: communicate electronically with a storage manager that manages an information management system; receive a request for a differential health-check report having a report timeframe; define a first time period and a second time period based on the report timeframe, wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes an upgrade, and wherein the second time period occurs after the upgrade is completed; generate one or more queries for the storage manager, the queries comprising requests for information about a first component of the information management system operating during the first time period and during the second time period; evaluate a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period, based on information received from the storage manager in response to the one or more queries; evaluate a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period, based on information provided by the storage manager in response to the one or more queries; and generate an indication to the user of a change in performance of the first component in the second time period, based at least in part on comparing the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric. Another illustrative system comprises a storage manager, wherein an information management system operates under the control of the storage manager; a differential health-check component that is configured to define, based on a request for a differential health-check report having a report timeframe that includes an event boundary, a first time period before the event boundary and a second time period after the event boundary, wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes an upgrade, and wherein the second time period occurs after the upgrade is completed; wherein the differential health-check component is further configured to receive, from the storage manager, information about a first component of the information management system operating during the first time period and during the second time period; wherein the differential health-check component is further configured to evaluate (i) a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period, based on information received from the storage manager, and (ii) a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period, based on information received from the storage manager; and wherein the differential health-check component is further configured to generate the differential health-check report for the user, based at least in part on comparing, by the differential health-check component, the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric. Another illustrative method comprises: detecting, by a differential health-check system, a change in performance of an information management system that operates at least in part under the control of a storage manager, wherein the detecting is based on: identifying, by the differential health-check system, a first time period wherein a first component in the information management system operated, at least in part, under the control of the storage manager, identifying, by the differential health-check system, a second time period that follows the first time period, wherein the first component operated, at least in part, under the control of the storage manager, comparing, by the differential health-check system, a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period to a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period, wherein the first value and the second value are based on information provided by the storage manager; and generating, by the differential health-check system, an indication to a user of whether the change in performance was detected based on the comparing of the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes an upgrade, and wherein the second time period occurs after the upgrade is completed. Other embodiments are directed at post-disaster recovery and data restoration in addition to or instead of upgrade scenarios. An illustrative method according to an exemplary embodiment comprises: identifying, by a differential health-check module, a first time period wherein a first component in an information management system operated, at least in part, under the control of a storage manager; identifying, by the differential health-check module, a second time period that follows the first time period, wherein the first component operated, at least in part, under the control of the storage manager; evaluating, by the differential health-check module, a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period, wherein the first value is based on information provided by the storage manager; evaluating, by the differential health-check module, a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period, wherein the second value is based on information provided by the storage manager; generating, by the differential health-check module, an indication to a user of a comparison of the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes a restore operation, and the second time period occurs after the restore operation is completed. The restore operation may be based on a previously-completed disaster recovery operation performed in the information management system under the control of the storage manager. The restored component(s) may be any component in the information management system, for example the storage manager. The restore operation may be based on one or more index components and/or the management database in the information management system. The restore operation may comprise restoring one or more: a component of a primary storage subsystem in the information management system; and/or a component of a primary storage subsystem in the information management system, and further wherein the component is restored from a first host computing device to a different second host computing device; and/or a component of a secondary storage subsystem in the information management system; and/or a component of a secondary storage subsystem in the information management system from a non-operational state to an operational state, and further wherein the component is restored from a first host computing device to a different second host computing device; and/or restoring at least part of the storage manager; and/or restoring at least part of the storage manager in the information management system, and further wherein the storage manager is restored from a first host computing device to a different second host computing device. In some embodiments, the first component is a secondary storage device. In some embodiments, the information provided by the storage manager is obtained from data stored in the storage manager. The differential health-check module may be a computing device, and furthermore the computing device may comprise circuitry for performing computer operations. The method may further comprise one or more of: requesting, by the differential health-check module before the restore operation is completed, information about the information management system; and/or receiving, by the differential health-check module before the restore operation is completed, information about the information management system from the storage manager; and/or receiving before the restore operation is completed, by a server that is remote from the differential health-check module, information about the information management system. Also, the information management system may be a data backup system. Another illustrative method comprises: receiving, by a storage manager from a differential health-check module, one or more queries for information about a first component of an information management system that operates at least in part under the control of the storage manager, wherein the queried information is in reference to operations of the first component during at least one of a first time period and a second time period; extracting, by the storage manager in response to the one or more queries, information from the first component; generating by the storage manager, based at least in part on the extracted information, one or more responses that are responsive to the one or more received queries; transmitting the one or more responses to the differential health-check module; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes a restore operation, and the second time period occurs after the restore operation is completed. Another illustrative method comprises: pre-processing, by a storage manager, in anticipation of a query from a differential health-check module, some information extracted by the storage manager from a first component of an information management system, wherein the first component operates at least in part under the control of the storage manager; receiving, by the storage manager from the differential health-check module, one or more queries for information about the first component, wherein the queried information is in reference to operations of the first component during at least one of a first time period and a second time period; generating by the storage manager, based at least in part on the pre-processed information, one or more responses to the one or more received queries; transmitting the one or more responses to the differential health-check module; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes a restore operation, and the second time period occurs after the restore operation is completed. An illustrative differential health-check system comprises a differential health-check module that is configured to: communicate electronically with a storage manager that manages an information management system; receive a request for a differential health-check report having a report timeframe; define a first time period and a second time period based on the report timeframe, wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes a restore operation, and wherein the second time period occurs after the restore operation is completed; generate one or more queries for the storage manager, the queries comprising requests for information about a first component of the information management system operating during the first time period and during the second time period; evaluate a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period, based on information received from the storage manager in response to the one or more queries; evaluate a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period, based on information provided by the storage manager in response to the one or more queries; and generate an indication to the user of a change in performance of the first component in the second time period, based at least in part on comparing the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric; and wherein the restore operation is based on a previously-completed disaster recovery operation performed in the information management system under the control of the storage manager. Another illustrative system comprises: a storage manager, wherein an information management system operates under the control of the storage manager; a differential health-check component that is configured to define, based on a request for a differential health-check report having a report timeframe, a first time period that occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes a restore operation, and wherein a second time period occurs after the restore operation is completed; wherein the differential health-check component is further configured to receive, from the storage manager, information about a first component of the information management system operating during the first time period and during the second time period; wherein the differential health-check component is further configured to evaluate, based on the information received from the storage manager, (i) a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period, and (ii) a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period; and wherein the differential health-check component is further configured to generate the differential health-check report, based at least in part on comparing, by the differential health-check component, the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric. A further illustrative method comprises: detecting, by a differential health-check system, a change in performance of an information management system that operates at least in part under the control of a storage manager, wherein the detecting is based on: identifying, by the differential health-check system, a first time period wherein a first component in the information management system operated, at least in part, under the control of the storage manager, identifying, by the differential health-check system, a second time period that follows the first time period, wherein the first component operated, at least in part, under the control of the storage manager, comparing, by the differential health-check system, a first value of a first performance metric for the first component operating in the first time period to a second value of the first performance metric for the first component operating in the second time period, wherein the first value and the second value are based on information provided by the storage manager; generating, by the differential health-check system, an indication to a user of the detected change in performance based on the comparing of the second value of the first performance metric to the first value of the first performance metric; and wherein the first time period occurs before at least part of the information management system undergoes a restore operation, and wherein the second time period occurs after the restore operation is completed, and further wherein the restore operation is based on a previously-completed disaster recovery operation performed in the information management system under the control of the storage manager. The exemplary methods and systems may further comprise one or more other aspects as described above and elsewhere herein.

G06F1730303

20180214

20180621

94942.0

G06F1730

KASSA, ELIZABETH

DIFFERENTIAL HEALTH CHECKING OF AN INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

G06F

PENDING

Real Estate Wireless Lockbox

A system and method are described regarding a wireless lockbox and smart key that can be used to manage real estate tours. The key can detect its location and report its location to a remote device. If the key is moved outside a predetermined boundary set by an owner, then the key can send an alert to the remote device.

1. A wireless lockbox system for storing a key at a property, comprising: a wireless lockbox, the wireless lockbox comprising a first Bluetooth interface, a tray, a microprocessor operable to deploy and retract the tray by controlling a motor, and a power supply, the wireless lockbox configured to pair with a mobile device via the first Bluetooth interface and to communicate with a remote device via a data interface of the mobile device, the wireless lockbox further configured to receive information from the remote device for determining if the mobile device is allowed to command the microprocessor to deploy and retract the tray; and a key configured to fit within the tray and comprising a second Bluetooth interface, the key configured to pair with the mobile device via the second Bluetooth interface and to collect data about they key's movement, the key further configured to transmit the data to the remote device via the data interface. 2. The system of claim 1 wherein the key further comprises a GPS (global positioning system) sensor. 3. The system of claim 1 wherein the data interface comprises a cellular interface. 4. The system of claim 1 wherein the motor is configured to turn a rotating screw in one direction to deploy the tray and in another direction to retract the tray. 5. The system of claim 1 wherein the wireless lockbox is configured to receive a communication over the first Bluetooth interface from the mobile device to deploy the tray. 6. The system of claim 1 wherein the microprocessor is operable to independently deploy and retract the tray without user interaction. 7. The system of claim 1 wherein the key is configured to detect its distance from the wireless lockbox via the second Bluetooth interface. 8. The system of claim 1 wherein the key is operable to send a notification to the remote device via the data interface of the mobile device if the key moves outside a predetermined boundary. 9. A smart key, comprising: a body portion configured to unlock a door; a power supply; a microprocessor; and a Bluetooth interface configured to couple with a wireless lockbox and with a mobile device; wherein the smart key is configured to collect data about its location and to transmit the data to one or more remote devices over the Bluetooth interface. 10. The smart key of claim 9 further comprising an RFID tag configured to allow the wireless lockbox to detect if the smart key is located in a tray of the wireless lockbox. 11. The smart key of claim 9 wherein the smart key is configured to transmit the data to the one or more remote servers via a data interface of the mobile device. 12. The smart key of claim 9 further comprising a GPS sensor and wherein the smart key uses the GPS sensor to collect data about its location. 13. The smart key of claim 9 wherein the smart key uses the Bluetooth interface to detect its distance from the wireless lockbox. 14. The smart key of claim 9 further configured to send a notification to the one or more remote devices if it moves outside a predetermined boundary. 15. The smart key of claim 14 wherein the predetermined boundary comprises a maximum distance from the wireless lockbox. 16. The smart key of claim 9 wherein the body portion comprises at least one of: a plurality of ridges, a magnet, or a wireless transmitter. 17. A method of detecting the location of a house key, comprising: receiving a notification that a wireless lockbox has been powered on, wherein the notification is received from the wireless lockbox via a data connection of a mobile device that the wireless lockbox is paired with via Bluetooth; sending an indication to the wireless lockbox that a user of the mobile device is approved to access a key inside the wireless lockbox, the key comprising a Bluetooth interface configured to pair with the mobile device and to send information via the data connection and the key configured to collect data about its location; receiving data from the key about the location of the key via the data connection of the mobile device. 18. The method of claim 17 further comprising receiving a notification from the key via the data connection if the key detects that it is outside a predetermined boundary. 19. The method of claim 17 wherein the key is operable to collect data about its location by means of a GPS sensor. 20. The method of claim 17 wherein the key is operable to collect data about its location by means of detecting its distance from the wireless lockbox via the Bluetooth interface.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED INFORMATION This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/630,293, filed Jun. 22, 2017; which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/937,533, filed Nov. 10, 2015, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,704,319 B2; which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/096,216, filed Dec. 23, 2014; the contents of all of which are hereby incorporated herein in their entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD The present disclosure is directed to lockboxes for use in real estate sales and by realtors and more particularly to a remotely controllable lockbox. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The real estate market is largely dependent on realtors. Realtors offer great services but sometimes buyers or sellers would like to have more flexibility in how they approach the market. For example, if a couple is shopping for a new home they will often contact a realtor. The realtor looks for available homes in the couple's desired location and price range and sets appointments for viewings. The realtor brings great knowledge to the process regarding locations, costs, and other market factors. But the process of setting appointments, and wrestling with the schedules of the people involved can be difficult and time consuming. It would be great to have a tool that could interface buyers and sellers directly, allowing greater flexibility and efficiency in setting appointments and viewings. Along with creating efficiencies in setting viewings, it would be great to have a tool that interfaces buyers and sellers with regard to real estate listings. It can be difficult for a seller to know how to list his home for sale, how to publish, etc., and buyers may not know where to go to see what homes are for sale. Both sides end up going to realtors and letting them do the listing and/or searching. The real estate market currently uses lockboxes placed on a door knob or porch of a listed house. These lockboxes contain a key to the house. Often times a code or other unlocking mechanism for the lockbox is known only to licensed realtors. These lockboxes allow a realtor to access and show a house when the owner is unavailable. While current lockboxes have their uses, they lack many capabilities that would be beneficial in today's world of connected and smart devices. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION One embodiment under the present disclosure comprises a wireless lockbox system for storing a key at a property. The system comprises a wireless lockbox and a key. The wireless lockbox can comprise a first Bluetooth interface, a tray, a microprocessor operable to deploy and retract the tray by controlling a motor, and a power supply. The wireless lockbox can be configured to pair with a mobile device via the first Bluetooth interface and to communicate with a remote device via a data interface of the mobile device. The wireless lockbox can be further configured to receive information from the remote device for determining if the mobile device is allowed to command the microprocessor to deploy and retract the tray. The key can be configured to fit within the tray and can comprise a second Bluetooth interface. The key can be configured to pair with the mobile device via the second Bluetooth interface and to collect data about they key's movement. The key can be further configured to transmit the data to the remote device via the data interface. Another embodiment under the present disclosure can comprise a smart key. The smart key can comprise a body portion configured to unlock a door, a power supply, a microprocessor, and a Bluetooth interface configured to couple with a wireless lockbox and with a mobile device. The smart key can be configured to collect data about its location and to transmit the data to one or more remote devices over the Bluetooth interface. Another embodiment under the present disclosure can comprise a method of detecting the location of a house key. The method can comprise receiving a notification that a wireless lockbox has been powered on, wherein the notification is received from the wireless lockbox via a data connection of a mobile device that the wireless lockbox is paired with via Bluetooth. Then an indication can be sent that a user of the mobile device is approved to access a key inside the wireless lockbox, the key comprising a Bluetooth interface configured to pair with the mobile device and to send information via the data connection and the key configured to collect data about its location. Then data can be received from the key about the location of the key via the data connection of the mobile device. The foregoing has outlined rather broadly the features and technical advantages of the present invention in order that the detailed description of the invention that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be described hereinafter which form the subject of the claims of the invention. It should be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the conception and specific embodiment disclosed may be readily utilized as a basis for modifying or designing other structures for carrying out the same purposes of the present invention. It should also be realized by those skilled in the art that such equivalent constructions do not depart from the spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims. The novel features which are believed to be characteristic of the invention, both as to its organization and method of operation, together with further objects and advantages will be better understood from the following description when considered in connection with the accompanying Figures. It is to be expressly understood, however, that each of the Figures is provided for the purpose of illustration and description only and is not intended as a definition of the limits of the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the present invention, reference is now made to the following descriptions taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIGS. 1A-1C are diagrams of prior art embodiments of lockboxes; FIG. 2 is a diagram of an embodiment of the present disclosure; FIGS. 3A-3B are diagrams of a front and side view of an embodiment of the present disclosure; FIG. 4 is a diagram of a circuit board embodiment under the present disclosure; FIG. 5 is a diagram of a system embodiment under the present disclosure; FIGS. 6A-6G are diagrams of user interface embodiments under the present disclosure; FIGS. 7A-7E are diagrams of user interface embodiments under the present disclosure; FIGS. 8A-8E are diagrams of user interface embodiments under the present disclosure; FIGS. 9A-9C are diagrams of user interface embodiments under the present disclosure; FIGS. 10A-10E are diagrams of user interface embodiments under the present disclosure; FIGS. 11A-11B are diagrams of user interface embodiments under the present disclosure; FIGS. 12A-12C are diagrams of user interface embodiments under the present disclosure; FIGS. 13A-13C are diagrams of user interface embodiments under the present disclosure; FIG. 14 is a diagram of a system embodiment under the present disclosure; FIG. 15 is a flow-chart diagram of a method embodiment under the present disclosure; FIG. 16 is a flow-chart diagram of a method embodiment under the present disclosure; FIG. 17 is a flow-chart diagram of a method embodiment under the present disclosure; FIG. 18 is a diagram of a system embodiment under the present disclosure; FIG. 19 is a flow-chart diagram of a method embodiment under the present disclosure; FIG. 20 is a flow-chart diagram of a method embodiment under the present disclosure; FIG. 21 is a diagram of a system embodiment under the present disclosure; FIG. 22 is a flow-chart diagram of a method embodiment under the present disclosure; FIG. 23 is a diagram of a system embodiment under the present disclosure; FIG. 24 is a diagram of a system embodiment under the present disclosure; FIG. 25 is a flow-chart diagram of a method embodiment under the present disclosure; FIG. 26 is a flow-chart diagram of a method embodiment under the present disclosure; and FIG. 27 is a flow-chart diagram of a method embodiment under the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present disclosure describes a wirelessly connected real estate lockbox. Such a wireless lockbox can be of great value in the real estate market and for use by home owners and realtors. The wireless lockbox can be placed at the door of a house or apartment being sold. A buyer or realtor, desiring to tour the house or apartment, may unlock the wireless lockbox via a wireless signal such as Bluetooth. The property owner may also control the wireless lockbox remotely via a wireless signal such as cellular. The various users may all interact with the wireless lockbox via an application on a mobile device such as a smartphone or tablet. The system and method described herein allow property owners greater control over the sale of their property. The teachings disclosed herein allow an owner to set schedules, lock, unlock and perform other lockbox operations from a remote location. Embodiments and systems described herein can help sellers and buyers find each other, schedule visits, communicate, negotiate sales, and more. Realtors may be acting on behalf of either sellers or buyers, and may have seller or buyer accounts that allow them to act on behalf of other users. FIGS. 1A-1C display several prior art lockboxes. Lockbox 10 features an infrared sensor 12. When the sensor 12 receives a proper unlock signal the lockbox unlocks partition 14 that contains a key. Lockbox 20 features a combination lock 22 that can release partition 24. Lockbox 30 features keys 32 that, when a proper code is entered, unlocks partition 34 and a key inside. FIG. 2 displays an embodiment of a wireless lockbox under the present disclosure. Wireless lockbox 200 features main body 250 and tray 205. Circuit board 230 comprises a microprocessor that controls wireless lockbox 200. In this embodiment, tray 205 is deployed from main body 250 by means of a rotating screw 220 that is being turned in clockwise and counterclockwise directions by a motor 225 (other embodiments can comprise different deployment mechanisms). The microprocessor (not shown) or other mechanism or software on the circuit board can turn the screw 220 counterclockwise to deploy or open the tray, and clockwise to retract or close the tray (or vice versa). Other means than a screw are possible, such as: pneumatic actuation, a linear actuator, spring loaded with a retractable connection, and others. In a preferred embodiment the tray 205 can be deployed and retracted by the microprocessor (or circuit board, hardware, software, or other chip) such that a human does not need to pull the tray out to open or push it in to close it (without human interaction beyond a command to e.g. the microprocessor). Sensor 215 can detect when key 210 (comprising an electronic chip 212) is located within the tray 205. In a preferred embodiment sensor 215 comprises an RFID sensor. Circuit board 230 comprises connections to sensor 215 and motor 225. The circuit board also comprises a wireless interface 235. In a preferred embodiment, the wireless lockbox 200 can comprise both a Bluetooth interface and a cellular interface. Solenoid latch 245 can unlock the arm 240. Arm 240 can allow the wireless lockbox 200 to be placed on a door knob or locked to another location on a house. FIGS. 3A and 3B show views of the wireless lockbox 200 of FIG. 2. Wireless lockboxes 300 are in a closed position. Tray 310 can house a key. LED lights 320 can be used to indicate power, locking, unlocking or other actions. Circuit board 340 can comprise the microprocessor, wireless interfaces, power supply and other features of the wireless lockbox. Arm 330 can allow the wireless lockbox 300 to attach to a door knob. FIG. 2 shows an embodiment of the security key 210 of the invention. Key 210 comprises a serrated portion and an electronic chip or transmitter portion 212. Chip 212 can be integrated into key 210 or be an add-on. Chip 212 can comprise a wireless transmitter and/or receiver allowing the wireless lockbox 200 to determine the proximity of key 210. When key 210 moves beyond a chosen distance from wireless lockbox 200, such as 100 yards, an alarm or notification can be sent to the owner. The chip 212 can utilize Bluetooth, RFID, Wi-Fi or another wireless technology. FIG. 4 displays an embodiment of a circuit board such as board 230 of FIG. 2 or board 340 of FIG. 3A. Board 400 comprises a microprocessor 405. Processor 405 can comprise connections to various hardware and/or software components, such as those displayed. Latch solenoid 410 opens and locks the arm for attachment to a door knob. A preferred embodiment comprises a solenoid latch, but other embodiments can comprise different locking or attaching mechanisms. Some embodiments may not comprise an arm. Cellular interface 415 provides a connection to a cellular network. Interface 415 may comprise any necessary software, antennas or other hardware/software necessary for communicating over a cellular communication network. The network may be 3G, 4G, WiMAX, or any appropriate network protocol. Bluetooth interface 420 provides a connection via Bluetooth. Interface 420 can comprise any necessary software, antenna or hardware necessary to communicate via Bluetooth. On/off switch 425 allows users to power on and off the wireless lockbox. LEDs 430 comprise a group of LED lights, in a preferred embodiment, on the front of the wireless lockbox. Other embodiments may eschew LED lights for different types of lights or screens to notify the user of various settings or allow interaction with the user. Drawer motor 435 can comprise a motor or actuator that opens the drawer/tray where the key can be stored. Various embodiments can comprise a magnetic attachment, solenoid latch, or other electrical, mechanical, or magnetic connection between the drawer/tray and the main body of the wireless lockbox. Key detect 440 comprises, in a preferred embodiment, an RFID sensor that can detect an RFID chip on the key. Other embodiments can comprise different methods and systems for detecting the key. Magnetic, electric, or other types of sensors may be used. Key door sensor 445 detects when the drawer is closed so as to stop the motor 435. Micro USB 450 provides a means for charging the wireless lockbox and/or updating software. Other embodiments can comprise a different type of charging or computer interface. For example, USB may be used or other connections well known in the telecommunications and consumer electronics markets. Tamper sensor 460 can comprise a sensor to detect when the wireless lockbox is being tampered with. Tamper sensor 460 can comprise a temperature sensor, pressure sensor, accelerometer or other type of tamper sensor. Power supply 465 provides a power supply to the wireless lockbox. Power supply 465 can comprise various types of batteries such as lithium-ion, solar panel, rechargeable, rechargeable lithium-ion, or other types or combinations of power supply. Storage 470 provides storage space and/or memory for use by the microprocessor. Storage 470 can store operating instructions, data and other needed information. Circuit board can comprise optional Wi-Fi or GPS interfaces 455. A Wi-Fi interface can provide a connection to a local wireless internet network. A GPS can provide reception to a GPS satellite. FIG. 5 displays a system 500 making use of the teachings of the present disclosure. Wireless lockbox 510 can be located at house 515, either attached to a door knob or otherwise placed at the house 515. Wireless lockbox 510 comprises both a Bluetooth and a cellular connection. Cellular network 590 allows the wireless lockbox 510 to communicate with the owner's device 540 and realtor's device 530. If buyer 520 is approved to tour the home 515, then buyer 520 can receive a code that buyer's device 520 can send to wireless lockbox 510 via Bluetooth, thereby opening the wireless lockbox 510 and obtaining the key to home 515. Devices 520, 530 and 540 can all run an application that manages communications between the devices and sets a showing schedule for home 515. The schedule can be approved by owner 540. In some embodiments a realtor can be in charge of unlocking the wireless lockbox 510. Servers 560 can store schedules, user IDs, home information, seller listings, and more. This data can be available to users 520, 530, 540 via network 550 and cellular network 590. Computer 570 can comprise an interface for servers 560. Computer 575 can comprise a user's computer (buyer, realtor, or owner) that can access servers 560 via network 550 and interact with components of the system via network 550 and cellular network 590. FIGS. 6A-6G display embodiments of a typical interface and process for a user to create a profile and set up a home tour using the present disclosure. Interfaces 610-670 can comprise interfaces for a smartphone or other device. In FIG. 6A, a user can input personal information 612 (that can include various types of data) to create a profile. In FIG. 6B, a user, after searching for a specific zip code, or using a location determination system within a computing device, can see listings 622 of home or other properties for sale. Results of a search can also be displayed in a map view 632. After selecting a specific property, the user can see specific details 642, such as in interface 640. The user can also be presented with a command/button 644 to request a tour of the property. The user can then be presented with available times for a tour 652. The user can select a time. When the owner accepts the time, the user can be notified that their tour has been approved 660. When the user arrives at the house at the appointed time the application can provide a command that instructs the lockbox to open, via Bluetooth 672. FIGS. 7A-7E display embodiments 710-750 of interfaces and processes that a property owner or seller may use when using the present disclosure's teachings. A realtor for a seller/owner might see similar interfaces. First an owner may need to create a profile by entering information such as name, address, etc. 712. An owner may also be able to upload pictures of the property 722. The owner can also enter information about the property 732, such as size, bedroom number, bathroom number, and more. The owner can also enter the property's availability for a tour 742. When a potential buyer requests a tour, the owner may receive the request 756 and be able to either accept 752 or reject 754 the request. FIGS. 8A-8E shows embodiments of interfaces for logging in and using an account according to the present disclosure. Interface 810 shows a login page 812 by which users log in to an account. Interface 820 shows an account creation page 822 for new users. Interface 830 shows a user's home page 832 upon being logged in to the application. The home screen 832 can show options for accessing a home search 834, appointment list 836, My Toor 838, edit profile 831, property list 833, and an option to broadcast location 839. The home search 834 would mostly be used by users looking to possibly buy a home. Owners/realtors wishing to do market research may also use it. Property list 833 might mostly be used by realtors and owners to manage their various properties. Edit profile option 831 allows users to edit their information. An option to broadcast location 839 might mostly be used by realtors who want to advertise their location for clients, or turn such functionality off when desired, such as during a meeting. My Toor 838 provides access to an interface for managing a user's wireless lockboxes. A given user may be managing a plurality of wireless lockboxes. If a user selects edit profile 831 then an interface such as interface 842 may be displayed, allowing a user to edit a plurality of different areas. If a user selects property list 833 then an interface such as interface 852 may be displayed. Interface 852 may display a plurality of properties that the user is selling or managing. FIGS. 9A-9C display embodiments of interfaces for home searching such as when selecting the home search option 834 of FIG. 8C. FIG. 9A displays a possible embodiment of a filter interface 910. Using this interface, a user can select various criteria 912 such as minimum price, maximum price, beds, bathrooms, and more. FIG. 9B shows a results list interface 920 once a user has searched for various criteria. Interface 920 can display a plurality of search results 922. Search bar 928 allows the user to search among the results, such as for a street name or city. Filter option 926 returns the user to the filter page 910 or allows the user to further filter the results with additional filtering options. Map option 924 allows the user to see a map view of the search results. FIG. 9C displays a map interface 930 such as when a user selects option 924 in FIG. 9B. Map interface 930 displays search results 932 and options such as switching between map/satellite view 934. List option 936 returns the user to a list interface 920. Filter option 938 returns the user to the filter page 910 or allows the user to further filter the results with additional filtering options. FIGS. 10A-10E display embodiments of interfaces for selecting a specific house and for interacting with a map view, such as map interface 930. Property interface 1010 display a property that's been selected from map view 930 or list view 920. Interface 1010 can show an option 1012 to see further details of a specific property. After selecting option 1012 the user may be able to see detail interface 1020. Detail interface 1020 can show further details or description 1022. A user can scroll down to see extra information interface 1030. An owner/seller may require that buyers tour a property with a real estate agent. Interface 1020 can provide a find an agent option 1024. After agent selection 1024 is made, a user may see agent locator interface 1040. Agent interface 1040 may display agents in a given locality who have made themselves available for services. In this embodiment a real estate agent 1042 is shown. When a user selects agent 1042 the application can display agent interface 1050. Agent interface 1050 can show time or appointment details 1052 and an option to request the agent's escort 1054 at the property. FIGS. 11A-11B show alternative embodiments of detail interfaces for viewing details of a property and scheduling a tour or appointment. Detail interface 1110 can be viewed after selecting a specific property from a list view 920 or map view 930, 1010. Detail interface 1110 can be an alternative to detail interface 1020. Detail interface 1110 shows details 1114 about a selected property and also provides a button or other selection mechanism to schedule an appointment 1112. Upon selecting to schedule an appointment 1112 the user may be presented with appointment interface 1120. The user may be able to edit the time/date 1122 and then submit the request 1124. The request can be sent to the property owner for approval. FIGS. 12A-12C display possible embodiments of application interfaces by which an owner can receive, review, and manage appointment requests. In some situations, these interfaces may be used by realtors who are managing a sale of a property. After a potential buyer submits an appointment request 1124, the owner may view that request in appointment interface 1210, such as pending request 1212. Already approved requests 1214 can also be displayed. The owner can click on the pending request and perform different functions such as accepting the request, denying the request, proposing another time, or other actions. Already approved requests 1214 can display an unlock or open command so that the owner can unlock the wireless lockbox at (for example if the buyer/realtor is unable to open the lockbox locally for some reason). By clicking on a request, a user may also be able to view an interface 1220 or 1230. Interfaces 1220 and 1230 can provide the owner with the ability to either unlock/open/deploy 1222 or lock/close/retract 1232 the wireless lockbox at the property by opening or closing the tray. In some embodiments, a single interface can comprise the commands Lock, Unlock, Close, and Open. In such embodiments the ‘Unlock’ command can make the wireless lockbox available to others for opening, while ‘Open’ actually opens the lockbox. Similarly, in such embodiments, the ‘Lock’ command could make the lockbox completely unavailable to other users, possibly if there's a security emergency. ‘Close’ could close the lockbox by retracting the tray. If a user selects My Toor 838, such as from account interface 830 in FIG. 8C, the user can be presented with an embodiment of a My Toor interface 1310 such as in FIGS. 13A-13C. In My Toor interface 1310 a user can view records 1312, 1314 reflecting all of the user wireless lockboxes. Some of the wireless lockboxes can be in use such as 1312. Other wireless lockboxes may be test units 1314. The user can be presented with an option to add a wireless lockbox 1316. Clicking/selecting a wireless lockbox such as 1312 can bring the user to a wireless lockbox interface 1320 where the particular wireless lockbox 1322 can be managed. The user can be presented with a variety of options 1324 to manage the wireless lockbox 1322, such as open, close, unlock, lock, edit, delete, and others. If a user selects to add a wireless lockbox 1316, the user can be presented with adding interface 1330. The user can enter wireless lockbox information 1332 and then add 1334 the wireless lockbox to their account. Once a wireless lockbox is added to the user's account, the user can then manage the wireless lockbox remotely. Servers such as servers 560 in FIG. 5 can associate the user's account with the user's particular wireless lockboxes and allow the user to log in to their account via mobile devices or computers, and control the wireless lockbox via a wireless network, such as cellular (or in alternative embodiments via Wi-Fi or another network). FIG. 14 displays an embodiment of a system under the present disclosure wherein a potential buyer 1420 approaches a house 1410 for a pre-approved tour. Buyer 1420 can approach the house at then pre-approved appointment time. The buyer's mobile device 1422 can be equipped with both cellular and Bluetooth functionality. The wireless lockbox 1412 can be equipped with cellular and Bluetooth functionality (and option Wi-Fi functionality). When the buyer approaches the house, he can open the appropriate application on the mobile device 1422 and see interface 1424. The buyer may need to power on the wireless lockbox 1412 (or the wireless lockbox 1412 may already be powered on). Powering on the wireless lockbox 1412 can require flipping a switch or pressing down on a button, or in some embodiments the wireless lockbox 1412 can be woken via a wireless signal. The user can then select unlock function 1426 from the wireless device 1422. LED lights or a screen can indicate the status (on/off/transmitting/etc.) of the wireless lockbox 1412. Selecting unlock 1426 can use the mobile device 1422 Bluetooth chip to convey a Bluetooth communication to wireless lockbox 1412 commanding to the wireless lockbox 1412 to open and provide the house key. The buyer 1420 can then enter the house, view the house, and then return the key to the wireless lockbox 1412. The buyer 1420 can then select a lock function from the application and the wireless lockbox 1412 can close and lock the key inside. In most embodiments, the buyer's mobile device 1422 can only be able to unlock the wireless lockbox 1412 during the pre-approved time slot. Remote servers, such as servers 560, or the owner's wireless device 1442, communicate with wireless lockbox 1412 to set the appointed time slot for buyer 1420. Only during that pre-approved time slot can buyer 1420 be able to unlock the wireless lockbox 1412. Wireless lockbox 1412 comprises Bluetooth functionality to communicate with buyer wireless device 1422 but also comprises cellular functionality to communicate with owner wireless device 1442. Some embodiments can also comprise Wi-Fi functionality in the wireless lockbox 1412 to communicate with a wireless router 1414. Servers 560 and/or owner wireless device 1442 (or other computing devices as desired) can therefore manage the wireless lockbox 1412 remotely. Commands can be sent to the wireless lockbox 1412 from the owner or from the servers 560. Software updates can also be sent via cellular network 1430 or wireless router 1414. When a buyer 1420 has finished touring house 1410, he can put the key back in the wireless lockbox 1412, and press a lock command/button on the wireless device 1422/interface 1424. The wireless lockbox 1412 can ascertain whether the key is within the lockbox. If the key is not returned to the wireless lockbox 1412 within the pre-approved time slot, the owner 1440 or servers 560 can be notified. This serves as an anti-theft functionality. If a key is stolen, the servers 560 and/or owner 1440 can determine the last approved visit and the responsible user. When a buyer 1420 has finished touring house 1410, he can put the key back in the wireless lockbox 1412, and press a lock command/button on the wireless device 1422/interface 1424. The wireless lockbox 1412 can ascertain whether the key is within the lockbox. If the key is not returned to the wireless lockbox 1412 within the pre-approved time slot, the owner 1440 or servers 560 can be notified. This can serve as an anti-theft functionality. If a key is stolen, the servers 560 and/or owner 1440 can determine the last approved visit and the responsible user. FIG. 14 has been described with a potential buyer 1420 and an owner 1440. However, in certain situations or embodiments either or both persons may be realtors or other individuals. The functionalities of the interface embodiments of FIGS. 6A-14 can be used for buyer interfaces, seller interfaces and realtor interfaces, where appropriate. As shown in FIG. 4, the wireless lockbox can comprise a micro USB connection 450. Other embodiments may use a USB port or other means of charging or otherwise connecting the wireless lockbox to another computing device. The micro USB connection can be used to charge the device. It may also be used to connect the wireless lockbox to a computer to download/upload information, update software, or for other uses. Alternatively, the wireless lockbox can connect to computers or other computing devices via Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or other wireless means. Furthermore, some embodiments may comprise wireless charging capabilities. If a wireless lockbox can charge wirelessly, and if updates and other connections can be made wirelessly, then a micro USB or USB connection may not be necessary. Drawer motor 435, in FIG. 4, can comprise any type of actuator or other mechanism for opening a tray containing the house key. The opening mechanism could be electromechanical, magnetic, fluid-based, or another system. Relatedly, the key door sensor 445 can comprise any type of sensor for detecting when the key tray is closed or open. This part can also be optional. The on/off switch 425 of FIG. 4 can comprise a variety of different power mechanisms. In a preferred embodiment on/off switch 425 can comprise a pressure sensitive switch under the LED lights 320 of FIG. 3A. LED lights 320, 430 can be arranged in a variety of patterns and/or colors. For example, a user may press down on switch 320 to power on the wireless lockbox 300. The LED lights may then turn a certain color, such as green. During unlocking the LED lights may turn orange or rotate among a chosen series of colors. Turning a wireless lockbox off may cause the lights to turn red and then power down. LED lights 320, 430 may also be used to notify users when the battery is low. The users of the teachings disclosed herein may need to use an application or software package to participate in the systems and methods described. Certain software may be needed on various computing devices of FIG. 5, such as servers 560, computers 570, 575, and mobile devices 520, 530, and 540. Software can be downloaded and installed from the internet, from a flash drive or other mechanism. Applications for mobile devices such as smartphones or tablets can be downloaded and installed from an application store or other mechanism. Servers 560 of FIG. 5 can comprise a plurality of servers and/or computers. Servers 560 can store real estate listings from users of the system (owners and realtors creating real estate listings) and can also pull in other real estate listings from other resources. Servers 560 can also store data associating various wireless lockboxes with the respective owner and/or realtor. Servers 560 can therefore store user information for owners, realtors, and buyers. Servers 560 can also store information and functionality allowing certain users to control wireless lockboxes and send open, lock, and other commands. In some embodiments, servers 560 can comprise connections to financial institutions for various functionality such as sending and receiving information related to credit checks, or home loan information. For instance, in some embodiments a home owner may only allow home visits from potential buyers with a credit score of 700, or some other criteria. To track and manage wireless lockboxes, servers 560 may assign an identification number to each wireless lockbox. When a user activates a wireless lockbox the servers 560 can associate the identification number to the user. The identification number can be matched with various identification numbers used by wireless networks and telecommunication networks. For instance, a wireless lockbox's identification number/name may be associated with a MAC number, IMEI number, IP address or other value. Servers 560 can also comprise, or access at another location, directions for sending messages to a wireless lockbox depending on what network the lockbox is on (such as a given cellular network). When a user sends a command to a wireless lockbox, such as in FIG. 5, the command may, in some embodiments, go to servers 560 and then to the wireless lockbox 510. Alternatively, a command from a user, owner 540 for example, may be directed directly to wireless lockbox 510 over cellular network 590. A copy of the command may also be sent to servers 560 to be recorded. Some embodiments may utilize a Wi-Fi network at house 515 to communicate with wireless lockbox 510. A Wi-Fi network may be used in lieu of a cellular network or as a backup network to a cellular network. Referring to FIG. 14, during a pre-approved time slot the buyer 1420 can be able to use the wireless device 1422 to unlock the wireless lockbox 1412. In most embodiments this can be done by the wireless device 1422 communicating with the wireless lockbox 1412 via Bluetooth. The communication can comprise an unlock code. The unlock code can comprise a unique code/signal for each wireless lockbox that is set ahead of time and never changes. Alternatively, the unlock code can comprise a continuously changing code that is updated by servers 560 in FIG. 5. Other embodiments may change the code at various intervals, or the code may be determined by time of day, week, or other settings. The code can comprise encryption (beyond normal Bluetooth or other wireless protocol encryption) such that only the associated software on the wireless device and wireless lockbox can decrypt it. The encryption can comprise PGP encryption, public key encryption, random number generation, hash functions, or other types of encryption protocols. As shown in FIG. 2, a preferred embodiment of the wireless lockbox 200 can comprise an arm 240 for attachment to a door knob. The arm can be locked and unlocked by the microprocessor controlling the wireless lockbox. The arm can be unlocked remotely by servers 560 or the owner's mobile device or other computing device. Attaching and locking mechanisms can differ among different embodiments. Wireless lockboxes as described herein can comprise a plurality of tamper sensors. Accelerometers, piezoelectric sensors, proximity sensors, temperature sensors, GPS interfaces, and other types of sensors can be used. The tamper sensor can be coupled to the microprocessor such that the wireless lockbox can report on its security status to the servers 560 or to the owner's mobile device or other computing device. Tamper sensors can include sensors within the wireless lockbox. Alternatively, a separate sensor can detect when a wireless lockbox has been removed a certain distance from the home owner's property. Embodiments of the invention can comprise a charger for power supply 465 (of FIG. 4). Power supply 465 may be replaceable, such as a lithium-ion battery that can be swapped out and recharged. Alternatively, the battery may be non-removable and the user may have to dock the entire wireless lockbox in a charging station. Micro USB 450 can be used to charge the power supply 465. Embodiments of the invention can also comprise a security camera. The camera can be placed at the home seller's desired location. Similar to the lockbox and security key, the camera can have a wireless connection, allowing the seller to access and view a video feed from a remote location. This can give the seller added capabilities regarding security when selling a home. FIG. 18 displays an embodiment under the present disclosure including security cameras. System 1800 includes a wireless lockbox 1820 at a house 1810. Inside the house the owner may place a plurality of security cameras 1840. The security cameras can be placed wherever the owner desires (resting on tables, hung from the ceiling, etc.) and the cameras can comprise wireless or wired connections to other components. As shown, a Wi-Fi router 1830 can communicate with wireless lockbox 1820 and security cameras 1840. A hard drive can be provided locally to stored video (not shown) or video can be uploaded to servers 1860 (which can comprise servers 560 of FIG. 5. An owner 1895 can use his mobile device 1897 to access a video stream of security cameras 1840. The owner can also access a video stream from a computer 1890. The video stream provided to the owner 1895 can be a direct communication from wireless router 1830, or wireless router 1830 can provide the video to servers 1860 which then send the video to the owner 1895. Cellular 1850 and network 1880 (such as the internet) can provide communication between various components. In other embodiments the security cameras 1840 can comprise a plurality of communication interfaces, both wired and wireless, to assist in providing video to users. FIGS. 15-17 display embodiments of methods under the present disclosure. In a preferred embodiment these methods can be carried out by a plurality of servers. Other arrangements of computers or devices can perform the processes described. FIG. 15 displays a method embodiment under the present disclosure. Account creation formation for both a seller and a potential buyer can be received 1510. Then, wireless lockbox identification information can be associated with the seller account 1520. Then, a request to tour a home can be received from a potential buyer 1530. Approval of the request can be received 1540. After approval, an unlock code can be created to open the wireless lockbox 1550. The code can be sent to the wireless device of the home tour requester, wherein the code is limited to use during a certain time frame 1560. FIG. 16 displays another embodiment of a method under the present disclosure. Search criteria can be received regarding a search for homes for sale 1610. The search criteria can be applied to a home sale list database 1620. A list of matching homes can be created 1630. The list can be sent to a mobile device for display to a user 1640. A tour request can be received from the user's mobile device 1650. The request can be sent to the home owner 1660. If the home owner rejects the request, the rejection can be received 1670 and the user can be notified 1675. Alternatively, the home owner may accept, their acceptance can be received 1680. The user can be notified 1682. An unlock code for a wireless lockbox can be sent to the user/wireless device 1684. FIG. 17 displays another embodiment of a method under the present disclosure. An identification number of a wireless lockbox can be received 1710. Account information for a home owner using the wireless lockbox can be received 1720. The account information can be associated with the identification number 1730. A request to view the property of the home owner during a time period can be received from a requesting mobile device 1740. Approval of the request can be received 1760. An unlock code to the wireless lockbox can be sent to the requesting mobile device 1770. In most embodiments, the unlock code can only be functional during the time period agreed to by the home owner. Further embodiments under the present disclosure can provide for a rating system of properties and/or realtors. Users, under their account screen on an application, can be presented with an interface for rating properties and/or realtors or agents. Rating can be done via a numerical system (e.g. on a scale of 1-4, or 0-10, etc.) and/or with users leaving written feedback or reviews. Users may be able to rank properties or realtors or agents according to various criteria such as location, friendliness, cleanliness, etc. Ratings can be stored, maintained, received and sent via a plurality of servers, such as servers 560 in FIG. 5. Another embodiment of the present disclosure can allow sellers to receive bids and offers for their house via their mobile device. Each side to a negotiation can submit bids and counter-offers, edit listing prices and make other edits to a listing or profile. Users can send each other questions and messages and send responses. Users may also be able to accept and sign contracts using the application provided. Offers, bids, counter offers, messages, and signed contracts can be stored, maintained, received and sent via a plurality of servers such as servers 560 in FIG. 5. Further embodiments under the present disclosure can provide for removable skins for wireless lockboxes. Removable skins can comprise a variety of materials such as silicone, polyester, rubber or other appropriate materials. Removable skins can comprise separate portions for a main body portion and a locking tray portion of the wireless lockbox. Removable skins can also comprise a single piece. FIG. 19 displays another possible method embodiment 1900 under the present disclosure. At the first step 1910, a visit request is received from a first user, the visit request comprising a time slot. At 1920, the visit request and an identity of the first user is sent to a second user. At 1930, an approval of the visit request is received from the second user. At 1940, an unlock code is sent to a mobile device of the first user. At 1950, the unlock code is received at a wireless lockbox from the mobile device of the first user at a first time. At 1960, if the first time is within the time slot, a microprocessor directs a tray of the wireless lockbox to deploy and allow the first user access to a house key. At 1970, at a second time, a close code is received at the wireless lockbox from the mobile device that directs the microprocessor to retract the tray, meaning the house key can be locked inside. Both the deploying/opening and the retracting/closing of the tray can be done by pressing a command on a mobile device, such that the opening and closing can be completed without further human physical interaction. In some embodiments, a key sensor (440 of FIG. 4) in the wireless lockbox may prevent the tray from closing if the house key is not contained in the tray. In some embodiments under the present disclosure, the key door sensor 445 of, for example, FIG. 4, can be operable to detect blockage of the tray as it is being retracted or closed. This may occur, for example, if a person's finger or clothing is trapped in the tray or wireless lockbox as the tray is being retracted. The key door sensor 445 (or another sensor) can monitor power consumption of the motor 435. If power consumption unexpectedly jumps, signaling a slowing of the drawer/tray's movement, then there may be a blockage. When such a stall is detected, the key door sensor 445 can then, by itself, or via the microprocessor 405, stop the motor, actuator, or other element that is closing the tray. There can also be a command to open/deploy the tray. This can help protect users. FIG. 20 displays a possible method embodiment 2000 using the key door sensor to detect blockage. At 2010, a close command is received at a wireless lockbox over a wireless data interface from a mobile device. At 2020, a microprocessor directs a try of the wireless lockbox to retract or close. At 2030, a sensor detects that an object is impeding the tray from retracting or closing. At 2040, the microprocessor stops the tray from retracting. The microprocessor may accomplish this by stopping a motor from turning a rotating screw, stopping a linear actuator, stopping a pneumatic actuator, or by other appropriate means depending on the type of deployment mechanism. Further embodiments of the present disclosure can comprise information beacons located throughout a house that is being sold or toured by potential buyers. An embodiment of a system 2100 comprising beacons can be seen in FIG. 21. System 2100 shows a house 2110 with wireless beacons 2150, 2152, 2154, 2156, 2158 placed throughout the property. The beacons can be wirelessly enabled, preferably by Bluetooth, though other wireless standards are possible as well. House 2110 can have a wireless lockbox 2130, a Wi-Fi router 2140, as well as a porch 2180 and yard or pool area 2190. Various types of data networks (by way of example only, satellite 2102 and cell tower 2104) can provide communication options between various elements of FIG. 21. As an agent/buyer 2120, 2170 tours the house, the beacons 2150, 2152, 2154, 2156, 2158 can detect their presence and send information to the agent or buyer's mobile devices 2122, 2172. Alternatively, the beacons can play audio or video recordings about the house, or send such recordings to a user device. For example, a beacon in the kitchen can send a message to a realtor's mobile device advising the realtor that the kitchen was remodeled in 2012, with professional grade appliances. A beacon at the front door can advise a buyer that the house was built in 1986 and has three bedrooms and three baths. A beacon near the back door can provide information regarding the back yard and fence. A beacon 2156 on the back porch can give information about the porch or back yard. A beacon 2158 by the pool can give pool details. An owner or other user can program the beacons for information to share at each location. A single house can contain multiple beacons located at various positions. In some embodiments, the beacons and the wireless lockbox can all communicate with each other, either directly or via a wireless router 2140. Each beacon 2150, 2152, 2154, 2156, 2158 can comprise a microprocessor, a memory, a hard drive, a plurality of wireless interfaces, a power supply and other components. In a Bluetooth embodiment, the beacons can search for nearby devices with Bluetooth, and when nearby, send the device a message containing house information. The beacons can have functionality to communicate with the wireless lockbox or the servers 2195 (or e.g. servers 560 in FIG. 5), to know how to connect to the nearby mobile device(s). Beacons 2150, 2152, 2154, 2156, 2158, wireless lockbox 2130, and other elements of system 2100 can also communicate with remote device 2196, such as an owner/seller/realtor mobile device. Updates or alerts can be sent by Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, cellular, or another means. For example, wireless lockbox 2130 may comprise a cellular interface by which alerts and notifications can be sent to remote device 2196. Alternatively, wireless lockbox may connect by Bluetooth to visitor mobile device 2122, and use its cellular connection to send notifications to remote device 2196. Beacons 2150, 2152, 2154, 2156, 2158, besides providing information to visitors, can track data regarding house visits. For example, beacons 2150, 2152, 2154, 2156, 2158 can store, or transmit elsewhere (such as to servers 2195) data about, for example, amount of foot traffic to certain parts of the house, length of stay in different parts of the house, size of a visiting group, routes taken on house tours, or other information. FIG. 22 displays a possible method embodiment 2200 of the use of beacons under the present disclosure. At 2210, an open code is received at a wireless lockbox from a mobile device. At 2220, if the open code is received during an approved time period, a tray is commanded to open so that one or more visitors can access a house key to enter a house. At 2230, one or more beacons in the house detect the movement of the one or more visitors. At 2240, the one or more beacons transmit data about the movement to one or more remote servers. At 2250, the one or more beacons send information about the house to the mobile device. Connectivity for, and between, various elements of the described systems, can be provided for in various ways. FIG. 23 displays a possible embodiment under the present disclosure with various connectable devices. A user 2305 can approach the house and his device 2335 may be able to connect to wireless lockbox 2315 via Bluetooth. If the user is a buyer or a buyer's realtor, he can open the proper mobile application on device 2335. If the current time is during an approved visit time slot, then the user can be presented with an interface such as 2336 for opening and closing the lockbox 2315. If the time is outside the approved time slot, then the user will preferably not even be presented with the option of opening, closing, or otherwise commanding lockbox 2315. If user 2305 is the owner, seller, or other approved person, then they may also get the option of opening or closing the shackle on the wireless lockbox 2315. Other connectable devices include optional beacons 2320, wireless hubs 2325, and Wi-Fi routers 2330. The various elements of system 2300 may connect over satellite 2350, cellular 2345, hardline, or other means to network 2340, such as the internet. Communication can be accomplished with remote servers 2355, remote mobile device 2360 (such as an owner or selling realtor), or a remote computer 2365 (such as the computer of an owner, seller or their realtor). Each device can comprise a variety of communications means, such as Bluetooth, cellular, satellite, Wi-Fi, hardline, or other. In some embodiments of system 2300, a wireless lockbox 2315 can comprise a Bluetooth interface (but not Wi-Fi or cellular) by which it connects to a visitor's mobile device 2335, such as a smartphone. A buyer 2305 can approach the house 2310 and power on the wireless lockbox 2315, and open the proper mobile application. The lockbox 2315 and the device 2335 can pair to each other via Bluetooth. The lockbox 2315, while paired to device 2335, can transmit data over the cellular connection of device 2335. Lockbox 2315 can then communicate with servers 2355 that can store visit data, or with a remote mobile device 2360 or computer 2365, to determine a list or identify of approved visitors. It can then determine if user 2305 is an approved visitor. Lockbox can receive either an application or device identification number related to mobile device 2335, or a username that is associated with mobile device 2335, in order to compare an approved user/device to the user 2305 and device 2335. Each lockbox 2315 can have an associated identification number. Servers 2355, remote device 2360, or computer 2365 can store approved visits with the associated identifications of lockboxes, users, mobile applications, or mobile devices. Such information can be sent to lockbox 2315 and/or device 2335 so that they can determine if a given device is approved to unlock or open a given wireless lockbox 2315. If user 2305 is not approved at a given time, then the user 2305 will preferably not even receive an open/close interface by the mobile application. When the user is approved, he can press ‘open’ and the wireless lockbox can deploy a tray or drawer so that user can retrieve a house key and enter home 2310 for a visit. While user 2305 is at home 2310, the Bluetooth connection between device 2335 and wireless lockbox 2315 can be maintained. This can allow wireless lockbox 2315 to send notifications and updates during user 2305's visit. Notifications can include: visitor arrival, lockbox opening, lockbox closing, key removal, key replacement, key being stolen alarm, battery level and more. Some or all of these types of notifications can alternately be sent to the mobile device 2335. In some embodiments, beacons 2320 may comprise a Bluetooth interface (but not cellular or Wi-Fi) and may pair with device 2335 during a user visit. While paired, beacons 2320 may send notifications, data, and other information to any of servers 2355, remote device 2360, and computer 2365. Some owners/sellers may have a wireless lockbox 2315 with only a Bluetooth interface. After using the lockbox 2315, they may realize they want more connectivity options. In such cases a wireless hub 2325 may be used or added to a preexisting system. Wireless hub 2325 can comprise a Bluetooth interface for connecting to wireless lockbox 2315. Wireless hub 2325 may also comprise Wi-Fi (or another wireless interface) that can connect to a wireless router 2330. In this manner, a wireless lockbox 2315 can have persistent connectivity and won't be dependent on a user device 2335 being nearby. Notifications or alerts, in these embodiments, can be sent by Wi-Fi to any of server 2355, device 2360, and computer 2365. In other embodiments of system 2300, the wireless lockbox 2315 can also comprise a cellular interface (instead of just a Bluetooth interface). In such embodiments, a user 2305 may still power on the lockbox 2315 when he arrives for a visit. But in such embodiments the lockbox 2315 may not be dependent on the mobile device 2335 cellular connection. Pairing of the lockbox 2315 and the device 2335 via Bluetooth for the purpose of verifying the user visit is preferred. In some embodiments a cellular enabled lockbox 2315 could still use the cellular connection of a device 2335 once paired. Similar to the lockbox, beacons 2320 in some embodiments can comprise cellular interfaces such that Bluetooth pairing with a mobile device 2335 is unnecessary. Lockboxes 2315 and beacons 2320 can also comprise Wi-fi interfaces for connecting to a wireless router 2330. In such situations, a cellular interface can be unnecessary for transmitting information to, for example, servers 2355, device 2360, or computer 2365. In various embodiments, lockboxes 2315, beacons 2320 can comprise any or multiple of Bluetooth, cellular, and Wi-Fi interfaces. Information and alerts can be transmitted to, for example, servers 2355, device 2360, or computer 2365 by any means desired or necessary. Lockboxes 2315 and beacons 2320 can comprise multiple means for transmitting information, and the means chosen can depend on predetermined user chosen settings, network availability, network cost, or other factors. Some beacons 2320 can use Bluetooth pairing, others can use cellular, while others use Wi-Fi, similar to lockboxes 2315. Embodiments under the present disclosure can also comprise a key with connectivity and security capabilities, such as key 210 of FIG. 2. A further possible embodiment 2400 can be seen in FIG. 24. Key 2450 can fit within wireless lockbox 2420 until removed by a user. Key 2450 can comprise one or more of: a Bluetooth interface 2455, a GPS (global positioning system) interface 2460, an RFID transmitter or tag 2465, power supply 2470, and speaker 2475. Once a key 2450 is removed from a lockbox 2420, there may be a desire to make sure the key 2450 isn't stolen. To protect against this, the key 2450 can be configured to notify an owner, seller, or realtor if it is stolen or taken beyond a chosen perimeter or distance from the lockbox 2420. The lockbox 2420 can detect that the key is within the tray by means of RFID. An RFID tag 2465 can be located on the key 2450 and an RFID transmitter on the lockbox 2420, or vice versa. Once the key 2450 is removed by a user, some embodiments allow for the wireless lockbox 2420 and key 2450 to maintain a Bluetooth connection. Bluetooth allows for two devices to monitor the distance between each other. A user could choose to set a perimeter or maximum radius of, for example, 100 feet. Once key 2450 is moved further than 100 feet from the lockbox 2420, then an alarm can be sent to the owner, seller, or realtor. The alarm or notification can be sent by the lockbox 2420 or by the key 2450. Key 2450 may also have a connection via Bluetooth interface 2455 to a visiting user's mobile device (not shown) and can use the mobile device's cellular or other data connection to transmit a message. In embodiments where the lockbox 2420 lacks connectivity beyond a Bluetooth interface, the key 2450 may have to send an alarm itself. Key 2450 can also use a visitor mobile device's data connection to send updates during a visit, such as time spent at a given location, battery level, or other data. RFID sensors have been described for detecting when the key 2450 is in the lockbox 2420, but other position sensors or means are within the present disclosure. For example, location detection can be used with Bluetooth or NFC. Other embodiments of system 2400 under the present disclosure can comprise a key 2450 that relies more on GPS 2460 to determine its location. In such embodiments, key 2450 can still maintain a Bluetooth connection to a mobile device or lockbox, but it can determine its location via GPA interface 2460. In such embodiments, an owner/seller/realtor may set a radius, maximum distance from a lockbox, or they may draw a perimeter around a property beyond which a key 2450 should not move. If the key does move outside of a chosen area, then a notification can be sent to the owner/seller/realtor, or to devices such as servers 2355, device 2360, or computer 2365 shown in FIG. 23. An identity of the visitor with the key 2450 can also be sent to any of the possible recipients. Notifications, alarms, and other messages can be sent by either the key 2450 or the wireless lockbox 2420. Power supply 2470 can comprise a lithium-ion battery, rechargeable battery, solar panel, an induction based power source that draws energy from the movement of a user, or other types of power or combinations of the preceding. Speaker 2475 can sound an alarm when key 2450 is taken out of a predetermined boundary. The alarm can comprise any type of sound, including an audio message to a user. Speaker 2475 can also be used to transmit any preferred audio message to a user. Key 2450 can comprise a teeth portion 2485 and a head portion 2480. Head portion 2480 may be integrally formed with teeth portion 2485. Alternatively, head portion 2480 may be added onto teeth portion 2485 by means of mechanical attachment, or other means. In some embodiments, the functionality of head portion 2480 can be provided by a small device added to a key chain, for example. FIG. 24 shows a key 2450 with a typical looking teeth portion 2485 with a number of ridges that can open a door. However, key 2450 can comprise a variety of key types. Some keys use a magnet or RFID system to unlock a door instead of a series of teeth or ridges. Some embodiments can comprise a body portion that can comprise any type of coupling mechanism for opening another item, such as a magnet, RFID, infrared, teeth, wireless signals, or combinations of the foregoing. In other embodiments under the present disclosure, key 2450 can comprise a cellular or Wi-Fi interface, or other data interface, for communicating with other devices described in the present disclosure, such as for example, such as servers 2355, device 2360, or computer 2365 of FIG. 23. FIGS. 25-27 display possible method embodiments under the present disclosure. FIG. 25 displays a possible method embodiment 2500 for how a wireless lockbox powers on and determines whether a user is approved to visit a house. At 2510, a request is received for a property visit from a first user for a first time. At 2520, the request is transmitted to a second user. At 2530, an approval is received for the property visit from the second user. At 2540, the approval is transmitted to the first user. At 2550, a notification is received that the first user has powered on a wireless lockbox at the property, the notification is received from the wireless lockbox via a cellular interface of a mobile device of the first user. At 2560, a list of one or more approved user and associated visit times is transmitted to the wireless lockbox via the cellular interface. In preferred embodiments, the wireless lockbox can be able to communicate via the cellular interface because it is Bluetooth paired to the mobile device. FIG. 26 displays a possible method embodiment 2600 for operating beacons under the present disclosure. At 2610, one or more beacons is provided at a property. The one or more beacons each comprise a Bluetooth interface, and are operable to connect via Bluetooth to a mobile device and transmit data via a data connection (such as cellular) of the mobile device to a remote server or device. At 2620, a notification is sent to the wireless lockbox at the property that a user of the mobile device is approved to access a key of the property at a given time slot. At 2630, data is received from the one or more beacons via the data connection while the user is at the property, such as data about the user's movements and actions at the property. FIG. 27 displays a possible method embodiment 2700 for operating a smart key for use with a wireless lockbox. At 2710, a notification is received that a wireless lockbox has been powered on, the notification received from the wireless lockbox over a data connection of a mobile device that the wireless lockbox is paired with via Bluetooth (other pairing means are possible). At 2720, an indication is sent to the wireless lockbox that a user of the mobile device is approved to access a key inside the wireless lockbox, the key comprising a Bluetooth interface configured to pair with the mobile device (other pairing means are possible) and the key configured to collect data about the actions of the user. A 2730, data is received from the key about the movement of the user over the data connection of the mobile device. Although the present invention and its advantages have been described in detail, it should be understood that various changes, substitutions and alterations can be made herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. Moreover, the scope of the present application is not intended to be limited to the particular embodiments of the process, machine, manufacture, composition of matter, means, methods and steps described in the specification. As one of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate from the disclosure of the present invention, processes, machines, manufacture, compositions of matter, means, methods, or steps, presently existing or later to be developed that perform substantially the same function or achieve substantially the same result as the corresponding embodiments described herein may be utilized according to the present invention. Accordingly, the appended claims are intended to include within their scope such processes, machines, manufacture, compositions of matter, means, methods, or steps.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The real estate market is largely dependent on realtors. Realtors offer great services but sometimes buyers or sellers would like to have more flexibility in how they approach the market. For example, if a couple is shopping for a new home they will often contact a realtor. The realtor looks for available homes in the couple's desired location and price range and sets appointments for viewings. The realtor brings great knowledge to the process regarding locations, costs, and other market factors. But the process of setting appointments, and wrestling with the schedules of the people involved can be difficult and time consuming. It would be great to have a tool that could interface buyers and sellers directly, allowing greater flexibility and efficiency in setting appointments and viewings. Along with creating efficiencies in setting viewings, it would be great to have a tool that interfaces buyers and sellers with regard to real estate listings. It can be difficult for a seller to know how to list his home for sale, how to publish, etc., and buyers may not know where to go to see what homes are for sale. Both sides end up going to realtors and letting them do the listing and/or searching. The real estate market currently uses lockboxes placed on a door knob or porch of a listed house. These lockboxes contain a key to the house. Often times a code or other unlocking mechanism for the lockbox is known only to licensed realtors. These lockboxes allow a realtor to access and show a house when the owner is unavailable. While current lockboxes have their uses, they lack many capabilities that would be beneficial in today's world of connected and smart devices.

<SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>One embodiment under the present disclosure comprises a wireless lockbox system for storing a key at a property. The system comprises a wireless lockbox and a key. The wireless lockbox can comprise a first Bluetooth interface, a tray, a microprocessor operable to deploy and retract the tray by controlling a motor, and a power supply. The wireless lockbox can be configured to pair with a mobile device via the first Bluetooth interface and to communicate with a remote device via a data interface of the mobile device. The wireless lockbox can be further configured to receive information from the remote device for determining if the mobile device is allowed to command the microprocessor to deploy and retract the tray. The key can be configured to fit within the tray and can comprise a second Bluetooth interface. The key can be configured to pair with the mobile device via the second Bluetooth interface and to collect data about they key's movement. The key can be further configured to transmit the data to the remote device via the data interface. Another embodiment under the present disclosure can comprise a smart key. The smart key can comprise a body portion configured to unlock a door, a power supply, a microprocessor, and a Bluetooth interface configured to couple with a wireless lockbox and with a mobile device. The smart key can be configured to collect data about its location and to transmit the data to one or more remote devices over the Bluetooth interface. Another embodiment under the present disclosure can comprise a method of detecting the location of a house key. The method can comprise receiving a notification that a wireless lockbox has been powered on, wherein the notification is received from the wireless lockbox via a data connection of a mobile device that the wireless lockbox is paired with via Bluetooth. Then an indication can be sent that a user of the mobile device is approved to access a key inside the wireless lockbox, the key comprising a Bluetooth interface configured to pair with the mobile device and to send information via the data connection and the key configured to collect data about its location. Then data can be received from the key about the location of the key via the data connection of the mobile device. The foregoing has outlined rather broadly the features and technical advantages of the present invention in order that the detailed description of the invention that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be described hereinafter which form the subject of the claims of the invention. It should be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the conception and specific embodiment disclosed may be readily utilized as a basis for modifying or designing other structures for carrying out the same purposes of the present invention. It should also be realized by those skilled in the art that such equivalent constructions do not depart from the spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims. The novel features which are believed to be characteristic of the invention, both as to its organization and method of operation, together with further objects and advantages will be better understood from the following description when considered in connection with the accompanying Figures. It is to be expressly understood, however, that each of the Figures is provided for the purpose of illustration and description only and is not intended as a definition of the limits of the present invention.

G07C900309

20180219

20180705

61105.0

G07C900

NGUYEN, LAURA N

REAL ESTATE WIRELESS LOCKBOX

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

G07C

PENDING

SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR DELIVERING A FLUID TO A PATIENT WITH REDUCED CONTAMINATION

An apparatus includes a cannula assembly, a housing, a fluid reservoir, a flow control mechanism, and an actuator. The housing includes an inlet port removably coupled to the cannula assembly and defines an inner volume. The fluid reservoir is fluidically coupled to the housing and configured to receive and isolate a volume of bodily fluid from a patient. The flow control mechanism is at least partially disposed in the inner volume. The actuator is operably coupled to the flow control mechanism and is configured to move the flow control mechanism between a first configuration, in which bodily fluid can flow, via a fluid flow path defined by the flow control mechanism, from the cannula assembly, through the inlet port and into the fluid reservoir, to a second configuration, in which the fluid reservoir is fluidically isolated from the cannula assembly.

1.-40. (canceled) 41. A bodily fluid sequestration device, comprising: a housing having a first port configured to be fluidically coupled to a patient and a second port configured to be fluidically coupled to an external fluid reservoir; an internal fluid reservoir disposed in the housing and configured to receive and sequester an initial volume of bodily fluid withdrawn from the patient; a flow control mechanism disposed in the housing and defining a first lumen and a second lumen, the first lumen at least partially defining the internal fluid reservoir and configured to fluidically couple the first port to the internal fluid reservoir, and the second lumen configured to fluidically couple the first port to the second port; and a valve disposed in the first lumen and configured to form a substantially fluid tight seal with the walls defining the first lumen in a closed configuration, and configured to allow the flow of bodily fluid in a single direction in an open configuration, the bodily fluid sequestration device configured to allow the initial volume of bodily fluid to flow from the first port to the internal fluid reservoir, and to establish a fluid flow path between the first port and the second port once the initial volume of bodily fluid is sequestered in the internal fluid reservoir and the valve is in the closed configuration. 42. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 41, wherein the valve is configured to fluidically isolate the internal fluid reservoir from a volume outside the flow control mechanism when the valve is in the closed configuration. 43. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 41, wherein the valve is configured to sequester the internal fluid reservoir from the bodily fluid in the second port when the valve is in the closed configuration. 44. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 41, wherein the valve is configured such that the second port is fluidically isolated from the internal fluid reservoir when the valve is in a closed position. 45. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 41, further comprising: a cannula assembly including a fluid communicator configured to be inserted into the patient, the cannula assembly configured to be fluidically coupled to the first port of the bodily fluid sequestration device. 46. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 45, wherein the initial volume of bodily fluid can flow to the bodily fluid sequestration device until the pressure in the housing is in equilibrium with the pressure of the portion of the patient in which the fluid communicator is disposed. 47. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 46, wherein a substantially sterile fluid flow path is established between the first port and the external fluid reservoir after the initial volume of bodily fluid stops flowing to the bodily fluid sequestration device. 48. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 41, wherein the bodily fluid sequestration device is configured to transition from a first operating mode in which the initial volume of bodily fluid is allowed to flow from the first port to the internal fluid reservoir, to a second operating mode in which a substantially sterile fluid flow path is established between the first port and the second port. 49. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 48, wherein the bodily fluid sequestration device is configured to transition from the first operating mode to the second operating mode without manual intervention. 50. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 48, wherein the flow control mechanism is configured to automatically transition the bodily fluid sequestration device from the first operating mode to the second operating mode. 51. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 41, wherein the valve is disposed proximate the first port. 52. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 41, wherein the valve is disposed between the first port and the internal fluid reservoir. 53. A bodily fluid sequestration device, comprising: a housing having a first port configured to be fluidically coupled to a patient and a second port configured to be fluidically coupled to an external fluid reservoir; an internal fluid reservoir disposed in the housing and configured to receive and sequester an initial volume of bodily fluid withdrawn from the patient; a flow control mechanism disposed in the housing and defining a first lumen and a second lumen, the first lumen at least partially defining the internal fluid reservoir and configured to fluidically couple the first port to the internal fluid reservoir, and the second lumen configured to fluidically couple the first port to the second port; and a valve disposed in the first lumen and configured to form a substantially fluid tight seal with the walls defining the first lumen in a closed configuration, and configured to allow the flow of bodily fluid in a single direction in an open configuration, the valve being operative to move from the closed configuration to the open configuration in response to a difference in pressure between a valve inlet and a valve outlet, the bodily fluid sequestration device configured to allow the initial volume of bodily fluid to flow from the first port to the internal fluid reservoir, and to establish a fluid flow path between the first port and the second port once the initial volume of bodily fluid is sequestered in the internal fluid reservoir and the valve is in the closed configuration. 54. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 53, wherein the valve is operative to return to the closed configuration in response to equalization of pressure between the valve inlet and the valve outlet. 55. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 53, wherein the valve is configured to fluidically isolate the internal fluid reservoir from a volume outside the flow control mechanism when the valve is in the closed configuration. 56. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 53, wherein the valve is configured to sequester the internal fluid reservoir from the bodily fluid in the second port when the valve is in the closed configuration. 57. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 53, wherein the valve is configured such that the second port is fluidically isolated from the internal fluid reservoir when the valve is in a closed position. 58. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 53, further comprising: a cannula assembly including a fluid communicator configured to be inserted into the patient, the cannula assembly configured to be fluidically coupled to the first port of the bodily fluid sequestration device. 59. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 58, wherein the initial volume of bodily fluid can flow to the bodily fluid sequestration device until the pressure in the housing is in equilibrium with the pressure of the portion of the patient in which the fluid communicator is disposed. 60. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 53, wherein the bodily fluid sequestration device is configured to transition from a first operating mode in which the initial volume of bodily fluid is allowed to flow from the first port to the internal fluid reservoir, to a second operating mode in which a substantially sterile fluid flow path is established between the first port and the second port. 61. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 60, wherein the bodily fluid sequestration device is configured to transition from the first operating mode to the second operating mode without manual intervention. 62. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 53, wherein the valve is disposed proximate the first port. 63. A bodily fluid sequestration device, comprising: a housing having a first port configured to be fluidically coupled to a patient and a second port configured to be fluidically coupled to an external fluid reservoir; an internal fluid reservoir disposed in the housing and configured to receive and sequester an initial volume of bodily fluid withdrawn from the patient; a flow control mechanism disposed in the housing and defining a first lumen and a second lumen, the first lumen at least partially defining the internal fluid reservoir and configured to fluidically couple the first port to the internal fluid reservoir, and the second lumen configured to fluidically couple the first port to the second port; and a valve disposed in the first lumen and configured to form a substantially fluid tight seal with the walls defining the first lumen in a closed configuration, the valve being operative to move from the closed configuration to an open configuration in response to a difference in pressure between a valve inlet and a valve outlet, the valve being further operative to return to the closed configuration in response to equalization of pressure between the valve inlet and the valve outlet, the valve being further configured to sequester the bodily fluid in the internal fluid reservoir from bodily fluid in the second port when the valve is in the closed configuration; the bodily fluid sequestration device configured to allow the initial volume of bodily fluid to flow from the first port to the internal fluid reservoir, and to establish a fluid flow path between the first port and the second port once the initial volume of bodily fluid is sequestered in the internal fluid reservoir and the valve is in the closed configuration. 64. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 63, wherein the valve is configured to fluidically isolate the internal fluid reservoir from a volume outside the flow control mechanism when the valve is in the closed configuration. 65. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 63, wherein the valve is configured such that the second port is fluidically isolated from the internal fluid reservoir when the valve is in a closed position. 66. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 63, further comprising: a cannula assembly including a fluid communicator configured to be inserted into the patient, the cannula assembly configured to be fluidically coupled to the first port of the bodily fluid sequestration device. 67. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 66, wherein the initial volume of bodily fluid can flow to the bodily fluid sequestration device until the pressure in the housing is in equilibrium with the pressure of the portion of the patient in which the fluid communicator is disposed. 68. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 63, wherein the bodily fluid sequestration device is configured to transition from a first operating mode in which the initial volume of bodily fluid is allowed to flow from the first port to the internal fluid reservoir, to a second operating mode in which a substantially sterile fluid flow path is established between the first port and the second port. 69. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 68, wherein the bodily fluid sequestration device is configured to transition from the first operating mode to the second operating mode without manual intervention. 70. The bodily fluid sequestration device of claim 63, wherein the valve is disposed proximate the first port.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/712,468, filed Oct. 11, 2012, entitled, “Systems and Methods for Delivering a Fluid to a Patient with Reduced Contamination,” the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND Embodiments described herein relate generally to delivering a fluid to a patient, and more particularly to devices and methods for delivering a parenteral fluid to a patient with reduced contamination from microbes or other contaminants exterior to the body and/or the fluid source, such as dermally residing microbes. Human skin is normally habituated in variable small amounts by certain bacteria such as coagulase-negative Staphylococcus species, Proprionobacterium acnes, Micrococcus species, Streptococci Viridans group, Corynebacterium species, and Bacillus species. These bacteria for the most part live in a symbiotic relationship with human skin but in some circumstances can give rise to serious infections in the blood stream known as septicemia. Septicemia due to these skin residing organisms is most often associated with an internal nidus of bacterial growth at the site of injured tissue, for example a damaged, scarred heart valve, or a foreign body (often an artificial joint, vessel, or valve). Furthermore, there are predisposing factors to these infections such as malignancy, immunosuppression, diabetes mellitus, obesity, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and advanced age. In some instances, these infections can cause serious illness and/or death. Moreover, these infections can be very expensive and difficult to treat and often can be associated with medical related legal issues. In general medical practice, blood is drawn from veins (phlebotomy) for two main purposes; (1) donor blood in volumes of approximately 500 mL is obtained for the treatment of anemia, deficient blood clotting factors including platelets and other medical conditions; and (2) smaller volumes (e.g., from a few drops to 10 mL or more) of blood are obtained for testing purposes. In each case, whether for donor or testing specimens, a fluid communicator (e.g., catheter, cannula, needle, etc.) is used to penetrate and enter a vein (known as venipuncture) enabling withdrawing of blood into a tube or vessel apparatus in the desired amounts for handling, transport, storage and/or other purposes. The site of venipuncture, most commonly the antecubital fossa, is prepared by cleansing with antiseptics to prevent the growth of skin residing bacteria in blood withdrawn from the vein. It has been shown venipuncture needles dislodge fragments of skin including hair and sweat gland structures as well as subcutaneous fat and other adnexal structures not completely sterilized by skin surface antisepsis. These skin fragments can cause septicemia in recipients of donor blood products, false positive blood culture tests and other undesirable outcomes. Furthermore, methods, procedures and devices are in use, which divert the initial portion of venipuncture blood enabling exclusion of these skin fragments from the venipuncture specimen in order to prevent septicemia in recipients of donor blood products, false positive blood culture tests and other undesirable outcomes. Venipuncture is also the most common method of accessing the blood stream of a patient to deliver parenteral fluids into the blood stream of patients needing this type of medical treatment. Fluids in containers are allowed to flow into the patient's blood stream through tubing connected to the venipuncture needle or through a catheter that is placed into a patient's vasculature (e.g. peripheral IV, central line, etc.). During this process, fragments of incompletely sterilized skin can be delivered into the blood stream with the flow of parenteral fluids and/or at the time of venipuncture for introduction and insertion of a peripheral catheter. These fragments are undesirable in the blood stream and their introduction into the blood stream of patients (whether due to dislodging of fragments by venipuncture needle when inserting a catheter or delivered through tubing attached to needle or catheter) is contrary to common practices of antisepsis. Further, these microbes can be associated with a well-known phenomenon of colonization by skin residing organisms of the tubing and tubing connectors utilized to deliver parenteral fluids. The colonization is not typically indicative of a true infection but can give rise to false positive blood culture tests, which may result in unnecessary antibiotic treatment, laboratory tests, and replacement of the tubing apparatus with attendant patient risks and expenses. Furthermore, the risk of clinically significant serious infection due to skin residing organisms is increased. As such, a need exists for improved fluid transfer devices, catheter introduction techniques and devices, as well as methods for delivering a parenteral fluid to a patient that reduce microbial contamination and inadvertent injection of undesirable external microbes into a patient's blood stream. SUMMARY Devices and methods for delivering a fluid to a patient and/or introducing a peripheral catheter with reduced contamination from dermally residing microbes or other contaminants exterior to the body and/or an external fluid source are described herein. In some embodiments, an apparatus includes a cannula assembly, a housing, a fluid reservoir, a flow control mechanism, and an actuator. The housing has a proximal end portion and a distal end portion and defines an inner volume therebetween. The housing includes an inlet port removably coupled to the cannula assembly. The fluid reservoir is fluidically coupled to the housing and configured to receive and isolate a first volume of bodily fluid withdrawn from a patient. The flow control mechanism is at least partially disposed in the inner volume and is configured to move relative to the housing between a first configuration and a second configuration. The flow control mechanism defines a fluid flow path between the cannula assembly and the fluid reservoir in the first configuration. The actuator is operably coupled to the flow control mechanism to move the flow control mechanism from the first configuration, in which the inlet port is placed in fluid communication the fluid reservoir such that bodily fluid can flow from the cannula assembly, through the inlet port via the fluid flow path and to the fluid reservoir, to the second configuration, in which the fluid reservoir is fluidically isolated from the cannula assembly. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1 and 2 are schematic illustrations of a fluid transfer device according to an embodiment. FIG. 3 is a schematic illustration of a fluid transfer device according to an embodiment. FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a fluid transfer device according to an embodiment. FIG. 5 is an exploded view of the fluid transfer device of FIG. 4. FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of the fluid transfer device taken along the line Xi-Xi in FIG. 4, in a first configuration. FIG. 7 is an enlarged view of a portion of the fluid transfer device labeled as region A in FIG. 6. FIGS. 8 and 9 are cross-sectional views of the fluid transfer device taken along the line X1-X1 in FIG. 4, in a second and third configuration, respectively. FIG. 10 is a side view of the fluid transfer device of FIG. 4 in a fourth configuration. FIG. 11 is a perspective view of a fluid transfer device according to an embodiment. FIG. 12 is an exploded view of the fluid transfer device of FIG. 11. FIGS. 13 and 14 are cross-sectional views of the fluid transfer device taken along the line X2-X2 in FIG. 11, in a first and second configuration, respectively. FIG. 15 is a side view of the fluid transfer device of FIG. 11 in a third configuration. FIG. 16 is a perspective view of a fluid transfer device according to an embodiment. FIG. 17 is an exploded view of the fluid transfer device of FIG. 16. FIG. 18 is a cross-sectional perspective view of a housing included in the fluid transfer device taken along the line X4-X4 in FIG. 17. FIG. 19 is a cross-sectional perspective view of a portion of a flow control mechanism included in the fluid transfer device taken along the line X5-X5 in FIG. 17. FIG. 20 is a cross-sectional view of the fluid transfer device taken along the line X3-X3 in FIG. 16, in a first configuration. FIG. 21 is a front view of the fluid transfer device of FIG. 16 in a second configuration. FIG. 22 is a cross-sectional view of the fluid transfer device taken along the line X3-X3 in FIG. 16, in the second configuration. FIG. 23 is a side view of the fluid transfer device of FIG. 16 in a third configuration. FIG. 24 is a perspective view of a fluid transfer device according to an embodiment. FIG. 25 is an exploded view of the fluid transfer device of FIG. 24. FIG. 26 is a cross-sectional perspective view of a fluid reservoir included in the fluid transfer device taken along the line X7-X7 in FIG. 25. FIG. 27 is a cross-sectional perspective view of a flow control mechanism included in the fluid transfer device taken along the line X8-X8 in FIG. 25. FIGS. 28-30 are cross-sectional views of the fluid transfer device taken along the line X6-X6 in FIG. 24, in a first, second, and third configuration, respectively. FIG. 31 is a perspective view of a fluid transfer device according to an embodiment. FIG. 32 is an exploded view of the fluid transfer device of FIG. 31. FIGS. 33 and 34 are cross-sectional views of the fluid transfer device taken along the line X9-X9 in FIG. 31, in a first configuration and a second configuration, respectively. FIG. 35 is a perspective view of a fluid transfer device according to an embodiment. FIG. 36 is an exploded view of the fluid transfer device of FIG. 35. FIG. 37 is a cross-sectional view of the fluid transfer device taken along the line X10-X10 in FIG. 35, in a first configuration. FIG. 38 is a front view of the fluid transfer device of FIG. 35 in a second configuration. FIG. 39 is a cross-sectional view of the fluid transfer device taken along the line X10-X10 in FIG. 35, in the second configuration. FIG. 40 is a flowchart illustrating a method of delivering a fluid to a patient using a fluid transfer device according to an embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Devices and methods for delivering a fluid to a patient with reduced contamination from dermally residing microbes or other contaminants exterior to the body are described herein. In some embodiments, an apparatus includes a cannula assembly, a housing, a fluid reservoir, a flow control mechanism, and an actuator. The housing has a proximal end portion and a distal end portion and defines an inner volume therebetween. The housing includes an inlet port configured to be removably coupled to the cannula assembly. The fluid reservoir is fluidically coupled to the housing and configured to receive and isolate a first volume of bodily fluid withdrawn from a patient. The flow control mechanism is at least partially disposed in the inner volume and is configured to move relative to the housing between a first configuration and a second configuration. The flow control mechanism defines a fluid flow path between the cannula assembly and the fluid reservoir in the first configuration. The actuator is operably coupled to the flow control mechanism to move the flow control mechanism from the first configuration, in which the inlet port is placed in fluid communication the fluid reservoir such that bodily fluid can flow from the cannula assembly, through the inlet port via the fluid flow path and to the fluid reservoir, to the second configuration, in which the fluid reservoir is fluidically isolated from the cannula assembly. In some embodiments, a device for delivering a fluid to a patient with reduced contamination includes a housing, a fluid reservoir, and a flow control mechanism. The housing has a proximal end portion and a distal end portion and defines an inner volume therebetween. The housing includes a first port configured to be removably coupled to a cannula assembly, and a second port configured to be fluidically coupled to a fluid source. The fluid reservoir is fluidically coupleable to the cannula assembly and configured to receive and isolate a predetermined volume of bodily fluid withdrawn from the patient. The flow control mechanism is at least partially disposed in the inner volume of the housing and is configured to move between a first configuration and a second configuration. When in the first configuration, the first port is placed in fluid communication with the fluid reservoir such that bodily fluid can flow from the cannula assembly, through the first port and to the fluid reservoir. When in the second configuration, the fluid reservoir is fluidically isolated from the cannula assembly and fluid can flow from the fluid source, in the second port, through the flow control mechanism, out the first port and to the cannula assembly. In some embodiments, a method of delivering a fluid to a patient using a fluid transfer device includes establishing fluid communication between the patient and the fluid transfer device. Once in fluid communication, a predetermined volume of a bodily fluid is withdrawn from the patient. The predetermined volume of bodily fluid is transferred to a fluid reservoir. The fluid transfer device is fluidically isolated from the fluid reservoir to sequester the predetermined volume of bodily fluid in the fluid reservoir. The method further includes establishing fluid communication between the patient and a fluid source with the fluid transfer device. In some embodiments, an apparatus includes a housing, a cannula assembly, a flow control mechanism, and a fluid reservoir. The flow control mechanism is configured to move relative to the housing between a first configuration and a second configuration. The cannula assembly is coupled to the housing and fluidically coupled to the fluid reservoir when the flow control mechanism is in the first configuration. The fluid reservoir is fluidically isolated from the cannula assembly when the flow control mechanism is in a second configuration such that the cannula assembly can be fluidically coupled to an external fluid reservoir and/or an external fluid source. As referred to herein, “bodily fluid” can include any fluid obtained from a body of a patient, including, but not limited to, blood, cerebrospinal fluid, urine, bile, lymph, saliva, synovial fluid, serous fluid, pleural fluid, amniotic fluid, and the like, or any combination thereof. As used herein, the term “set” can refer to multiple features or a singular feature with multiple parts. For example, when referring to set of walls, the set of walls can be considered as one wall with distinct portions, or the set of walls can be considered as multiple walls. Similarly stated, a monolithically constructed item can include a set of walls. Such a set of walls can include, for example, multiple portions that are in discontinuous from each other. A set of walls can also be fabricated from multiple items that are produced separately and are later joined together (e.g., via a weld, an adhesive or any suitable method). As used in this specification, the words “proximal” and “distal” refer to the direction closer to and away from, respectively, a user who would place the device into contact with a patient. Thus, for example, the end of a device first touching the body of the patient would be the distal end, while the opposite end of the device (e.g., the end of the device being manipulated by the user) would be the proximal end of the device. FIGS. 1 and 2 are schematic illustrations of a fluid transfer device 100 according to an embodiment, in a first and second configuration, respectively. Generally, the fluid transfer device 100 (also referred to herein as “transfer device”) is configured to facilitate the insertion of a piercing member (e.g., a needle, a trocar, a cannula, or the like) into a patient to withdrawal and isolate a predetermined amount of bodily fluid from the patient containing, for example, dermally residing microbes. The fluid transfer device 100 is further configured to facilitate the delivery of parenteral fluid to the patient that does not substantially contain, for example, the dermally residing microbes. In other words, the transfer device 100 is configured to transfer and fluidically isolate the predetermined amount of bodily fluid, including dermally residing microbes dislodged from a venipuncture, within a collection reservoir and deliver parenteral fluids to the patient that are substantially free from the dislodged dermally residing microbes and/or other undesirable external contaminants. The transfer device 100 includes a housing 101, a cannula assembly 120, a fluid reservoir 130, a flow control mechanism 140, and an actuator 180. The housing 101 can be any suitable shape, size, or configuration and is described in further detail herein with respect to specific embodiments. As shown in FIG. 1, the housing 101 defines an inner volume 111 that can movably receive and/or movably house at least a portion of the flow control mechanism 140, as described in further detail herein. A portion of the housing 101 can be, at least temporarily, physically and fluidically coupled to the cannula assembly 120. For example, in some embodiments, a distal end portion of the housing 101 can include an inlet port 105 or the like configured to physically and fluidically couple to a lock mechanism (not shown in FIGS. 1 and 2) included in the cannula assembly 120. In such embodiments, the lock mechanism can be, for example, a Luer-Lok® or the like that can engage the port. In some embodiments, the housing 101 can be monolithically formed with at least a portion of the cannula assembly 120. In other words, in some embodiments, the inlet port 105 can be monolithically formed with a portion of the cannula assembly 120 to define a fluid flow path between a portion of the housing 101 the cannula assembly 120. In this manner, a portion of the housing 101 can receive a bodily fluid from and/or deliver a parenteral fluid to a patient via a cannula included in the cannula assembly 120, as described in further detail herein. The cannula assembly 120 can be any suitable configuration. For example, in some embodiments, the cannula assembly 120 includes an engagement portion and a cannula portion (not shown in FIGS. 1 and 2). In such embodiments, the engagement portion can physically and fluidically couple the cannula assembly 120 to the housing 101 (e.g., it can be the lock mechanism physically and fluidically coupled to the inlet port 105 as described above). The cannula portion can be configured to be inserted into a portion of a patient to deliver a fluid to or receive a fluid from the patient. For example, in some embodiments, the cannula portion can include a distal end with a sharp point configured to pierce a portion of the patient to dispose the cannula portion, at least in part, within a vein of the patient. In other embodiments, a piercing member (e.g., a lumen defining needle) can be movably disposed within the cannula assembly 120 to facilitate the insertion of the cannula portion 120 into the portion of the patient. As shown in FIG. 1, the housing 101 can house and/or define the fluid reservoir 130. Similarly stated, in some embodiments, the fluid reservoir 130 can be disposed within and/or at least partially defined by the inner volume 111 of the housing 101. The fluid reservoir 130 can be configured to receive a predetermined amount of the bodily fluid and fluidically isolate the bodily fluid from a volume outside the fluid reservoir 130, as described in further detail herein. While shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 as being disposed within the inner volume 111 of the housing 101, in some embodiments, the fluid reservoir 130 can be disposed substantially outside the housing 101. In such embodiments, the fluid reservoir 130 can be physically and fluidically coupled to a portion of the housing 101. For example, in some embodiments, the fluid reservoir 130 can be coupled to an outlet port (not shown in FIGS. 1 and 2). In other embodiments, the fluid reservoir 130 can be operably coupled to the housing 101 via an intervening structure, such as, for example, a Luer-Lok® and/or flexible sterile tubing. In still other embodiments, the fluid reservoir 130 can be monolithically formed with at least a portion of the housing 101. The flow control mechanism 140 included in the transfer device 100 is disposed, at least partially, within the inner volume 111 of the housing 101 and can be moved between a first configuration (FIG. 1) and a second configuration (FIG. 2). The flow control mechanism 140 can be any suitable mechanism configured to control or direct a flow of a fluid. For example, in some embodiments, the flow control mechanism 140 can include a valve (e.g., a check valve or the like) that allows a flow of a fluid in a single direction. In other embodiments, a valve can selectively control a flow of a fluid in multiple directions. In still other embodiments, the flow control mechanism 140 can define one or more lumens configured to selectively receive a flow of a fluid. In such embodiments, the flow control mechanism 140 can be moved relative to the housing 101 to selectively place a lumen in fluid communication with a portion of the transfer device 100 (e.g., the housing 101, the cannula assembly 120, and/or the fluid reservoir 130). For example, in some embodiments, a portion of the flow control mechanism 140 can be movably disposed, at least temporarily, within the cannula assembly 120 to selectively place the fluid reservoir 130 in fluid communication with the cannula assembly 120. In some embodiments, the portion of the flow control mechanism 140 can include a piercing member such as, for example, a needle configured to extend beyond a distal end of the cannula assembly 120 (not shown in FIGS. 1 and 2) to pierce the skin of a patient and facilitate the insertion of the cannula assembly 120 into a vein of the patient. In some embodiments, the transfer device 100 can include an actuator 180 operably coupled to the flow control mechanism 140 and configured to move the flow control mechanism 140 between the first and the second configuration. For example, in some embodiments, the actuator 180 can be a push button, a slider, a toggle, a pull-tab, a handle, a dial, a lever, an electronic switch, or any other suitable actuator. In this manner, the actuator 180 can be movable between a first position corresponding to the first configuration of the flow control mechanism 140, and a second position, different from the first position, corresponding to the second configuration of the flow control mechanism 140. In some embodiments, the actuator 180 can be configured for uni-directional movement. For example, the actuator 180 can be moved from its first position to its second position, but cannot be moved from its second position back to its first position. In this manner, the flow control mechanism 140 is prevented from being moved to its second configuration before its first configuration, as described in further detail herein. In use, the flow control mechanism 140 can be in the first configuration to place the fluid reservoir 130 in fluid communication with the cannula assembly 120, as indicated by the arrow AA in FIG. 1. In this manner, the fluid reservoir 130 can receive a flow of bodily fluid that can include dermally residing microbes dislodged during a venipuncture event (e.g., when the cannula assembly 120 and/or the flow control mechanism 140 pierces the skin of the patient). In some embodiments, the fluid reservoir 130 can be configured to receive a predetermined volume of the bodily fluid. With a desired amount of bodily fluid transferred to the fluid reservoir 130, a user (e.g., a doctor, physician, nurse, technician, phlebotomist, etc.) can manipulate the actuator 180 to move the flow control mechanism 140 from the first configuration to the second configuration. For example, the flow control mechanism 140 can be in the first configuration when the flow control mechanism 140 is in a distal position relative to the housing 101 (FIG. 1) and the actuator 180 can move the flow control mechanism 140 in a proximal direction relative to the housing 101 to place the flow control mechanism in the second configuration, as indicated by the arrow BB in FIG. 2. Moreover, when in the second configuration, the flow control mechanism 140 no longer facilitates the fluidic coupling of the fluid reservoir 130 to the cannula assembly 120. Thus, the fluid reservoir 130 is fluidically isolated from the cannula assembly 120. While shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 as being moved in the proximal direction (e.g., in the direction of the arrow BB), in other embodiments, the actuator 180 can move the flow control mechanism 140 between the first configuration and the second configuration in any suitable manner or direction. For example, in some embodiments, the flow control mechanism 140 can be moved in a rotational motion between the first configuration and the second configuration. In other embodiments, the flow control mechanism 140 can be moved in a transverse motion (e.g., substantially perpendicular to the direction of the arrow BB). In such embodiments, the rotational or transverse motion can be such that the flow control mechanism 140 selectively defines one or more fluid flow paths configured to receive a fluid from a patient or to deliver a fluid to the patient, as described in further detail herein. In some embodiments, the movement of the flow control mechanism 140 to the second configuration can substantially correspond to a physical and fluidic decoupling of at least a portion of the housing 101 from the cannula assembly 120 such that an external fluid reservoir 199 (e.g., also referred to herein as “fluid source”) can be physically and fluidically coupled to the cannula assembly 120. For example, as shown in FIG. 2, in some embodiments, the housing 101 can be moved in the proximal direction (e.g., in the direction of the arrow BB) to be physically and fluidically decoupled from the cannula assembly 120. In some embodiments, the proximal movement of the flow control mechanism 140 urges the housing 101 to move in the proximal direction. In other embodiments, a user (e.g., a physician, phlebotomist, or nurse) can move the housing 101 in the proximal direction. In this manner, the external fluid reservoir 199 can be fluidically coupled to the cannula assembly 120. Expanding further, with the predetermined amount of bodily fluid transferred to the fluid reservoir 130, the external fluid reservoir 199 can be fluidically coupled to the cannula assembly 120 to deliver a flow of a parenteral fluid that is substantially free from dermally residing microbes dislodged during the venipuncture event, as indicated by the arrow CC in FIG. 2. Similarly stated, the dermally residing microbes that are dislodged during the venipuncture event can be entrained in the flow of the bodily fluid delivered to the fluid reservoir 130. Thus, when the flow control mechanism 140 is moved to the second configuration and the fluid reservoir 130 is fluidically isolated from the cannula assembly 120, the external fluid reservoir 199 can deliver the flow of parenteral fluid substantially free from dermally residing microbes. While the housing 101 is shown in FIG. 2 as being moved in the proximal direction such that the external fluid reservoir 199 can be physically and fluidically coupled to the cannula assembly 120, in other embodiments, a housing need not be decoupled from a cannula assembly. For example, FIG. 3 is a schematic illustration of a transfer device 200 according to an embodiment. The transfer device 200 includes a housing 201, a cannula assembly 220, a fluid reservoir 230, and a flow control mechanism 240. As shown in FIG. 3, the housing 201 includes a proximal end portion 202 and a distal end portion 203 and defines an inner volume 211 therebetween. The distal end portion 203 can be physically and fluidically coupled to the cannula assembly 220, as described above in reference to FIG. 1. For example, in some embodiments, the distal end portion 203 can include an inlet port 205 (also referred to herein as “first port”) or the like that can be physically and fluidically coupled to the cannula assembly 220. The proximal end portion 202 includes an outlet port 206 (also referred to herein as “second port”) that can be physically and fluidically coupled to an external fluid reservoir 299. The external fluid reservoir 299 can be any suitable fluid reservoir and can be coupled to the second port 206 via an adhesive, a resistance fit, a mechanical fastener, any number of mating recesses, a threaded coupling, and/or any other suitable coupling or combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the external fluid reservoir 299 can be substantially similar to known fluid reservoirs configured to deliver a parenteral fluid (e.g., a fluid source). In some embodiments, the external fluid reservoir 299 is monolithically formed with the second port 206. In still other embodiments, the external fluid reservoir 299 can be operably coupled to the second port 206 via an intervening structure (not shown in FIG. 3), such as, for example, a flexible sterile tubing. More particularly, the intervening structure can define a lumen configured to place the external fluid reservoir 299 in fluid communication with the second port 206. The housing 201 can house or define at least a portion of the fluid reservoir 230. Similarly stated, the fluid reservoir 230 can be at least partially disposed within the inner volume 211 of the housing 201. The fluid reservoir 230 can receive and fluidically isolate a predetermined amount of the bodily fluid, as described above in reference to FIGS. 1 and 2. Similarly, the flow control mechanism 240 is at least partially disposed within the inner volume 211 of the housing 201 and can be moved between a first configuration and a second configuration. More specifically, the flow control mechanism 240 defines a first lumen 246 that fluidically couples the cannula assembly 220 to the fluid reservoir 230 when the flow control mechanism 240 is in the first configuration and a second lumen 247 that fluidically couples the cannula assembly 220 to the external fluid reservoir 299 when the flow control mechanism 240 is in the second configuration. In use, the flow control mechanism 240 can be placed in the first configuration to fluidically couple the cannula assembly 220 to the fluid reservoir 230 via the first lumen 246. In this manner, a flow of a bodily fluid can be delivered to the fluid reservoir 230, as indicated by the arrow DD in FIG. 3. More specifically, the bodily fluid can flow from the cannula assembly 220, through the first port 205 (e.g., the inlet port) and into the fluid reservoir 230. As described above in the previous embodiment, the flow of the bodily fluid can contain dermally residing microbes dislodged by a venipuncture event (e.g., the insertion of a portion of the cannula assembly 220 into a vein of the patient). With a predetermined amount of bodily fluid disposed within the fluid reservoir 230, the flow control mechanism 240 can be moved (e.g., by an actuator and/or manual intervention from the user) to the second configuration to fluidically isolate the fluid reservoir 230 from the cannula assembly 220. More specifically, the flow control mechanism 240 can be moved from the first configuration to fluidically isolate the first lumen 246 from the cannula assembly 220 and/or the fluid reservoir 230, thereby fluidically isolating the fluid reservoir 230 from the cannula assembly 220. In addition, the movement of the flow control mechanism 240 to the second configuration can place the second lumen 247 in fluid communication with the cannula assembly 220 and the outlet port 206 (e.g., the second port) disposed at the proximal end portion 202 of the housing 201. Thus, the external fluid reservoir 299 can be fluidically coupled (as described above) to the second port 206 to deliver a flow of parenteral fluid to the patient via the second lumen 247 and the cannula assembly 220, as indicated by the arrow EE. For example, the flow of parenteral fluid can flow from the external fluid reservoir 299 (e.g., a fluid source), in the second port 206, through the second lumen 247 defined by the flow control mechanism 240, out the first port 205 and to the cannula assembly 220 to be delivered to the patient. Moreover, the flow of the parenteral fluid is substantially free from dermally residing microbes and/or other undesirable external contaminants. In some embodiments, the transfer device 200 can be configured such that the first amount of bodily fluid needs to be conveyed to the fluid reservoir 230 before the transfer device 200 will permit the flow of the parenteral fluid to be conveyed through the transfer device 200 to the patient. In this manner, the transfer device 200 can be characterized as requiring compliance by a health care practitioner regarding the collection of the predetermined amount of bodily fluid prior to the delivery of the parenteral fluid. Similarly stated, the transfer device 200 can be configured to prevent a health care practitioner from delivering the parenteral fluid to the patient without first diverting or transferring the predetermined amount of bodily fluid to the fluid reservoir 230. In this manner, the health care practitioner is substantially prevented from introducing (whether intentionally or unintentionally) bodily surface microbes and/or other undesirable external contaminants into, for example, the flow of the parenteral fluid and/or the blood stream of the patient. In other embodiments, the fluid transfer device 200 need not include a forced-compliance feature or component. FIGS. 4-10 illustrate a transfer device 300 according to an embodiment. The transfer device 300 includes a housing 301, a cannula assembly 320, a fluid reservoir 330, a flow control mechanism 340, and an actuator 380. The transfer device 300 can be any suitable shape, size, or configuration. For example, while shown in FIG. 4 as being substantially cylindrical, the transfer device 300 can be square, rectangular, polygonal, and/or any other non-cylindrical shape. Moreover, any portion of the transfer device 300 can include any feature or finish configured to enhance the ergonomics of the transfer device 300. For example, the housing 301 can include a portion configured to form a grip configured to be engaged by a user's hand. The housing 301 includes a proximal end portion 302 and a distal end portion 303 and defines an inner volume 311 therebetween (see e.g., FIG. 6). As shown in FIG. 5, the proximal end portion 302 of the housing 301 includes a protrusion 304 that selectively engages a portion of the fluid reservoir 330, as described in further detail herein. The distal end portion 303 of the housing 301 is coupled to a port 305. More specifically, the port 305 can be coupled to the distal end portion 303 in any suitable manner such as, for example, via a friction fit, a threaded coupling, a mechanical fastener, an adhesive, any number of mating recesses, and/or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the port 305 can be monolithically formed with the housing 301. Moreover, the port 305 can be coupled to the distal end portion 303 of the housing 301 such that a seal member 316 is disposed between the port 305 and a distal wall 308 of the housing 301. In this manner, when the port 305 is coupled to the housing 301, the seal member 316 can engage the distal wall 308 of the housing 301 and the port 305 to selectively form a substantially fluid tight seal, as described in further detail herein. As shown in FIG. 6, the port 305 is removably coupled to a lock mechanism 321 of the cannula assembly 320. The lock mechanism 321 of the cannula assembly 320 can be, at least temporarily, coupled to the port 305 to selectively place the housing 301 in fluid communication with the cannula assembly 320. For example, in some embodiments, the lock mechanism 321 can be a Luer-Lok® that receives a portion of the port 305 to physically and fluidically couple the cannula assembly 320 to the housing 301. In other embodiments, the lock mechanism 321 and the port 305 can be removably coupled in any suitable manner. As shown in FIGS. 5 and 6, the fluid reservoir 330 defines an inner volume 333 between a proximal end portion 331 and a distal end portion 332. More specifically, the inner volume 333 is closed at the proximal end portion 331 of the fluid reservoir 330 such that at the proximal end, the inner volume 333 is fluidically isolated from a volume outside the fluid reservoir 330. Conversely, the distal end portion 332 of the fluid reservoir 330 is open such that at the distal end, the inner volume 333 can be in fluid communication with a volume outside the fluid reservoir 330. The distal end portion 332 of the fluid reservoir 330 is movably disposed about the proximal end portion 302 of the housing 301, as shown in FIG. 6. Similarly stated, the proximal end portion 302 of the housing 301 is movably disposed within the inner volume 333 defined by the fluid reservoir 330 such that the inner volume 311 defined by the housing 301 is in fluid communication with the inner volume 333 of the fluid reservoir 330. Moreover, the distal end portion 332 of the fluid reservoir 330 includes a protrusion 335 that can be placed in contact with the protrusion 304 disposed at the proximal end portion 302 of the housing 301 to substantially limit the movement of the fluid reservoir 330 relative to the housing 301, as described in further detail herein. The flow control mechanism 340 included in the transfer device 300 is at least partially disposed within the inner volume 311 of the housing 301 and is configured to be moved between a first configuration and a second configuration. Expanding further, the flow control mechanism 340 is in the first configuration when disposed in a distal position relative to the housing 301 (see e.g., FIG. 6) and is in the second configuration when disposed in a proximal position relative to the housing 301 (see e.g., FIG. 9). As shown in FIGS. 6 and 7, the flow control mechanism 340 includes a first member 341 and a second member 360. The first member 341 includes a proximal end portion 342 and a distal end portion 343 and defines a lumen 346 therethrough. The first member 341 can be any suitable shape, size, or configuration. For example, as shown in FIG. 5, the first member 341 can be substantially cylindrical and can have a diameter substantially corresponding to the diameter of the inner volume 311 of the housing 301. The second member 360 of the flow control mechanism 340 includes a proximal end portion 361 and a distal end portion 362 and defines a lumen 363 therethrough. As shown in FIG. 6, at least a portion of the second member 360 is movably disposed within the cannula assembly 320. More specifically, the second member 360 can be substantially cylindrical and can have a diameter substantially corresponding to the inner diameter of the cannula 324 included in the cannula assembly 320. As shown in the enlarged view of FIG. 7, the proximal end portion 361 of the second member 360 is configured to extend through the port 305 and the seal member 316 (described above), and through an opening 309 defined in the distal wall 308 to allow the second member 360 to be coupled to the first member 341. Expanding further, the proximal end portion 361 of the second member 360 is disposed within the lumen 346 defined by the first member 341. In some embodiments, the proximal end portion 361 of the second member 360 can form a friction fit with the walls of the first member 341 that define the lumen 346, thereby coupling the second member 360 to the first member 341. In other embodiments, the second member 360 can be coupled to the first member 341 via an adhesive or the like. The distal end portion 362 of the second member 360 is configured to extend beyond a distal end of the cannula 324 included in the cannula assembly 320, when the flow control mechanism 340 is in the first configuration. Furthermore, the distal end portion 362 of the second member 360 can include a sharp point that can facilitate the insertion of the transfer device 300 (e.g., the flow control mechanism 340 and the cannula assembly 320) into a portion of a patient. For example, the distal end portion 362 of the second member 360 can be used to access a vein of the patient and facilitate the introduction of the cannula 324 into the vein. Moreover, with the cannula 324 and the distal end portion 362 of the second member 360 disposed within the vein of the patient the transfer device 300 can be configured to transfer a portion of a bodily fluid from the patient to the fluid reservoir 330 to prevent injection of dislodged dermally residing microbes that have been incompletely sterilized by surface antisepsis and/or other undesirable external contaminants. As shown in FIG. 8, the transfer device 300 can be moved to a second configuration to begin a flow of bodily fluid (e.g., blood) from the patient to the transfer device 300. More specifically, the fluid reservoir 330 can be moved in the proximal direction relative to the housing 301 to place the transfer device 300 in the second configuration, as indicated by the arrow FF. The arrangement of the fluid reservoir 330 and the housing 301 is such that the proximal motion of the fluid reservoir 330, relative to the housing 301, increases the inner volume 333 defined by the fluid reservoir 330. Expanding further, the proximal end portion 302 of the housing 301 can be disposed within the inner volume 333 of the fluid reservoir 330 such that the protrusion 304 engages an inner surface of the fluid reservoir 330 to define a substantially fluid tight seal. In addition, the protrusion 335 of the fluid reservoir 330 can be placed in contact with the protrusion 304 of the housing 301 to limit the proximal motion of the fluid reservoir 330 relative to the housing 301. In this manner, the proximal motion of the fluid reservoir 330 relative to the housing 301 increases the collective volume of both the inner volume 311 defined by the housing 301 and the inner volume 333 of the fluid reservoir 330. The increase of volume introduces a negative pressure within the inner volume 333 of the fluid reservoir 330 and within the inner volume 311 of the housing 301. Therefore, with the cannula 324 and the second member 360 of the flow control mechanism 340 disposed within the vein of the patient, the negative pressure urges a flow of bodily fluid (e.g., blood) through the lumen 363 and 346 defined by the second member 360 and first member 341 of the flow control mechanism 340, respectively. As indicated by the arrow GG in FIG. 8, the bodily fluid can flow through the lumen 363 and 346 of the flow control mechanism 340 and enter the collective volume formed and/or defined by the inner volume 311 of the housing 301 and the inner volume 333 of the fluid reservoir 330. As shown in FIG. 9, when a predetermined amount of bodily fluid is disposed within the fluid reservoir 330, the flow control mechanism 340 can be moved to its second configuration (e.g., the proximal position relative to the housing 301) to place the transfer device 300 a third configuration. More specifically, the flow control mechanism 340 includes a spring 349 that is in contact with the distal wall 308 of the housing 301 and the distal end portion 343 of the first member 341 included in the flow control mechanism 340. As shown in FIGS. 6-8, the spring 349 is maintained in a compressed configuration while the transfer device 300 is in the first and second configuration. As shown in FIG. 9, when the spring 349 is allowed to expand, the spring 349 exerts a force to move the flow control mechanism 340 in the proximal direction, as indicated by the arrow HH. In some embodiments, the expansion of the spring 349 can be in response to the actuator 380. The actuator 380 can be any suitable mechanism configured to selectively interact with the spring 349 such as, for example, a push button. In other embodiments, the actuator 380 can be a slider, a pull-tab, a lever, a toggle, an electronic switch, or the like. The proximal motion of the flow control mechanism 340 can be such that both the first member 341 and the second member 360 of the flow control mechanism 340 are disposed within the collective volume defined by the fluid reservoir 330 and the housing 301. Similarly stated, the spring 349 moves the flow control mechanism 340 in the proximal direction a sufficient distance to move the distal end portion 362 of the second member 360 through the port 305, the seal member 316, and the distal wall 308 to be disposed within the housing 301. Furthermore, the seal member 316 can be configured such that as the distal end portion 362 passes beyond the distal wall 308 of the housing 301, the seal member 316 acts to seal the opening 309 through which the second member 360 was disposed. Thus, when the flow control mechanism 340 is completely disposed within the collective volume defined by the housing 301 and the fluid reservoir 330 (e.g., the combination of the inner volume 311 and the inner volume 333, respectively), the seal member 316 seals the distal end portion 303 of the housing 301 and the fluid reservoir 330 is substantially fluidically isolated from the cannula assembly 320. With the fluid reservoir 330 fluidically isolated from the cannula assembly 320, the transfer device 300 can be placed in a fourth configuration, as shown in FIG. 10. More specifically, the housing 301 and the fluid reservoir 330 can be collectively moved in the proximal direction such that the port 305 is physically decoupled from the lock mechanism 321 of the cannula assembly 320, as indicated by the arrow II. In this manner, the fluid reservoir 330 can contain and fluidically isolate a portion of the bodily fluid (e.g., blood) that includes, for example, dermally residing microbes dislodged during the venipuncture event (e.g., the insertion of the distal end portion 362 of the second member 360 of the flow control mechanism 340). Furthermore, with the port 305 decoupled from the lock mechanism 321 of the cannula assembly 320, the cannula assembly 320 can be physically and fluidically coupled to an external fluid reservoir (not shown in FIG. 10) that can deliver a flow of a parenteral fluid that is substantially free from the dermally residing microbes. While the fluid reservoir 330 is shown in FIGS. 4-10 as being disposed about a portion of the housing 301, in some embodiments, a transfer device can include a fluid reservoir the is substantially enclosed within a housing. For example, FIGS. 11-15 illustrate a transfer device 400 according to an embodiment. The transfer device 400 includes a housing 401, a cannula assembly 420, a fluid reservoir 430, a flow control mechanism 440, and an actuator 480. As shown in FIGS. 11 and 12, the overall size and shape of the transfer device 400 can be substantially similar to the overall size and shape of the transfer device 300 described above in reference to FIG. 4. In addition, the cannula assembly 420, the flow control mechanism 440, and the actuator 480 can be substantially similar in form and function to the cannula assembly 320, the flow control mechanism 340, and the actuator 380 included in the transfer device 300, described above in reference to FIGS. 4-10. Therefore, the cannula assembly 420, the flow control mechanism 440, and the actuator 480 are not described in further detail herein. The housing 401 of the transfer device 400 includes a proximal end portion 402 and a distal end portion 403 and defines an inner volume 411 therebetween. More specifically, the housing 401 is substantially closed at the proximal end portion 402 such that at the proximal end, the inner volume 411 is fluidically isolated from a volume outside the housing 401. The distal end portion 403 of the housing 401 is coupled to a port 405. The port 405 is substantially similar to the port 305 described above, and can be coupled to the distal end portion 403 of the housing 401 such that a seal member 416 is disposed between the port 405 and a distal wall 408 of the housing 401. In this manner, the seal member 416 can form a substantially fluid tight seal between the distal wall 408 and the port 405 (described in detail with reference the port 305 shown in FIGS. 6 and 7). Furthermore, the port 405 can be configured to removably couple the housing 401 to the cannula assembly 420. For example, the port 405 can be, at least temporarily, physically and fluidically coupled to a lock mechanism 421 included in the cannula assembly 420. In this manner, the housing 401 and the cannula assembly 420 can be selectively placed in fluid communication. The fluid reservoir 430 included in the transfer device 400 is movably disposed within the inner volume 411 defined housing 401. More specifically, the fluid reservoir 430 is configured to move within the housing 401 between a first configuration (FIG. 13) and a second configuration (FIG. 14). The fluid reservoir 430 defines an inner volume 433 between a proximal end portion 431 and a distal end portion 432. The inner volume 433 is configured to selectively receive at least a portion of the flow control mechanism 440. Furthermore, the flow control mechanism 440 can moved between a first position and a second position to move the fluid reservoir 430 between the first configuration and the second configuration, as described in further detail herein. As shown in FIG. 13, the flow control mechanism 440 is in the first position when disposed in a distal position relative to the housing 401. While in the first position, a first member 441 of the flow control mechanism 440 is completely contained within the inner volume 433 and a second member 460 is configured to extend from the first member 441 through the distal end portion 432 of the fluid reservoir 430. The second member 460 of the flow control mechanism 460 further extends through the housing 401 and the port 405 to be at least partially disposed within the cannula assembly 420 (as described above in detail with reference to the second member 360 shown in FIGS. 6 and 7). In this manner, a distal end portion 462 of the second member 460 can extend beyond a cannula 424 of the cannula assembly 420 to facilitate the insertion of the cannula 424 into a portion of a patient. Moreover, with the distal end portion 462 of the second member 460 disposed within the portion of the patient, a lumen 463 defined by the second member 460 and a lumen 446 defined by the first member 441 can place the fluid reservoir 430 in fluid communication with the portion of the patient. In use, the transfer device 400 can be moved from the first configuration (FIG. 13) to the second configuration (FIG. 14) to facilitate the flow of a bodily fluid (e.g., blood) into the fluid reservoir 430. More specifically, the flow control mechanism 440 includes a mechanical actuator 449 (e.g., a spring) that is in contact with the distal wall 408 of the housing 401 and the first member 441 of the flow control mechanism 440. As shown in FIG. 13, the mechanical actuator 449 is maintained in a compressed configuration while the transfer device 400 is in the first configuration. Similarly stated, the flow control mechanism 440 is in the first position relative to the housing 401 when the mechanical actuator 449 is in the compressed configuration. As shown in FIG. 14, when the mechanical actuator 449 is allowed to expand, the mechanical actuator 449 exerts a force to move the flow control mechanism 440 in the proximal direction, as indicated by the arrow JJ. In some embodiments, the expansion of the mechanical actuator 449 can be in response to an actuation of the actuator 480. The proximal motion of the flow control mechanism 440 moves within the inner volume 433 to place the first member 441 in contact with the proximal end portion 441 of the fluid reservoir 430. In this manner, the flow control mechanism 440 urges the proximal end portion 431 of the fluid reservoir 430 to move in the direction of the arrow JJ (e.g., the proximal direction). Moreover, the distal end portion 432 of the fluid reservoir 430 can be coupled to the distal wall 408 of the housing 401 such that as the proximal end portion 431 moves in the proximal direction, the fluid reservoir 430 expands. Similarly stated, the fluid reservoir 430 can form a bellows in which the proximal motion of the flow control mechanism 440 moves the fluid reservoir 430 from a compressed configuration (e.g., the first configuration) to an expanded configuration (e.g., the second configuration). The movement of the proximal end portion 431 relative to the distal end portion 432 increases the inner volume 433 defined by the fluid reservoir 430 and introduces a negative pressure within the inner volume 433. Moreover, with the lumen 446 of the first member 441 and the lumen 463 of the second member 460 in fluid communication with the fluid reservoir 430, at least a portion of the negative pressure is transferred through the flow control mechanism 440. Therefore, while the flow control mechanism 440 is being moved to the second position (FIG. 14), the negative pressure urges a flow of bodily fluid (e.g., blood) through the lumen 463 and 446 defined by the second member 460 and first member 441 of the flow control mechanism 440, respectively. Expanding further, as shown in FIG. 14, the proximal motion of the flow control mechanism 440 is such that the second member 460 is retracted to a proximal position relative to the distal wall 408 of the housing 401. Prior to being disposed in the proximal position relative to the distal wall 408, however, the lumen 463 is maintained in fluid communication with the portion of the patient via the cannula 424. In this manner, the flow control mechanism 440 transfers the bodily fluid to the fluid reservoir 430 while being moved in the proximal direction and prior to being disposed in the second position. Thus, when the second member 460 is retracted to the proximal position relative to the distal wall 408, the flow control mechanism 440 has transferred a predetermined amount of bodily fluid to the fluid reservoir 430 and the seal member 416 can act to fluidically isolate the fluid reservoir 430. Similarly stated, the flow control mechanism 440 is configured to transfer the predetermined amount of bodily fluid to the fluid reservoir 430 concurrently with the proximal motion of both the flow control mechanism 440 and the fluid reservoir 430. With the fluid reservoir 430 fluidically isolated from the cannula assembly 420, the transfer device 400 can be placed in a third configuration, as shown in FIG. 15. More specifically, the housing 401 and the fluid reservoir 430 can be collectively moved in the proximal direction to physically decouple the port 405 from the lock mechanism 421 of the cannula assembly 420, as indicated by the arrow KK. In some embodiments, the actuator 480 can facilitate the decoupling of the port 405 from the lock mechanism 421. In other embodiments, a second actuator (not shown) can be engaged to decouple the port 405 from the lock mechanism 421. In other embodiments, an actuator need not be engaged to decouple the port 405 from the lock mechanism 421. With the port 405 decoupled from the lock mechanism 421, the fluid reservoir 430 can contain and fluidically isolate a portion of the bodily fluid (e.g., blood) that includes, for example, dermally residing microbes dislodged during the venipuncture event (e.g., the insertion of the distal end portion 462 of the second member 460 of the flow control mechanism 440). Furthermore, with the port 405 decoupled from the lock mechanism 421, the cannula assembly 420 can be physically and fluidically coupled to an external fluid reservoir (not shown in FIG. 15) that can deliver a flow of a parenteral fluid that is substantially free from the dermally residing microbes, as described above. While the fluid reservoir 430 is shown in FIGS. 11-15 as being disposed within the inner volume 411 of the housing 401, in some embodiments, a fluid reservoir can be physically and fluidically coupled to a portion of the transfer device. For example, FIGS. 16-23 illustrate a transfer device 500 according to an embodiment. The transfer device 500 includes a housing 501, a cannula assembly 520, a flow control mechanism 540, and an actuator mechanism 580. As shown in FIGS. 16 and 17, the overall size and shape of the transfer device 500 can be substantially similar to the overall size and shape of the transfer device 300 described above in reference to FIG. 4. In other embodiments, the overall size and shape of the transfer device 500 can be square, rectangular, polygonal, and/or any other non-cylindrical shape. In addition, the cannula assembly 520 can be substantially similar in form and function to the cannula assembly 320 included in the transfer device 300, described above in reference to FIGS. 4-10. Therefore, the cannula assembly 520 is not described in further detail herein. As shown in FIG. 18, the housing 501 of the transfer device 500 includes a proximal end portion 502 and a distal end portion 503 and defines an inner volume 511 therebetween. The housing 501 is substantially closed at the proximal end portion 502 such that at the proximal end, the inner volume 511 is fluidically isolated from a volume outside the housing 501. The distal end portion 503 of the housing 501 includes a distal wall 508 that defines an opening 509 configured to receive, at least temporarily, a portion of the flow control mechanism 540, as described in further detail herein. The housing 501 further defines an actuator chamber 510 configured to receive at least a portion of the actuator mechanism 580. As shown in FIG. 18, the walls of the housing 501 can be arranged such that the actuator chamber 510 is a bore with a centerline that is substantially perpendicular to a centerline defined by the inner volume 511. Referring back to FIG. 17, the actuator mechanism 580 includes a first actuator member 581 and a second actuator member 585. As described in further detail herein, the actuator mechanism 580 can be moved between a first configuration (see e.g., FIG. 16) and a second configuration (see e.g., FIG. 21). The first actuator member 581 can be rotatably coupled to the walls of the housing 501 defining the actuator chamber 510. Similarly stated, the first actuator member 581 is configured to be disposed substantially outside the housing 501 and can be rotatably coupled to the walls of the housing 501 that define the actuator chamber 510. The first actuator member 581 includes an engagement portion 582 and a port 583 configured to be physically and fluidically coupled to a fluid reservoir, as described in further detail herein. As shown in FIG. 19, the second actuator member 585 can be substantially cylindrical and is configured to be disposed within the actuator chamber 510 defined by the housing 501. The second actuator member 585 defines a lumen 587 and a flow control channel 588. The lumen 587 is configured to be in fluid communication with the port 583 of the first actuator member 581. In this manner, the lumen 587 and the port 583 can receive a flow of a bodily fluid when the actuator mechanism 580 is in the first configuration, as described in further detail herein. The flow control channel 588 is configured to receive at least a portion of the flow control mechanism 540 when the actuator mechanism 580 is placed in the second configuration, as described in further detail herein. The flow control mechanism 540 included in the transfer device 500 is at least partially disposed within the inner volume 511 of the housing 501 and is configured to be moved between a first position and a second position. Expanding further, the flow control mechanism 540 is in the first position when disposed in a distal position relative to the housing 501 (see e.g., FIG. 20) and is in the second position when disposed in a proximal position relative to the housing 501 (see e.g., FIG. 22). As shown in FIGS. 17 and 20, the flow control mechanism 540 includes a first member 541 and a second member 560. The first member 541 includes a proximal end portion 542 and a distal end portion 543 and defines a lumen 546 therethrough. The first member 541 can be any suitable shape, size, or configuration. For example, as shown in FIG. 17, the first member 541 can be substantially cylindrical with the proximal end portion 542 having a first diameter that substantially corresponds to the diameter of the flow control channel 588 defined by the second actuator member 585. As shown in FIG. 20, the first member 541 can be configured such that when the flow control mechanism 540 is in the first position, the lumen 546 defined by the first member 541 is in fluid communication with the lumen 587 defined by the second actuator member 585, as described in further detail herein. The distal end portion 543 of the first member 541 can have a second diameter, smaller than the first diameter, substantially corresponding to an inner diameter of a lock mechanism 521 included in the cannula assembly 520. For example, in some embodiments, the distal end portion 543 can extend through the opening 509 defined by the distal wall 508 of the housing 501 to be disposed within the lock mechanism 521. In some embodiments, the distal end portion 543 can form a friction fit with an inner surface of the lock mechanism 521 to removably couple the flow control mechanism 540 to the cannula assembly 520. Furthermore, with the proximal end portion 542 of the first member 541 disposed in a proximal position relative to the distal wall 508 and with the diameter of the proximal end portion 542 substantially larger than the diameter of the opening 509, the flow control mechanism 540 operatively couples the housing 501 to the cannula assembly 520. The second member 560 of the flow control mechanism 540 includes a proximal end portion 561 and a distal end portion 562 and defines a lumen 563 therethrough. As shown in FIG. 20, at least a portion of the second member 560 is movably disposed within a cannula 524 of the cannula assembly 520. As described above with respect to the flow control mechanism 340, the proximal end portion 561 of the second member 560 is configured to extend through the lock mechanism 521 to be coupled to the first member 541. Expanding further, the proximal end portion 561 of the second member 560 is disposed within the lumen 546 defined by the first member 541. The distal end portion 562 of the second member 560 is configured to extend beyond a distal end of the cannula 524 included in the cannula assembly 520, when the flow control mechanism 540 is in the first configuration. In this manner, the second member 560 can facilitate the insertion of the transfer device 500 into a portion of a patient (e.g., the distal end can include a sharp point) and can further facilitate a transfer of a bodily fluid from the patient to a fluid reservoir (e.g., via the lumen 563). For example, as shown in FIG. 20, the transfer device 500 can be in a first configuration when the flow control mechanism 540 is in the first position and the actuator mechanism 580 is in its first configuration. In this manner, the second member 560 of the flow control mechanism 540 and the cannula 524 of the cannula assembly 520 can be inserted into a portion of the patient, such as a vein, to place the transfer device 500 in fluid communication with the portion of the patient. Furthermore, a fluid reservoir (not shown in FIGS. 16-23) can be physically and fluidically coupled to the port 583 of the second actuator member 581. The arrangement of the flow control mechanism 540 and the actuator mechanism 580 is such that when the fluid reservoir is physically and fluidically coupled to the port 583, the fluid reservoir is in fluid communication with the lumen 587 defined by the second actuator member 585 and the two lumen 546 and 563 defined by the first member 541 and the second member 560 of the flow control mechanism 540, respectively. In some embodiments, the fluid reservoir can be, for example, a Vacutainer®. In such embodiments, the fluid reservoir can define a negative pressure such that when fluidically coupled to the port 583, the fluid reservoir introduces a suction force within the portion of the patient (e.g., via the lumen 587, 546, and 563). In this manner, a portion of the suction force can urge a flow of bodily fluid through the lumen 563, 546, and 587 and into the fluid reservoir, as indicated by the arrow LL in FIG. 20. Moreover, the flow of bodily fluid can be such that dermally residing microbes dislodged during a venipuncture event (e.g., the insertion of the flow control mechanism 540 and the cannula 524) become entrained therein and are transferred to the fluid reservoir. With a predetermined amount of bodily fluid transferred to the fluid reservoir, the fluid reservoir can be decoupled from the port 583 (e.g., physically and fluidically or only fluidically). In this manner, a user can engage the first actuator member 581 to move the actuator mechanism 580 to its second configuration and thereby place the transfer device in a second configuration. For example, as indicated by the arrow MM in FIG. 21, the user (e.g., a physician, a nurse, a phlebotomist, etc.) can rotate the first actuator member 581 in a clockwise direction relative to the housing 501. The actuator mechanism 580 is such that the rotation of the first actuator member 581 urges the second actuator member 585 to also rotate relative to the housing 501. In this manner, a centerline defined by the flow control channel 587 is rotated from a first configuration in which the centerline is substantially perpendicular to the centerline defined by the inner volume 511 to a second configuration in which the centerline is substantially parallel to the centerline of the inner volume 511. Similarly stated, the second actuator member 585 is rotated such that the centerline defined by the flow control channel 587 is aligned with the centerline defined by the inner volume 511. As shown in FIG. 22, the rotation of the actuator mechanism 580 toward the second configuration can facilitate the movement of the flow control mechanism 540 from the first position toward the second position. More specifically, the flow control mechanism 540 includes a spring 549 that is disposed about the distal end portion 543 of the first member 541 and is in contact with the distal wall 508 of the housing 501 and a surface of the first member 541. The spring 549 is maintained in a compressed configuration while the transfer device 500 is in the first configuration. For example, as shown in FIG. 20, a proximal surface of the first member 541 of the flow control mechanism 540 can be in contact with a surface of the second actuator mechanism 585 such that the second actuator mechanism 585 prevents proximal movement of the flow control mechanism 540. When the actuator mechanism 580 is moved to the second configuration and the flow control channel 587 is aligned with the inner volume 511 (as described above), however, the proximal surface of the first member 541 is no longer in contact with the surface of the second actuator member 585 and the spring 549 is allowed to expand. The expansion of the spring 549 exerts a force on the first member 541 of the flow control mechanism 540 to move the flow control mechanism 540 in the proximal direction, as indicated by the arrow NN in FIG. 22. In this manner, the flow control mechanism 540 can pass through the flow control channel 587 defined by the second actuator member 585 to be disposed in the second position (e.g., the distal position). The proximal motion of the flow control mechanism 540 is such that both the first member 541 and the second member 560 of the flow control mechanism 540 are disposed within the inner volume 511 defined by the housing 501. Similarly stated, the spring 549 moves the flow control mechanism 540 in the proximal direction a sufficient distance to move the distal end portion 562 of the second member 560 through the opening 509 defined by the distal wall 508 to be disposed within the housing 501. As shown in FIG. 23, with the flow control mechanism 540 disposed within the housing 501, the distal end portion 543 of the first member 541 is no longer disposed within the lock mechanism 521 of the cannula assembly 520. In this manner, the housing 501 is physically and fluidically decoupled from the cannula assembly 520 and can be moved away from the cannula assembly 520, as indicated by the arrow 00 in FIG. 23. Furthermore, with the housing 501 decoupled from the lock mechanism 521, the cannula assembly 520 can be physically and fluidically coupled to an external fluid reservoir (not shown in FIG. 23) that can deliver a flow of a parenteral fluid to the portion of the patient that is substantially free from the dermally residing microbes. While the transfer devices described above are configured to include a cannula assembly that is physically and fluidically decoupled from a portion of the transfer device to receive a parenteral fluid, in some embodiments, a transfer device can include a cannula assembly configured to remain physically coupled to a portion of the transfer device. For example, FIGS. 24-30 illustrate a transfer device 600 according to an embodiment. The transfer device 600 includes a housing 601, a cannula assembly 620, a fluid reservoir 630, and a flow control mechanism 640. In use, the transfer device 600 can be moved between a first, a second, and a third configuration to receive a predetermined amount of a bodily fluid from a patient and to deliver a flow of a parenteral fluid to the patient that is substantially free from, for example, dermally residing microbes. As shown in FIGS. 24 and 25, the housing 601 includes a proximal end portion 602 and a distal end portion 603 and defines an inner volume 611 therebetween. The proximal end portion 602 is substantially open such that the inner volume 611 can selectively receive the fluid reservoir 630 and at least a portion of the flow control mechanism 640. In addition, the proximal end portion 602 includes a protrusion 604 configured to engage a portion of the flow control mechanism 640, as described in further detail herein. The distal end portion 603 of the housing 601 includes a distal port 605 and a reservoir seat 618. The reservoir seat 618 is configured to engage, at least temporarily, a portion of the fluid reservoir 630, as described in further detail herein. The distal port 605 is configured to be physically and fluidically coupled to a lock mechanism 621 included in the cannula assembly 620. For example, in some embodiments, the lock mechanism 621 can be a Luer-Lok® configured to receive the port 605. In other embodiments, the port 605 and the lock mechanism 621 can be coupled in any suitable manner such as, for example, a threaded coupling, a friction fit, or the like. In still other embodiments, the port 605 and the lock mechanism 621 can be coupled via an adhesive or the like to fixedly couple the cannula assembly 620 to the housing 601. With the lock mechanism 621 coupled to the port 605, the inner volume 611 of the housing 601 is in fluid communication with a cannula 624 included in the cannula assembly 620, as further described herein. As described above, the fluid reservoir 630 is disposed within the inner volume 611 of the housing 601. More particularly, the fluid reservoir 630 is movably disposed within the inner volume 611 between a first position in which the fluid reservoir 630 is in a distal position relative to the housing 601 (see e.g., FIG. 28) and a second position in which the fluid reservoir 630 is in a proximal position relative to the housing 601 (see e.g., FIG. 30). As shown in FIG. 26, the fluid reservoir 630 includes a proximal end portion 631 and a distal end portion 632 and defines an inner volume 633 therebetween. The proximal end portion 631 includes a flange 634 and a protrusion 635 and defines a set of openings 636. Furthermore, the proximal end portion 631 of the fluid reservoir 630 is substantially open to receive a portion of the flow control mechanism 640. In this manner, the proximal end portion 631 is configured to engage, interact, or otherwise correspond with a portion of the flow control mechanism 640, as further described herein. The distal end portion 632 of the fluid reservoir 630 includes a valve seat 637. The valve seat 637 includes a port 638 and receives a valve 639 (see e.g., FIG. 28-30). The valve seat 637 is selectively disposed about the reservoir seat 618 of the housing 601, as described in further detail herein. The valve 639 can be any suitable valve such as, for example, a check valve or the like. In this manner, the distal end portion 632 can be selectively placed in fluid communication with the inner volume 611 when the fluid reservoir 630 is disposed within the housing 601, as described in further detail herein. As described above, the flow control mechanism 640 can be at least partially disposed within the housing 601. More particularly and as shown in FIG. 27, the flow control mechanism 640 includes an engagement portion 645 configured to be disposed outside the housing 601 and a plunger portion 650 configured to be at least partially disposed within the inner volume 611 defined by the housing 601. As described in further detail herein, the engagement portion 645 can be engaged by a user to move the flow control mechanism 640 between a first configuration and a second configuration. The plunger portion 650 of the flow control mechanism 640 is configured to extend in a distal direction from a surface of the engagement portion 645. The plunger 650 includes a first surface 652, a second surface 655, a protrusion 653, a first seal member 658, and a second seal member 659. As shown in FIG. 27, the plunger portion 650 is substantially cylindrical and defines a channel 651 that receives, for example, a cannula 664 that defines a lumen 646. More particularly, the cannula 664 is configured to be disposed within an opening 654 defined by the first surface 652 to place the lumen 646 in fluid communication with an inner volume 656 defined between the first surface 652 and the second surface 655. The plunger 650 is further configured to define a set of openings 657 that can selectively place the inner volume 656 in fluid communication with a portion of the housing 601, as described in further detail herein. In use, the transfer device 600 can be moved between a first configuration (FIG. 28), a second configuration (FIG. 29), and a third configuration (FIG. 30). Referring to FIG. 28, while in the first configuration, the cannula 624 of the cannula assembly 620 can be inserted into a portion of a patient to place the cannula 624 in fluid communication with, for example, a vein. In some embodiments, the cannula 624 can include a sharp point at a distal end such that the cannula 624 can pierce the portion of the patient. In other embodiments, the cannula assembly 620 can include a trocar (not shown) to facilitate the insertion of the cannula 624. As described above, the cannula assembly 620 is physically and fluidically coupled to the port 605 of the housing 601 such that when the cannula 624 is placed in fluid communication with the vein of the patient, the port 605 is concurrently placed in fluid communication with the vein. With the port 605 in fluid communication with the portion of the patient (e.g., the vein), a user (e.g., a physician, nurse, technician, or the like) can engage the engagement portion 645 of the flow control mechanism 640 to place the transfer device 600 in the second configuration. As shown in FIG. 29, the transfer device 600 is placed in the second configuration when the plunger portion 650 of the flow control mechanism 640 is moved within the fluid reservoir 630 from a first position (e.g., a distal position) to a proximal position (e.g., a proximal position), as indicated by the arrow PP. More specifically, the transfer device 600 includes a spring 649 configured to engage the protrusion 604 of the housing 601 and the flange 634 of the fluid reservoir 630 to maintain the fluid reservoir 630 in the first position while the flow control mechanism 640 is moved to its second position. Similarly, stated the flow control mechanism 640 is moved in a proximal direction relative to the fluid reservoir 630. In addition, the first seal member 658 can engage an inner surface of the fluid reservoir 630 such that the proximal movement of the flow control mechanism 640 produces a negative pressure within a portion of the inner volume 633 of the fluid reservoir 630 (e.g., the portion of the inner volume 633 that is disposed distally relative to the first seal member 658). In this manner, the negative pressure introduces a suction force that can be operable placing the valve 639 in an open configuration. Thus, with the cannula 624 and the port 605 in fluid communication with the portion of the patient (e.g., the vein), a flow of bodily fluid (e.g., blood) can pass through the valve 639 and enter the inner volume 633 of the fluid reservoir 630, as indicated by the arrow QQ. As shown in FIG. 29, the proximal movement of the flow control mechanism 640 relative to the fluid reservoir 630 is configured to stop when the flow control mechanism 640 is in the second position (e.g., the proximal position). More specifically, the protrusion 635 of the fluid reservoir 630 can engage the protrusion 653 of the plunger portion 650 to limit the proximal movement of the flow control mechanism 640 relative to the fluid reservoir 630. Furthermore, when the flow control mechanism 640 is in the second position relative to the fluid reservoir 630, the openings 657 of the plunger portion 650 are in fluid communication with the openings 636 defined by the fluid reservoir 630. Thus, the inner volume 656 defined by the plunger portion 650 of the flow control mechanism 640 is placed in fluid communication with the inner volume 611 of the housing 601, as described in further detail herein. With the transfer device 600 in the second configuration, a flow of a predetermined amount of bodily fluid can be transferred to the inner volume 633 of the fluid reservoir 630 that can include, for example, dermally residing microbes dislodged during a venipuncture event (e.g., the insertion of the cannula 624 into the vein and/or otherwise accessing the vasculature of the patient). In addition, when the predetermined amount of bodily fluid is transferred to the inner volume 633 of the fluid reservoir 630, the valve 639 can be placed in a closed configuration. For example, in some embodiments, the transfer of the predetermined amount of bodily fluid can be such that the negative pressure within the inner volume 633 is brought into equilibrium with the pressure of the vein, thus allowing the valve 639 to move to the closed configuration. In other embodiments, the valve 639 can be manually actuated by user interference (e.g., engagement of an actuator, a switch, a button, a toggle, or the like). In this manner, the bodily fluid disposed in the inner volume 633 between the first seal member 658 and the distal end portion 632 of the fluid reservoir 630 can be fluidically isolated from a volume outside the inner volume 633. Expanding further, the first seal member 658 prevents a flow of the bodily fluid in the proximal direction and the valve 639, being in the closed configuration, prevents a flow of the bodily fluid in the distal direction. Thus, the predetermined amount of bodily fluid is fluidically isolated from a volume outside the inner volume 633 of the fluid reservoir 630 defined between the first seal member 658 and the distal end portion 632. As indicated by the arrow RR in FIG. 30, the user can continue to move the flow control mechanism 640 in the proximal direction to place the transfer device 600 in the third configuration. More specifically, with the protrusion 653 of the flow control mechanism 640 in contact with the protrusion 635 of the fluid reservoir 630, the proximal movement of the flow control mechanism 640 is such that the flow control mechanism 640 and the fluid reservoir 630 move, concurrently, in the proximal direction relative to the housing 601. Furthermore, the proximal movement is such that the valve seat 637 is moved in the proximal direction relative to the reservoir seat 618. Similarly stated, the proximal movement of the fluid reservoir 630 is such that the valve seat 637 is no longer disposed about the reservoir seat 618 of the housing 601. In this manner, the port 605 is placed in fluid communication with the inner volume 611 of the housing 601. With the transfer device 600 in the third configuration, an external fluid source (not shown in FIG. 30) can be placed in fluid communication with a portion of the transfer device 600 to transfer a flow of parenteral fluid to the portion of the patient. For example, in some embodiments, the transfer device 600 can include a proximal lock mechanism 613 that can physically and fluidically couple the transfer device 600 to the external fluid source. The proximal lock mechanism 613 can be any of those described herein. In this manner, the external fluid source can deliver a flow of parenteral fluid to the lumen 646, as indicated by the arrow SS. Moreover, with the lumen 646 in fluid communication with the inner volume 656 defined between the first surface 652 and the second surface 655, the flow of the parenteral fluid can pass through the openings 657 defined by the plunger portion 650 of the flow control mechanism 640. In addition, the first seal member 658 and the second seal member 659 can act to define a fluid flow path that directs the flow of the parenteral fluid to the openings 636 defined by the fluid reservoir 630. In this manner, the flow of parenteral fluid can pass through the openings 636 of the fluid reservoir 630 to enter the inner volume 611 defined by the housing 601. Similarly stated, upon exiting the openings 636, the parenteral fluid can flow within the inner volume 611 defined by the housing 601 and outside of the fluid reservoir 630, as indicated by the arrows SS. Expanding further, the parenteral fluid can flow within the housing 601 in the distal direction and enter the port 605 to transfer the flow parenteral fluid to the cannula assembly 620. Therefore, the external fluid source can deliver a flow of parenteral fluid to the patient that is fluidically isolated from the predetermined amount of bodily fluid disposed in the fluid reservoir 630 and is thus, substantially free from dermally residing microbes and/or other undesirable external contaminants. In some embodiments, user intervention maintains the transfer device 600 in the third configuration. Expanding further and as described above, the proximal movement of the fluid reservoir 630 is such that a portion of the force applied by the user (e.g., the physician, nurse, technician, or the like) to move the flow control mechanism 640 and fluid reservoir 630 is used to move the spring 649 to a compressed configuration. In such embodiments, the removal of the portion of the force would allow the spring 649 to expand and thereby move the fluid reservoir 630 in the distal direction. In other embodiments, a transfer device can include a catch, protrusion, latch or the like configured to maintain the spring in the compressed configuration. While the transfer device 600 is shown in FIGS. 24-30 as including a fluid reservoir 630, in other embodiments, a transfer device can include a flow control mechanism with an integrated fluid reservoir. For example, FIGS. 31-34 illustrate a transfer device 700 according to an embodiment. The transfer device 700 includes a housing 701, a cannula assembly 720, and a flow control mechanism 740. In use, the transfer device 700 can be moved between a first configuration and a second configuration to receive a predetermined amount of a bodily fluid from a patient and to deliver a flow of a parenteral fluid to the patient that is substantially free from, for example, dermally residing microbes and/or other undesirable external contaminants. As shown in FIGS. 31 and 32, the housing 701 includes a proximal end portion 702 having a proximal port 706 and a distal end portion 703 having a distal port 705. The proximal port 706 is configured to be physically and fluidically coupled to an external fluid source, as described in further detail herein. The distal port 705 is configured to be physically and fluidically coupled to a lock mechanism 721 included in the cannula assembly 720. For example, in some embodiments, the lock mechanism 721 can be a Luer-Lok® configured to receive the distal port 705. In other embodiments, the distal port 705 and the lock mechanism 721 can be coupled in any suitable manner such as, for example, a threaded coupling, a friction fit, or the like. In still other embodiments, the distal port 705 and the lock mechanism 721 can be coupled via an adhesive or the like to fixedly couple the cannula assembly 720 to the housing 701. With the lock mechanism 721 coupled to the distal port 705, the distal port 705 is placed in fluid communication with a cannula 724 included in the cannula assembly 720, as further described herein. The housing 701 defines an inner volume 711 and a set of recess 710. The inner volume 711 is configured to receive at least a portion of the flow control mechanism 740. As shown in FIG. 31, the set of recesses 710 are defined by the housing 701 in a perpendicular orientation relative to the proximal port 706 and distal port 705. Similarly stated, the recesses 710 are perpendicular to a centerline defined by the proximal port 706 and the distal port 705. In this manner, a portion of the flow control mechanism 740 can extend through the recesses 710 when the flow control mechanism 740 is disposed within the inner volume 711 of the housing 701, as described in further detail herein. The flow control mechanism 740 defines a first lumen 746, a second lumen 747, and a fluid reservoir 730. The first lumen 746 extends through a portion of the flow control mechanism 740 and is in fluid communication with the fluid reservoir 730. Similarly stated, the first lumen 746 extends through a portion of the flow control mechanism 740 to selectively place the fluid reservoir 730 in fluid communication with a volume substantially outside of the flow control mechanism 740, as described in further detail herein. As shown in FIG. 33, the second lumen 747 extends through the flow control mechanism 740 and is fluidically isolated from the fluid reservoir 730. In this manner, the second lumen 747 can be selectively placed in fluid communication with the proximal port 706 and the distal port 705 of the housing 701 to deliver a flow of parenteral fluid, as described in further detail herein. The flow control mechanism 740 has a circular cross-sectional shape such that when the flow control mechanism 740 is disposed within the inner volume 711, a portion of the flow control mechanism 740 forms a friction fit with the walls of the housing 701 defining the inner volume 711. For example, in some embodiments, the flow control mechanism 740 is formed from silicone and has a diameter larger than the diameter of the inner volume 711. In this manner, the diameter of the flow control mechanism 740 is reduced when the flow control mechanism 740 is disposed within the inner volume 711. Thus, the outer surface of the flow control mechanism 740 forms a friction fit with the inner surface of the walls defining the inner volume 711. In other embodiments, the flow control mechanism 740 can be any suitable elastomer configured to deform when disposed within the inner volume 711 of the housing 701. In use, while in the first configuration, the cannula 724 of the cannula assembly 720 can be inserted into a portion of a patient to place the cannula 724 in fluid communication with, for example, a vein. In some embodiments, the cannula 724 can include a sharp point at a distal end such that the cannula 724 can pierce the portion of the patient. In other embodiments, the cannula assembly 720 can include a trocar (not shown) to facilitate the insertion of the cannula 724. As described above, the cannula assembly 720 is physically and fluidically coupled to the distal port 705 of the housing 701 such that when the cannula 724 is placed in fluid communication with the vein of the patient, the distal port 705 is placed in fluid communication with the vein. As shown in FIG. 33, when the transfer device 700 is in the first configuration, the first lumen 746 of the flow control mechanism 740 is in fluid communication with the distal port 705 of the housing 701. In this manner, the fluid reservoir 730 defined by the flow control mechanism 740 is placed in fluid communication with the vein of the patient and can receive a flow of a bodily fluid (e.g., blood). Moreover, with the flow control mechanism 740 forming a friction fit with the inner surface of the housing 701 (as described above), the flow control mechanism 740 and the housing 701 can form a substantially fluid tight seal about an inlet of the first lumen 746. In this manner, the cannula assembly 720, the distal port 705, and the first lumen 746 collectively define a flow path configured to deliver a flow of bodily fluid from the portion of the patient to the fluid reservoir 730, as indicated by the arrow TT. In addition, the flow of bodily fluid can be such that dermally residing microbes dislodged during a venipuncture event (e.g., the insertion of the cannula 724) are entrained in the flow of bodily fluid and are transferred to the fluid reservoir 740. With a desired amount of bodily fluid transferred to the fluid reservoir 730, a user can engage the transfer device 700 to move the transfer device 700 from the first configuration to the second configuration. In some embodiments, the desired amount of bodily fluid transferred to the fluid reservoir 730 is a predetermined amount of fluid. For example, in some embodiments, the transfer device 700 can be configured to transfer bodily fluid until the pressure within the fluid reservoir 730 is equilibrium with the pressure of the portion of the body in which the cannula 724 is disposed (e.g., the vein). In some embodiments, at least a portion of the flow control mechanism 740 can be transparent to allow visualization of the bodily fluid flowing into the fluid reservoir 730. The flow control mechanism 740 can include indicators (e.g., 0.1 mL, 0.5 mL, 1 mL, 1.5 mL, 2 mL, 3 mL, 4 mL, 5 mL, etc. graduation marks) to the user can visualize the volume of bodily fluid that has been received in the fluid reservoir 730. As shown in FIG. 34, the transfer device 700 can be moved from the first configuration to the second configuration by moving the flow control mechanism 740 in the direction of the arrow UU. In this manner, the first lumen 746 is fluidically isolated from the distal port 705. While not shown in FIGS. 31-34, the first lumen 746 can include a valve or seal configured to fluidically isolate the bodily fluid disposed within the fluid reservoir 730 from a volume outside the flow control mechanism 740. In some embodiments, the valve can be, for example, a one-way check valve. Thus, the fluid reservoir 730 can receive the flow of fluid from a volume outside the fluid reservoir 730 but prevent a flow of fluid from the fluid reservoir 730. When moved to the second configuration, the second lumen 747 defined by the flow control mechanism 740 is placed in fluid communication with the distal port 705 and the proximal port 706 of the housing 701. As described above, the proximal port 706 can be physically and fluidically coupled to an external fluid source (not shown in FIGS. 31-34) such that when the transfer device 700 is in the second configuration, the proximal port 706, the second lumen 747, the distal port 705, and the cannula assembly 720 collectively define a fluid flow path. In this manner, the transfer device 700 can facilitate the delivery of a flow of parenteral fluid from the external fluid source to the portion of the patient (e.g., the vein), as indicated by the arrow VV in FIG. 34. Expanding further, with the predetermined amount of bodily fluid fluidically isolated within the fluid reservoir 730, the transfer device 700 can facilitate the delivery of the flow of parenteral fluid to the patient that is substantially free from, for example, the dermally residing microbes dislodged during the venipuncture event. While the flow control mechanism 740 is shown in FIGS. 31-34 as including the integrated fluid reservoir 730, in other embodiments, a transfer device can be configured to be physically and fluidically coupled to an external fluid reservoir. For example, FIGS. 35-39 illustrate a transfer device 800 according to an embodiment. As shown in FIGS. 35 and 36, the transfer device 800 includes a housing 801, a cannula assembly 820, and a flow control mechanism 880. In use, the transfer device 800 can be moved between a first configuration and a second configuration to receive a predetermined amount of a bodily fluid from a patient and to deliver a flow of a parenteral fluid to the patient that is substantially free from, for example, dermally residing microbes. The housing 801 includes a proximal end portion 802, a distal end portion 803, and defines an inner volume 811. The inner volume 811 can receive at least a portion of the flow control mechanism 880 and the actuator 880, as further described herein. As shown in FIG. 37, the distal end portion 803 of the housing 801 defines a distal port 805 and the proximal end portion 802 of the housing 801 defines a first proximal port 806, and a second proximal port 807. The distal port 805, the first proximal port 806, and the second proximal port 807 are configured to be in fluid communication with the inner volume 811 defined by the housing 801. The distal port 805 is configured to receive a distal cannula 817. The distal cannula 817 (e.g., a lumen defining cannula) is configured to be physically and fluidically coupled to a port 822 included in the cannula assembly 820. The port 822 can be any suitable port. For example, in some embodiments, the distal cannula 817 and the port 822 can be coupled via an adhesive or the like to fixedly couple the cannula assembly 820 to the housing 801. With the port 822 of the cannula assembly 820 coupled to the distal cannula 817 and with the distal cannula 817 coupled to the distal port 805, the distal port 805 is in fluid communication with a cannula 824 included in the cannula assembly 820, as further described herein. The first proximal port 806 and the second proximal port 807 are configured to receive a first proximal cannula 812 and a second proximal cannula 814, respectively (e.g., lumen defining cannulas). Furthermore, the first proximal cannula 812 is physically and fluidically coupled to a first lock mechanism 813 that can further be physically and fluidically coupled to an external fluid reservoir (not shown in FIGS. 35-39). Similarly, the second proximal cannula 814 is physically and fluidically coupled to a second lock mechanism 815 that can further be physically and fluidically coupled to an external fluid source (not shown in FIGS. 35-39). In this manner, the cannula assembly 820, the external fluid reservoir (not shown), and the external fluid source (not shown) can be selectively placed in fluid communication with the inner volume 811 defined by the housing 801, as described in further detail herein. Referring back to FIG. 36, the actuator mechanism 880 includes an engagement portion 882 and an activation surface 884. The activation surface 844 is configured to contact, mate, or otherwise engage the flow control mechanism 840. The engagement portion 882 can be engaged by a user to rotate the actuator mechanism 880 relative to the housing 801 to move the transfer device 800 between a first configuration and a second configuration, as described in further detail herein. The flow control mechanism 840 defines a first lumen 846 and a second lumen 847 and is disposed within the inner volume 821 defined by the housing 801. The flow control mechanism 840 defines a circular cross-sectional shape such that when the flow control mechanism 840 is disposed within the inner volume 821, a portion of the flow control mechanism 840 forms a friction fit with the walls of the housing 801 defining the inner volume 821, as described in detail above. The flow control mechanism 840 is operably coupled to and/or otherwise engages the actuator 880. For example, in some embodiments, the actuator mechanism 880 can be coupled to the flow control mechanism 840 via a mechanical fastener and/or adhesive. In other embodiments, the actuator mechanism 880 and the flow control mechanism 840 can be coupled in any suitable manner. Therefore, the flow control mechanism 840 is configured to move concurrently with the actuator mechanism 880 when the actuator mechanism 880 is rotated relative to the housing 801. In this manner, the flow control mechanism 840 can be moved to place the first lumen 846 or the second lumen 847 in fluid communication with the distal port 805, the first proximal port 806, and/or the second proximal port 807, as described in further detail herein. In use, while in the first configuration, the cannula 824 of the cannula assembly 820 can be inserted into a portion of a patient to place the cannula 824 in fluid communication with, for example, a vein. In some embodiments, the cannula 824 can include a sharp point at a distal end such that the cannula 824 can pierce the portion of the patient. In other embodiments, the cannula assembly 820 can include a trocar (not shown) to facilitate the insertion of the cannula 824. As described above, the cannula assembly 820 is physically and fluidically coupled to the distal port 805 of the housing 801 such that when the cannula 824 is placed in fluid communication with the vein of the patient, the distal port 805 is placed in fluid communication with the vein. Furthermore, a user (e.g., a physician, a nurse, a technician, or the like) can engage the transfer device 800 to physically and fluidically couple the first lock mechanism 813 to an external fluid reservoir (not shown). The external fluid reservoir can be any suitable reservoir. For example, in some embodiments, the external fluid reservoir can be a BacT/ALERT® SN or a BacT/ALERT® FA, manufactured by BIOMERIEUX, INC. In this manner, the external fluid reservoir can define a negative pressure within an inner volume of the reservoir. Therefore, when the flow control mechanism 840 is in the first configuration, a negative pressure differential introduces a suction force within the first proximal cannula 812, the first lumen 846 defined by the flow control mechanism 840, the distal cannula 817, and the cannula assembly 820. In this manner, the first proximal cannula 812, the first lumen 846 defined by the flow control mechanism 840, the distal cannula 817, and the cannula assembly 820 collectively define a fluid flow path configured to transfer a flow of a bodily fluid to the external fluid reservoir, as indicated by the arrow WW in FIG. 37. In addition, the flow of bodily fluid can be such that dermally residing microbes dislodged during a venipuncture event (e.g., the insertion of the cannula 824) are entrained in the flow of bodily fluid and are transferred to the external fluid reservoir. As shown in FIG. 38, in some embodiments, the magnitude of the suction force can be modulated by moving the actuator mechanism 880 in the direction of the arrow XX. For example, in some instances, it can be desirable to limit the amount of suction force introduced to a vein. In such instances, the user can move the actuator mechanism 880 and the flow control mechanism 840 to reduce the size of the fluid pathway (e.g., an inner diameter) between the distal port 805 of the housing 801 and the first lumen 846 of the flow control mechanism 840, thereby reducing the suction force introduced into the vein of the patient. With the desired amount of bodily fluid transferred to the external fluid reservoir, a user can engage the actuator mechanism 880 to move the transfer device 800 from the first configuration to the second configuration. In some embodiments, the desired amount of bodily fluid transferred to the external fluid reservoir is a predetermined amount of fluid. For example, in some embodiments, the transfer device 800 can be configured to transfer bodily fluid until the pressure within the external fluid reservoir is equilibrium with the pressure of the portion of the body in which the lumen-defining device is disposed (e.g., the vein), as described above. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the external fluid reservoir can be transparent to allow visualization of the bodily fluid flowing into the fluid reservoir. The external fluid reservoir can include indicators (e.g., 0.1 mL, 0.5 mL, 1 mL, 1.5 mL, 2 mL, 3 mL, 4 mL, 5 mL, etc. graduation marks to accommodate identification of diversion volumes ranging from just a few drops or centiliters of blood to a larger volumes) so the user can visualize the volume of bodily fluid that has been received in the external fluid reservoir. The transfer device 800 can be moved from the first configuration to the second configuration by further moving the actuator mechanism 880 in the direction of the arrow XX in FIG. 38. As the actuator mechanism 880 is moved from the first configuration toward the second configuration, the actuator mechanism 880 rotates the flow control mechanism 840 toward its second configuration. In this manner, the first lumen 846 is fluidically isolated from the distal port 805 and the first proximal port 806 and the external fluid reservoir can be physically and fluidically decoupled from the transfer device 800. In addition, the second lumen 847 defined by the flow control mechanism 840 is placed in fluid communication with the distal port 805 and the second proximal port 807, as shown in FIG. 39. With the transfer device in the second configuration, the second proximal lock mechanism 815 can be physically and fluidically coupled to the external fluid source (not shown in FIGS. 35-39). In this manner, the second proximal cannula 814, the second lumen 847 of the flow control mechanism 840, the distal cannula 817, and the cannula assembly 820 collectively define a fluid flow path. Thus, the transfer device 800 can facilitate the delivery of a flow of parenteral fluid from the external fluid source to the portion of the patient (e.g., the vein), as indicated by the arrow YY in FIG. 39. Expanding further, with the predetermined amount of bodily fluid transfer to the external fluid reservoir and with the external fluid reservoir decoupled from the transfer device 800, the transfer device 800 can facilitate the delivery of the flow of parenteral fluid to the patient that is substantially free from, for example, the dermally residing microbes dislodged during the venipuncture event or otherwise introduced to the fluid flow path to the patient. FIG. 40 is a flowchart illustrating a method 990 of delivering a fluid to a patient using a fluid transfer device, according to an embodiment. The method 990 includes establishing fluid communication between the patient and the fluid transfer device, at 991. The fluid transfer device can be any of those described herein. As such, the fluid transfer device can include a cannula assembly or the like that can be inserted percutaneously to place the fluid transfer device in fluid communication with the patient (e.g., inserted into a vein of the patient). More specifically, in some embodiments, the cannula assembly of the fluid transfer device can include a sharpened distal end configured to pierce the skin of the patient. In other embodiments, the transfer device can include a flow control mechanism that can include a sharpened distal end portion that is configured to extend beyond a distal end portion of the cannula assembly to pierce the skin of the patient. For example, in some embodiments, the fluid transfer device can include a flow control mechanism that is substantially similar to the flow control mechanism 340 of the transfer device 300 described above with reference to FIGS. 4-10. With the cannula assembly in fluid communication with the patient, a predetermined volume of a bodily fluid is withdrawn from the patient, at 991. For example, in some embodiments, the fluid transfer device can include a flow control mechanism, such as those described above, that can be moved between a first configuration and a second configuration. In some embodiments, flow control mechanism can be configured to define a fluid flow path between, for example, the cannula assembly and a fluid reservoir included in and/or fluidically coupled to the fluid transfer device. In other embodiments, any portion of fluid transfer device can define at least a portion of the fluid flow path. For example, the fluid transfer device can include a housing or the like that can define at least a portion of the fluid flow path. Thus, the predetermined volume of the bodily fluid is transferred to the fluid reservoir, at 993. In some embodiments, the predetermined volume of the bodily fluid can include, for example, dermally residing microbes that were dislodged during, for example, the venipuncture event (e.g., inserting the cannula assembly into the patient). Once the predetermined volume of bodily fluid is disposed in the fluid reservoir, the fluid transfer device is fluidically isolated from the fluid reservoir to sequester the predetermined volume of bodily fluid in the fluid reservoir, at 994. For example, in some embodiments, once the predetermined volume of bodily fluid is disposed in the fluid reservoir, the fluid transfer device can be physically and/or fluidically decoupled from the fluid reservoir. In other embodiments, the flow control mechanism (as described above) can be moved from the first configuration to the second configuration to fluidically isolate the fluid reservoir from a volume outside of the fluid reservoir. For example, in some embodiments, the flow control mechanism can define a lumen or the like that can define a fluid flow path between the cannula assembly and the fluid reservoir when in the first configuration. In such embodiments, the flow control mechanism can be transitioned (e.g., moved, rotated, and/or otherwise reconfigured) from the first configuration to the second configuration in which the lumen is removed from fluid communication with the cannula assembly and/or the fluid reservoir, thereby fluidically isolating the fluid reservoir from the cannula assembly. In some embodiments, the flow control mechanism can be configured to transition from the first configuration to the second configuration automatically once the predetermined volume of bodily fluid is disposed in the fluid reservoir. With the fluid reservoir fluidically isolated from at least a portion of the fluid transfer device, fluid communication is established between the patient and a fluid source via the fluid transfer device, at 995. For example, in some embodiments, the fluid source can be operably coupled to the fluid transfer device to place the fluid source in fluid communication with at least a portion of the fluid transfer device. In some embodiments, the flow control mechanism (described above) can define a second lumen that can place the fluid source in fluid communication with the cannula assembly when in the second configuration. In other embodiments, with the fluid reservoir decoupled from the fluid transfer device that fluid source can be placed in fluid communication with the cannula assembly via any other portion of the fluid transfer device (e.g., a portion of a housing and/or the like). In this manner, a fluid can flow from the fluid source, through the fluid transfer device and into the patient. Moreover, by fluidically isolating the predetermined volume of bodily fluid the flow of fluid from the fluid source can be substantially free of contaminants such as, for example, the dermally residing microbes, as described above. While various embodiments have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, and not limitation. Where methods and steps described above indicate certain events occurring in certain order, those of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of this disclosure would recognize that the ordering of certain steps may be modified and that such modifications are in accordance with the variations of the invention. Additionally, certain of the steps may be performed concurrently in a parallel process when possible, as well as performed sequentially as described above. Additionally, certain steps may be partially completed before proceeding to subsequent steps. While various embodiments have been particularly shown and described, various changes in form and details may be made. For example, while the actuator 580 is shown and described with respect to FIG. 21 as being rotated in a single direction, in other embodiments, an actuator can be rotated in a first direction (e.g., in the direction of the arrow MM in FIG. 21) and a second direction, opposite the first. In such embodiments, the rotation in the second direction can be configured to move a transfer device through any number of configurations. In other embodiments, the rotation of the actuator in the second direction can be limited. Although various embodiments have been described as having particular features and/or combinations of components, other embodiments are possible having any combination or sub-combination of any features and/or components from any of the embodiments described herein. The specific configurations of the various components can also be varied. For example, the size and specific shape of the various components can be different from the embodiments shown, while still providing the functions as described herein. More specifically, the size and shape of the various components can be specifically selected for a desired rate of bodily fluid flow into a fluid reservoir or for a desired rate of parenteral fluid flow into the patient.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Embodiments described herein relate generally to delivering a fluid to a patient, and more particularly to devices and methods for delivering a parenteral fluid to a patient with reduced contamination from microbes or other contaminants exterior to the body and/or the fluid source, such as dermally residing microbes. Human skin is normally habituated in variable small amounts by certain bacteria such as coagulase-negative Staphylococcus species, Proprionobacterium acnes, Micrococcus species, Streptococci Viridans group, Corynebacterium species, and Bacillus species. These bacteria for the most part live in a symbiotic relationship with human skin but in some circumstances can give rise to serious infections in the blood stream known as septicemia. Septicemia due to these skin residing organisms is most often associated with an internal nidus of bacterial growth at the site of injured tissue, for example a damaged, scarred heart valve, or a foreign body (often an artificial joint, vessel, or valve). Furthermore, there are predisposing factors to these infections such as malignancy, immunosuppression, diabetes mellitus, obesity, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and advanced age. In some instances, these infections can cause serious illness and/or death. Moreover, these infections can be very expensive and difficult to treat and often can be associated with medical related legal issues. In general medical practice, blood is drawn from veins (phlebotomy) for two main purposes; (1) donor blood in volumes of approximately 500 mL is obtained for the treatment of anemia, deficient blood clotting factors including platelets and other medical conditions; and (2) smaller volumes (e.g., from a few drops to 10 mL or more) of blood are obtained for testing purposes. In each case, whether for donor or testing specimens, a fluid communicator (e.g., catheter, cannula, needle, etc.) is used to penetrate and enter a vein (known as venipuncture) enabling withdrawing of blood into a tube or vessel apparatus in the desired amounts for handling, transport, storage and/or other purposes. The site of venipuncture, most commonly the antecubital fossa, is prepared by cleansing with antiseptics to prevent the growth of skin residing bacteria in blood withdrawn from the vein. It has been shown venipuncture needles dislodge fragments of skin including hair and sweat gland structures as well as subcutaneous fat and other adnexal structures not completely sterilized by skin surface antisepsis. These skin fragments can cause septicemia in recipients of donor blood products, false positive blood culture tests and other undesirable outcomes. Furthermore, methods, procedures and devices are in use, which divert the initial portion of venipuncture blood enabling exclusion of these skin fragments from the venipuncture specimen in order to prevent septicemia in recipients of donor blood products, false positive blood culture tests and other undesirable outcomes. Venipuncture is also the most common method of accessing the blood stream of a patient to deliver parenteral fluids into the blood stream of patients needing this type of medical treatment. Fluids in containers are allowed to flow into the patient's blood stream through tubing connected to the venipuncture needle or through a catheter that is placed into a patient's vasculature (e.g. peripheral IV, central line, etc.). During this process, fragments of incompletely sterilized skin can be delivered into the blood stream with the flow of parenteral fluids and/or at the time of venipuncture for introduction and insertion of a peripheral catheter. These fragments are undesirable in the blood stream and their introduction into the blood stream of patients (whether due to dislodging of fragments by venipuncture needle when inserting a catheter or delivered through tubing attached to needle or catheter) is contrary to common practices of antisepsis. Further, these microbes can be associated with a well-known phenomenon of colonization by skin residing organisms of the tubing and tubing connectors utilized to deliver parenteral fluids. The colonization is not typically indicative of a true infection but can give rise to false positive blood culture tests, which may result in unnecessary antibiotic treatment, laboratory tests, and replacement of the tubing apparatus with attendant patient risks and expenses. Furthermore, the risk of clinically significant serious infection due to skin residing organisms is increased. As such, a need exists for improved fluid transfer devices, catheter introduction techniques and devices, as well as methods for delivering a parenteral fluid to a patient that reduce microbial contamination and inadvertent injection of undesirable external microbes into a patient's blood stream.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Devices and methods for delivering a fluid to a patient and/or introducing a peripheral catheter with reduced contamination from dermally residing microbes or other contaminants exterior to the body and/or an external fluid source are described herein. In some embodiments, an apparatus includes a cannula assembly, a housing, a fluid reservoir, a flow control mechanism, and an actuator. The housing has a proximal end portion and a distal end portion and defines an inner volume therebetween. The housing includes an inlet port removably coupled to the cannula assembly. The fluid reservoir is fluidically coupled to the housing and configured to receive and isolate a first volume of bodily fluid withdrawn from a patient. The flow control mechanism is at least partially disposed in the inner volume and is configured to move relative to the housing between a first configuration and a second configuration. The flow control mechanism defines a fluid flow path between the cannula assembly and the fluid reservoir in the first configuration. The actuator is operably coupled to the flow control mechanism to move the flow control mechanism from the first configuration, in which the inlet port is placed in fluid communication the fluid reservoir such that bodily fluid can flow from the cannula assembly, through the inlet port via the fluid flow path and to the fluid reservoir, to the second configuration, in which the fluid reservoir is fluidically isolated from the cannula assembly.

A61M516827

20180220

20180628

57653.0

A61M5168

FLICK, JASON E

SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR DELIVERING A FLUID TO A PATIENT WITH REDUCED CONTAMINATION

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

A61M

ACCEPTED

CONSTRICTING WEDGE DESIGN FOR PRESSURE-RETAINING SEAL

High pressure seals for pressure control fittings are disclosed, where such pressure control fittings are located at a wellhead, for example. Embodiments of cam lock seals, a spring-driven ball race seal and wedge seals are disclosed.

1. A pressure-retaining seal, comprising: a generally tabular adapter having first and second adapter ends, the first adapter end configured to mate with pressure-retaining equipment, the second adapter end providing an external adapter rib, the adapter rib providing an adapter sloped surface formed thereon; a generally tubular pressure seal assembly having first and second assembly ends and a longitudinal centerline, the centerline defining (a) an axial direction parallel to the centerline and (b) radial directions perpendicular to the centerline; the first assembly end providing a seal receptacle for receiving the second adapter end, the second adapter end and the seal receptacle further each providing cooperating abutment surfaces, the cooperating abutment surfaces forming a pressure seal between the second adapter end and the seal receptacle when the second adapter end is received into the seal receptacle; and a wedge assembly, the wedge assembly configured to engage both the second adapter end and the first assembly end when the second adapter end is received into the seal receptacle, the wedge assembly including at least one wedge surface for engagement with the adapter sloped surface; wherein, when the second adapter end is received into the seal receptacle, constriction of the wedge assembly towards the centerline engages the at least one wedge surface onto the adapter sloped surface so as to restrain the adapter from axial displacement relative to the seal receptacle. 2. The pressure-retaining seal of claim 1, in which the second adapter end provides at least one o-ring seal configured to mate with the seal receptacle when the second adapter end is received into the seal receptacle. 3. The pressure-retaining seal of claim 2, in which: (A) the first assembly end provides a first assembly end interior and a first assembly end exterior; (B) the at least one o-ring seal provided by the second adapter end comprises at least first and second o-ring seals; and (C) the first assembly end further provides a quick test port, the quick test port comprising a fluid passageway from the first assembly end exterior through to the first assembly end interior, wherein the quick test port is open to the first assembly end interior at a location selected to lie between the first and second o-ring seals when the second end adapter and the receptacle form the pressure seal. 4. The pressure-retaining seal of claim 1, in which the cooperating abutment surfaces include a machined shoulder surface and a machined slope surface provided on the second adapter end, the receptacle further providing machined surfaces to mate with the machined shoulder surface and the machined slope surface on the second adapter end in forming the pressure seal. 5. The pressure-retaining seal of claim 1, in which the adapter is interchangeable with a generally tubular night cap adapter, the night cap adapter having first and second night cap ends, wherein the first night cap end is closed and the second night cap end is dimensionally identical to the second adapter end on the adapter. 6. A pressure-retaining seal, comprising: a generally tubular adapter having first and second adapter ends, the first adapter end configured to mate with pressure-retaining equipment, the second adapter end providing an external adapter rib, the adapter rib providing an adapter sloped surface formed thereon; a generally tubular pressure seal assembly having first and second assembly ends and a longitudinal centerline, the centerline defining (a) an axial direction parallel to the centerline and (b) radial directions perpendicular to the centerline; the first assembly end providing a seal receptacle for receiving the second adapter end, the second adapter end and the seal receptacle further each providing cooperating abutment surfaces, the cooperating abutment surfaces forming a pressure seal between the second adapter end and the seal receptacle when the second adapter end is received into the seal receptacle; and a wedge assembly, the wedge assembly configured to engage both the second adapter end and the first assembly end when the second adapter end is received into the seal receptacle, the wedge assembly, including at least one wedge surface for engagement with the adapter sloped surface; wherein, when the second adapter end is received into the seal receptacle, constriction of the wedge assembly towards the centerline engages the at least one wedge surface onto the adapter sloped surface so as to compress the cooperating abutment surfaces together. 7. The pressure-retaining seal of claim 6, in which the second adapter end provides at least one o-ring seal configured to mate with the seal receptacle when the second adapter end is received into the seal receptacle. 8. The pressure-retaining seal of claim 7, in which: (A) the first assembly end provides a first assembly end interior and a first assembly, end exterior; (B) the at least one seal provided by the second adapter end comprises at least first and second o-ring seals; and (C) the first assembly end further provides a quick test port, the quick test port comprising a fluid passageway from the first assembly end exterior through to the first assembly end, interior, wherein the quick test port is open to the first assembly end interior at a location selected to lie between the first and second o-ring seals when the second end adapter and the receptacle form the pressure seal. 9. The pressure-retaining seal of claim 6, in which the cooperating abutment surfaces include a machined shoulder surface and a machined slope surface provided on the second adapter end, the receptacle further providing machined surfaces to mate with the machined shoulder surface and the machined slope surface on the second adapter end in forming the pressure seal. 10. The pressure-retaining seal of claim 6, in which the adapter is interchangeable with a generally tubular night cap adapter, the night cap adapter having first and second night cap ends, wherein the first night cap end is closed and the second night cap end is dimensionally identical to the second adapter end on the adapter.

RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of co-pending, commonly-invented, commonly-assigned U.S. non-provisional patent application Ser. No. 15/826,371 filed Nov. 29, 2017, which in turn is a continuation of commonly-invented, commonly-assigned U.S. non-provisional patent application Ser. No. 15/615,549 filed Jun. 6, 2017 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,879,496), which in turn is a continuation of commonly-invented, commonly-assigned U.S. non-provisional patent application Ser. No. 15/371,141 filed Dec. 6, 2016 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,670,745), which in turn claims the benefit of, and priority to, commonly-invented and commonly-assigned U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 62/263,889 filed Dec. 7, 2015. Application Ser. No. 15/371,141 is also a continuation-in-part of commonly-invented and commonly-assigned U.S. non-provisional application Ser. No. 15/341,864 filed Nov. 2, 2016 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,644,443), which also claims priority to 62/263,889. The entire disclosures of 62/263,889, Ser. Nos. 15/341,864, 15/371,141, 15/615,549 and 15/826,371 are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE This disclosure is directed generally to pressure control equipment at the wellhead, and more specifically to a remotely-operated wellhead pressure control apparatus. Broadly, and without limiting the scope of this disclosure, one embodiment of the disclosed pressure control apparatus is a cam-locking wellhead attachment that can secure a connection to a pressurized wellhead connection remotely, without manual interaction at the wellhead. Additional embodiments of other innovative high pressure seals for wellhead pressure control fittings are also disclosed. BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSED TECHNOLOGY Conventionally, wellhead connections to pressure control equipment are typically made by either a hand union or hammer union. Wellhead operators engaging or disengaging these conventional types of wellhead connections place themselves in danger of injury. The pressure control equipment to be connected to the wellhead is typically heavy, and remains suspended above the wellhead operator via use of a crane. Interacting with the crane operator, a technician at the wellhead below must struggle with the suspended load as it is lowered in order to achieve the proper entry angle into the wellhead to make a secure connection. The wellhead operator must then connect the wellhead to the pressure control equipment to the wellhead, typically via a bolted flanged connection. The bolts must be tightened manually by a person at the wellhead, typically via a “knock wrench” struck with a sledgehammer in order to get the bolts sufficiently tight to withstand the internal operating pressure. During this whole process, as noted, the operator is in physical danger of injuries, such as collision with the suspended pressure control equipment load, or pinched or crushed fingers and hands when securing the connection. Wellhead operators are exposed to similar risks of injury during conventional removal of the pressure control equipment from the wellhead. The removal process is substantially the reverse of the engagement process described in the previous paragraph. There is therefore a need in the well services industry to have a way to safely connect and disconnect pressure control equipment from the wellhead while minimizing the physical danger to human resources in the vicinity. The disclosed embodiments of high pressure seals for wellhead pressure control fittings are all hydraulically-actuated and -deactuated systems that lock pressure control equipment to the wellhead via a remote control station. SUMMARY AND TECHNICAL ADVANTAGES These and other drawbacks in the prior art are addressed by the disclosed embodiments of high pressure seals for wellhead pressure control fittings. Disclosed embodiments include a cam lock design with a secondary lock, in which the cam lock pressure control apparatus replaces connections done conventionally either by hammering, torqueing, or with a quick union nut, all of which require the interaction of an operator to perform these operations. This disclosure describes exemplary cam lock embodiments in both larger and smaller diameter configurations to suit corresponding size ranges of wellheads. In such embodiments, a crane operator may place pressure control equipment (PCE) directly onto the wellhead via the apparatus's highly visible entry guide (“tulip”). The crane operator may then proceed to actuate the cam lock control apparatus and secure the pressure control equipment in embodiments where the crane is equipped with the apparatus's remote controls. In alternative embodiments, a second operator may operate the cam lock control apparatus remotely while the crane holds the pressure control equipment in the tulip. In currently preferred embodiments, the disclosed cam lock pressure control apparatus allows the pressure control equipment to be secured in the wellhead from up to 100 feet away from the wellhead, although the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. As noted, disclosed embodiments of the disclosed cam lock pressure control apparatus provide a secondary mechanical lock feature that holds the locked pressure connection secure without total loss in hydraulic pressure. Preferably, the apparatus may be adapted to fit any conventional wellhead, and may be available in several sizes, such as (without limitation) for 3-inch to 7-inch pipe. As noted, this disclosure describes exemplary cam lock embodiments in both larger and smaller diameter configurations to suit corresponding size ranges of wellheads. Although not limited to any particular pressure rating, the disclosed cam lock pressure control apparatus is preferably rated up to about 15,000 psi MAWP (maximum allowable working pressure). Although the embodiments described in this disclosure are described for applications in the oilfield industry, the disclosed cam lock pressure control apparatus is not limited to such applications. It will be appreciated that the apparatus also has applications wherever highly pressurized joint connections can be made more safely by remote actuation and deactuation. Embodiments of the disclosed pressure control apparatus preferably also provide a “nightcap” option to cap the well if there will be multiple operations. Consistent with conventional practice in the field, the apparatus includes a nightcap option, available separately, for sealing off the wellhead while the PCE has been temporarily removed, such as at the end of the day. Embodiments including the nightcap enable the apparatus to remain connected to the wellhead, and wellhead pressure to be retained, in periods when PCE is temporarily removed. In such embodiments, the disclosed pressure control apparatus does not have to be removed and re-installed on the well head every time PCE is removed. Such embodiments obviate the need to suspend wellhead operations unnecessarily just to remove and re-install the apparatus every time PCE is removed. It is therefore a technical advantage of the disclosed pressure control apparatus to reduce substantially the possibility of personal injury to wellhead operators during engagement and disengagement of pressure control equipment from wellheads. In addition to the paramount importance of providing a safe workplace, there are further ancillary advantages provided by the disclosed pressure control apparatus, such as improved personnel morale and economic advantages through reduction of lost time accidents and increased efficiency gains of more rapid rig ups. Another technical advantage of the disclosed pressure control apparatus is that it provides a hands-free, secure, predictable connection between pressure control equipment and the wellhead. The disclosed primary cam-lock, in combination with the secondary lock feature, provides a predictable serviceably-tight connection every time. This is distinction to possible variances in the tightness provided by conventional hand- and knock wrench-tightening of the connection, whose degree of tightness may vary according to the technique and physical strength of the manual operator. A further technical advantage of the disclosed pressure control apparatus is that, in embodiments in which a quick test port is provided, a conventional hand pump can conveniently deliver high pressure fluid to a portion of the pressure connection sealed between two sets of o-rings. It will be appreciated that the o-rings will limit or impede high pressure fluid flow into or out of the portion of the pressure connection between the two sets of o-rings. Embodiments of this disclosure provide a quick test port though the pressure control assembly into the flow-limited portion of the pressure connection. A hand pump may then be used to deliver fluid through the quick test port to the flow-limited portion. This allows the pressure integrity of the seals provided by the o-rings to be tested prior to applying high fluid pressures from the wellhead onto the pressure control apparatus's pressure connection. In other applications, the quick test port may be used to equalize pressure in the flow-limited portion of the pressure connection during service engagement and disengagement of the pressure control apparatus from the wellhead. Disclosed additional embodiments of high pressure seals for wellhead pressure control fittings describe a wedge seal design and a spring-driven ball race seal design that substitute for the cam lock design. The wedge seal design and spring-driven ball race seal design differentiate functionally over the cam lock design primarily in the mechanism by which a high pressure seal is provided. The cam design provides piston-actuated rotating cams whose perimeter curvatures bear down on a shaped shoulder formed in the exterior surface of a PCE adapter. The adapter is received into a receptacle assembly connected to the wellhead, so that the cams compress the adapter into the receptacle to form a high pressure seal. By contrast, the wedge seal design provides opposing sliding wedges. Opposing sloped sides on the wedges slide together in reciprocating motion responsive to hydraulic pressure, causing the PCE adapter to be compressed into the wellhead assembly to form a high pressure seal. By contrast again, the spring-driven ball race seal design compresses the PCE adapter into the wellhead assembly by forcing, again responsive to hydraulic pressure, an annular member over a cylindrical ball race and into a tight fit (1) inside an annular receptacle, and (2) between ball bearings in the ball race and receiving grooves in the adapter. Similar to the cam lock design, the wedge seal design and spring-driven ball race seal design are both also remotely actuated and deactuated via hydraulic control, and therefore provide many of the same technical advantages described above. According to a first cam lock aspect, therefore, this disclosure describes embodiments of a wellhead pressure control fitting comprising a generally tubular Pressure Control Equipment (PCE) adapter having first and second adapter ends, the first adapter end contoured to mate with pressure control equipment, the second adapter end providing a shaped end including an adapter end curvature; a generally tubular pressure control assembly having first and second assembly ends, the first assembly end providing a first assembly end interior and a first assembly end exterior, the second assembly end configured to mate with a wellhead; the first assembly end exterior having an exterior periphery, the exterior periphery providing a plurality of cam locks, each cam lock disposed to rotate about a corresponding cam lock pin, each cam lock pin anchored to the first assembly end exterior, each cam lock further providing a cam perimeter curvature; the first assembly end exterior further providing a plurality of cam lock pistons, one cam lock piston for each cam lock, wherein extension and retraction of the cam lock pistons causes rotation of the cam locks in opposing directions about their corresponding cam lock pins; the first assembly end exterior further providing a plurality of locking ring pistons, a locking ring connected to the locking ring pistons at a distal end thereof; the locking ring encircling the first assembly end proximate the cam locks, wherein extension of the locking ring pistons causes the locking ring to move to a position free of contact with the cam locks as the cam locks rotate about the cam lock pins, and wherein retraction of the locking ring pistons causes the locking ring to move so as to restrain the cam locks from rotation about the cam lock pins; the first assembly end interior providing a receptacle for receiving the second adapter end, the second adapter end and the receptacle further each providing cooperating abutment surfaces, the cooperating abutment surfaces forming a high pressure seal between the second adapter end and the receptacle when the second adapter end is compressively received into the receptacle; wherein, as the second adapter end enters the receptacle and engages the cooperating abutment surfaces, extension of the cam lock pistons causes the cam locks to rotate about the cam lock pins, which in turn causes the cam perimeter curvatures on the cam locks to cooperatively bear down on the adapter end curvature, which in turn compresses the second adapter end into the receptacle to form the high pressure seal; and wherein, once the high pressure seal is formed, retraction of the locking ring pistons causes the locking ring to move so as to restrain the cam locks from rotation about the cam lock pins. In a second cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that each cam lock further provides a cam perimeter notch, each cam perimeter notch configured to engage the second adapter end as the second adapter end approaches entry into the receptacle. In a third cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the second assembly end further provides a vent line. In a fourth cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the second adapter end provides at least one o-ring seal configured to mate with the receptacle when the second adapter end is received into the receptacle. In a fifth cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the second adapter end provides at least first and second o-ring seals, and in which the first assembly end further provides a quick test port, the quick test port comprising a fluid passageway from the first assembly end exterior through to the first assembly end interior, wherein the quick test port is open to the first assembly end interior at a location selected to lie between the first and second o-ring seals when the second end adapter and the receptacle form the high pressure seal. In a sixth cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the locking ring is in an interference fit with the cam locks when retraction of the locking ring pistons causes the locking ring to move so as to restrain the cam locks from rotation about the cam lock pins. In a seventh cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that each cam lock piston is connected to its corresponding cam lock via a pinned cam linkage, each pinned cam linkage including a link arm interposed between the cam lock piston and cam lock, each link arm connected to the cam lock via a first linkage pin, each link arm connected to the cam lock piston by a second linkage pin. In an eighth cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the cooperating abutment surfaces include a machined shoulder surface and a machined slope surface provided on the second adapter end, the receptacle further providing machined surfaces to mate with the shoulder surface and slope surface in forming the high pressure seal. In a ninth cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the PCE adapter is interchangeable with a generally tubular night cap adapter, the night cap adapter having first and second night cap ends, wherein the first night cap end is closed and sealed off against internal pressure, and wherein the second night cap end is dimensionally identical to the second adapter end on the PCE adapter. According to a first aspect of the disclosed additional embodiments of high pressure seals for wellhead pressure control fittings, therefore, this disclosure describes embodiments of a wellhead pressure control fitting comprising a generally tubular Pressure Control Equipment (PCE) adapter having first and second adapter ends, the first adapter end configured to mate with pressure control equipment, the second adapter end providing an annular first adapter rib, a generally tubular pressure control assembly having first and second assembly ends and a longitudinal centerline, the centerline defining axial displacement parallel to the centerline and radial displacement perpendicular to the centerline, the first assembly end providing a first assembly end interior, the second assembly end configured to mate with a wellhead, the first assembly end interior providing a PCE receptacle for receiving the second adapter end, the second adapter end and the PCE receptacle further each providing cooperating abutment surfaces, the cooperating abutment surfaces forming a pressure seal between the second adapter end and the PCE receptacle when the second adapter end is compressively received into the PCE receptacle, the first assembly end interior further providing a lower wedge assembly, the lower wedge assembly including a plurality of lower wedges, each lower wedge having first and second opposing lower wedge sides, each first lower wedge side providing protruding top and bottom lower wedge ribs, a generally hollow lower wedge receptacle, the lower wedge receptacle further providing a plurality of shaped lower wedge receptacle recesses formed in an interior thereof one lower wedge receptacle recess for each lower wedge, the lower wedge receptacle further having first and second opposing lower wedge receptacle sides in which the lower wedge receptacle recesses define the first lower wedge receptacle side, and wherein each lower wedge is received into a corresponding lower wedge receptacle recess so that the first lower wedge receptacle side and the second lower wedge sides provide opposing sloped lower wedge surfaces, wherein axial displacement of the lower wedge receptacle relative to the lower wedges causes corresponding radial displacement of the lower wedges, and wherein, as the second adapter end enters the PCE receptacle and engages the cooperating abutment surfaces, axial displacement of the lower wedge receptacle relative to the lower wedges causes corresponding radial constriction of the top and bottom lower wedge ribs around the first adapter rib and the PCE receptacle, which in turn compresses the second adapter end into the PCE receptacle to form the pressure seal. Ina second aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that axial displacement of the lower wedge receptacle relative to the lower wedges is enabled by hydraulically-actuated forces exerted against the second lower wedge receptacle side by a hydraulic mechanism selected from the group consisting of (a) a plurality of cooperating hydraulically-pressurized lower chambers acting on the lower wedge receptacle, and (b) at least one extensible and retractable hydraulic lower piston acting on the lower wedge receptacle. In a third aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the adapter provides an annular second adapter rib distal from the first adapter rib towards the first adapter end, and in which the first assembly end interior further provides an upper wedge assembly, the upper wedge assembly including a plurality of upper wedges, each upper wedge having first and second opposing upper wedge sides, each first upper wedge side providing protruding top and bottom upper wedge ribs, a generally hollow upper wedge receptacle, the upper wedge receptacle further providing a plurality of shaped upper wedge receptacle recesses formed in an interior thereof, one upper wedge receptacle recess for each upper wedge, the upper wedge receptacle further having first and second opposing upper wedge receptacle sides in which the upper wedge receptacle recesses define the first upper wedge receptacle side, and wherein each upper wedge is received into a corresponding upper wedge receptacle recess so that the first upper wedge receptacle side and the second upper wedge sides provide opposing sloped upper wedge surfaces, wherein axial displacement of the upper wedge receptacle relative to the upper wedges causes corresponding radial displacement of the upper wedges, and wherein, as the second adapter end enters the PCE receptacle and engages the cooperating abutment surfaces, axial displacement of the upper wedge receptacle relative to the upper wedges causes corresponding radial constriction of the top and bottom upper wedge ribs around the second adapter rib, which in turn restrains the adapter from axial displacement relative to the PCE receptacle. In a fourth aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that axial displacement of the upper wedge receptacle relative to the upper wedges is enabled by hydraulically-actuated forces exerted against the second upper wedge receptacle side by a hydraulic mechanism selected from the group consisting of (a) a plurality of cooperating hydraulically-pressurized upper chambers acting on the upper wedge receptacle, and (b) at least one extensible and retractable hydraulic upper piston acting on the upper wedge receptacle. In a fifth aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the upper and lower wedge assemblies operate independently. In a sixth aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the cooperating abutment surfaces include a machined shoulder surface and a machined slope surface provided on the second adapter end, the PCE receptacle further providing machined surfaces to mate with the shoulder surface and slope surface in forming the pressure seal. In a seventh aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting comprise a generally tubular Pressure Control Equipment (PCE) adapter having first and second adapter ends, the first adapter end configured to mate with pressure control equipment, the adapter providing an annular adapter rib distal from the first adapter end towards the second adapter end, a generally tubular pressure control assembly having first and second assembly ends and a longitudinal centerline, the centerline defining axial displacement parallel to the centerline and radial displacement perpendicular to the centerline, the first assembly end providing a first assembly end interior, the second assembly end configured to mate with a wellhead, the first assembly end interior providing a PCE receptacle for receiving the second adapter end, the second adapter end and the PCE receptacle further each providing cooperating abutment surfaces, the cooperating abutment surfaces forming a pressure seal between the second adapter end and the PCE receptacle when the second adapter end is received into the PCE receptacle, the first assembly end interior further providing a wedge assembly, the wedge assembly including a plurality of wedges, each wedge having first and second opposing wedge sides, each first wedge side providing protruding top and bottom wedge ribs, a generally hollow wedge receptacle, the wedge receptacle further providing a plurality of shaped wedge receptacle recesses formed in an interior thereof, one wedge receptacle recess for each wedge, the wedge receptacle further having first and second opposing wedge receptacle sides in which the wedge receptacle recesses define the first wedge receptacle side, and wherein each wedge is received into a corresponding wedge receptacle recess so that the first wedge receptacle side and the second wedge sides provide opposing sloped wedge surfaces, wherein axial displacement of the upper receptacle relative to the wedges causes corresponding radial displacement of the wedges, and wherein, as the second adapter end enters the PCE receptacle and engages the cooperating abutment surfaces, axial displacement of the wedge receptacle relative to the wedges causes corresponding radial constriction of the top and bottom wedge ribs around the adapter rib, which in turn restrains the adapter from axial displacement relative to the PCE receptacle. In an eighth aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead press are control fitting include that axial displacement of the wedge receptacle relative to the wedges is enabled by hydraulically-actuated forces, exerted against the second wedge receptacle side by a hydraulic mechanism selected from the group consisting of (a) a plurality of cooperating hydraulically-pressurized chambers acting on the wedge receptacle, and (b) at least one extensible and retractable hydraulic piston, acting on the wedge receptacle. In a ninth aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting comprise a generally tubular Pressure Control Equipment (PCE) adapter having first and second adapter ends, the first adapter end configured to mate with pressure control equipment, an elongate adapter sealing portion formed on the second adapter end, a generally tubular receptacle, the receptacle having first and second receptacle ends, the second receptacle end configured to mate with a wellhead, an elongate receptacle sealing portion formed on the first receptacle end, wherein a pressure seal is formed between the adapter sealing portion and the receptacle sealing portion when the adapter sealing portion is fully received over the receptacle sealing portion and constrained radially outwards, a generally tubular lower body, the lower body having first and second lower body ends, the lower body received over the receptacle and rigidly affixed to the receptacle at the lower body second end, the first lower body end extending parallel with the receptacle sealing portion and positioned to constrain the adapter portion radially when the adapter sealing portion is fully received over the receptacle sealing portion, a generally cylindrical ball race, the ball race having first and second ball race ends, the ball race providing a plurality of holes in a circumferential pattern proximate the second ball race end, the ball race positioned such that the second ball race end contacts the first lower body end, a plurality of ball bearings each received from outside the ball race into a corresponding hole, the holes each having a hole diameter such that the ball bearings protrude through the holes without passing through the holes while still allowing the bail bearings to roll freely as received in the holes, at least one annular adapter groove formed on an exterior of the adapter, the adapter groove positioned and shaped to receive the ball bearings through the ball race holes when the adapter sealing portion is fully received over the receptacle sealing portion, wherein the adapter sealing portion and the receptor sealing portion are locked in sealing engagement when the ball bearings are compressed radially into the adapter groove, a generally tubular floating member, the floating member having first and second floating member ends, the floating member received over the ball race and the lower body, wherein an interior of the first floating member end is in rolling engagement with the ball bearings while retaining the ball bearings in their holes, and wherein an interior of the second floating member end is in sliding sealing engagement with an exterior of the first lower body end, a generally tubular sleeve, the sleeve having first and second sleeve ends, the sleeve received over the ball race, the floating member and the lower body wherein the an exterior of the second floating member end is in sliding sealing engagement with an interior of the sleeve, the second sleeve end rigidly and sealingly affixed to the lower body at the lower body second end so as to create a lower chamber below the second floating member end, the first sleeve end rigidly and sealingly affixed to the ball race so as to create an upper chamber above the first floating member end, wherein hydraulic pressure introduced into the upper chamber encourages the floating member to slide towards the second sleeve end, which in turn causes a thicker portion of the floating member to compress the ball bearings radially, and wherein, hydraulic pressure introduced the lower chamber encourages the floating member to slide towards the first sleeve end, which in turn causes a thinner portion of the floating member to release the ball bearings from radial compression. In a tenth aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting further at least one o-ring on an exterior of the receptacle sealing portion. The foregoing has outlined rather broadly some of the features and technical advantages of the technology embodied on the disclosed high pressure seals for wellhead pressure control fittings, in order that the detailed description that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the disclosed technology may be described. It should be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the conception and the specific embodiments disclosed may be readily utilized as a basis for modifying or designing other structures for carrying out the same inventive purposes of the disclosed technology, and that these equivalent constructions do not depart from the spirit and scope of the technology as described and as set forth in the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of embodiments described in detail below, and the advantages thereof, reference is now made to the following drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a flow chart describing in summary the engagement and disengagement of currently preferred embodiments of the disclosed cam lock pressure control apparatus; and FIGS. 2 through 17 are illustrations depicting details and aspects of two currently preferred embodiments of pressure control assemblies 200 and 600 according to a cam lock design and operating according to FIG. 1, in which FIGS. 2 through 11 are freeze-frame illustrations in sequence, and in which further: FIGS. 2 and 3 are perspective freeze-frame illustrations depicting adapter 50 approaching entry into pressure control assembly 200; FIGS. 4 and 5 are elevation freeze-frames illustrations (unsectioned and partial cutaway views, respectively) depicting an upper portion of pressure control assembly 200, prior to entry of adapter 250; FIGS. 6 and 7 are freeze-frame partial cutaway views depicting the entry of adapter 250 into the upper portion of pressure control assembly 200; FIGS. 8 through 10 are magnified freeze-frame partial cutaway views of pressure control assembly 200 as adapter 250 engages its seat in receptacle 260; FIG. 11 is a freeze-frame illustration depicting disengagement of adapter 250 from its seat in receptacle 260; FIGS. 12 and 13 are perspective freeze-frame illustrations depicting night cap 270 entering and engaging upon pressure control assembly 200; FIGS. 13 to 15 depict quick test ports 500 and associated manifold box 510 provided on pressure control assembly 200, wherein FIG. 13 is a perspective view of pressure control assembly 200, FIG. 14 is a section as shown on FIG. 12, and FIG. 15 is a magnified cutaway view of manifold box 510; FIGS. 16 and 17 illustrate one embodiment of a smaller cam lock design than as shown on FIGS. 1 through 15, in which FIG. 16 is a perspective cutaway view and FIG. 17 is an exploded view; FIGS. 18 through 20 illustrate one embodiment of a spring-driven ball race seal designed to provide a high pressure seal for wellhead pressure control fittings, in which FIG. 18 is a perspective cutaway view, FIGS. 19A and 19B are partial section views in an unlocked position and a locked position respectively, and FIG. 20 is an exploded view; and FIGS. 21 through 28 illustrate two embodiments of a wedge seal, each also designed to provide a high pressure seal for wellhead pressure control fittings, in which FIGS. 21 through 24 illustrate a first wedge seal embodiment and FIGS. 25 through 28 illustrate a second wedge seal embodiment; and in which further: FIG. 21 is a perspective cutaway view of the first wedge seal embodiment; FIGS. 22A and 22B are partial section views of an upper end of the first wedge seal embodiment in an unlocked position and a locked position respectively; FIGS. 23A and 23B are partial section views of a lower end of the first wedge seal embodiment in an unlocked position and a locked position respectively; FIG. 24 is an exploded view of the first wedge seal embodiment; FIG. 25 is a perspective cutaway view of the second wedge seal embodiment; FIGS. 26A and 26B are partial section views of an upper end of the second wedge seal embodiment in an unlocked position and a locked position respectively; FIGS. 27A and 27B are partial section views of a lower end of the second wedge seal, embodiment in an unlocked position and a locked position respectively; and FIG. 28 is an exploded view of the second wedge seal embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Reference is now made to FIGS. 1 through 28 in describing the currently preferred embodiments of the disclosed pressure control assemblies. For the purposes of the following disclosure, FIGS. 1 through 28 should be viewed together. Any part, item, or feature that is identified by part number on one of FIGS. 1 through 28 will have the same part number when illustrated on another of FIGS. 1 through 28. It will be understood that the embodiments as illustrated and described with respect to FIGS. 1 through 28 are exemplary, and the scope of the inventive material set forth in this disclosure is not limited to such illustrated and described embodiments. FIGS. 1 through 17 illustrate two cam lock embodiments of the disclosed technology. As noted above in the “Summary” section, cam lock embodiments include a cam lock mechanism. FIGS. 1 through 15 illustrate one embodiment of a larger cam lock design, suitable for larger diameter wellheads. FIGS. 16 and 17 illustrate one embodiment of a smaller cam lock design, suitable for smaller wellheads. FIGS. 18 through 20 illustrate one embodiment of a spring-driven ball race seal design for providing a high pressure seal for wellhead pressure control fittings. FIGS. 21 through 28 illustrate two embodiments of a wedge seal design also for providing a high pressure seal for wellhead pressure control fittings. In FIGS. 21 through 24 a first embodiment of a wedge seal design is illustrated in which opposing sloped sides of wedges are driven in reciprocating motion directly by hydraulic fluid pressure. In the second embodiment, illustrated on FIGS. 25 through 28, the opposing sloped sides of the wedges are driven by hydraulically-actuated pistons. FIG. 1 is a flow chart illustrating a method 100, describing in summary the steps to be followed in engaging the cam lock embodiments of the disclosed pressure control apparatus onto a wellhead prior to pressure control operations, and then disengaging the cam lock embodiments after the pressure control operations. It should be noted that the embodiment of method 100 illustrated on FIG. 1 makes use of a night cap option, as will be further described immediately below. In other embodiments of method 100 where the night cap option is not used (such embodiments not illustrated), it will be appreciated that the method steps in which the night cap would otherwise be used will either be simply not performed, or adapted in such a way not to use a night cap. Referring now to FIG. 1, In blocks 101 through 107, the wellhead and the pressure control equipment (“PCE”) to be in pressure communication with the wellhead are prepared for use of the cam lock embodiments of the disclosed pressure control apparatus. A pressure control assembly is secured to the top of the wellhead via conventional a flange bolt connection or similar (block 101). When the night cap option is provided, the pressure control assembly is secured to the well head in block 101 with the night cap already secured to the assembly via cam locks and a locking ring, as will be described below with reference to FIGS. 12 and 13. In order to remove the night cap (block 107), a first control valve is activated to release the locking ring (block 103), and then a second control valve is activated to release the cam locks (block 105). The details of locking ring/cam lock release and engagement will be described below. It will be understood that activation of first and second control valves is advantageously done remotely. As will be also seen in further Figures, the pressure control assembly presents a receptacle for receiving a customized adapter on the PCE side. The adapter is secured to the PCE in block 109. The PCE is then lowered onto/into the pressure control assembly such that the adapter engages within its receptacle (block 111). With further reference to FIG. 1, the cam lock sealing mechanism may then be remotely engaged. First, by remote hydraulic actuation, and as illustrated in block 113, the second control valve opens and causes cam lock pistons to extend, causing rotation of cam locks. Rotation of the cam locks moves them into an engaged position whereby they forcibly bear down on a shoulder on the adapter (as received into its receptacle). Rotation of the cam locks thus has the effect of pressure sealing the connection between the wellhead and the PCE. Then, again by remote hydraulic actuation, the first control valve opens and causes locking ring pistons to retract, causing a locking ring to move into position over the cam locks and retain them in the engaged position (block 115). The locking ring acts primarily a safety device to prevent the cam locks from unintentionally becoming disengaged in the event of, for example, a loss of hydraulic pressure. As further shown on FIG. 1, the PCE is now pressure sealed to the wellhead via the disclosed pressure control apparatus and wellhead operations may be conducted (block 117). When wellhead operations are complete, the apparatus may be disengaged remotely by essentially reversing the previous steps (block 119). First, the locking ring pistons are extended causing the locking ring move away from the cam locks, thereby freeing the cam locks to rotate again. Then the cam lock pistons are retracted, causing the cam locks to rotate in the opposite direction so as to disengage from the shoulder on the adapter (fitted to the PCE). The PCE may then be removed from the wellhead (block 121) by withdrawing the adapter (fitted to the PCE) from its receptacle. When the night cap option is provided, the night cap may then be secured again to the pressure control assembly (block 123). Securement of the night cap is essentially the reverse of the steps illustrated in blocks 103 and 105, and a repeat of the steps illustrated on blocks and 113 and 115, except on the night cap instead of adapter fitted to the PCE. Refer below to FIGS. 12 and 13 and associated disclosure for further details. FIGS. 2 through 11 are a freeze-frame series of illustrations depicting a first embodiment of method 100 on FIG. 1 in more detail. In FIG. 2, pressure control equipment (“PCE”) is labeled generally as P, and wellhead is labeled generally as W. Pressure control assembly 200 is secured to wellhead W via a conventional bolted flange, although this disclosure is not limited in this regard. The wellhead end of pressure control assembly 200 advantageously provides a customized fitting F to connect to wellhead W. Adapter 250 is secured to PCE P via conventional threading, although again this disclosure is not limited to a threaded connection between PCE P and adapter 250. In FIG. 3, PCE has been lifted and moved over pressure control assembly 200 using, for example, a conventional crane (not shown). Entry of adapter 250 into pressure control assembly 200 is facilitate by tulip 201, a conically-shaped piece. For reference, locking ring 240 and link arms 235 are also visible on FIG. 3. FIG. 4 is an elevation view of a top portion of pressure control assembly 200 in more detail. Tulip 201, locking ring 240, link arms 235 and cam locks 220 are visible. It will be appreciated that on FIG. 4, locking ring 240 and cam locks 220 are in their disengaged position. One of locking ring pistons 242 is also visible on FIG. 4 in a partially extended state. Locking ring pistons 242 are preferably conventional hydraulic pistons, and will be illustrated and described in more detail further on. FIG. 5 is the elevation of FIG. 4, except in partial cutaway view to illustrate more clearly the component parts of pressure control assembly 200. Tulip 201, locking ring 240, cam locks 220, link arms 235 and cam lock pistons 222 are all visible on FIG. 5. It will also be appreciated that cam lock pistons 222, link arms 235 and cam locks 220 together form a pinned linkage in which extension and retraction of cam lock pistons 222 will cause cam locks 220 to rotate about cam lock pins 224. Cam lock pistons 222 are preferably conventional hydraulic pistons. FIG. 6 shows adapter 250 (attached to PCE) entering pressure control assembly 200 with the assistance of tulip 201. Receptacle 260 for adapter 250 is also illustrated, waiting to receive adapter 250. Conventional o-rings 252 are visible on adapter 250. FIG. 7 is the view of FIG. 6 except that adapter 250 is moving closer to its seat in receptacle 260. FIGS. 8 through 10 are magnified freeze-frame views as adapter 250 engages its seat in receptacle 260. As will be described in greater detail further on, FIGS. 8 and 9 depict noteworthy features regarding the seating of adapter 250 in receptacle 260. First, adapter 250 is engineered to fit in receptacle 260 so as to provide a high pressure seal when the connection is in compression. Second, shoulder 254 on adapter 250 presents a curvature that is shaped and located to match a corresponding cam curvature 225 (refer FIG. 9) on cam locks 220. As cam locks 220 rotate responsive to extension of cam lock pistons 222, cam curvatures 225 on cam locks 220 engage shoulder 254 and compress adapter 250 into receptacle 260. On FIGS. 8 and 9, locking ring 240 has been moved away from cam locks 220 via full extension of locking ring pistons 242 (pistons 242 are not shown on FIGS. 8 and 9, see FIG. 4 instead). FIGS. 8 and 9 also illustrate the cam lock linkage in more detail, discussed above with reference to earlier Figures. With particular reference to FIG. 9, it will be seen that cam locks 220 are disposed to rotate about cam lock pins 224. Cam locks 220 each present cam curvatures 225. Cam locks 220 are in pinned linkage connection to cam lock pistons 222 via link arms 235, and first and second linkage pins 236 and 237. Referring now to FIG. 8, cam locks 220 provide cam lock notches 226 in order to assist capture of shoulder 254 on adapter 250. With reference now to FIGS. 9 and 10, it will be seen that once cam lock notches 226 have engaged shoulder 254, further rotation of cam locks 220 around cam lock pins 224 encourages snug engagement of cam curvatures 225 on shoulder 254 in order to provide a high pressure seal. The relative dimensions, geometries, locations in space, and paths of travel of cam lock pistons 222, first and second linkage pins 236 and 237, link arms 235, cam locks 220, cam lock pins 224, cam lock notches 226 and cam curvatures 225 are all selected, designed and engineered to cooperate with corresponding selections of dimensions and geometries on shoulder 254, seat surface 255 and slope surface 256 on adapter 250 interfacing with receptacle 260, all to bring about a high-pressure seal via compression of adapter 250 into receptacle 260. In preferred embodiments, there is about a 5-thousandths of an inch (0.005″) clearance between the exterior cylindrical surface of adapter 250 and the interior cylindrical surface of receptacle 260. This clearance allows for a pressure-controlling seal with o-rings 252. Further, as will be seen on FIGS. 8 through 10, adapter 250 provides machined surfaces on seat surface 255 and slope surface 256. Receptacle 260 also provides corresponding machined surfaces shaped to match seat surface 255 and slope surface 256. Compression of adapter 250 into receptacle 260 thus enables a machined surface metal-to-metal seal at seat surface 255 and slope surface 256. This metal-to-metal seal is engineered to contain high pressures—up to about 15,000 psi MAWP in preferred embodiments. However, with reference to the cooperating abutment surfaces at the interface of adapter 250 and receptacle 260, it will appreciated that the scope of this disclosure is not limited to embodiments providing a machined surface metal-to-metal seal at seat surface 255 and slope surface 256, and that other embodiments may provide other suitable sealing arrangements. With continuing reference to FIGS. 8 and 9, and moving on to FIG. 10, the operation of cam locks 220 to compress adapter 250 into receptacle 260 is illustrated, thereby enabling the high pressure seal discussed above. On FIG. 8, adapter 250 is entering receptacle 260. Cam lock pistons 222 are fully retracted, and cam curvatures 225 are disengaged. On FIG. 9, extension of cam lock pistons 222 has begun, causing rotation of cam locks 220 about cam lock pins 224 such that cam lock notches 226 have assisted capture of shoulder 254 on adapter 250. On FIG. 10, cam lock pistons 222 are fully extended. The pinned linkage of cam locks 220 to cam lock piston 222 (via link arm 235 and first and second linkage pins 236 and 237) will be seen to have translated the extension of cam lock pistons 222 into rotation of cam locks 220 about cam lock pins 224. Rotation of cam locks 220 about cam lock pins 224 brings cam curvatures 225 to bear on shoulder 254 on adapter 250. Cooperating abutment surfaces at the contact interface of adapter 250 and receptacle 260 are compressed together to form a high pressure seal. Referring now to FIG. 10, it will be seen that the linkage between cam locks 220, link aims 235 and cam lock pistons 222 is configured so that when cam locks 220 are fully engaged on shoulder 254, locking ring 240 may be lowered to engage cam locks 220. Engagement of cam locks 220 by locking ring 240 is via full retraction of locking ring pistons 242 (pistons 242 are not shown on FIG. 10, see FIG. 4 instead). Cam locks 220 also provide cam lock tapers 227 in order to assist capture of cam locks 220 by locking ring 240. With continuing reference to FIG. 10, it will be seen that as locking ring 240 is lowered to retain and secure cam locks 220 in an engaged positon on shoulder 254, corresponding locking ring tapers 241 on locking ring 240 cooperate with cam lock tapers 227 to assist engagement of locking ring 240 on cam locks 220. In preferred embodiments, locking ring 240 may be shaped and sized to provide an interference fit between itself and cam locks 220 to retain and secure them once fully engaged on cam locks 220. The action of locking ring 240 to secure cam locks 220 is primarily for safety purposes, to prevent cam locks 220 from becoming disengaged from shoulder 254 on adapter 250 in the event of a loss in hydraulic pressure (or otherwise) potentially compromising the high-pressure seal between adapter 250 and receptacle 260. However, it will be appreciated from the immediately preceding paragraphs that the interference fit between locking ring 240 and cam locks 220 also enables, as a secondary effect, an additional “squeezing” force on cam locks 220 when fully engaged on shoulder 254 on adapter 250. It will be appreciated that in preferred embodiments, extension and retraction of cam lock pistons 222 and locking ring pistons 242 may be done by remote hydraulic operation, fulfilling one of the technical advantages of the cam lock embodiments of the disclosed pressure control apparatus as discussed earlier in this disclosure. It will be further appreciated that the “engineered motion and fit” of the cooperating parts as illustrated on FIGS. 8 through 10 are not limited any particular can lock embodiment that might generate a high-pressure seal for a certain size or model of the disclosed pressure control apparatus. It will be appreciated that, consistent with the scope of this disclosure, many such “engineered motion and fit” arrangements may be selected and designed for different sizes or models. FIG. 11 illustrates disengagement of the cam lock embodiments of the disclosed pressure control apparatus. The mechanism is essentially the reverse of engagement, described above with reference to FIGS. 6 through 10. Extension of locking ring pistons 242 (refer FIG. 4) disengages locking ring 240 from cam locks 220, enabling release of cam locks 220. Retraction of cam lock pistons 222 causes cam locks 220 to rotate around cam lock pins 224 and release cam curvatures 225 from shoulder 254 on adapter 250. Adapter 250 may then be withdrawn from receptacle 260. It will be appreciated from FIG. 11 that when cam locks 220 are in a disengaged state, locking ring 240 advantageously does not make contact with cam locks 220. This separation between locking ring 240 and disengaged cam locks 220/link arms 235 applies whether locking ring pistons 242 (refer FIG. 4) are in an extended or retracted state. Referring now to commonly invented, commonly-assigned U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 62/263,889, incorporated herein by reference, FIGS. 2 through 13 in 62/263,889 are a freeze-frame series of illustrations depicting a second embodiment of method 100 on FIG. 1 in more detail. The second embodiment of method 100, as illustrated on FIGS. 2 through 13 of 62/263,889, is very similar to the embodiment depicted on FIGS. 2-11 in this disclosure, except that, primarily, (1) cam locks 220 in 62/263,889 are shaped more smoothly and do not provide a notch corresponding to cam lock notches 226 in this disclosure, (2) locking ring 240 in 62/263,889 is shaped and configured to be received onto link arms 235 in 62/263,889 rather than directly onto cam locks 220 in this disclosure, and (3) the geometry of the linkage (and path of travel of the linked components) for cam locks 220, link arms 235 and cam lock pistons 222 in 62/263,889 is different than in this disclosure. While both the embodiment disclosed in FIGS. 2 through 13 in 62/263,889 (and associated text) and the embodiment described with reference to FIGS. 2 through 11 in this disclosure are serviceable, the embodiment described in this disclosure is currently preferred. Comparison of the performance of prototypes of each embodiment has shown that the embodiment described in this disclosure demonstrated improved pressure retention in the seal created via compression of adapter 250 into receptacle 260. Prototypes of each embodiment on 5.125″ internal diameter bores were pressure tested. In the embodiment disclosed in FIGS. 2 through 13 of 62/263,889 (and associated text), design was for about a 5,000 psi MAWP using a 7,500 psi test pressure. The ultimate destruction load was in fact just under 15,000 psi. In the embodiment described in this disclosure with reference to FIGS. 2 through 11 herein, design was for about 10,000 psi MAWP with a 15,000 psi test load. Testing towards to ultimate destruction load was up to 17,500 psi without failure. As has been described previously, embodiments of the disclosed pressure control apparatus are available with a separate night cap option. Blocks 101-107 and 123 in method 100 on FIG. 1 make reference to the night cap (when the night cap option is used), and are described in general in the disclosure above associated with FIG. 1. FIGS. 12 and 13 illustrate release and engagement of the night cap (as described with reference to FIG. 1) in more detail. FIGS. 12 and 13 illustrate night cap 270 entering tulip 201 and preparing to be engaged on pressure control assembly 200. FIG. 12 illustrates engagement portion 271 on night cap 270. Engagement portion 271 has functionally identical structure to that seen on adapter 250 on, for example, FIG. 8. FIG. 8 illustrates shoulder 254, seat surface 255 and slope surface 256 on adapter 250 interfacing with receptacle 260 on pressure control assembly 200 to provide a high pressure seal when cam locks 220 and locking ring 240 are engaged. Likewise, engagement portion 271 on FIG. 12 provides functionally identical features on night cap 270 so that night cap 270 can engage with receptacle 260 in the same way as adapter 250 engages with receptacle 260, via formation of a high pressure seal through engagement of cam locks 220 and locking ring 240. FIG. 13 depicts night cap secured into pressure control assembly 200 in the manner just described. It will also be seen on FIGS. 12 and 13 that night cap 270 advantageously provides a shackle or other conventional lifting attachment. This feature enables lifting apparatus (such as a crane) to attach to night cap 270 while secured in pressure control assembly 200, providing a convenient hitch point and lifting connection for the entire pressure control apparatus. This feature thus facilitates, for example, lowering/raising of the entire apparatus during connection or disconnection from the well head, or between the wellhead and other transportation. FIGS. 12 and 13 further depict vent line 400 provided in fitting F, as previously described above with reference to FIG. 2. In currently preferred embodiments, vent line 400 provides no internal mechanisms, and acts as a simple, conventional relief line with suitable connection fittings at either end (e.g. bolted flange, o-ring or threaded connection). Vent line 400 allows fluid under pressure in pressure control assembly 200 above wellhead W to be relieved and drained at such times as, for example, during removal of pressure control assembly 200 from wellhead W. FIGS. 13 through 15 depict quick test ports 500 and associated manifold box 510 provided on pressure control assembly 200. FIG. 13 shows quick test ports 500 and manifold box 510 as seen from the outside of pressure control assembly 200. A conventional high pressure hydraulic hose 515 connects manifold box 510 to one of the quick test ports 500. As shown on FIG. 13, a conventional hydraulic hand pump 520, preferably operated remotely, injects fluid into manifold box 510 under pressure, and then, via hose 515, through to one of the quick test ports 500. It will be appreciated that although FIG. 13 illustrates a currently preferred embodiment in which two quick test ports 500 are provided. The scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard, and any number may be provided. However, only one will be in operation at any time. Quick test ports 500 that are not in operation e sealed with threaded plugs for future use. The purpose of providing redundant quick test ports 500 is in case one or more become damaged during service, and have to be permanently sealed. In presently preferred embodiments, quick test ports 500 are preferably 1/16″ in diameter, although the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. FIG. 14 is a section as shown on FIG. 12, cutting through pressure control assembly 200 at the centerline elevation of quick test ports 500 (refer FIG. 13). FIG. 14 depicts quick test ports 500 providing fluid passageways from the outside of pressure control assembly 200 through to the interior of receptacle 260 along interior portion 261. Quick test ports 500 further preferably provide fluid passageways to the interior of receptacle 260 at elevations between o-rings 252 when, as shown on FIG. 10, adapter 250 is fully compressed into receptacle 260 by cam locks 220 and the desired high pressure connection between adapter 250 and receptacle 260 is formed. With continuing reference to FIG. 10, it will be seen that interior wall portion 261 of receptacle 260 engages adapter 250 between o-rings 252 when adapter 250 is received operationally into receptacle 260. It will be further appreciated that when high pressure fluid is introduced from beneath receptacle 260, the seals created by o-rings 252 will restrict or impede the ability of fluid to enter the engagement of adapter 250 with receptacle 260 along interior wall portion 261. Returning now to FIGS. 13 and 14, it will be seen that quick test port 500 enables fluid, pumped by hand pump 520 and delivered via manifold box 510 and hose 515, to be introduced into the engagement of adapter 250 with receptacle 260 along interior wall portion 261, thereby equalizing the pressure between o-rings 252 when high pressure fluid is introduced from beneath receptacle 260. Conversely, it will be appreciated that upon removal of adapter 250 from receptacle 260, the seals created by o-rings 252 will restrict or impede the ability of fluid to depressurize in the engagement of adapter 250 with receptacle 260 along interior wall portion 261. Quick test port 500 enables fluid trapped at pressure between o-rings 252 to be relieved. In other applications, fluid delivered by hand pump 520 through quick test port 500 enables the integrity of the seals provided by o-rings 252 to be checked prior to introducing high pressure fluid into the connection between adapter 250 and receptacle 260. FIG. 15 is a horizontal section through manifold box 510 illustrating more clearly the details shown in broken lines on, for example, FIGS. 13 and 14. Broadly, it will be appreciated that manifold 510 acts as a needle valve in the fluid line between hand pump 520 and quick test port 500. This needle valve functionality acts as an added failsafe in the hydraulic line, so that pressure may be shut down in the event of an unintended leak during operations. Referring to FIG. 15, manifold box 510 comprises hand pump connection 511. Hand pump connection 511 is conventional, and also provides conventional needle valve functionality which may be actuated to shut down pressure to or from manifold box 510 as required. Manifold box 510 also comprises a plurality of conventional hose connections 512, each in internal fluid communication with hand pump connection 511. As shown on FIG. 13, for example, hose 515 connects one of the hose connections 512 to quick test port 500. Hose connections 512 not in use may be sealed using a conventional threaded plug. FIGS. 16 and 17 illustrate one embodiment of a smaller cam lock assembly 600, suitable for smaller wellheads. FIGS. 16 and 17 should be viewed together. The embodiments of cam lock assembly 600 on FIGS. 16 and 17 should also be compared with the embodiments of pressure control assembly 200 on FIGS. 2 through 15, where it will be appreciated that cam lock assembly 600 is less of a flanged connection design, and is thus thinner in profile. Also, the linkage of cam lock pistons 622 through to cam locks 620 on cam lock assembly 600 is different from the corresponding parts on pressure control assembly 200, and more suited to a cam lock assembly 600's thinner profile. As a result, cam lock curvatures 625 and corresponding shoulder 654 on adapter 650 on cam lock assembly 600 are shaped differently to suit the alternative design. Other distinctions between cam lock assembly 600 on FIGS. 16 and 17 and pressure control assembly 200 on FIGS. 2 through 15 will become apparent in view of the following description of FIGS. 16 and 17. However, it will be nonetheless appreciated that the scope of this disclosure with respect to cam lock seals is not limited to the exemplary cam lock pressure control assemblies 200 and 600 illustrated on FIGS. 1 through 17. It will be understood that other embodiments, not illustrated, may provide yet larger or yet smaller cam lock pressure control assemblies, each having similar functionality of cam lock pressure control assemblies 200 and 600 disclosed in detail herein. For example, it will be appreciated that both cam lock pressure control assemblies 200 and 600 provide six (6) cam lock assemblies to maintain the high pressure seal, and two (2) locking ring pistons to control positioning of the locking ring. Other embodiments, not illustrated, having larger or smaller overall diameters, may provide a greater or fewer number of cam lock assemblies to maintain the high pressure seal. Other embodiments may provide different cam lock shapes and linkage designs or different seal designs at the intersection of the PCE adapter and wellhead receptacle. Other embodiments may control the locking ring differently, or not provide a locking ring at all. With reference now to FIGS. 16 and 17, an isometric section of cam lock assembly 600 is depicted on FIG. 16, and an exploded view of cam lock assembly 600 is depicted on FIG. 17. Cam lock assembly 600 is depicted on FIG. 16 in the locked position with locking ring 640 positioned to retain cam locks 620 and link arms 635 in such locked position. Hydraulic base 690 and upper body 680 are received over and affixed onto receptacle 660, with upper body 680 positioned above hydraulic base 690 (i.e., with upper body 680 positioned closer to the entry point of adapter 650 into receptacle 660). Tulip 601 is affixed to and above upper body 680. As with the corresponding part 201 for pressure control assembly 200 depicted on FIG. 6, for example, tulip 601 on FIG. 16 assists guiding adapter 650 into cam lock assembly 600 and onto receptacle 660. With continuing reference to FIG. 16, hydraulic base 690 provides cam lock pistons 622 and locking ring pistons 642 oriented to extend and retract upwards (i.e., towards and away from the entry point of adapter 650 into receptacle 660). Ports 691 in hydraulic base 690 supply hydraulic fluid to and from cam lock pistons 620 and locking ring pistons 642. Extension and retraction of cam lock pistons 622 causes cam locks 620 to rotate via link arms 635 and operate through apertures provided in upper body 680 (such apertures in upper body 680 depicted clearly on FIG. 17). Extension and retraction of locking ring pistons 642 causes locking ring 640 to disengage and engage from retention of cam locks 620 and link arms 635 when cam locks 620 are in the locked position (such locked position depicted on FIG. 16). Comparison of FIG. 16 should now be made with FIG. 10, in which pressure control assembly 200 is also shown in its locked position. It will be seen that the details of the high pressure seal at the engagement of adapter 650 and receptacle 660 on FIG. 16 is functionally the same as the corresponding engagement of adapter 250 and receptacle 260 on FIG. 10. On FIG. 16, when cam lock pistons 622 are fully extended, cam curvatures 625 engage and bear down on shoulder 654 formed in adapter 650. Cooperating abutment surfaces at the contact interface of adapter 650 and receptacle 660 are compressed together to form a high pressure seal. Such cooperating abutment surfaces include seat surface 655 and slope surface 656 on adapter 650, which although not illustrated in detail on FIGS. 16 and 17 will be understood to correspond to seat surface 255 and slope surface 256 depicted on FIG. 10. As with the embodiment of pressure control assembly 200 described above with reference to FIG. 10, the action of locking ring 640 to secure cam locks 620 on FIG. 16 is primarily for safety purposes, to prevent cam locks 620 from becoming disengaged from shoulder 654 on adapter 650 in the event of a loss in hydraulic pressure (or other event) potentially compromising the high pressure seal between adapter 650 and receptacle 660. FIGS. 18 through 20 illustrate one embodiment of a spring-driven ball race seal assembly 700 for providing a high pressure seal for wellhead pressure control fittings. FIGS. 18 through 20 should be viewed together. FIG. 18 is an isometric section view of ball race seal assembly 700, and FIG. 20 is an exploded view of FIG. 18. FIG. 18 depicts ball race seal assembly 700 in the locked position. FIGS. 19A and 19B are freeze-frame views of ball race seal assembly 700 in partial section, illustrating ball race seal assembly 700 in its unlocked position (FIG. 19A) and locked position (FIG. 19B). For clarity on FIGS. 18 through 20, and to reduce clutter on the drawings, conventional sealing parts such as o-rings are either shown but not called out as separate parts, or are omitted altogether. Referring first to FIG. 18, receptacle 760 is generally tubular and provides an exterior annular cutout at a first end that forms an elongate receptacle sealing portion 762 at the first end. A second end of receptacle 760 provides a flange or other suitable connection to a wellhead, or to equipment interposed between receptacle 760 and the wellhead. PCE adapter 750 is also generally tubular and provides a suitable connection, such as a threaded connection, to pressure control equipment (PCE) at a first end. Adapter 750 further provides an interior annular cutout at a second end that forms an elongate adapter sealing portion 752 at the second end. Adapter sealing portion 752 and receptacle sealing portion 762 are shaped and dimensioned such that when adapter sealing portion 752 is received over receptacle sealing portion 762 and constrained radially outwards, a pressure seal is formed between adapter sealing portion 752 and receptacle sealing portion 762. o-rings 761 facilitate the seal. Lower body 710 is generally tubular, and is received over and affixed to the exterior of receptacle 760 via threading or other suitable connection. Lower body 710 has first and second ends, and is affixed at its second end to receptacle 760. The first end of lower body 710 extends parallel with receptacle sealing portion 762 and is positioned to constrain adapter sealing portion 752 radially when adapter sealing portion 752 is in sealing engagement with receptacle sealing portion 762. Referring momentarily to FIG. 20, ball race cylinder 720 provides holes 722 to receive ball bearings 721 and retain them externally. It will be understood that although holes 722 are small enough to retain ball bearings 721 externally, ball bearings 721 may nonetheless roll freely within holes 722 while protruding internally through holes 722. Referring again now to FIG. 18, ball race cylinder has first and second ends. The second end of ball race cylinder 720 (including ball bearings 721) is positioned at the first end of lower body 710 such that ball bearings 721, when protruding internally through holes 722, roll against an exterior surface of adapter 750 as adapter sealing portion 752 is brought to engage over receptacle sealing portion 762. The exterior surface of adapter 750 further provides annular adapter grooves 751 that are positioned and dimensioned to receive ball bearings 721 (as ball bearings 721 protrude internally through holes 722) when adapter sealing portion 752 is fully engaged over receptacle sealing portion 762. Adapter grooves 751 are further positioned, sized and shaped such that adapter sealing portion 752 is locked in sealing engagement with receptacle sealing portion 762 when ball bearings 721 are compressed into adapter grooves 751. Floating member 730 is generally tubular and is received over lower body 710 and ball race cylinder 720. Floating member 730 has first and second ends. The first end of floating member 730 retains ball bearings 721 in holes 722, while the interior of the second end of floating member 730 is in sealing engagement with the exterior of lower body 710. The first end of floating member 730 further provides a thickened floating member locking portion 731 which, when engaged on ball bearings 721, compresses ball bearings 721 into adapter grooves 751. Sleeve 770 is generally tubular and is received over ball race cylinder 720, floating member 730 and lower body 710. Sleeve 770 has first and second ends. The second end of sleeve 770 is affixed to the exterior of the second end of lower body 710 by threading or other suitable connection. The first end of sleeve 770 is further positioned, dimensioned and shaped to be in sealing engagement with the first end of ball race cylinder 720. With reference now to FIG. 20, sleeve 700 has an interior annular sleeve cavity 771 formed therein. With reference now to FIG. 18, floating member 730 resides within sleeve cavity 771 so as to create a sealed annular upper chamber 740 above the first end of floating member 730 and a sealed annular lower chamber 745 below the second end of floating member 730. Upper and lower chamber ports 741 and 746 are provided in sleeve 770 to supply hydraulic fluid to and from upper and lower chambers 740 and 745 respectively. Compression spring 735 resides in upper chamber 740 and is biased to encourage floating member 730 to a position farthest away from the first end of sleeve 770. FIGS. 19A and 19B illustrate the operation of ball race seal assembly 700 from an unlocked position in FIG. 19A to a locked position in FIG. 19B. In FIG. 19A, hydraulic fluid is introduced through lower chamber port 746 (and denoted by the large arrow on FIG. 19A) and pressurizes lower chamber 745, moving floating member 730 towards the first end of sleeve 770 in the direction of the small vertical arrow on FIG. 19A and against the bias of compression spring 735. Thickened floating member locking portion 731 of locking member 730 is disengaged from ball bearings 721, allowing ball bearings 721 to displace radially outwards in the direction of the small horizontal arrows on FIG. 19A. At this time, adapter 750 is free to be brought into engagement with receptacle 760, such that adapter sealing portion 752 may form a seal over receptacle sealing portion 762, while also being constrained radially by lower body 710. Turning now to FIG. 19B, adapter sealing portion 752 is now fully engaged over receptacle sealing portion, and adapter grooves 751 are now positioned adjacent to ball bearings 721. Hydraulic fluid is introduced through upper chamber port 741 (and denoted by the large arrow on FIG. 19B) and pressurizes upper chamber 740, moving floating member 730 towards the second end of sleeve 770 in the direction of the small vertical arrow on FIG. 19B and assisted by the bias of compression spring 735. Thickened floating member locking portion 731 of locking member 730 engages ball bearings 721, compressing ball bearings 721 into adapter grooves in the direction of the small horizontal arrows on FIG. 19B, and thereby locking adapter sealing portion 752 in sealing engagement with receptacle sealing portion 762. FIGS. 21 through 28 illustrate two embodiments of a wedge seal design for providing a high pressure seal for wellhead pressure control fittings. FIGS. 21 through 24 illustrate a first embodiment, wedge seal assembly 800, in which opposing sloped sides of wedges are driven in reciprocating motion directly by hydraulic fluid pressure. FIGS. 25 through 28 illustrate a second embodiment, wedge seal assembly 900, in which the opposing sloped sides of the wedges are driven by hydraulically-actuated pistons. Turning first to FIGS. 21 through 24, wedge seal assembly 800 is illustrated for providing a high pressure seal for wellhead pressure control fittings. FIGS. 21 through 24 should be viewed together. FIG. 21 is an isometric section view of wedge seal assembly 800, and FIG. 24 is an exploded view of FIG. 21. FIG. 21 depicts wedge seal assembly 800 in the locked position. FIGS. 22A and 22B are freeze-frame views of wedge seal assembly 800 in partial section at the upper end, illustrating engagement of upper adapter rib 851 on adapter 850. FIG. 22A illustrates wedge seal assembly 800 in its unlocked position prior to engagement of upper adapter rib 851 and FIG. 22B illustrates wedge seal assembly 800 in its locked position over upper adapter rib 851. FIGS. 23A and 23B are freeze-frame views of wedge seal assembly 800 in partial section at the lower end, illustrating engagement of lower adapter rib 852 on adapter 850. FIG. 23A illustrates wedge seal assembly 800 in its unlocked Position prior to engagement of lower adapter rib 852 and FIG. 23B illustrates wedge seal assembly 800 in its locked position over lower adapter rib 852. For clarity on FIGS. 21 through 24, and to reduce clutter on the drawings, conventional sealing parts such as o-rings are either shown but not called out as separate parts, or are omitted altogether. Further, not all parts on wedge seal assembly 800 are shown on freeze-frame FIGS. 22A through 23B. Some parts have been omitted for clarity on FIGS. 22A through 23B so that the unlocking and locking mechanisms of wedge seal assembly 800 can be appreciated more clearly. By way of introduction to wedge seal assembly 800 in more detail, FIGS. 23A and 23B illustrate that the high pressure seal between adapter 850 and receptacle 860 is functionally analogous to the high pressure seal between adapter 250 and receptacle 260 described above with reference to FIGS. 8 through 10. Referring to FIGS. 23A and 23B, adapter 850 provides machined surfaces on seat surface 855 and slope surface 856. Receptacle 860 also provides corresponding machined surfaces shaped to match seat surface 855 and slope surface 856 at a first (distal) end 861 thereof. It will be appreciated that analogous to FIGS. 8 through 10 as described above for pressure control assembly 200, compression of adapter 850 into receptacle 860 on wedge seal assembly 800 as depicted on FIGS. 23A and 23B enables a machined surface metal-to-metal seal at seat surface 855 and slope surface 856. A primary distinction between the embodiment of wedge seal assembly 800 (as depicted on FIGS. 23A and 23B) over the embodiment of pressure control assembly 200 (as depicted on FIGS. 8 through 10) arises in the mechanism by which wedge seal assembly 800 compresses adapter 850 into receptacle 860 to form a high pressure seal. With reference first to FIG. 23B, when adapter 850 is received into seal engagement with receptacle 860, lower adapter rib 852 is presented for engagement with lower wedge 840. Lower wedge 840 provides lower wedge top and bottom ribs 843 and 844. Hydraulic fluid is introduced under pressure through lower engage port 832 into lower engage chamber 831, as denoted by the large arrow on FIG. 23B. Pressurization of lower engage chamber 831 causes movement of lower wedge receptacle 845 in the direction of the small vertical arrow on FIG. 23B (i.e., in a direction away from the wellhead), assisted by the bias of lower compression spring 846. This movement of lower wedge receptacle 845 compresses lower wedge 840 radially against the engagement of adapter 850 and receptacle 860, in the direction of the small horizontal arrows on FIG. 23B. Lower wedge top rib 843 locks over lower adapter rib 852 and lower wedge bottom rib 844 locks into wedge groove 865 provided in receptacle 860. Referring now to FIG. 23A, the release of the high pressure seal enabled by wedge seal assembly 800 is substantially the reverse of the disclosure immediately above describing FIG. 23B. Hydraulic fluid is introduced under pressure through lower release port 834 into lower release chamber 833, as denoted by the large arrow on FIG. 23A. It will be understood that at the same time, hydraulic fluid pressure is released in lower engage chamber 831 through lower engage port 832. Pressurization of lower release chamber 833 causes movement of lower wedge receptacle 845 in the direction of the small vertical arrow on FIG. 23A (i.e., in a direction towards the wellhead), against the bias of lower compression spring 846. This movement of lower wedge receptacle 845 releases lower wedge 840 from its engagement of lower adapter rib 852 and wedge groove 865, in the direction of the small horizontal arrows on FIG. 23A. Adapter 850 and receptacle 860 are now free to separate, releasing the high pressure seal between them. It will be appreciated that first from reference to FIG. 21, and then to FIGS. 22A and 22B, the high pressure seal provided by wedge seal assembly 800 is assisted by a locking mechanism further above the seal, where upper adapter rib 851 is engaged by upper wedge 820. For the avoidance of doubt, it should be understood that the engagement of upper adapter rib 851 per FIGS. 22A and 22B is not a seal, but a lock that holds adapter 850 in sealing engagement with receptacle 860 as described immediately above with reference to FIGS. 23A and 23B. It will be therefore necessarily understood that in the embodiment of wedge seal assembly 800 illustrated on FIGS. 21 through 24, upper adapter rib 851 may be engaged and released by upper wedge 820 independently of the engagement and release of lower adapter rib 852 by lower wedge 840. With reference now to FIG. 22B and 23B, when adapter 850 is received into seal engagement with receptacle 860, upper adapter rib 851 is presented for engagement with upper wedge 820. Upper wedge 820 provides upper wedge top and bottom ribs 823 and 824. Hydraulic fluid is introduced under pressure through upper engage port 812 into upper engage chamber 811, as denoted by the large arrow on FIG. 22B. Pressurization of upper engage chamber 811 causes movement of upper wedge receptacle 825 in the direction of the small vertical arrow on FIG. 22B (i.e., in a direction away from the wellhead), assisted by the bias of upper compression spring 826. This movement of upper wedge receptacle 825 compresses upper wedge 820 radially against upper adapter rib 851, in the direction of the small horizontal arrows on FIG. 22B. Upper wedge top and bottom ribs 823 and 824 lock over upper adapter rib 851 and further restrain adapter 850 from movement relative to the high pressure seal below (seal shown on FIG. 23B). Referring now to FIG. 22A, the release of the locking mechanism over upper adapter rib 851 is substantially the reverse of the disclosure immediately above describing FIG. 22B. Hydraulic fluid is introduced under pressure through upper release port 814 into upper release chamber 813, as denoted by the large arrow on FIG. 22A. It will be understood that at the same time, hydraulic fluid pressure is released in upper engage chamber 811 through upper engage port 812. Pressurization of upper release chamber 813 causes movement of upper wedge receptacle 825 in the direction of the small vertical arrow on FIG. 22A (i.e., in a direction towards the wellhead), against the bias of upper compression spring 826. This movement of upper wedge receptacle 825 releases upper wedge 820 from its engagement of upper adapter rib 851, in the direction of the small horizontal arrows on FIG. 22A. Referring now to FIGS. 21 and 24, wedge seal assembly 800 comprises a generally tubular receptacle 860 that provides an exterior annular wedge groove 865 at a first end 861 thereof. A second end of receptacle 860 provides a flange or other suitable connection to a wellhead, or to equipment interposed between receptacle 860 and the wellhead. PCE adapter 850 is also generally tubular and, provides a suitable connection, such as a threaded connection, to pressure control equipment (PCE) at a first end. Adapter 850 further provides a lower adapter rib 852 at a second end proximate machined seal surfaces including seat surface 855 and 856. As described above with respect to FIG. 23B, the high pressure seal between adapter 850 and receptacle 860 is functionally analogous to the high pressure seal between adapter 250 and receptacle 260 described above with reference to FIGS. 8 through 10. Lower wedge receptacle 845 is generally cylindrical and is received over the first end 861 of receptacle 860. Lower wedges 840 are received into shaped recesses 845A in lower wedge receptacle 845 and are positioned around the first end 861 of receptacle 860. Three (3) lower wedges 840 are illustrated on FIGS. 21 and 24, although the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. Lower wedges 840 are separated and kept in circumferential bias by lower wedge separator springs 841. Six (6) lower wedge separator springs 841 are illustrated on FIGS. 21 and 24, although again, the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. Shaped recesses 845A and lower wedges 840 present opposing sloped surfaces such that lower wedges 840 are caused to constrict and expand radially within lower wedge receptacle 845 responsive to axial displacement of lower wedge receptacle 845 relative to lower wedges 840. Each lower wedge 840 further provides lower wedge top and bottom ribs 843 and 844. Lower wedge top rib 843 is shaped and positioned to be received over lower adapter rib 852 when adapter 850 is sealingly received into receptacle 860. Lower wedge bottom rib 844 is shaped and positioned to be received into wedge groove 865 on receptacle 860 when adapter 850 is sealingly received into receptacle 860. Lower compression spring 846 is received over receptacle 860 and interposed between lower wedge receptacle 845 and the second end of receptacle 860. Lower compression spring 846 is biased to encourage radial constriction of lower wedges 840 via axial displacement of lower wedge receptacle 845 relative to lower wedges 840. Lower sleeve 804 is generally tubular and is received over lower wedge receptacle 845 and lower compression spring 846. Exterior ribs 845B on lower wedge receptacle 845 sealingly engage with lower sleeve 804. Two (2) exterior ribs 845B are illustrated on FIGS. 21 and 24, although the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. Lower sleeve 804 has first and second ends. The second end of lower sleeve 804 is affixed to the exterior of the second end of receptacle 860 by threading or other suitable connection, and is advantageously further secured in place by securement ring 805. The first end of lower sleeve 804 sealingly engages with lower roof member 830. Lower roof member 830 also contacts lower wedge top ribs 843. Lower engage chamber 831 is formed by lower wedge receptacle 845 (including exterior ribs 845B), lower sleeve 804 and receptacle 860. Lower engage port 832 supplies and drains lower engage chamber 831 with hydraulic fluid. Lower release chamber 833 is formed by lower wedge receptacle 845 (including exterior ribs 845B), lower sleeve 804 and lower roof member 830. Lower release port 834 supplies and drains lower release chamber 833 with hydraulic fluid. With continuing reference to FIGS. 21 and 24, compression spring retainer sleeve 827 is generally cylindrical and has first and second ends. The second end of compression spring retainer sleeve 827 is received into an interior annular recess 830A in lower roof member 830. Upper wedge receptacle 825 is received over the first end of compression spring retainer sleeve 827. Upper wedges 820 are received into shaped recesses 825A in upper wedge receptacle 825. Three (3) upper wedges 820 are illustrated on FIGS. 21 and 24, although the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. Upper wedges 820 are separated and kept in circumferential bias by upper wedge separator springs 821. Six (6) upper wedge separator springs 821 are illustrated on FIGS. 21 and 24, although again, the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. Shaped recesses 825A and upper wedges 820 present opposing sloped surfaces such that upper wedges 820 are caused to constrict and expand radially within upper wedge receptacle 825 responsive to axial displacement of upper wedge receptacle 825 relative to upper wedges 820. Each upper wedge 820 further provides upper wedge top and bottom ribs 823 and 824. Upper wedge top and bottom ribs 823 and 824 are shaped and positioned to enable upper wedges 820 to constrict around and restrain upper adapter rib 851 when adapter 850 is sealingly received into receptacle 860. Upper compression spring 826 is received over compression spring retainer sleeve 827 and interposed between upper wedge receptacle 825 and lower roof member 830. Upper compression spring 826 is biased to encourage radial constriction of upper wedges 820 via axial displacement of lower wedge receptacle 825 relative to lower wedges 820. Upper sleeve 803 is generally tubular and is received over upper wedge receptacle 825 and upper compression spring 826. Exterior rib 825B on upper wedge receptacle 825 sealingly engages with upper sleeve 803. One (1) exterior rib 825B is illustrated on FIGS. 21 and 24, although the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. Upper sleeve 803 has first and second ends. The second end of upper sleeve 803 is sealingly affixed to the exterior of the first end of lower sleeve 804 by threading plus gasket, or other suitable connection. The first end of upper sleeve 803 is sealingly engaged to upper roof member 810. Upper roof member 810 also contacts upper wedge top ribs 823. Upper engage chamber 811 is formed by upper wedge receptacle 825 (including exterior rib 825B) and upper sleeve 803. Upper engage port 812 supplies and drains upper engage chamber 811 with hydraulic fluid. Upper release chamber 813 is formed by upper wedge receptacle 825 (including exterior rib 825B), upper sleeve 803 and upper roof member 810. Upper release port 814 supplies and drains upper release chamber 813 with hydraulic fluid. Upper roof member 810 is affixed to tulip 801. Tulip 801 provides tulip clearance 802 sufficient to allow upper and lower adapter ribs 851 and 852 on adapter 850 to pass through tulip 801. Turning now to FIGS. 25 through 28, wedge seal assembly 900 is illustrated for providing a high pressure seal for wellhead pressure control fittings. FIGS. 25 through 28 should be viewed together. FIG. 25 is an isometric section view of wedge seal assembly 900, and FIG. 28 is an exploded view of FIG. 25. FIG. 25 depicts wedge seal assembly 900 in the locked position. FIGS. 26A and 26B are freeze-frame views of wedge seal assembly 900 in partial section at the upper end, illustrating engagement of upper adapter rib 951 on adapter 950. FIG. 26A illustrates wedge seal assembly 900 in its unlocked position prior to engagement of upper adapter rib 951 and FIG. 26B illustrates wedge seal assembly 900 in its locked position over upper adapter rib 951. FIGS. 27A and 27B are freeze-frame views of wedge seal assembly 900 in partial section at the lower end, illustrating engagement of lower adapter rib 952 on adapter 950. FIG. 27A illustrates wedge seal assembly 900 in its unlocked position prior to engagement of lower adapter rib 952 and FIG. 27B illustrates wedge seal assembly 900 in its locked position over lower adapter rib 952. For clarity on FIGS. 25 through 28, and to reduce clutter on the drawings, conventional sealing parts such as o-rings are either shown but not called out as separate parts, or are omitted altogether. Further, not all parts on wedge seal assembly 900 are shown on freeze-frame FIGS. 26A through 27B. Some parts have been omitted for clarity on FIGS. 26A through 27B so that the unlocking and locking mechanisms of wedge seal assembly 900 can be appreciated more clearly. By way of introduction to wedge seal assembly 900 in more detail, FIGS. 27A and 27B illustrate that the high pressure seal between adapter 950 and receptacle 960 is functionally analogous to the high pressure seal between adapter 250 and receptacle 260 described above with reference to FIGS. 8 through 10. Referring to FIGS. 27A and 27B, adapter 950 provides machined surfaces on seat surface 955 and slope surface 956. Receptacle 960 also provides corresponding machined surfaces shaped to match seat surface 955 and slope surface 956 at a first (distal) end 961 thereof. It will be appreciated that analogous to FIGS. 8 through 10 as described above for pressure control assembly 200, compression of adapter 950 into receptacle 960 on wedge seal assembly 900 as depicted on FIGS. 27A and 27B enables a machined surface metal-to-metal seal at seat surface 955 and slope surface 956. A primary distinction between the embodiment of wedge seal assembly 900 (as depicted on FIGS. 27A and 27B) over the embodiment of pressure control assembly 200 (as depicted on FIGS. 8 through 10) arises in the mechanism by which wedge seal assembly 900 compresses adapter 950 into receptacle 960 to form a high pressure seal. With reference first to FIG. 27B, when adapter 950 is received into seal engagement with receptacle 960, lower adapter rib 952 is presented for engagement with lower wedge 940. Lower wedge 940 provides lower wedge top and bottom ribs 943 and 944. Hydraulic fluid is introduced to actuate and extend lower piston 975, as denoted by the large arrow on FIG. 27B. Extension of lower piston 975 causes movement of lower wedge receptacle 945 in the direction of the small vertical arrows on FIG. 27B (i.e., in a direction away from the wellhead), assisted by the bias of lower compression spring 946. This movement of lower wedge receptacle 945 compresses lower wedge 940 radially against the engagement of adapter 950 and receptacle 960, in the direction of the small horizontal arrows on FIG. 27B. Lower wedge top rib 943 locks over lower adapter rib 952 and lower wedge bottom rib 944 locks into wedge groove 965 provided in receptacle 960. Referring now to FIG. 27A, the release of the high pressure seal enabled by wedge seal assembly 900 is substantially the reverse of the disclosure immediately above describing FIG. 27B. Hydraulic fluid is released to retract lower piston 975. Retraction of lower piston 975 causes movement of lower wedge receptacle 945 in the direction of the small vertical arrows on FIG. 27A (i.e., in a direction towards the wellhead), against the bias of lower compression spring 946. This movement of lower wedge receptacle 945 releases lower wedge 940 from its engagement of lower adapter rib 952 and wedge groove 965, in the direction of the small horizontal arrows on FIG. 27A. Adapter 950 and receptacle 960 are now free to separate, releasing the high pressure seal between them. It will be appreciated that first from reference to FIG. 25, and then to FIGS. 26A and 26B, the high pressure seal provided by wedge seal assembly 900 is assisted by a locking mechanism further above the seal, where upper adapter rib 951 is engaged by upper wedge 920. For the avoidance of doubt, it should be understood that the engagement of upper adapter rib 951 per FIGS. 26A and 26B is not a seal, but lock that holds adapter 950 in sealing engagement with receptacle 960 as described immediately above with reference to FIGS. 27A and 27B. It will be therefore necessarily understood that in the embodiment of wedge seal assembly 900 illustrated on FIGS. 25 through 28, upper adapter rib 951 may be engaged and released by upper wedge 920 independently of the engagement and release of lower adapter rib 952 by lower wedge 940. With reference now to FIG. 26B, when adapter 950 is received into seal engagement with receptacle 960, upper adapter rib 951 is presented for engagement with upper wedge 920. Upper wedge 920 provides upper wedge top and bottom ribs 923 and 924. Hydraulic fluid is introduced to actuate and extend upper piston 970, as denoted by the large arrow on FIG. 26B. Extension of upper piston 970 causes movement of upper wedge receptacle 925 in the direction of the small vertical arrows on FIG. 26B (i.e., in a direction away from the wellhead), assisted by the bias of upper compression spring 926. This movement of upper wedge receptacle 925 compresses upper wedge 920 radially against upper adapter rib 951, in the direction of the small horizontal arrows on FIG. 26B. Upper wedge top and bottom ribs 923 and 924 lock over upper adapter rib 951 and further restrain adapter 950 from movement relative to the high pressure seal below (seal shown on FIG. 27B). Referring now to FIG. 26A, the release of the locking mechanism over upper adapter rib 951 is substantially the reverse of the disclosure immediately above describing FIG. 26B. Hydraulic fluid is released to retract upper piston 970. Retraction of upper piston 970 causes movement of upper wedge receptacle 925 in the direction of the small vertical arrows on FIG. 26A (i.e., in a direction towards the wellhead), against the bias of lower compression spring 946. This movement of upper wedge receptacle 925 releases upper wedge 920 from its engagement of upper adapter rib 951, in the direction of the small horizontal arrows on FIG. 26A. Referring now to FIGS. 25 and 28, wedge seal assembly 900 comprises a generally tubular receptacle 960 that provides an exterior annular wedge groove 965 at a first end 961 thereof A second end of receptacle 960 provides a flange or other suitable connection to a wellhead, or to equipment interposed between receptacle 960 and the wellhead. PCE adapter 950 is also generally tubular and provides a suitable connection, such as a threaded connection, to pressure control equipment (PCE) at a first end. Adapter 950 further provides a lower adapter rib 952 at a second end proximate machined seal surfaces including seat surface 955 and 956. As described above with respect to FIG. 27B, the high pressure seal between adapter 950 and receptacle 960 is functionally analogous to the high pressure seal between adapter 250 and receptacle 260 described above with reference to FIGS. 8 through 10. Lower wedge receptacle 945 is generally cylindrical and is received over the first end 961 of receptacle 960. Lower wedges 940 are received into shaped recesses 945A in lower wedge receptacle 945 and are positioned around the first end 961 of receptacle 860. Three (3) lower wedges 940 are illustrated on FIGS. 25 and 28, although the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. Lower wedges 940 are separated and kept in circumferential bias by lower wedge separator springs 941. Six (6) lower wedge separator springs 941 are illustrated on FIGS. 25 and 28, although again, the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. Shaped recesses 945A and lower wedges 940 present opposing sloped surfaces such that lower wedges 940 are caused to constrict and expand radially within lower wedge receptacle 945 responsive to axial displacement of lower wedge receptacle 945 relative to lower wedges 940. Each lower wedge 940 further provides lower wedge top and bottom ribs 943 and 944. Lower wedge top rib 943 is shaped and positioned to be received over lower adapter rib 952 when adapter 950 is sealingly received into receptacle 960. Lower wedge bottom rib 944 is shaped and positioned to be received into wedge groove 965 on receptacle 960 when adapter 950 is sealingly received into receptacle 960. Lower wedge receptacle 945 is received into lower wedge receptacle retainer 949, and lower wedge receptacle ring 948 retains lower wedge receptacle 945 in lower wedge receptacle retainer 949. Lower compression spring 946 is received over receptacle 960 and interposed between lower wedge receptacle retainer 949 and the second end of receptacle 960. Lower compression spring 946 is biased to encourage radial constriction of lower wedges 940 via axial displacement of lower wedge receptacle 945 (within lower wedge receptacle retainer 949) relative to lower wedges 940. Lower compression spring telescoping retainer sleeves 947A and 947B are received over lower compression spring 946 and also interposed between lower wedge receptacle retainer 949 and the second end of receptacle 960. Lower compression spring telescoping retainer sleeves 947A and 947B extend and retract in register with extension and retraction of lower compression spring 946. Lower sleeve 904 is generally tubular and is received over lower wedge receptacle retainer 949, lower compression spring telescoping retainer sleeves 947A and 947B, and low compression spring 946. Lower sleeve 904 has first and second ends. The second end of lower sleeve 904 is affixed to base ring 907. Base ring 907 is affixed to the exterior of the second end of receptacle 960 by threading or other suitable connection, and lower sleeve 904 is advantageously further secured in place on base ring 907 by lower securement ring 905. The first end of lower sleeve 904 is affixed to lower roof member 930. Lower roof member 930 also contacts lower wedge top ribs 943. Lower pistons 975 are positioned in the annular space between lower sleeve 904 and lower compression spring telescoping retainer sleeves 947A and 947B, and are advantageously secured to the exterior of receptacle 960 by bolts or other suitable fasteners. Lower piston ports 976 supply and drain hydraulic fluid from lower pistons 975. Two (2) lower pistons 975 are illustrated on FIGS. 25 and 28, although the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. The cylinders of lower pistons 975 are connected to lower wedge receptacle retainer 949. As noted above in disclosure describing FIGS. 27A and 27B, extension and retraction of lower pistons 975 cause radial constriction and expansion of lower wedges 949 via displacement of lower wedge receptacle 945 (as received inside lower wedge receptacle retainer 949) with respect to lower wedges 940. With continuing reference to FIGS. 25 and 28, upper compression spring retainer sleeve 927 is generally cylindrical and has first and second ends. The second end of upper compression spring retainer sleeve 927 is received into an interior annular recess 930A in lower roof member 930. Upper wedge receptacle retainer 929 is received over the first end of compression spring retainer sleeve 927. Upper wedge receptacle 925 is received into upper wedge receptacle retainer 929. Upper wedge receptacle ring 928 retains upper wedge receptacle 925 in upper wedge receptacle retainer 929. The first end of upper compression spring retainer sleeve 927 contacts upper wedge bottom ribs 924 on upper wedges 920. Upper wedges 920 are also received into shaped recesses 925A in upper wedge receptacle 925. Three (3) upper wedges 920 are illustrated on FIGS. 25 and 28, although the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. Upper wedges 920 are separated and kept in circumferential bias by upper wedge separator springs 921. Six (6) upper edge separator springs 921 are illustrated on FIGS. 25 and 28, although again, the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. Shaped recesses 925A and upper wedges 920 present opposing sloped surfaces such that upper wedges 920 are caused to constrict and expand radially within upper wedge receptacle 925 responsive to axial displacement of upper wedge receptacle 925 relative to upper wedges 920. Each upper wedge 890 further provides upper wedge top and bottom ribs 923 and 924. Upper wedge top and bottom ribs 923 and 924 are shaped and positioned to enable upper wedges 920 to constrict around and restrain upper adapter rib 951 when adapter 950 is sealingly received into receptacle 960. Upper compression spring 926 is received over upper compression spring retainer sleeve 927 and interposed between upper wedge receptacle retainer 929 and lower roof member 930. Upper compression spring 926 is biased to encourage radial constriction of upper wedges 920 via axial displacement of upper wedge receptacle 925 (within upper wedge receptacle retainer 929) relative to upper wedges 920. Upper sleeve 903 is generally tabular and is received over upper wedge receptacle retainer 929 and upper compression spring 926. Upper sleeve 903 has first and second ends. The second end of upper sleeve 803 is affixed to lower roof member 930 and secured in place by upper securement ring 906. The first end of upper sleeve 903 is affixed to upper roof member 910. Upper roof member 910 also contacts upper wedge top ribs 923. Upper pistons 970 are positioned in the annular space between upper sleeve 903 and upper compression spring retainer sleeve 927, and are advantageously secured to upper sleeve 903 by bolts or other suitable fasteners. Upper piston ports 971 supply and drain hydraulic fluid from upper pistons 970. Two (2) upper pistons 970 are illustrated on FIGS. 25 and 28, although the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. The cylinders of upper pistons 970 are connected to upper wedge receptacle retainer 929. As noted above in disclosure describing FIGS. 26A and 26B, extension and retraction of upper pistons 970 cause radial constriction and expansion of upper wedges 929 via displacement of upper wedge receptacle 925 (as received inside upper wedge receptacle retainer 929) with respect to upper wedges 920. Upper roof member 910 is affixed to tulip 801. Tulip 901 provides tulip clearance 902 sufficient to allow upper and lower adapter ribs 951 and 952 on adapter 950 to pass through tulip 901. Earlier description made clear that the scope of this disclosure in no way limits the disclosed high pressure seal embodiments to specific sizes or models. Currently envisaged embodiments make the disclosed technology available in several sizes, shapes, and pressure ratings to adapt to existing surface pressure control equipment. Proprietary connections may require specialized adapters. It will be nonetheless understood that the scope of this disclosure is not limited to any particular sizes, shapes, and pressure ratings for various embodiments of the disclosed high pressure seal embodiments, and that the embodiments described in this disclosure and, in U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 62/263,889 (incorporated herein by reference) are exemplary only. Currently envisaged embodiments of the disclosed high pressure seals may provide pressure ratings including 5,000 psi, 10,000 psi and 15,000 psi MAWP ratings, each further rated for H2S service. Currently envisaged sizes may range from about 2″ to about 7″ ID. The foregoing sizes and performance metrics are exemplary only, and the scope of this disclosure is not limited in such regards. Although the disclosed high pressure seal embodiments have been described with reference to an exemplary application in pressure control at a wellhead, alternative applications could include, for example, areas such as deep core drilling, offshore drilling, methane drilling, open hole applications, hydraulic fracturing, wireline operations, coil tubing operations, mining operations, and various operations where connections are needed under a suspended or inaccessible load (i.e., underwater, hazardous area). Exemplary materials used in the construction of the disclosed high pressure seal embodiments include high strength alloy steels, high strength polymers, and various grades of elastomers. Although the inventive material in this disclosure has been described in detail along with some of its technical advantages, it will be understood that various changes, substitutions and alternations may be made to, the detailed embodiments without departing from the broader spirit and, scope of such inventive material as set forth in the following claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSED TECHNOLOGY <EOH>Conventionally, wellhead connections to pressure control equipment are typically made by either a hand union or hammer union. Wellhead operators engaging or disengaging these conventional types of wellhead connections place themselves in danger of injury. The pressure control equipment to be connected to the wellhead is typically heavy, and remains suspended above the wellhead operator via use of a crane. Interacting with the crane operator, a technician at the wellhead below must struggle with the suspended load as it is lowered in order to achieve the proper entry angle into the wellhead to make a secure connection. The wellhead operator must then connect the wellhead to the pressure control equipment to the wellhead, typically via a bolted flanged connection. The bolts must be tightened manually by a person at the wellhead, typically via a “knock wrench” struck with a sledgehammer in order to get the bolts sufficiently tight to withstand the internal operating pressure. During this whole process, as noted, the operator is in physical danger of injuries, such as collision with the suspended pressure control equipment load, or pinched or crushed fingers and hands when securing the connection. Wellhead operators are exposed to similar risks of injury during conventional removal of the pressure control equipment from the wellhead. The removal process is substantially the reverse of the engagement process described in the previous paragraph. There is therefore a need in the well services industry to have a way to safely connect and disconnect pressure control equipment from the wellhead while minimizing the physical danger to human resources in the vicinity. The disclosed embodiments of high pressure seals for wellhead pressure control fittings are all hydraulically-actuated and -deactuated systems that lock pressure control equipment to the wellhead via a remote control station.

<SOH> SUMMARY AND TECHNICAL ADVANTAGES <EOH>These and other drawbacks in the prior art are addressed by the disclosed embodiments of high pressure seals for wellhead pressure control fittings. Disclosed embodiments include a cam lock design with a secondary lock, in which the cam lock pressure control apparatus replaces connections done conventionally either by hammering, torqueing, or with a quick union nut, all of which require the interaction of an operator to perform these operations. This disclosure describes exemplary cam lock embodiments in both larger and smaller diameter configurations to suit corresponding size ranges of wellheads. In such embodiments, a crane operator may place pressure control equipment (PCE) directly onto the wellhead via the apparatus's highly visible entry guide (“tulip”). The crane operator may then proceed to actuate the cam lock control apparatus and secure the pressure control equipment in embodiments where the crane is equipped with the apparatus's remote controls. In alternative embodiments, a second operator may operate the cam lock control apparatus remotely while the crane holds the pressure control equipment in the tulip. In currently preferred embodiments, the disclosed cam lock pressure control apparatus allows the pressure control equipment to be secured in the wellhead from up to 100 feet away from the wellhead, although the scope of this disclosure is not limited in this regard. As noted, disclosed embodiments of the disclosed cam lock pressure control apparatus provide a secondary mechanical lock feature that holds the locked pressure connection secure without total loss in hydraulic pressure. Preferably, the apparatus may be adapted to fit any conventional wellhead, and may be available in several sizes, such as (without limitation) for 3-inch to 7-inch pipe. As noted, this disclosure describes exemplary cam lock embodiments in both larger and smaller diameter configurations to suit corresponding size ranges of wellheads. Although not limited to any particular pressure rating, the disclosed cam lock pressure control apparatus is preferably rated up to about 15,000 psi MAWP (maximum allowable working pressure). Although the embodiments described in this disclosure are described for applications in the oilfield industry, the disclosed cam lock pressure control apparatus is not limited to such applications. It will be appreciated that the apparatus also has applications wherever highly pressurized joint connections can be made more safely by remote actuation and deactuation. Embodiments of the disclosed pressure control apparatus preferably also provide a “nightcap” option to cap the well if there will be multiple operations. Consistent with conventional practice in the field, the apparatus includes a nightcap option, available separately, for sealing off the wellhead while the PCE has been temporarily removed, such as at the end of the day. Embodiments including the nightcap enable the apparatus to remain connected to the wellhead, and wellhead pressure to be retained, in periods when PCE is temporarily removed. In such embodiments, the disclosed pressure control apparatus does not have to be removed and re-installed on the well head every time PCE is removed. Such embodiments obviate the need to suspend wellhead operations unnecessarily just to remove and re-install the apparatus every time PCE is removed. It is therefore a technical advantage of the disclosed pressure control apparatus to reduce substantially the possibility of personal injury to wellhead operators during engagement and disengagement of pressure control equipment from wellheads. In addition to the paramount importance of providing a safe workplace, there are further ancillary advantages provided by the disclosed pressure control apparatus, such as improved personnel morale and economic advantages through reduction of lost time accidents and increased efficiency gains of more rapid rig ups. Another technical advantage of the disclosed pressure control apparatus is that it provides a hands-free, secure, predictable connection between pressure control equipment and the wellhead. The disclosed primary cam-lock, in combination with the secondary lock feature, provides a predictable serviceably-tight connection every time. This is distinction to possible variances in the tightness provided by conventional hand- and knock wrench-tightening of the connection, whose degree of tightness may vary according to the technique and physical strength of the manual operator. A further technical advantage of the disclosed pressure control apparatus is that, in embodiments in which a quick test port is provided, a conventional hand pump can conveniently deliver high pressure fluid to a portion of the pressure connection sealed between two sets of o-rings. It will be appreciated that the o-rings will limit or impede high pressure fluid flow into or out of the portion of the pressure connection between the two sets of o-rings. Embodiments of this disclosure provide a quick test port though the pressure control assembly into the flow-limited portion of the pressure connection. A hand pump may then be used to deliver fluid through the quick test port to the flow-limited portion. This allows the pressure integrity of the seals provided by the o-rings to be tested prior to applying high fluid pressures from the wellhead onto the pressure control apparatus's pressure connection. In other applications, the quick test port may be used to equalize pressure in the flow-limited portion of the pressure connection during service engagement and disengagement of the pressure control apparatus from the wellhead. Disclosed additional embodiments of high pressure seals for wellhead pressure control fittings describe a wedge seal design and a spring-driven ball race seal design that substitute for the cam lock design. The wedge seal design and spring-driven ball race seal design differentiate functionally over the cam lock design primarily in the mechanism by which a high pressure seal is provided. The cam design provides piston-actuated rotating cams whose perimeter curvatures bear down on a shaped shoulder formed in the exterior surface of a PCE adapter. The adapter is received into a receptacle assembly connected to the wellhead, so that the cams compress the adapter into the receptacle to form a high pressure seal. By contrast, the wedge seal design provides opposing sliding wedges. Opposing sloped sides on the wedges slide together in reciprocating motion responsive to hydraulic pressure, causing the PCE adapter to be compressed into the wellhead assembly to form a high pressure seal. By contrast again, the spring-driven ball race seal design compresses the PCE adapter into the wellhead assembly by forcing, again responsive to hydraulic pressure, an annular member over a cylindrical ball race and into a tight fit (1) inside an annular receptacle, and (2) between ball bearings in the ball race and receiving grooves in the adapter. Similar to the cam lock design, the wedge seal design and spring-driven ball race seal design are both also remotely actuated and deactuated via hydraulic control, and therefore provide many of the same technical advantages described above. According to a first cam lock aspect, therefore, this disclosure describes embodiments of a wellhead pressure control fitting comprising a generally tubular Pressure Control Equipment (PCE) adapter having first and second adapter ends, the first adapter end contoured to mate with pressure control equipment, the second adapter end providing a shaped end including an adapter end curvature; a generally tubular pressure control assembly having first and second assembly ends, the first assembly end providing a first assembly end interior and a first assembly end exterior, the second assembly end configured to mate with a wellhead; the first assembly end exterior having an exterior periphery, the exterior periphery providing a plurality of cam locks, each cam lock disposed to rotate about a corresponding cam lock pin, each cam lock pin anchored to the first assembly end exterior, each cam lock further providing a cam perimeter curvature; the first assembly end exterior further providing a plurality of cam lock pistons, one cam lock piston for each cam lock, wherein extension and retraction of the cam lock pistons causes rotation of the cam locks in opposing directions about their corresponding cam lock pins; the first assembly end exterior further providing a plurality of locking ring pistons, a locking ring connected to the locking ring pistons at a distal end thereof; the locking ring encircling the first assembly end proximate the cam locks, wherein extension of the locking ring pistons causes the locking ring to move to a position free of contact with the cam locks as the cam locks rotate about the cam lock pins, and wherein retraction of the locking ring pistons causes the locking ring to move so as to restrain the cam locks from rotation about the cam lock pins; the first assembly end interior providing a receptacle for receiving the second adapter end, the second adapter end and the receptacle further each providing cooperating abutment surfaces, the cooperating abutment surfaces forming a high pressure seal between the second adapter end and the receptacle when the second adapter end is compressively received into the receptacle; wherein, as the second adapter end enters the receptacle and engages the cooperating abutment surfaces, extension of the cam lock pistons causes the cam locks to rotate about the cam lock pins, which in turn causes the cam perimeter curvatures on the cam locks to cooperatively bear down on the adapter end curvature, which in turn compresses the second adapter end into the receptacle to form the high pressure seal; and wherein, once the high pressure seal is formed, retraction of the locking ring pistons causes the locking ring to move so as to restrain the cam locks from rotation about the cam lock pins. In a second cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that each cam lock further provides a cam perimeter notch, each cam perimeter notch configured to engage the second adapter end as the second adapter end approaches entry into the receptacle. In a third cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the second assembly end further provides a vent line. In a fourth cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the second adapter end provides at least one o-ring seal configured to mate with the receptacle when the second adapter end is received into the receptacle. In a fifth cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the second adapter end provides at least first and second o-ring seals, and in which the first assembly end further provides a quick test port, the quick test port comprising a fluid passageway from the first assembly end exterior through to the first assembly end interior, wherein the quick test port is open to the first assembly end interior at a location selected to lie between the first and second o-ring seals when the second end adapter and the receptacle form the high pressure seal. In a sixth cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the locking ring is in an interference fit with the cam locks when retraction of the locking ring pistons causes the locking ring to move so as to restrain the cam locks from rotation about the cam lock pins. In a seventh cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that each cam lock piston is connected to its corresponding cam lock via a pinned cam linkage, each pinned cam linkage including a link arm interposed between the cam lock piston and cam lock, each link arm connected to the cam lock via a first linkage pin, each link arm connected to the cam lock piston by a second linkage pin. In an eighth cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the cooperating abutment surfaces include a machined shoulder surface and a machined slope surface provided on the second adapter end, the receptacle further providing machined surfaces to mate with the shoulder surface and slope surface in forming the high pressure seal. In a ninth cam lock aspect, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the PCE adapter is interchangeable with a generally tubular night cap adapter, the night cap adapter having first and second night cap ends, wherein the first night cap end is closed and sealed off against internal pressure, and wherein the second night cap end is dimensionally identical to the second adapter end on the PCE adapter. According to a first aspect of the disclosed additional embodiments of high pressure seals for wellhead pressure control fittings, therefore, this disclosure describes embodiments of a wellhead pressure control fitting comprising a generally tubular Pressure Control Equipment (PCE) adapter having first and second adapter ends, the first adapter end configured to mate with pressure control equipment, the second adapter end providing an annular first adapter rib, a generally tubular pressure control assembly having first and second assembly ends and a longitudinal centerline, the centerline defining axial displacement parallel to the centerline and radial displacement perpendicular to the centerline, the first assembly end providing a first assembly end interior, the second assembly end configured to mate with a wellhead, the first assembly end interior providing a PCE receptacle for receiving the second adapter end, the second adapter end and the PCE receptacle further each providing cooperating abutment surfaces, the cooperating abutment surfaces forming a pressure seal between the second adapter end and the PCE receptacle when the second adapter end is compressively received into the PCE receptacle, the first assembly end interior further providing a lower wedge assembly, the lower wedge assembly including a plurality of lower wedges, each lower wedge having first and second opposing lower wedge sides, each first lower wedge side providing protruding top and bottom lower wedge ribs, a generally hollow lower wedge receptacle, the lower wedge receptacle further providing a plurality of shaped lower wedge receptacle recesses formed in an interior thereof one lower wedge receptacle recess for each lower wedge, the lower wedge receptacle further having first and second opposing lower wedge receptacle sides in which the lower wedge receptacle recesses define the first lower wedge receptacle side, and wherein each lower wedge is received into a corresponding lower wedge receptacle recess so that the first lower wedge receptacle side and the second lower wedge sides provide opposing sloped lower wedge surfaces, wherein axial displacement of the lower wedge receptacle relative to the lower wedges causes corresponding radial displacement of the lower wedges, and wherein, as the second adapter end enters the PCE receptacle and engages the cooperating abutment surfaces, axial displacement of the lower wedge receptacle relative to the lower wedges causes corresponding radial constriction of the top and bottom lower wedge ribs around the first adapter rib and the PCE receptacle, which in turn compresses the second adapter end into the PCE receptacle to form the pressure seal. Ina second aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that axial displacement of the lower wedge receptacle relative to the lower wedges is enabled by hydraulically-actuated forces exerted against the second lower wedge receptacle side by a hydraulic mechanism selected from the group consisting of (a) a plurality of cooperating hydraulically-pressurized lower chambers acting on the lower wedge receptacle, and (b) at least one extensible and retractable hydraulic lower piston acting on the lower wedge receptacle. In a third aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the adapter provides an annular second adapter rib distal from the first adapter rib towards the first adapter end, and in which the first assembly end interior further provides an upper wedge assembly, the upper wedge assembly including a plurality of upper wedges, each upper wedge having first and second opposing upper wedge sides, each first upper wedge side providing protruding top and bottom upper wedge ribs, a generally hollow upper wedge receptacle, the upper wedge receptacle further providing a plurality of shaped upper wedge receptacle recesses formed in an interior thereof, one upper wedge receptacle recess for each upper wedge, the upper wedge receptacle further having first and second opposing upper wedge receptacle sides in which the upper wedge receptacle recesses define the first upper wedge receptacle side, and wherein each upper wedge is received into a corresponding upper wedge receptacle recess so that the first upper wedge receptacle side and the second upper wedge sides provide opposing sloped upper wedge surfaces, wherein axial displacement of the upper wedge receptacle relative to the upper wedges causes corresponding radial displacement of the upper wedges, and wherein, as the second adapter end enters the PCE receptacle and engages the cooperating abutment surfaces, axial displacement of the upper wedge receptacle relative to the upper wedges causes corresponding radial constriction of the top and bottom upper wedge ribs around the second adapter rib, which in turn restrains the adapter from axial displacement relative to the PCE receptacle. In a fourth aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that axial displacement of the upper wedge receptacle relative to the upper wedges is enabled by hydraulically-actuated forces exerted against the second upper wedge receptacle side by a hydraulic mechanism selected from the group consisting of (a) a plurality of cooperating hydraulically-pressurized upper chambers acting on the upper wedge receptacle, and (b) at least one extensible and retractable hydraulic upper piston acting on the upper wedge receptacle. In a fifth aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the upper and lower wedge assemblies operate independently. In a sixth aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting include that the cooperating abutment surfaces include a machined shoulder surface and a machined slope surface provided on the second adapter end, the PCE receptacle further providing machined surfaces to mate with the shoulder surface and slope surface in forming the pressure seal. In a seventh aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting comprise a generally tubular Pressure Control Equipment (PCE) adapter having first and second adapter ends, the first adapter end configured to mate with pressure control equipment, the adapter providing an annular adapter rib distal from the first adapter end towards the second adapter end, a generally tubular pressure control assembly having first and second assembly ends and a longitudinal centerline, the centerline defining axial displacement parallel to the centerline and radial displacement perpendicular to the centerline, the first assembly end providing a first assembly end interior, the second assembly end configured to mate with a wellhead, the first assembly end interior providing a PCE receptacle for receiving the second adapter end, the second adapter end and the PCE receptacle further each providing cooperating abutment surfaces, the cooperating abutment surfaces forming a pressure seal between the second adapter end and the PCE receptacle when the second adapter end is received into the PCE receptacle, the first assembly end interior further providing a wedge assembly, the wedge assembly including a plurality of wedges, each wedge having first and second opposing wedge sides, each first wedge side providing protruding top and bottom wedge ribs, a generally hollow wedge receptacle, the wedge receptacle further providing a plurality of shaped wedge receptacle recesses formed in an interior thereof, one wedge receptacle recess for each wedge, the wedge receptacle further having first and second opposing wedge receptacle sides in which the wedge receptacle recesses define the first wedge receptacle side, and wherein each wedge is received into a corresponding wedge receptacle recess so that the first wedge receptacle side and the second wedge sides provide opposing sloped wedge surfaces, wherein axial displacement of the upper receptacle relative to the wedges causes corresponding radial displacement of the wedges, and wherein, as the second adapter end enters the PCE receptacle and engages the cooperating abutment surfaces, axial displacement of the wedge receptacle relative to the wedges causes corresponding radial constriction of the top and bottom wedge ribs around the adapter rib, which in turn restrains the adapter from axial displacement relative to the PCE receptacle. In an eighth aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead press are control fitting include that axial displacement of the wedge receptacle relative to the wedges is enabled by hydraulically-actuated forces, exerted against the second wedge receptacle side by a hydraulic mechanism selected from the group consisting of (a) a plurality of cooperating hydraulically-pressurized chambers acting on the wedge receptacle, and (b) at least one extensible and retractable hydraulic piston, acting on the wedge receptacle. In a ninth aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting comprise a generally tubular Pressure Control Equipment (PCE) adapter having first and second adapter ends, the first adapter end configured to mate with pressure control equipment, an elongate adapter sealing portion formed on the second adapter end, a generally tubular receptacle, the receptacle having first and second receptacle ends, the second receptacle end configured to mate with a wellhead, an elongate receptacle sealing portion formed on the first receptacle end, wherein a pressure seal is formed between the adapter sealing portion and the receptacle sealing portion when the adapter sealing portion is fully received over the receptacle sealing portion and constrained radially outwards, a generally tubular lower body, the lower body having first and second lower body ends, the lower body received over the receptacle and rigidly affixed to the receptacle at the lower body second end, the first lower body end extending parallel with the receptacle sealing portion and positioned to constrain the adapter portion radially when the adapter sealing portion is fully received over the receptacle sealing portion, a generally cylindrical ball race, the ball race having first and second ball race ends, the ball race providing a plurality of holes in a circumferential pattern proximate the second ball race end, the ball race positioned such that the second ball race end contacts the first lower body end, a plurality of ball bearings each received from outside the ball race into a corresponding hole, the holes each having a hole diameter such that the ball bearings protrude through the holes without passing through the holes while still allowing the bail bearings to roll freely as received in the holes, at least one annular adapter groove formed on an exterior of the adapter, the adapter groove positioned and shaped to receive the ball bearings through the ball race holes when the adapter sealing portion is fully received over the receptacle sealing portion, wherein the adapter sealing portion and the receptor sealing portion are locked in sealing engagement when the ball bearings are compressed radially into the adapter groove, a generally tubular floating member, the floating member having first and second floating member ends, the floating member received over the ball race and the lower body, wherein an interior of the first floating member end is in rolling engagement with the ball bearings while retaining the ball bearings in their holes, and wherein an interior of the second floating member end is in sliding sealing engagement with an exterior of the first lower body end, a generally tubular sleeve, the sleeve having first and second sleeve ends, the sleeve received over the ball race, the floating member and the lower body wherein the an exterior of the second floating member end is in sliding sealing engagement with an interior of the sleeve, the second sleeve end rigidly and sealingly affixed to the lower body at the lower body second end so as to create a lower chamber below the second floating member end, the first sleeve end rigidly and sealingly affixed to the ball race so as to create an upper chamber above the first floating member end, wherein hydraulic pressure introduced into the upper chamber encourages the floating member to slide towards the second sleeve end, which in turn causes a thicker portion of the floating member to compress the ball bearings radially, and wherein, hydraulic pressure introduced the lower chamber encourages the floating member to slide towards the first sleeve end, which in turn causes a thinner portion of the floating member to release the ball bearings from radial compression. In a tenth aspect of additional seals, embodiments of the wellhead pressure control fitting further at least one o-ring on an exterior of the receptacle sealing portion. The foregoing has outlined rather broadly some of the features and technical advantages of the technology embodied on the disclosed high pressure seals for wellhead pressure control fittings, in order that the detailed description that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the disclosed technology may be described. It should be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the conception and the specific embodiments disclosed may be readily utilized as a basis for modifying or designing other structures for carrying out the same inventive purposes of the disclosed technology, and that these equivalent constructions do not depart from the spirit and scope of the technology as described and as set forth in the appended claims.

E21B3303

20180222

20180724

20180628

65502.0

E21B3303

STEPHENSON, DANIEL P

CONSTRICTING WEDGE DESIGN FOR PRESSURE-RETAINING SEAL

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

E21B

ACCEPTED

REMOTE DOCUMENT RETRIEVAL AND STORAGE SYSTEM

An electronically stored financial document is either maintained in a first storage system when a parameter associated with the document is greater than a pre-selected parameter or in a second storage system when the parameter associated with the document is less than or equal to the pre-selected parameter. A request for a stored financial document is received and the requested financial document parameter is compared to the pre-selected financial document parameter to determine if the electronically stored financial document's parameter is more than, less than, or equal to the pre-selected parameter. By using an interlinked interface, an electronic processor compares and electronically accesses one of the storage systems in response to the comparison of the pre-selected parameter to the electronically stored financial document's parameters. After accessing the appropriate storage system, the requested electronically stored financial document can be reproduced, and/or distributed.

1. A system for selectively storing and retrieving electronic images of a plurality of financial documents, each electronic image being associated with a document parameter that includes a numerical sequence that is representative of a record date of the corresponding financial document, the system comprising: a first storage system including a first fixed medium, the first storage system being associated with a first entity and configured to: store at least some of the electronic images for the plurality of financial documents, wherein the document parameter for each of the electronic images that are configured to be stored in the first storage system is greater than a predetermined parameter, wherein the predetermined parameter is a date or time period; a second storage system including a second fixed medium, wherein the second storage system is located remotely from the first storage system, the second storage system being associated with a second entity and configured to: store at least some of the electronic images for the plurality of financial documents, wherein the document parameter for each of the electronic images configured to be stored in the second storage system is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter; an electronic processor which has electronic access to the first and second storage systems and is also interlinked to the first storage system and the second storage system, wherein the electronic processor is interlinked to the first storage system and the second storage system through an interlinked interface, wherein the electronic processor is configured to: receive a request for at least one of the stored electronic images of the plurality of financial documents; automatically compare the numerical sequence of the document parameter associated with the requested stored electronic image to the predetermined parameter after the request is received; automatically access the first storage system when the numerical sequence of the document parameter associated with the requested stored electronic image is greater than the predetermined parameter; automatically access the second storage system when the numerical sequence of the document parameter associated with the requested stored electronic image is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter; and automatically retrieve the requested stored electronic image from the first storage system or the second storage system once the first storage system or the second storage system has been accessed. 2. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein the first fixed medium and the second fixed medium are different from each other. 3. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein the first fixed medium or the second fixed medium is a physical media. 4. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein the first fixed medium or the second fixed medium is a fixed electronic medium. 5. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein the first fixed medium and the second fixed medium are the same. 6. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein the electronic processor is further configured to automatically reproduce the requested stored electronic image after the stored electronic image has been retrieved from the accessed storage system. 7. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein accessing the first storage system or the second storage system is further defined as accessing only one of the first storage system or the second storage system at any one time to locate the requested stored electronic image. 8. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein the electronic processor which has electronic access to the first storage system and the second storage system is also interlinked to the first fixed medium and the second fixed medium. 9. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein the first entity and the second entity are associated with each other. 10. The system as set forth in claim 1, wherein the second storage system is also associated with the first entity. 11. A system for selectively storing and retrieving electronic images of a plurality of financial documents, each electronic image being associated with a document parameter that includes a numerical sequence that is representative of a record date of the corresponding financial document, the system comprising: a first electronic storage means configured to: store at least some of the electronic images for the plurality of financial documents, wherein the document parameter for each of the electronic images that are configured to be stored in the first storage system is greater than a predetermined parameter, wherein the predetermined parameter is a date or time period; a second electronic storage means, wherein the first electronic storage means and the second electronic storage means are associated with a first entity and a second entity, respectively, wherein the first entity and the second entity are distinct or related, and wherein the second electronic storage means is configured to: store at least some of the electronic images for the plurality of financial documents, wherein the document parameter for each of the electronic images configured to be stored in the second storage system is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter; a retrieving means which has access to the first and second electronic storage means and is also interlinked to the first electronic storage means and the second electronic storage means, wherein the retrieving means is configured to: receive a request for at least one of the stored electronic images of the plurality of financial documents; automatically compare the numerical sequence of the document parameter associated with the requested stored electronic image to the predetermined parameter after the request is received; automatically access the first electronic storage means when the numerical sequence of the document parameter associated with the requested stored electronic image is greater than the predetermined parameter; automatically access the second storage system when the numerical sequence of the document parameter associated with the requested stored electronic image is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter; and automatically retrieve the requested stored electronic image from the first electronic storage means or the second electronic storage means depending on the document parameter associated with the requested stored electronic image. 12. The system as set forth in claim 11, wherein the retrieving means is an electronic processor. 13. The system as set forth in claim 11, wherein the first electronic storage means or the second electronic storage means is configured to digitally store the electronic images. 14. A method of accessing an electronically-stored financial document from one of a first storage system associated with a first entity or a second storage system associated with a second entity, wherein the second storage system is located remotely from the first storage system, wherein the first and second storage systems each include a plurality of electronic images stored therein, each of the plurality of electronic images corresponding to a plurality of financial documents, and wherein each electronic image is associated with at least one specific document parameter, wherein the first storage system is associated with a primary interface and the second storage system is associated with a secondary interface, said method comprising the steps of: electronically storing at least some of the plurality of electronic images of the financial documents in a first fixed medium at the first storage system when the specific document parameter is greater than a predetermined parameter, wherein the predetermined parameter is a numerical record date or time period; electronically storing at least some of the plurality of electronic images of the financial documents in a second fixed medium at the second storage system when the specific document parameter is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter; utilizing at least one electronic processor that has access to the first and second storage systems by electronically interlinking the primary interface of the first storage system with the secondary interface of the second storage system; receiving a request relating to one of the financial documents at the electronic processor; automatically comparing the specific document parameter relating to the request to the predetermined parameter to determine whether the specific document parameter is greater than, less than, or equal to the predetermined parameter after the request has been received; automatically accessing the first storage system when the specific document parameter relating to the request is greater than the predetermined parameter and automatically accessing the second storage system when the specific document parameter relating to the request is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter; and automatically retrieving the image of the requested financial document from the accessed storage system as defined by the received request. 15. The method as set forth in claim 14, wherein the first and second fixed mediums are different from each other. 16. The method as set forth in claim 14, further including the step of automatically reproducing the requested financial document after the requested financial document has been retrieved from the accessed storage system. 17. The method as set forth in claim 16, wherein the step of automatically reproducing the requested financial document after the requested financial document has been retrieved from the accessed storage system includes automatically reproducing the requested financial document onto paper. 18. The method as set forth in claim 16, wherein the step of automatically reproducing the requested financial document after the requested financial document has been retrieved from the accessed storage system includes electronically reproducing the requested financial document automatically. 19. The method as set forth in claim 14, wherein the first and second storage systems are associated with the same entity. 20. The method as set forth in claim 14, wherein the first and second fixed mediums are the same. 21. The method as set forth in claim 14, wherein the step of automatically accessing the first storage system when the specific document parameter is greater than the predetermined parameter and automatically accessing the second storage system when the specific document parameter is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter utilizes an electronic processor inter-linked to the first storage system and the second storage system. 22. The method as set forth in claim 14, wherein the second storage system is also associated with the first entity.

RELATED APPLICATIONS This patent application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/857,854 filed on Sep. 18, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/840,892 filed on Mar. 15, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,141,612, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/272,936 filed on Oct. 13, 2011, now abandoned, which is continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/902,973 filed on Oct. 12, 2010, now abandoned, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/489,087 filed on Jun. 22, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,836,067, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/202,790 filed on Aug. 12, 2005, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,552,118, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/104,541 filed on Mar. 22, 2002, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,963,866, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/548,490 filed on Apr. 13, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,446,072, which in turn claims priority to and all the advantages of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/129,021, which was filed on Apr. 13, 1999, all of which being incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. FIELD The subject invention relates to a method for a financial institution to obtain electronically-stored financial documents from an off-site storage system remotely-located from an on-site storage system. BACKGROUND Methods for obtaining electronically-stored financial documents are generally known in the art. Financial institutions, such as banks and credit unions, utilize such methods to rapidly and efficiently obtain financial documents for distribution to clients upon request. Such financial documents include paid checks, account statements, and other related documents. These financial documents are typically stored on microfiche, microfilm, digitally, or by some other electronic storage means. Further, these financial documents are typically electronically-stored in an on-site storage system located at the financial institution or in an off-site storage system. Electronic storage of these financial documents permits financial institutions to eliminate storage of paper or “hard” copies of these documents. The electronic storage of these documents also provides a means of retrieving the information from the on-site and off-site storage systems. Once the document is stored, the client may request an image of a particular stored document. Client requests are made to replace lost or stolen documents, for tax purposes, for proof of financial transactions, for legal disputes, and other similar matters. The client's request is inputted into a computer terminal at the financial institution. More specifically, conventional methods for obtaining an electronically-stored financial document enable an employee of the financial institution, such as a bank teller, to input the request into an interface incorporated into the computer terminal. The interface is inter-linked with the on-site storage system. Typically, all requests for a particular period are grouped together and subsequently downloaded for retrieval of the requested image by the financial institution. The financial institution retrieves the image, e.g. a photocopy of the check, and then distributes the photocopy to the client via facsimile, mail or hand delivery. The storing, downloading, and retrieving of the financial document, including the reproduction and the distribution of the document, are known in the industry as back office production. Back office production for financial institutions is particularly resource intensive, time consuming, and expensive. Also, back office production becomes increasingly expensive if the client requests a particularly old financial document because older financial documents frequently require more resources and time to locate and retrieve. The majority of financial institutions electronically store financial documents only in an on-site storage system and not in an off-site storage system. Consequently, these financial institutions are unable to outsource the responsibilities for the back office production to third party entities to alleviate the expenses and resources associated with the back office production. These financial institutions realize a significant financial burden since the back office production is concentrated strictly at the financial institution. Other financial institutions do electronically store financial documents in on-site and off-site storage systems. However, the methods utilized by these financial institutions to access the financial documents stored in the off-site storage system are deficient in that the interface utilized in such methods is only inter-linked with the on-site storage system. That is, there is no interface independently inter-linked with the off-site storage system. As a result, the financial documents stored in the off-site storage system can not be efficiently accessed. These financial institutions are still responsible for retrieving the requested financial documents through their back office production and their expenses remain high. One such method of retrieving documents from on-site and off-sited storage systems is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,784,610 to Copeland, III et al. Due to the inefficiencies identified in the conventional methods used by financial institutions to obtain financial documents, it is desirable to implement a method for a financial institution to obtain electronically-stored financial documents from both on-site and off-site storage systems that reduces, if not eliminates, the back office production of the financial institution by providing a direct interface inter-linked with the off-site storage system. With such an interface, the responsibility for retrieving financial documents from the off-site storage can be outsourced to third party entities while still providing the financial institution with efficient access to any financial documents electronically-stored in the off-site storage system. SUMMARY According to one embodiment, there is provided a system for selectively storing and retrieving electronic images of a plurality of financial documents, each electronic image being associated with a document parameter that includes a numerical sequence that is representative of a record date of the corresponding financial document. The system comprises a first storage system including a first fixed medium, the first storage system being associated with a first entity and configured to: store at least some of the electronic images for the plurality of financial documents wherein the document parameter for each of the at least some of the electronic images that are configured to be stored in the first storage system are greater than a predetermined parameter, wherein the predetermined parameter is a date or time period; a second storage system including a second fixed medium, wherein the second storage system is located remotely from the first storage system, the second storage system being associated with a second entity and configured to: store at least some of the electronic images for the plurality of financial documents wherein the document parameter for each of the at least some of the electronic images configured to be stored in the second storage system are less than or equal to the predetermined parameter; an electronic processor which has electronic access to the first and second storage systems and is also interlinked to the first storage system and the second storage system, wherein the electronic processor is interlinked to the first storage system and the second storage system through an interlinked interface, wherein the electronic processor is configured to: receive a request for one of the stored electronic images of the plurality of financial documents; compare the numerical sequence of the document parameter associated with the requested stored electronic image to the predetermined parameter; automatically access the first storage system when the numerical sequence of the document parameter associated with the requested stored electronic image is greater than the predetermined parameter; automatically access the second storage system when the numerical sequence of the document parameter associated with the requested stored electronic image is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter; and automatically retrieve the requested stored electronic image from the first storage system or the second storage system once the first storage system or the second storage system has been accessed. According to another embodiment, there is provided a method of accessing an electronically-stored financial document from one of a first storage system associated with a first entity and a second storage system associated with a second entity, wherein the second storage system is located remotely from the first storage system, wherein the first and second storage systems each include a plurality of financial documents stored therein and wherein each of the financial documents has an electronic image and is associated with at least one specific document parameter, wherein the first storage system is associated with a primary interface and the second storage system is associated with a secondary interface. The method comprises the steps of: electronically storing a plurality of images of the financial documents in a first fixed medium at the first storage system when the specific document parameter of the financial document is greater than a predetermined parameter, wherein the predetermined parameter is a numerical record date or time period; electronically storing a plurality of images of the financial documents in a second fixed medium at the second storage system when the specific document parameter of the financial document is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter; utilizing at least one electronic processor that has access to the first and second storage systems by interlinking the primary interface of the first storage system with the secondary interface of the second storage system; receiving a request for an image of one of the stored financial documents at the electronic processor; comparing the specific document parameter of the requested financial document to the predetermined parameter to determine whether the specific document parameter is greater than, less than, or equal to the predetermined parameter after the request has been received, wherein the specific document parameter of the financial document is a particular numerical sequence associated with the specific document parameter, and wherein the particular numerical sequence of the financial document includes a record date of the financial document; automatically accessing the first storage system when the specific document parameter is greater than the predetermined parameter and automatically accessing the second storage system when the specific document parameter is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter; and automatically retrieving the image of the requested financial document from the accessed storage system as defined by the received request. A method for a financial institution to obtain electronically-stored financial documents having a specific document parameter is disclosed. The specific document parameter is typically a particular numerical sequence, such as a record date of the financial document. The method of the subject invention enables the financial institution to obtain the financial documents from a first or an off-site storage system. The first or off-site storage system is different from a second or an on-site storage system and is preferably remotely-located from the second or on-site storage system. In one embodiment, the financial documents of the financial institution are maintained in the first or off-site storage system when the specific document parameter of the financial document is greater than a predetermined parameter. The financial documents that are less than or equal to the predetermined parameter are maintained in the second or on-site storage system. In another embodiment, the specific document parameter of the financial document that is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter is maintained in the first or off-site storage system and the financial document that is greater than the predetermined parameter is maintained in the second or on-site storage system. When the financial institution receives a request for a financial document, the financial institution compares the specific document parameter of the requested financial document to the predetermined parameter to determine if the specific document parameter is greater than less than, or equal to the predetermined parameter. A computer terminal located at the financial institution is connected to both the off-site and on-site storage systems through a processing unit. The processing unit is utilized to, at least partially, automatically access one of the storage systems in response to the comparison of the specific document parameter to the predetermined parameter. For instance, if it is determined that the specific document parameter is less than or equal to the predetermined document parameter, then the processing unit accesses the second or on-site storage system. On the other hand, if it is determined that the specific document parameter of the financial document is greater than the predetermined parameter, then the processing unit accesses the first or off-site storage system. As stated below, the computer terminal may be used to feed a request into the processing unit. After the requested financial document is accessed, the requested document is then retrieved in order to reproduce the financial document, and distribute the financial document to an end user of the financial institution. The subject invention therefore provides a method that enables financial institutions to obtain electronically-stored financial documents from on-site and off-site storage systems. As such the financial institution can selectively store financial documents in either an on-site storage system or the off-site storage system, and the responsibility for the financial documents in the on-site or off-site storage systems can be outsourced to a third party entity. Further, the documents can be stored in different fixed mediums, such as microfiche, microfilm, digitally, electronically, etc., and can be stored in different geographical locations. Therefore, the back office production of the financial institution associated with the retrieval and distribution of financial documents stored in the on-site or off-site storage systems is strategically reduced or even completely eliminated. DRAWINGS Preferred exemplary embodiments of the invention will hereinafter be described in conjunction with the appended drawings, wherein like designations denote like elements, and wherein: FIG. 1 is a flow diagram schematically detailing an on-site storage system, and an off-site storage system in accordance with one embodiment; FIG. 2 is a block diagram generally representing a method for a financial institution to obtain electronically-stored financial documents from the on-site and off-site storage systems; FIG. 3 is a block diagram completing the method of obtaining electronically-stored financial documents from the on-site storage system; and FIG. 4 is a block diagram completing the method of obtaining electronically-stored financial documents from the off-site storage system. DESCRIPTION Referring to the Figures, wherein like numerals indicate like or corresponding parts throughout the several views, a method for a financial institution to obtain an electronically-stored financial document is schematically shown at 10 in FIG. 1. The methods introduced herein enable the financial institution to obtain the financial document from one of a first or an off-site storage system and a second or an on-site storage system with the storage systems being different from each other. Preferably, the on-site storage system is located at the financial institution and the off-site storage system is located at a remote location distant from the financial institution. This allows the financial institution to ‘outsource’ the responsibilities associated with obtaining the financial document. Methods for financial institutions to obtain electronically-stored documents are frequently used by such entities as banks, credit unions, and other financially-oriented institutions. For illustrative purposes only, the description of the subject invention is discussed with reference to banks. However, as appreciated by those skilled in the art, other businesses, such as insurance companies, may also utilize similar methods and corporate the aspects of the subject invention. Methods for banks to obtain electronically-stored financial documents are generally used by banks to rapidly and efficiently obtain financial documents for distribution to clients upon request. As described above, the financial documents for banks are usually paid checks, checking statements, and other related financial documents, and these documents include at least one specific document parameter. As appreciated by those skilled in the art, it is not the financial document (e.g. the paid check) itself that is electronically-stored. Rather, it is data included on the document such as a sequence number that is electronically stored to look up, designate, or indicate the financial document. The specific document parameter is preferably a particular numerical sequence. As appreciated, the specific document parameter of the financial document can include, but is not limited to, a record date or age of the document, a series number, or some other document identifying number of the financial document. More specifically, in the preferred embodiment of the subject invention, the particular numerical sequence of the financial document is the record date of the financial document. That is, the date that the particular financial document was created or posted. The financial documents are typically stored on microfiche, microfilm, digitally, or by some other electronic storage means. As appreciated, the electronic storage of the financial documents is frequently created by taking an electronic photo image of the document and storing the photo image in a computer system. One such digital electronic storage device is sold by Kodak under the name of IMAGELINK™ Digital Workstation (IDW). Electronic storage of these financial documents permits banks to eliminate storage of paper or “hard” copies of these documents. The electronic storage of these documents also provides an efficient means of retrieving the information from the on-site and off-site storage systems. This will be discussed further herein below. As described above, the financial documents are electronically-stored in either the on-site storage system located at the bank or in the off-site storage system remotely located from the on-site storage system. More specifically, the subject invention includes the step of maintaining the financial documents in the off-site storage system when the specific document parameter of the financial document is greater than a predetermined parameter. Financial documents are maintained in the on-site storage system when the specific document parameter of the financial document is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter. As appreciated, the document parameter of the financial documents stored in the off-site storage system may be greater than or equal to the predetermined parameter with the on-site storage system having documents only less than the predetermined parameter. Similar to the specific document parameter of the financial document, the predetermined parameter is also a numerical value. The predetermined parameter is specifically a numerical value predetermined by the bank. For instance, if the specific document parameter is a series number of a paid check and the series number is greater than the predetermined parameter which, in this case, would be an arbitrarily selected base series number, then the paid check would be stored in the off-site storage system. In the preferred embodiment, the predetermined numerical value is a date pre-selected by the bank. For instance, the bank may pre-select a date that is one year before a current date—the current date being the actual date that the client requests the financial document. Of course, the bank may pre-select a date that is some other time period before a current date (e.g. two or three years) without varying from the scope of the present disclosure. As such, if the record date of the particular financial document is older than one year, then the particular financial document is maintained in the off-site storage system. If the record date of the particular financial document is earlier than or equal to one year, then the particular financial document is maintained in the on-site storage system. As discussed above, the document having record dates equal to the one year may be stored in the off-site or on-site storage systems. Once the financial document is maintained in the appropriate storage system, the bank is capable of receiving a request for the financial document from the client. In reality, the client is requesting an image of the stored financial document. As appreciated, clients request the image for various reasons. As discussed above, requests are typically made for replacing lost or stolen financial documents, for tax purposes, for proof of financial transactions, for legal disputes, and other similar matters. Ultimately, the bank retrieves the image, reproduces the image, and distributes the reproduced image to the requesting client of the bank. Referring now to FIG. 1, the method for banks to obtain electronically-stored financial documents is discussed in detail in accordance with a general scope of the subject invention. Initially the requesting client requests a particular financial document, such as a paid check. The client is typically a customer of the bank or other financial institution. The client's request is inputted into a computer terminal 11 at the financial institution. The computer terminal 11 will be discussed in more detail hereinbelow. From the computer terminal 11, the request is fed into a processing unit 12, which is illustrated as a mainframe computer 12 at the bank. In the preferred embodiment, if the client requests a financial document having a record date earlier than or equal to one year before the current date, then the request, and other requests like it, are processed at the bank in the on-site storage system. That is, the requests are grouped together and downloaded to a downloading terminal 14 at the bank. The downloading may occur at particular intervals such as at the end of each day, every three hours, etc. The sequence number of each check requested is then determined. A document terminal 16 subsequently creates or reproduces the document, i.e., a photocopy of the check. The photocopy is then distributed to the client via facsimile, mail, or hand delivery. It is known in the art that the majority of requests for financial documents are requests for documents which were created in the most recent year. That is, if the pre-selected date is one year before the current date, as in the preferred embodiment, then the majority of requests are seeking financial documents having a record date earlier than or equal to the pre-selected date. The remaining document requests relate to financial documents that are older than one year. Since, as described in the Background, retrieval of financial documents that are older than one year is particularly expensive, the preferred embodiment of the subject invention outsources all of the document requests which relate to documents having a record date later than one year before the current date. As appreciated, the particular time frame which is outsourced is not a critical feature of the subject invention and may be adjusted to meet the needs of any particular financial institution. In fact, all of the document requests, including the most recent, may be outsourced using an outsourcing procedure. In the preferred embodiment, if the client requests a financial document having a record date later than one year before the current date, then the request, and others like it, are grouped together and downloaded from the mainframe computer 12 to an outsourced downloading terminal 18. As above, the downloading may be at particular intervals as needed. The sequence number is determined by a sequencing terminal 20. The sequence number is then sent back to the outsourced downloading terminal 18. An outsourced document terminal 22 then creates or reproduces the desired document which is then distributed to either the client or the bank. As appreciated, two document retrieval operations, one for the bank to retrieve financial documents having record dates earlier than or equal to one year before the current date, and another to retrieve outsourced financial documents having record dates later than one year before the current date, preferably operate simultaneously. It is to be understood that the computer terminals and the accompanying PC bases are illustrated highly schematically in FIG. 1 and are not intended to be limiting in any manner. For instance, the schematic illustration of the outsourced document terminal 22 need not include a computer terminal and an accompanying PC base. Instead, the outsourced document terminal 22 is preferably some sort of printing device. Referring to FIGS. 2 through 4, the method for banks to obtain electronically-stored financial documents is described in even greater detail. The request is first generated by the client. The request is then processed by the bank. The processing, retrieval and reproduction of the requested financial document is typically controlled by one interlinked computer software program. One such computer software program is a software program called Antinori Software Incorporated or ASI which is sold under the name of INNOVASION™ by Carreker-Antinori of Dallas, Tex. However, other frequently used software programs include PEGA™ and Sterling™. Any of these computer software systems can provide the necessary means for implementing the discussed procedures. The processing of the request is completed by a customer service tracking system and the computer terminal 11. The customer service tracking system assists the financial institution in receiving the request. More specifically, the customer service tracking system gives branches, customer service, and other bank departments the capability to enter, log, track, route and monitor the status of all requests for financial documents. The customer service tracking system also provides the capability to enter, log, track, route and monitor the status of customer complaints and other customer service related items. In accordance with one contemplated embodiment, a bank employee, such as a bank teller first determines a status of the requested document. More specifically, the employee compares the specific document parameter of the requested financial document to the predetermined parameter to determine if the specific document parameter is greater than, less than, or equal to the predetermined parameter. If the specific document parameter is a particular numerical sequence and the predetermined parameter is a predetermined numerical value, then the employee compares the particular numerical sequence of the financial document to the predetermined numerical value to determine if the particular numerical sequence is greater than, less than, or equal to the predetermined numerical value. Further, if as in the preferred embodiment, the particular numerical sequence is a record date of the financial document, and the predetermined numerical value is a pre-selected date, then the employee compares the record date of the financial document to the pre-selected date to determine if the record date is later than, earlier than, or equal to the pre-selected date. The customer service tracking system enables a bank employee, such as a bank teller, to submit the request. More specifically, the employee utilizes the computer terminal 11 located at the bank and connected to both the off-site and on-site storage systems to access one of the storage systems in response to the comparison of the specific document parameter of the requested financial document to the predetermined parameter. For instance, when the particular numerical sequence of the financial document is greater than the predetermined numerical value, the employee preferably utilizes the computer terminal 11 to access the off-site storage system, and when the particular numerical sequence of the financial document is less than or equal to the predetermined numerical value, the employee preferably utilizes the computer terminal 11 to access the on-site storage system. As discussed above, the documents have a numerical sequence equal to the predetermined numerical value may be stored in either the off-site or on-site storage systems. After the computer terminal 11 is utilized to access the desired storage system, the employee manually inputs identification data of the requested financial document into the computer terminal 11. More specifically, when the particular numerical sequence of the financial document is less than or equal to the predetermined numerical value, the employee inputs identification data into a primary interface and selects the requested document. Also, the primary interface preferably provides an option for the employee to select among several different output formats. The primary interface is inter-linked with the on-site storage system. In the preferred embodiment of the subject invention, the primary interface appears as follows and includes the identification data detailed below: Account Number: Prod Type: Account Name: Customer Code: Address: City: State: Zip Code: Home Phone: ( ) Work Phone: ( ) Fax: ( ) Service Code: For Items Posted Within A Year Copy of Statement Only Savings Items Copy of Check/Deposit Ticket Misc (G/L, Loans, Teller, Etc) Check(s)/Deposit(s)<30 Items Cash Letter Reconstruction Statements and<30 Items Lockbox Statements and>30 Items Legal Statement Only Deposit Reconstruction Legal Statement and Items Regardless of Posting Date Missing Transactions Returned Items Online (Backdated/Unposted)Encoding Error/Wrong Account EXIT FUNCTION Alternatively, when the particular numerical sequence of the financial document is greater than the predetermined numerical value, the employee selects an exit function at the primary interface. The exit function distinguishes that the request is to be sent to an outsourcing third party entity. Upon selection of the exit function at the primary interface, a secondary interface, inter-linked with the exit function, is initiated. The secondary interface is inter-linked with the off-site storage system. The employee inputs identification data into the secondary interface and selects the requested document. Also, the secondary interface preferably provides an option for the employee to select among several different output formats. Preferably, routing, or service codes will be generated automatically upon the initiation of the secondary interface and the inputting of the identification data into the secondary interface. The routing codes enable the bank to recognize that the request is being sent to the outsourced third party entity. Furthermore, the routing codes are configured to automatically forward the inputted identification data to the off-site storage system. The inputted identification data and the routing codes are forwarded into the mainframe computer 12 introduced above for temporary storage before transfer to the off-site storage system. This temporary storage also serves to defend against unexpected power outages, computer malfunctions, and the like. In the preferred embodiment of the subject invention, the secondary interface appears as follows and includes the identification data detailed below: Account Number: Prod Type: Account Name: Customer Code: Address: City: State: Zip Code: Home Phone: ( ) Work Phone: ( ) Fax: ( ) Service Code: For Items Posted Prior to a Year Copy of Statement Only Savings Items Copy of Check/Deposit Ticket Misc (G/L, Loans, Teller, Etc) Check(s)/Deposit(s)<30 Items Cash Letter Reconstruction Statements and<30 Items Lockbox Statements and>30 Items Legal Statement Only Deposit Reconstruction Legal Statement and Items Once the bank employee has inputted the necessary identification data into either the Primary or secondary interface, then retrieval of the financial document can continue. Specifically, the requested financial document is retrieved as defined by the inputted identification data. Two separate document retrieval procedures are discussed hereinbelow. One document retrieval procedure is for the financial documents having a record date earlier than or equal to the pre-selected date-one year before the current date in this example. The other document retrieval procedure is for the financial documents having a record date later than the pre-selected date. As discussed above, the one year timing selected for the pre-selected date is simply shown as an example and any suitable time frame may be utilized. In fact, even all financial document retrievals may be outsourced to the third party entity. As also discussed above, the two separate document retrieval procedures will typically operate simultaneously. With reference to the subject example, if the record date of the financial document is earlier than or equal to one year before the current date, the remaining steps occur at the bank. As discussed above, these steps are known as the back office production of the bank. The request is first categorized by a research automation system. The research automation system automates the entire workflow of a bank's research and photocopy departments by sending requests to the appropriate sequence for processing. The downloading terminal 14 serves to perform the research automation system's tasks. Photocopy requests are routed to an image control system, statement requests are sent to a document retrieval system, and requests for financial adjustments are routed to an adjustment system. The document terminal 16 serves to perform these tasks. In the illustrated embodiment of the subject invention, the sample document request is for a paid check. Hence, the categorized sequence will be the image control system which handles photocopy requests. Referring now to FIG. 3, after the request is categorized, the request is verified for completeness and accuracy. If the request is not complete then additional data is retrieved. The additional data is retrieved by using a sequence number retrieval system and/or an all items research system. Once the request is complete and accurate, then the image reference number can be determined. That is, once the request is complete and accurate, then the requested financial document can be electronically located in the on-site storage system. The reference number may be a routing, sequence, or any other type of indicator. The reference number is determined by the image control system. The image control system is an image retrieval and routing management system which works in conjunction with Kodak's IMAGELINK™ Digital Workstations (IDW). Specifically, the image control system first connects to a network node. The network node is any type of storage device as is known in the art. Preferably a Kodak network node is used. The network node drives the IDW to find the location of the image by using the reference number. Specifically, the employee is prompted to verify that the correct media is loaded in the IDW such that the IDW can locate the image. The reference number for the document is known and the document image is now verified and located. The requested image can now be retrieved and reproduced. In other words, a copy of the digitized document (the check) is created. The copy may be created by manually pulling the microfilm, microfiche, or the like and photocopying the document. The copy may also be made by printing the document from a digitized record. The photocopy of the check is then distributed to the requesting client or other end user of the financial institution. Other end users of the financial institution include, but are not limited to, other financial institutions and federal and state governments. Additional information such as a photocopy report, a statement of charges, a research report and/or a daily status report may also be produced for the requesting client, the other end user, and/or the financial institution. The document retrieval system incorporated at the bank and the method for obtaining electronically-stored financial documents from the on-site storage system is now completed. Continuing with the subject example, if the record date of the financial document is later than one year before the current date, the automated retrieval of the financial document is outsourced to the third party entity. To begin, a separate file is automatically generated at the bank by the input of the identification data into the secondary interface. Referring specifically to FIG. 4, the routing codes direct the request created on the separate file to be routed separately to the outsourced third party entity. In the preferred embodiment of the subject invention, additional user ID's are created to allow only selected users into the secondary interface. The identification data stored in the separate file and the routing codes are downloaded to the off-site storage system for retrieval of the requested financial documents by the outsourced downloading terminal 18. Preferably, the identification data and routing codes are grouped into batches of common requests for optimum retrieval of the requested financial document by the outsourced third party entity at the off-site storage system. The downloading step may occur at any suitable predetermined interval. Preferably, the downloading will occur three times a day. The downloaded documents are known in the industry as a basket of requests. The subject method further includes the step of creating a back-up file of the downloaded identification data and routing codes in the off-site storage system. The back-up file acts as an emergency information source in case the mainframe computer 12 at the financial institution has a catastrophic failure. In addition, the outsourced third party entity is in direct connection with the mainframe computer 12 of the bank wherein the outsourced third party entity may produce a backup directory of each database file. This database backup is an additional safe guard for the financial institution. The downloaded identification data and routing codes are then categorized for processing in the off-site storage system. The research automation system categorizes this information in a like fashion as discussed above. In fact, the outsourced third party entity uses the same computer software package as the financial institution such that the flow of information is optimum and not interrupted. As discussed above, the subject example request is for a paid check. Hence, the request will be categorized into the image control system and a sequence number will be determined by the sequencing terminal 20. Also, a status to update the progress of the requested financial document is provided to the financial institution. After the request is categorized, the request, specifically the inputted identification data, is verified for completeness and accuracy. If the request is not complete or accurate, then additional data is retrieved. In a similar fashion as above, the additional data is retrieved by using the sequence number retrieval system and/or the all items research system. As appreciated, the outsourced third party entity may retrieve this information from the mainframe computer 12, via its direct line, or from its own backup database files. Once the request is complete and accurate, the image reference number can be determined. Again, as above, the reference number is determined by the image control system. The requested image is then retrieved. More specifically, the requested financial document is electronically located in the off-site storage system. Additionally, the requested financial document is also reproduced after the document is electronically located in the off-site storage system by the outsourced document terminal 22. In other words, a copy of the digitized document (the cheek) is created. A status file is then created for the completed transaction. Also, a status of the request is sent to the financial institution wherein the institution may update their records. The status updates, as well as the information connections, create a two way information exchange between the outsourced third party entity and the bank. The photocopy of the check is then distributed or digitally transferred to the requesting client, the financial institution, or other end users of the financial institution. In the preferred embodiment of the subject invention, the photocopy of the request is distributed to the requesting client, etc. based on the routing codes. That is, in addition to directing the request to be separately routed to the outsourced third party entity, the routing codes also indicate an appropriate distribution for the request client or other end user. The request is now completed. A special circumstance occurs when the record date of one portion of the client's request is earlier than or equal to one year before the current date, and when the record date of another portion of the client's request is later than one year before the current date. These types of requests are known in the industry as spanned requests. One solution is to incorporate an additional interface utilized when the employee of the bank is utilizing the computer terminal 11 and comparing the specific document parameter of the requested financial document to the predetermined parameter to determine if the specific document parameter is greater than, less than, or equal to the predetermined parameter. If the request is a spanned request, then the request will be split into two separate requests which can be handled simultaneously. A special notation would be put onto the requests such that they may be put back together before distributing the documents to the client or other end user. Another solution simply notifies the inputting employee that two requests should be entered separately. A third solution sends the request to the back office production at the bank wherein the back office employees notify the outsourced third party entity by a separate request to retrieve the requested financial documents. One or more embodiments of the invention have been described in an illustrative manner, and it is to be understood that the terminology which has been used is intended to be in the nature of words of description rather than of limitation. Obviously, many modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. It is, therefore, to be understood that within the scope of the appended claims, wherein reference numerals are merely for convenience and are not to be in any way limiting, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described. Further, it is to be understood that the foregoing is a description of one or more preferred exemplary embodiments of the invention. The invention is not limited to the particular embodiment(s) disclosed herein, but rather is defined solely by the claims below. Moreover, the statements contained in the foregoing description relate to particular embodiments and are not to be construed as limitations on the scope of the invention or on the definition of terms used in the claims, except where a term or phrase is expressly defined above. Various other embodiments and various changes and modifications to the disclosed embodiment(s) will become apparent to those skilled in the art. All such other embodiments, changes, and modifications are intended to come within the scope of the appended claims. As used in this specification and claims, the terms “for example,” “e.g.,” “for instance,” “such as,” and “like,” and the verbs “comprising,” “having,” “including,” and their other verb forms, when used in conjunction with a listing of one or more components or other items, are each to be construed as open-ended, meaning that the listing is not to be considered as excluding other, additional components or items. Other terms are to be construed using their broadest reasonable meaning unless they are used in a context that requires a different interpretation.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Methods for obtaining electronically-stored financial documents are generally known in the art. Financial institutions, such as banks and credit unions, utilize such methods to rapidly and efficiently obtain financial documents for distribution to clients upon request. Such financial documents include paid checks, account statements, and other related documents. These financial documents are typically stored on microfiche, microfilm, digitally, or by some other electronic storage means. Further, these financial documents are typically electronically-stored in an on-site storage system located at the financial institution or in an off-site storage system. Electronic storage of these financial documents permits financial institutions to eliminate storage of paper or “hard” copies of these documents. The electronic storage of these documents also provides a means of retrieving the information from the on-site and off-site storage systems. Once the document is stored, the client may request an image of a particular stored document. Client requests are made to replace lost or stolen documents, for tax purposes, for proof of financial transactions, for legal disputes, and other similar matters. The client's request is inputted into a computer terminal at the financial institution. More specifically, conventional methods for obtaining an electronically-stored financial document enable an employee of the financial institution, such as a bank teller, to input the request into an interface incorporated into the computer terminal. The interface is inter-linked with the on-site storage system. Typically, all requests for a particular period are grouped together and subsequently downloaded for retrieval of the requested image by the financial institution. The financial institution retrieves the image, e.g. a photocopy of the check, and then distributes the photocopy to the client via facsimile, mail or hand delivery. The storing, downloading, and retrieving of the financial document, including the reproduction and the distribution of the document, are known in the industry as back office production. Back office production for financial institutions is particularly resource intensive, time consuming, and expensive. Also, back office production becomes increasingly expensive if the client requests a particularly old financial document because older financial documents frequently require more resources and time to locate and retrieve. The majority of financial institutions electronically store financial documents only in an on-site storage system and not in an off-site storage system. Consequently, these financial institutions are unable to outsource the responsibilities for the back office production to third party entities to alleviate the expenses and resources associated with the back office production. These financial institutions realize a significant financial burden since the back office production is concentrated strictly at the financial institution. Other financial institutions do electronically store financial documents in on-site and off-site storage systems. However, the methods utilized by these financial institutions to access the financial documents stored in the off-site storage system are deficient in that the interface utilized in such methods is only inter-linked with the on-site storage system. That is, there is no interface independently inter-linked with the off-site storage system. As a result, the financial documents stored in the off-site storage system can not be efficiently accessed. These financial institutions are still responsible for retrieving the requested financial documents through their back office production and their expenses remain high. One such method of retrieving documents from on-site and off-sited storage systems is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,784,610 to Copeland, III et al. Due to the inefficiencies identified in the conventional methods used by financial institutions to obtain financial documents, it is desirable to implement a method for a financial institution to obtain electronically-stored financial documents from both on-site and off-site storage systems that reduces, if not eliminates, the back office production of the financial institution by providing a direct interface inter-linked with the off-site storage system. With such an interface, the responsibility for retrieving financial documents from the off-site storage can be outsourced to third party entities while still providing the financial institution with efficient access to any financial documents electronically-stored in the off-site storage system.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>According to one embodiment, there is provided a system for selectively storing and retrieving electronic images of a plurality of financial documents, each electronic image being associated with a document parameter that includes a numerical sequence that is representative of a record date of the corresponding financial document. The system comprises a first storage system including a first fixed medium, the first storage system being associated with a first entity and configured to: store at least some of the electronic images for the plurality of financial documents wherein the document parameter for each of the at least some of the electronic images that are configured to be stored in the first storage system are greater than a predetermined parameter, wherein the predetermined parameter is a date or time period; a second storage system including a second fixed medium, wherein the second storage system is located remotely from the first storage system, the second storage system being associated with a second entity and configured to: store at least some of the electronic images for the plurality of financial documents wherein the document parameter for each of the at least some of the electronic images configured to be stored in the second storage system are less than or equal to the predetermined parameter; an electronic processor which has electronic access to the first and second storage systems and is also interlinked to the first storage system and the second storage system, wherein the electronic processor is interlinked to the first storage system and the second storage system through an interlinked interface, wherein the electronic processor is configured to: receive a request for one of the stored electronic images of the plurality of financial documents; compare the numerical sequence of the document parameter associated with the requested stored electronic image to the predetermined parameter; automatically access the first storage system when the numerical sequence of the document parameter associated with the requested stored electronic image is greater than the predetermined parameter; automatically access the second storage system when the numerical sequence of the document parameter associated with the requested stored electronic image is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter; and automatically retrieve the requested stored electronic image from the first storage system or the second storage system once the first storage system or the second storage system has been accessed. According to another embodiment, there is provided a method of accessing an electronically-stored financial document from one of a first storage system associated with a first entity and a second storage system associated with a second entity, wherein the second storage system is located remotely from the first storage system, wherein the first and second storage systems each include a plurality of financial documents stored therein and wherein each of the financial documents has an electronic image and is associated with at least one specific document parameter, wherein the first storage system is associated with a primary interface and the second storage system is associated with a secondary interface. The method comprises the steps of: electronically storing a plurality of images of the financial documents in a first fixed medium at the first storage system when the specific document parameter of the financial document is greater than a predetermined parameter, wherein the predetermined parameter is a numerical record date or time period; electronically storing a plurality of images of the financial documents in a second fixed medium at the second storage system when the specific document parameter of the financial document is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter; utilizing at least one electronic processor that has access to the first and second storage systems by interlinking the primary interface of the first storage system with the secondary interface of the second storage system; receiving a request for an image of one of the stored financial documents at the electronic processor; comparing the specific document parameter of the requested financial document to the predetermined parameter to determine whether the specific document parameter is greater than, less than, or equal to the predetermined parameter after the request has been received, wherein the specific document parameter of the financial document is a particular numerical sequence associated with the specific document parameter, and wherein the particular numerical sequence of the financial document includes a record date of the financial document; automatically accessing the first storage system when the specific document parameter is greater than the predetermined parameter and automatically accessing the second storage system when the specific document parameter is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter; and automatically retrieving the image of the requested financial document from the accessed storage system as defined by the received request. A method for a financial institution to obtain electronically-stored financial documents having a specific document parameter is disclosed. The specific document parameter is typically a particular numerical sequence, such as a record date of the financial document. The method of the subject invention enables the financial institution to obtain the financial documents from a first or an off-site storage system. The first or off-site storage system is different from a second or an on-site storage system and is preferably remotely-located from the second or on-site storage system. In one embodiment, the financial documents of the financial institution are maintained in the first or off-site storage system when the specific document parameter of the financial document is greater than a predetermined parameter. The financial documents that are less than or equal to the predetermined parameter are maintained in the second or on-site storage system. In another embodiment, the specific document parameter of the financial document that is less than or equal to the predetermined parameter is maintained in the first or off-site storage system and the financial document that is greater than the predetermined parameter is maintained in the second or on-site storage system. When the financial institution receives a request for a financial document, the financial institution compares the specific document parameter of the requested financial document to the predetermined parameter to determine if the specific document parameter is greater than less than, or equal to the predetermined parameter. A computer terminal located at the financial institution is connected to both the off-site and on-site storage systems through a processing unit. The processing unit is utilized to, at least partially, automatically access one of the storage systems in response to the comparison of the specific document parameter to the predetermined parameter. For instance, if it is determined that the specific document parameter is less than or equal to the predetermined document parameter, then the processing unit accesses the second or on-site storage system. On the other hand, if it is determined that the specific document parameter of the financial document is greater than the predetermined parameter, then the processing unit accesses the first or off-site storage system. As stated below, the computer terminal may be used to feed a request into the processing unit. After the requested financial document is accessed, the requested document is then retrieved in order to reproduce the financial document, and distribute the financial document to an end user of the financial institution. The subject invention therefore provides a method that enables financial institutions to obtain electronically-stored financial documents from on-site and off-site storage systems. As such the financial institution can selectively store financial documents in either an on-site storage system or the off-site storage system, and the responsibility for the financial documents in the on-site or off-site storage systems can be outsourced to a third party entity. Further, the documents can be stored in different fixed mediums, such as microfiche, microfilm, digitally, electronically, etc., and can be stored in different geographical locations. Therefore, the back office production of the financial institution associated with the retrieval and distribution of financial documents stored in the on-site or off-site storage systems is strategically reduced or even completely eliminated.

G06F1730247

20180226

20180703

20180705

77880.0

G06F1730

LODHI, ANDALIB FT

REMOTE DOCUMENT RETRIEVAL AND STORAGE SYSTEM

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

G06F

PENDING

System and Method for Dynamically Tracking and Indicating a Path of an Object

A system for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object comprises an object position system for generating three-dimensional object position data comprising an object trajectory, a software element for receiving the three-dimensional object position data, the software element also for determining whether the three-dimensional object position data indicates that an object has exceeded a boundary, and a graphics system for displaying the object trajectory.

1-20. (canceled) 21. A system for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object, comprising: a radar system that generates three-dimensional object position data, wherein the object position data includes a trajectory of an object; a memory storing a software element; a processor executing the software element to receive the three-dimensional object position data and determine when the object has landed within a venue, wherein the venue includes a fixed and predetermined venue boundary and after determining the object has landed within the venue boundary, the processor post-processes the trajectory to provide a best-fit smoothed trajectory; and a graphics system that displays a graphic based on the best-fit smoothed trajectory. 22. The system of claim 1, wherein the processor receives launch data that includes a spin velocity of the object. 23. The system of claim 2, wherein after determining the object has landed within the venue boundary, the processor post-processes the trajectory to analyze the spin velocity. 24. The system of claim 1, wherein displaying the graphic includes altering a visual indication of the best-fit smoothed trajectory. 25. The system of claim 4, wherein the visual indication of the trajectory is altered before the object has landed within the venue. 26. The system of claim 4, wherein the visual indication of the trajectory is altered after the object has landed within the venue. 27. A method for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object, comprising: generating three-dimensional object position data, wherein the object position data includes a trajectory of an object; determining whether the three-dimensional object position data indicates that the object has impacted within a venue, wherein the venue includes a fixed and predetermined venue boundary; when the object has impacted within the venue, post-processing the trajectory to provide a best-fit smoothed trajectory; and displaying a graphic based on the best-fit smoothed trajectory. 28. The method of claim 7, wherein the object position data includes a spin velocity of the object. 29. The method of claim 8, further comprising, when the object has impacted within the venue, post-processing the trajectory to analyze the spin velocity. 30. The method of claim 9, wherein the best-fit smoothed trajectory is based on the spin velocity analysis. 31. The method of claim 7, further comprising analyzing a plurality of positions on the trajectory to determine whether the object has exceeded the venue boundary. 32. The method of claim 7, further comprising altering a visual indication of the best-fit smoothed trajectory. 33. The method of claim 10, wherein the visual indication of the trajectory is altered before the object has exceeded the venue boundary or after the object has exceeded the venue boundary. 34. The method of claim 10, wherein the visual indication of the trajectory is altered before the object has landed within the venue or after the object has landed within the venue. 35. A system for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of a baseball, comprising: a radar system that generates three-dimensional position data of the baseball, wherein the position data includes a trajectory of the baseball; a memory storing a software element; a processor executing the software element to receive the position data and determine when the baseball has landed within a venue, wherein the venue includes a fixed and predetermined venue boundary and after determining the baseball has landed within the venue boundary, the processor post-processes the trajectory to provide a best-fit smoothed trajectory; and a graphics system that displays a graphic based on the best-fit smoothed trajectory. 36. The system of claim 13, wherein the processor receives launch data of the baseball, wherein the launch data includes a spin velocity of the baseball. 37. The system of claim 14, further comprising post-processing the trajectory to analyze the spin velocity, wherein the best-fit smooth trajectory is based on the spin velocity analysis. 38. The system of claim 16, further comprising altering a visual indication of the best-fit smoothed trajectory, wherein the visual indication of the trajectory is altered before the baseball has exceeded the venue boundary or after the baseball has exceeded the venue boundary. 39. The system of claim 13, further comprising analyzing a plurality of positions on the trajectory to determine whether the baseball will be a homerun. 40. The system of claim 13, further comprising: determining when the baseball has been pitched based on the position data; and determining when the baseball has been hit based on the position data, wherein the hit is indicated by a change in direction of the baseball.

BACKGROUND In many televised sporting events, it is desirable to track and display the movement of an object. For example, in baseball, it is desirable to track and display the movement of the baseball so that television viewers may observe the flight path of the baseball. Similar applications exist for other sporting events, such as basketball, hockey, tennis, etc. Previous solutions to display an object have utilized image processing techniques to determine the location of the object, but these systems have a very limited range and limited accuracy in a targeted area. Typically used for pitch tracking in a baseball application, wide coverage of an entire stadium for real-time hit detection and baseball tracking is not currently possible using such image processing techniques. Therefore, there is a need to be able to track, and display in real time the flight path of a baseball during a live television broadcast. Further, it would be desirable to be able to show other aspects of the object, such as trajectory, spin, velocity, etc. Finally, it would be desirable to be able to show estimated object impact points with a virtual home run wall, stadium/stands, and also display the ground while the object is still in flight. SUMMARY Embodiments of the invention include a system for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object. The system comprises an object position system for generating three-dimensional object position data comprising an object trajectory, a software element for receiving the three-dimensional object position data, the software element also for determining whether the three-dimensional object position data indicates that an object has exceeded a boundary, and a graphics system for displaying the object trajectory. Other embodiments are also provided. Other systems, methods, features, and advantages of the invention will be or become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following figures and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features, and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the invention, and be protected by the accompanying claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES The invention can be better understood with reference to the following figures. The components within the figures are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon clearly illustrating the principles of the invention. Moreover, in the figures, like reference numerals designate corresponding parts throughout the different views. FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a system for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object. FIG. 2 is a flowchart describing the operation of an embodiment of the tracking software of FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a flowchart describing the operation of an embodiment of the graphics system of FIG. 1 in a standalone graphics application. FIG. 4 is a flowchart describing the operation of an embodiment of the graphics system of FIG. 1, in the situation where a graphic overlay will be added to an existing broadcast. FIG. 5 is a graphical illustration showing a rendering of an environment in which an object is tracked and in which an object trajectory is illustrated. FIG. 6 is a graphical illustration showing another perspective view of the stadium of FIG. 5. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The system and method for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object can be implemented in any video broadcast system. The system and method for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object can be implemented in hardware, software, or a combination of hardware and software. When implemented in hardware, the system and method for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object can be implemented using specialized hardware elements and logic. When the system and method for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object is implemented in software, the software can be used to process various system inputs to generate object tracking information. The software can be stored in a memory and executed by a suitable instruction execution system (microprocessor). The hardware implementation of the system and method for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object can include any or a combination of the following technologies, which are all well known in the art: discrete electronic components, a discrete logic circuit(s) having logic gates for implementing logic functions upon data signals, an application specific integrated circuit having appropriate logic gates, a programmable gate array(s) (PGA), a field programmable gate array (FPGA), etc. The software for the system and method for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object comprises an ordered listing of executable instructions for implementing logical functions, and can be embodied in any computer-readable medium for use by or in connection with an instruction execution system, apparatus, or device, such as a computer-based system, processor-containing system, or other system that can fetch the instructions from the instruction execution system, apparatus, or device and execute the instructions. In the context of this document, a “computer-readable medium” can be any means that can contain, store, communicate, propagate, or transport the program for use by or in connection with the instruction execution system, apparatus, or device. The computer-readable medium can be, for example but not limited to, an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, or semiconductor system, apparatus, device, or propagation medium. More specific examples (a non-exhaustive list) of the computer-readable medium would include the following: a portable computer diskette (magnetic), a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM or Flash memory) (magnetic), an optical fiber (optical), and a portable compact disc read-only memory (CDROM) (optical). Note that the computer-readable medium could even be paper or another suitable medium upon which the program is printed, as the program can be electronically captured, via for instance, optical scanning of the paper or other medium, then compiled, interpreted or otherwise processed in a suitable manner if necessary, and then stored in a computer memory. While the system and method for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object is described herein in the context of tracking and indicating a path of a baseball, the system and method for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object can be used to track and indicate the path of any object. FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a system for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object. The system 100 for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object generally includes an object position and tracking system 104, processing system 107, and a graphics system 300. The processing system 107 can be any general purpose or special purpose computer system, and in an embodiment, can be implemented using a personal computer (PC), laptop computer, or other computing device. Generally, the processing system 107 comprises a processor 116, a memory 117 and tracking software 200, in omni-directional communication over a bus 118. The processing system also includes a database 112 containing three-dimensional data. The object position and tracking system 104 can be implemented using a number of different systems, and, in an embodiment, can be implemented as a radar-based system that can detect the position of an object 110. For example purposes only, the object 110 can be a baseball, or other moving object in a sports event, that is traveling within a radar-observable area, such as a baseball stadium 102. The reference numeral 108 is intended to refer to either a one-way or a two-way radio frequency (RF) radar signal that allows the object position and tracking system 104 to develop position information relating to the relative position of the object 110 in the stadium 102 and with respect to time. The object position and tracking system 104 also includes a Kalman filter 105. As known in the art, a Kalman filter produces estimates of the true values of measurements and their associated calculated values by predicting a value, estimating the uncertainty of the predicted value, and computing a weighted average of the predicted value and the measured value. The most weight is given to the value with the least uncertainty. The estimates produced by the method tend to be closer to the true values than the original measurements because the weighted average has a better estimated uncertainty than either of the values that contributed to the weighted average. The object position and tracking system 104 develops raw trajectory data relating to the three-dimensional (e.g., the X, Y and Z position of an object 110 using a Cartesian coordinate system) position of the object 110 with respect to time. The object position and tracking system 104 provides the raw ball trajectory data to the tracking software 200 over connection 106. The raw trajectory data can include a variety of information. For example, but not limited to, the raw trajectory data can be spatial, temporal, confidence, and may contain other ancillary tracking information that describes the position and status of the object being tracked. The raw trajectory data can be in the form of ascii text, binary data, or any other form of information transfer protocol, or any combination thereof. In an embodiment, the communication from the object position and tracking system 104 to the tracking software 200 can be done using an available interface, such as, for example, Windows Communication Foundation. In an embodiment, the object position and tracking system 104 notifies the tracking software with events that describe the state of the object 110. For example, the following states may be communicated from the object position system 104 to the tracking software 200: Idle—The system is ready to track; Hit Detected—The impact between the bat and ball has been sensed; Tracking—The object position and tracking system has acquired and locked onto the ball in flight; Track Lost—The object position and tracking system has lost track of the ball due to interference, weak signal, or range; Track Aborted—The user has cancelled tracking of the current hit; Post Processing—Final data smoothing and spin analysis are being carried out; Saving Data—Data is being saved; Track Complete—All tracking processes are finished; Error—A tracking or system error has occurred. In an embodiment using a baseball as the object 110, the object position and tracking system 104 is armed and awaiting a pitch. After a pitch is sensed, the object position and tracking system 104 checks for a reversal of the ball velocity and other metrics to detect if the ball is hit. If it was, the object position and tracking system 104 confirms the reversal of the ball velocity, and then notifies the tracking software 200 with a communication packet containing all the accumulated position points for the current trajectory and basic launch data (ball velocity, horizontal/vertical launch angles, and spin velocity). Thereafter, the object position and tracking system 104 sends position points to the tracking software 200 in real time while the ball is in flight. The trajectory ends when the ball is caught or impacts the ground or stands. The entire trajectory is then post-processed to analyze the ball spin during flight and provide a best-fit smoothed trajectory, which is available to the tracking software 200 shortly after the ball lands. If the ball is tracked with sufficient quality and distance before being lost, the object position and tracking system 104 provides a predicted/estimated trajectory to the tracking software that can be processed as if it were actual data. The tracking software 200 receives the ball trajectory data from the object position and tracking system 104, and also receives three-dimensional data relating to the stadium 102 from the database 112. The “3D Stadium” data can be any collection of three dimensional data that represents, in whole or in part, the venue or environment in which the object 110 is being tracked. Not limited to the actual geometry of the venue, this data can be an interpretation or estimation of the venue or environment. The 3D data can comprise, but is not limited to; point, cloud, vertex, polygonal, voxel, textural data, etc. Two dimensional (2D) data that can be interpreted as 3D data (e.g., and image based displacement, normal, or depth maps) are also valid forms of data that can be used to describe the “3D Stadium” The tracking software 200 includes a collision detection module 210 and a tracking confidence and analysis module 220, which arc in bidirectional communication over connection 215. The 3D stadium model data is provided over connection 114 to the collision detection module 210. The tracking software 200 provides ball trajectory and associated data over connection 118 to a graphics system 300. The tracking software 200 receives the raw trajectory data from the object position and tracking system 104 and converts the raw trajectory data into a form that the graphics system can use. The raw trajectory data can be converted into any data type that the graphics system 300 can interpret (e.g., ascii text, binary, or other information transfer protocol, or any combination thereof.). The converted data can include, but is not limited to, positional, rotational, temporal, departure angle, maximum height, predicted landing point and like data for the object 110 being tracked. The tracking software 200 also monitors the state of the object position and tracking system 104 and can display the state of the object position and tracking system 104 to an operator over a monitor 119, or over another monitor. If the object position and tracking system 104 loses track of the object a determination is made whether the provided predicted/synthesized path should be used or not. If so, the predicted points arc provided to the graphics system 300 as if they were actual measurements. The collision detection module 210 determines whether the object 110 has been impacted, and also determines whether or not the object will exceed a certain point within the stadium 102. In an embodiment, the collision detection module 210 determines whether the object has passed a particular location in the stadium 102. The 3D stadium model provided by the database 112 allows the tracking software to develop a “virtual curtain” or a “virtual wall” extending upward from a rear wall of the stadium. The collision detection module 210 can determine whether the object has passed the “virtual wall” or has impacted within the stadium 102. The tracking software 200 performs a three dimensional cross check of the actual or projected trajectory relative to the “3D Stadium” data. As part of the cross check, the tracking software 200 detects if the actual, or projected, trajectory is at any point coincident with the data that forms the “3D Stadium”. If the collision detection module 210 determines that the actual or projected trajectory is at any point coincident with the data that forms the “3D Stadium,” then a collision or impact event is signaled by the tracking software 200. The memory 117 can be used to store the trajectories for replays, comparisons, and other analysis. The tracking confidence analysis module 220 can determine the current position of the object in the trajectory provided by the object position tracking system 104 to determine whether the ball will be a home run. The object trajectory and associated data provided over connection 118 is provided to the graphics system 300. The associated data can be, for example, signals other than the trajectory data, such as, for example, whether the ball is destined to be a home run (GOING), where the ball has officially crossed the home run wall (GONE), if the data is not reliable, remove the on-screen graphics (LOSE IT), and a manual override to end the on-screen graphics for any reason (ABORT). An aspect of the tracking software 200 is the ability to monitor the signals and quality of the trajectory data from the object position and tracking system 104 so that bad or inaccurate graphics are not put to air. If the object position and tracking system 104 loses the object and does not have sufficient data to construct a predicted path (or if the operator physically aborts the tracking), the tracking software sends an abort signal to the graphics system 300, and the trail on the ball is faded off. The graphics system 300 includes a three-dimensional (3D) rendering engine 124 and a control board 126. The output of the instrumented camera 122 is provided to the 3D rendering engine 124 and to a broadcast system 136 over connection 148. The instrumented camera 122 captures a field of vision illustrated using reference to a 146. In an embodiment, the field of vision 146 includes the stadium 102 and the object 110. The video provided over connection 148 is a real-time video feed showing the object 110 traveling within the stadium 102. The graphics system 300 receives object position points in real-time and associated data containing status information from the tracking software 200. The status information received form the tracking software 200 indicates whether the projected path of the object will result in the object exiting the stadium as a home run, and also indicates when the object has actually crossed the virtual wall designating it as an official home run. The 3D rendering engine 124 develops a three-dimensional rendering of the stadium 102, and, in an embodiment, provides over connection 132, a standalone video output with the object tracking trajectory superimposed on the video output. For the standalone video, an instrumented camera 122 is used to register and align virtual graphics with the live video from the instrumented camera 122. The term “instrumented camera” can refer to any instrumented camera 122 that may comprise servos, rotary encoders, linear encoders, motion capture devices, etc. that can establish the location of the camera relative to the stadium 102 and register and align virtual graphics with the live video. As an example of this application, a colored trail can generated by the 3D rendering engine 124 and applied to the video on connection 148 following the object to show the object's trajectory. If it is determined by the tracking software 200 that the object is destined to be a home run ball, the colored trail can changed to different colors, e.g., yellow, then to green when the object actually crossed the virtual wall. In the embodiment, a viewer is shown the object trajectory when the camera is zoomed in on the object and the viewer can't see the back wall of the stadium 102. The graphics provide direct visual feedback when the status of the object changes in flight. In an alternative embodiment in which the object tracking trajectory is applied over another graphic, then the output of the 3-D rendering engine 124 is provided over connection 129 to a control board 126. The control board 126 develops a graphics output over connection 134 that is provided to a broadcast system 136. The broadcast system 136 also receives the video output from the instrumented camera 122 over connection 148. The broadcast system 136 can be any television broadcast system as known in the art. The broadcast system 136 includes a graphics overlay system 138. The graphics overlay system 138 receives the graphics output from the control board 126 and provides a video output with the object tracking trajectory over connection 142. FIG. 2 is a flowchart 200 describing the operation of an embodiment of the tracking software 200 of FIG. 1. The blocks in the flow chart 200, and in the flowcharts to follow, are shown for example purposes and can be performed in or out of the order shown. In block 202 the tracking software 200 receives object trajectory data from the object position and tracking system 104. The trajectory data relates to the three dimensional location of an object with respect to time. In block 204, the tracking software 200, and more particularly, the collision detection module 210, monitors the trajectory data to determine whether the tracked object has experienced a collision (i.e., whether a baseball has impacted within a stadium), and whether the tracked object has crossed the virtual wall (i.e., whether a baseball has exited the stadium 102 in fair territory as a home run). In block 206, the tracking confidence and analysis module 220 performs tracking confidence analysis. As an example, the tracking confidence analysis module 220 assesses the trajectory data on connection 106 as each new trajectory point arrives at an example rate of 60 data points/sec. The tracking confidence analysis module 220 considers and assesses object height, distance, and relative position of the object within the estimated trajectory to determine if an “ABORT” signal should be sent. The parameters are adjustable based on the particular object position and tracking system 104. For example, most systems will have what is essentially a field-of-view. When it is known that the object 110 is at the edge of this range, the data will be less reliable, and an operator can choose to issue the ABORT signal. As an example using a baseball as the object 110 and a particular radar-based object position and tracking system 104, a set of estimated ball positions arc sent over connection 106 when the object position and tracking system 104 lost the ball. If the ball was still ascending, the estimated data was discarded and an ABORT was signaled by the tracking software 200. However, if the ball was at least 10% down from its apex, the data were considered reliable and the ABORT signal was not issued. In block 208, it is determined whether the tracking data is acceptable, i.e., whether the tracking data indicates an object trajectory that should be shown as a video overlay. If the tracking data is not acceptable, then the process returns to block 206. If it is determined in block 208, that the tracking data is acceptable, then, in block 212, it is determined whether the tracking should be aborted. Reasons to abort tracking include, but are not limited to, a manual override of otherwise good tracking date for any reason. If it is determined in block 212 that the tracking should be aborted, then, the process returns to block 204. If however, in block 212 it is determined that the tracking data should not be aborted, then, in block 214, the tracking software 200 sends the object trajectory and associated data to the graphics system 300. In block 216, it is determined whether there is any change in the tracking status. To accomplish this, the tracking confidence analysis module 220 performs real-time analysis, as described above. If, there is no change in the tracking status, then the process returns to block 214. If however, in block 216 it is determined that there is a change in the tracking status, then, in block 218, updated trajectory status information is sent to the graphics system 300. FIG. 3 is a flowchart 300 describing the operation of an embodiment of the graphics system 300 of FIG. 1 in a standalone graphics application. In block 302, the graphics system 300 receives the ball trajectory and associated data from the tracking software 200. In block 304, the graphics system 300 receives camera data from the instrumented camera 122. In block 306, the 3D rendering engine 124 generates a three-dimensional rendering of the stadium 102. An example of a three-dimensional rendering of the stadium 102 is show in FIGS. 5 and 6. In block 308, it is determined whether the desired output is a standalone video output or whether the output is to be combined or overlaid over another video broadcast. If, it is determined in block 308 that this is not a standalone application, then the process proceeds to FIG. 4, to be described below. If however, in block 308 it is determined that this is a standalone application, then, in block 312, the graphics system 300 registers and aligns the virtual graphics generated by the 3D rendering engine 124 with the live video feed provided by the instrumented camera 122 over connection 148. In block 314, the graphics system 300 renders a three-dimensional video including the trajectory overlay. In block 316 it is determined whether the tracking data for the subject trajectory received from the tracking software 200 warrants an indicia change. An indicia change refers to the manner in which the trajectory is shown. For example, the color, width of the line, style of the line, or other indicia used to show the trajectory can be changed, based on the trajectory analysis performed by the tracking confidence analysis module 220. If, in block 316 it is determined that no indicia change is warranted, then the process returns to block 314. If however, in block 316 it is determined that an indicia change is warranted, then, in block 318 the indicia of the trajectory graphic is changed. The indicia change can be based on the predicted trajectory, the actual trajectory, or other factors, and can be based on whether the object has exceeded a boundary. For example, as will be described below in FIG. 5, and FIG. 6, as a trajectory is developed and analyzed, it is determined whether the object impacts within a stadium or whether the object could be a home run ball. If it is determined that the object will be a home run ball, then the indicia, for example the color of the trajectory, can be changed from, for example, white to yellow to green. If the certainty of a home run ball exceeds a certain threshold, then the color of the trajectory can be changed to green, indicating that the object (i.e. the home run ball), has passed, or will pass the virtual wall. Alternatively, if it is determined that the object has collided within the stadium, then the indicia of the object can be changed to illustrate that the object trajectory has terminated. FIG. 4 is a flowchart 400 describing the operation of an embodiment of the graphics system 300 of FIG. 1, in the situation where a graphic overlay will be added to an existing broadcast. In block 402, if the trajectory data is determined to be good by the tracking software 200, the graphics system 300 provides a graphics output over connection 134 to the broadcast system 136. In block 404, the graphics system 300 registers and aligns the virtual graphics generated by the 3D rendering engine 124 with the live video feed provided by the instrumented camera 122 over connection 148. In block 406, the graphics system 300 renders a three-dimensional video including the trajectory overlay. In block 408 it is determined whether the tracking data for the subject trajectory received from the tracking software 200 warrants an indicia change, as described above. If, in block 408 it is determined that no indicia change is warranted, then the process returns to block 406. If however, in block 408 it is determined that an indicia change is warranted, then, in block 412 the indicia of the trajectory graphic is changed, as described above. FIG. 5 is a graphical illustration 500 showing a rendering of an environment in which an object is tracked and in which an object trajectory is illustrated. In an exemplary embodiment, the graphical illustration 500 is shown as a depiction of a baseball stadium 502. The baseball stadium 502 includes a field 504 including distance markers from home plate 506. The distance markers are overlaid on the field 504 as a general reference to illustrate distance from home plate 506. The graphical illustration 500 also includes a projection of a virtual wall 510. The virtual wall 510 is a three-dimensional rendering that extends vertically upward from a top of an actual stadium wall, indicating the plane that an object must travel through to be considered a home run ball. A boundary can be considered to be any location on the field 504, stands (not shown) or virtual wall 510 where the object may impact. The graphical illustration 500 also includes a number of object trajectories 508. Although more than one object trajectory 508 is shown in FIG. 5, a typical application will generally show one object trajectory at a time. Using baseball as an example, the object trajectories 508 are illustrated as baseballs that are hit from home plate 506. Using trajectory 508-1 as an example, a number of points on the trajectory 508-1 can be analyzed by the collision detection module 210 (FIG. 1) to determine a number of attributes about the trajectory, and about the path of the object (110, FIG. 1) on the trajectory. For example, the collision detection module 210 can analyze a previous point 514 and a last point 516 on the trajectory 508-1 to determine the location of the object 110, the likelihood of the object 110 exceeding the plane of the virtual wall 510 in fair territory (e.g., whether the object 110 will be a home run ball), and when the object 110 actually exceeds the plane of the virtual wall 510. FIG. 6 is a graphical illustration 600 showing another perspective view of the stadium 502 of FIG. 5. The virtual wall 510 is shown in a three-dimensional perspective view as extending upward from the edge of the field 504. The trajectory 608-1 illustrates one possible trajectory of an object 110. The trajectory 608-1 includes trajectory portions 608-2, 608-3 and 608-4. Trajectory portion 608-2 illustrates the trajectory 608-1 at a first time using a fine dotted line. Trajectory portion 608-2 can be the earlier portion of the trajectory 608-1 where the object has initially begun to be tracked. Trajectory portion 608-3 is illustrated using a different dotted line pattern to indicate that the indicia of the trajectory 608-1 has been changed at point 605 due to the occurrence of an event, such as when the tracking software 200 determines that the likelihood of the object 110 exceeding the boundary formed by the virtual wall is relatively high. Trajectory portion 608-4 is illustrated using still another different dotted line pattern to indicate that the indicia of the trajectory 608-1 has again been changed at point 610 due to the occurrence of another event, such as when the tracking software 200 determines that the object has broken the plane of the virtual wall 510. Other indicia, such as line color, line thickness, or other indicia may be used. At the time that the object 110 passes point 610, the indicia of the trajectory 608-1 can be changed so that a viewer observing the graphic overlay would be informed that the ball is a home run ball. While various embodiments of the invention have been described, it will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that many more embodiments and implementations are possible that are within the scope of the invention.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>In many televised sporting events, it is desirable to track and display the movement of an object. For example, in baseball, it is desirable to track and display the movement of the baseball so that television viewers may observe the flight path of the baseball. Similar applications exist for other sporting events, such as basketball, hockey, tennis, etc. Previous solutions to display an object have utilized image processing techniques to determine the location of the object, but these systems have a very limited range and limited accuracy in a targeted area. Typically used for pitch tracking in a baseball application, wide coverage of an entire stadium for real-time hit detection and baseball tracking is not currently possible using such image processing techniques. Therefore, there is a need to be able to track, and display in real time the flight path of a baseball during a live television broadcast. Further, it would be desirable to be able to show other aspects of the object, such as trajectory, spin, velocity, etc. Finally, it would be desirable to be able to show estimated object impact points with a virtual home run wall, stadium/stands, and also display the ground while the object is still in flight.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Embodiments of the invention include a system for dynamically tracking and indicating a path of an object. The system comprises an object position system for generating three-dimensional object position data comprising an object trajectory, a software element for receiving the three-dimensional object position data, the software element also for determining whether the three-dimensional object position data indicates that an object has exceeded a boundary, and a graphics system for displaying the object trajectory. Other embodiments are also provided. Other systems, methods, features, and advantages of the invention will be or become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following figures and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features, and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the invention, and be protected by the accompanying claims.

G06T720

20180226

20180628

59407.0

G06T720

FUJITA, KATRINA R

System and Method for Dynamically Tracking and Indicating a Path of an Object

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

G06T

PENDING

SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR SCANNING INFORMATION FROM STORAGE AREA CONTENTS

The present invention is related to methods and systems for collected item information for stored items. In one embodiment, a networked food storage system comprises a first sensor configured to read information from item tags coupled to items, wherein the items are stored or intended to be stored in a storage unit. A data store is configured to store food preferences for at least a first user. Instructions, stored in computer readable memory, are configured to: cause a first user interface to be displayed to the first user via which the first user can request a meal suggestion; retrieve preference information for the first user from computer readable memory; retrieve information read from at least a first item tag; and provide a meal suggestion based at least in part on preference information for the first user and item tag information.

1. A computer-implemented method, the method comprising: receiving over a network at a first computer system, using a network interface, a digitized spoken user order from a second computer system, the second computer system comprising: a microphone, a wireless network interface, and a digitizer coupled to the microphone, wherein the digitizer is configured to convert spoken words into a digital representation, and the second computer system is configured to transmit the digital representation over the network to the first computer system; translating at least a portion of the digitized spoken order to text; identifying an item corresponding to the text; adding the identified item to a list associated with the user; and enabling the list, including the identified item, to be displayed to the user via a user display. 2. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, wherein the second computer system further comprises a voice output system. 3. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, wherein enabling the list, including the identified item, to be provided via a user display, further comprises causing the item identification to be provided to the second user device via a website. 4. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, the method further comprising causing the list to be provided to the user via a telephone. 5. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, wherein enabling the list, including the identified item, to be provided via a user display, further comprises causing the list to be provided to the user via a short messaging system. 6. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, wherein identifying an item corresponding to the text further comprises placing more weight on words in the digitized order related to the user's past purchase history when identifying the item corresponding to the text. 7. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, wherein identifying an item corresponding to the text further comprises utilizing a location of the user in identifying the item corresponding to the text. 8. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, wherein identifying an item corresponding to the text further comprises utilizing preferences of the user in identifying the item corresponding to the text. 9. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, the method further comprising enabling the user to add a reminder with respect to at least one item. 10. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, the method further comprising identifying a SKU that corresponds to the identified item. 11. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, wherein the digitized order comprises an item name. 12. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, wherein the digitized order from the user is recorded at least partly in response to a verbal user command. 13. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, wherein the digitized user order is received immediately from the second computer system after the user speaks the order. 14. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, wherein the second computer system comprises a refrigerator. 15. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, wherein the second computer system is configured to be wall mounted. 16. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, the method further comprising associating a unique identifier with the second computer system. 17. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, the method further comprising transmitting at least a portion of the translated spoken order to an item provider. 18. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, wherein the second computer system is configured with a camera, the method further comprising: receiving at the first computer system an image captured by the camera of the second computer system; performing image recognition on an item in the received image and identifying the item in the received image; and enabling the user to order the item in the received image. 19. The computer-implemented method as defined in claim 1, the method further comprising: receiving the digitized user order from the second computer system immediately when the user speaks the order; recording the digitized user order from the user; utilizing grammar constrained recognition and/or natural language recognition in translating at least a portion of the digitized spoken order to text; enabling the list to be provided to the user via a website; enabling the list to be provided to the user via a telephone; enabling the user to edit the list; and enabling the user to place an order for items on the list.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE TO ANY PRIORITY APPLICATIONS Any and all applications for which a foreign or domestic priority claim is identified in the Application Data Sheet as filed with the present application are hereby incorporated by reference under 37 CFR 1.57. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention The present invention is related to sensor systems and processes, and in particular for sensing items stored in storage units and performing related automated processes. Description of the Related Art Perishable items are often stored in refrigerated storage units, such as refrigerators. Such perishable items often have expiration dates or “best used by dates” printed thereon. However, because perishable items are often densely packed into a refrigerated storage unit, and because the expiration dates are sometimes faintly or poorly printed, users often are not able to conveniently monitor the expiration dates. Hence, items are often retained in the refrigerated storage unit past their expiration date, taking up valuable storage space. In addition, because the user is often unaware of when an item has reached its expiration date, the user often does not replace the expired item in a timely fashion. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is related to sensor systems and processes, and in particular for sensing items stored in storage units and performing related automated processes. The following embodiments are intended to be illustrative examples, and not to limit the scope of the invention. One example embodiment provides a networked refrigeration system, comprising: a first sensor configured to read information from item tags coupled to items, wherein the items are stored or intended to be stored in a refrigeration unit; a data store configured to store food preferences for a plurality of household members; instructions, stored in computer readable memory, configured to: cause a first user interface to be displayed to the first user, the first user interface listing household members; receive a user input indicating which household members will participate in a first meal; retrieve preference information for at least a portion of the household members that will participate in the first meal; retrieve information read from at least a first item tag; select at least a first recipe stored in computer readable memory based at least in part on preference information for at least one meal participant and item tag information; and provide the recipe to a first user. Another example embodiment provides a networked food storage system, comprising: a first sensor configured to read information from item tags coupled to items, wherein the items are stored or intended to be stored in a storage unit; a data store configured to store food preferences for at least a first user; instructions, stored in computer readable memory, configured to: cause a first user interface to be displayed to the first user via which the first user can request a meal suggestion; retrieve preference information for the first user from computer readable memory; retrieve information read from at least a first item tag; and provide a meal suggestion based at least in part on preference information for the first user and item tag information. Still another embodiment provides a method of providing meal suggestions, comprising: electronically receiving data read, via a first sensor, from a first item, the data including information related to the first item's ingredients; identifying a first user requesting a meal suggestion; reading from computer readable memory food preferences for at least the first user; and providing a meal suggestion based at least in part on preference information for the first user and item tag information. Yet another example embodiment provides a networked food storage system, comprising: a first sensor configured to read expiration date information from item tags, wherein the items are stored or intended to be stored in a storage unit; a data store configured to store expiration date information; and instructions, stored in computer readable memory, configured to: read expiration date information from the data store; determine if a first item has an expiration date within a first time window; if the first item has an expiration date within a first time window, identify the item on a shopping list. Still another example embodiment provides an electronic system, comprising: memory configured to store a digitized voice recording from a user; and instructions, stored in computer readable memory, configured to: read the digitized voice recording; identify a product identifier that corresponds to a first item referred to in the digitized voice recording; present a shopping list to the user that includes at least the first item. Another example embodiment provides an electronic system, comprising: memory configured to store a digital product image from a user; and instructions, stored in computer readable memory, configured to: perform object recognition with respect to the product image; select a product identifier that corresponds to the product in the image; present a shopping list to the user that includes at least the product. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Embodiments of the present invention are described herein with reference to the drawings summarized below. These drawings and the associated description are provided to illustrate example embodiments of the invention, and not to limit the scope of the invention. FIG. 1 illustrates an example embodiment of an item tracking and recommendation processing system. FIG. 2 illustrates an example embodiment of a networked storage system. FIG. 3 illustrates an example meal suggestion process. FIG. 4 illustrates an example order generation process. FIG. 5 illustrates a first example meal suggestion request user interface. FIG. 6 illustrates a second example meal suggestion request user interface. FIG. 7 illustrates an example user interface for ordering items. FIG. 8 illustrates an example method for processing a voice order. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Example systems and methods for scanning and obtaining product information and processing such scanned information will be described herein. Throughout the following description, the term “Web site” is used to refer to a user-accessible network site that implements the basic World Wide Web standards for the coding and transmission of hypertextual documents. These standards currently include HTML (the Hypertext Markup Language), HTTP (the Hypertext Transfer Protocol), Java, and XML. It should be understood that the term “site” is not intended to imply a single geographic location, as a Web or other network site can, for example, comprise multiple geographically distributed computer systems that are appropriately linked together. Furthermore, while the following description relates to an embodiment utilizing the Internet and related protocols, other networks, such as networked interactive televisions, and other protocols may be used as well. In addition, unless otherwise indicated, the functions described herein are preferably performed by executable code and instructions running on one or more general-purpose computers. For example, program code stored in non-volatile and/or volatile memory can include one or more instructions, which can optionally be straight-line code and/or organized as modules or objects configured to receive and process inputs, provide outputs, and to selectively store data. However, the present invention can also be implemented using special purpose computers, state machines, and/or hardwired electronic circuits. While certain example processes are described herein, not all the process states need to be performed, and the order of the process can be varied. While several example embodiments are described with reference to RFID tags and RFID scanners, other tags (e.g., barcodes) and scanners (e.g., a laser barcode scanner), can be used. In an example embodiment, a networked system includes one or more scanning devices that can scan product information. For example, a scanning system can optionally include one or more of an optical barcode scanner, an RFID (radio frequency identifier) scanner, a character recognition scanner, a camera, and/or other scanner types. The scanning system can be configured to scan/read optical markings such as barcodes (printed or lasered onto the item packaging or the consumable item itself), RFID tags (e.g., a radio frequency transponder), solid state memory tags, and/or magnetic tags. The foregoing data devices are generally referenced herein tags. By way of further example, the scanning system can take electronic, digital pictures of product packaging or markings, or scan/read other information storage devices. In certain example embodiments, one or more scanning devices and/or related processing systems can be fixedly coupled or removably coupled to a utility device, such as a refrigerator, a conventional oven, a microwave oven, or other device. Optionally, one or more scanning devices and/or related processing systems can be mounted to a wall, inside or outside of a cabinet, or on a stand. The scanner system can include or be coupled to a local content database and/or can be connected to a remote database via a network, such as the Internet. In addition, the scanner system can be coupled to a suggestion application and database that stores food and/or meal preferences for one or more users. For example, a user can specify types of foods, dishes, or other products that the user prefers or will not eat, wherein the user specifications are stored in the database, optionally in association with an identifier (e.g., a user ID and/or password). By way of illustration, the user can specify that the user does not want to eat foods containing pork, poultry, beef, fish, gluten, wheat, eggs, nuts, strawberries, and/or seafood. By way of further illustration, the user can specify that the user prefers foods having a certain characteristic or that are in a certain category, such as vegetarian, low fat, low sodium, and/or kosher food products. The scanner system can include or be coupled to one or more user input and/or output devices, such as a touch screen device, a non-touch screen display, an on/off switch, a mechanical keyboard, voice recognition system, a voice output system, a camera, a character recognition device, a printer, and/or other types of user interfaces. The system optionally can include one or more function-specific hard keys and/or soft keys displayed on a touch screen. The key functions can be software programmable. An example tag can include some or all of the following information: product code, expiration date, nutrition information, dietary classification information (e.g., low sodium, low cholesterol, low carbohydrate, non-fat, peanut-free, gluten-free, sugar-free, non-dairy, vegetarian), ingredient content, supplier, product, storage temperature range, dimensions (height, length, width, weight), cooking temperature and time, a unique item/tag identifier, etc. Optionally, the tag can further include an identifier associated with an intended user. If the tag is an RFID tag, the tag can include a RFID chip, with associated memory, an antenna, and optionally a battery. Optionally, an RFID tag can be a chipless tag, that does not use integrated circuit technology to store information, but that does use materials (e.g. fiber) that reflects a portion of the scanner's signal back to the scanner, which can then be used as an identifier. By way of further example, if the tag is an RFID tag, the tag can be powered via a battery, electromagnetically by the RFID scanner, or otherwise. As will be described below, the scanning system scans item tags and optionally stores some or all of the scanned information in a computer readable data store, such as a database. Optionally, a user can then view some or all of the stored information via a display coupled to the scanning system. By way of further example, the system can read or scan product information located on or in item tags for items stored, or that are in the process of being stored, inside a refrigerator and/or stored in different household locations including shelves, cabinets, dry storage rooms, pantries, automobile trunks, etc. The scanning can optionally be performed utilizing a network of scanners and/or repeaters in the house. Thus, for example, one or more scanners, such as an RFID scanner can be placed in, or adjacent to a home refrigerator, as well as on or in proximity with food storage shelves and/or cabinets. The scanner location can be based on the scanner range, wherein the scanner is placed within a useable range of the items to be scanned, and the location can be further selected so that a barrier does not interfere with the scanner's ability to read item tags. The scanner can be powered via a battery, AC power or otherwise. The scanner can optionally be mounted in or to a refrigerator wall. The RFID scanner optionally includes an antenna or coil, a transceiver, and a decoder. The transceiver produces signals that are emitted by the antenna as radio signals. The radio signals are optionally used to activate the RF tag and to read and optionally write data to the tag. The RFID scanner is optionally shielded by a substantially RF transparent cover to protect the sensor from dirt and/or moisture. The scanner can periodically (e.g., every 30 seconds, every 15 minutes, every hour, or other regular or irregular time period), in response to a user action (e.g., opening or closing a refrigerator door), and/or other trigger (e.g., a weight change detected via a weight sensor) read items tags for items stored within the refrigerator. Optionally, between scans, the scanner can enter into a power down/low power consumption state to conserve power. Optionally, the user can manually cause an item tag to be scanned. For example, if the tag is an optical barcode, the user can manually press a scan button and/or pass the barcode in front of a barcode scanner. In addition to scanners that read tag information, one or more sensors can be provided that sense the presence of an item without necessarily reading an item tag. For example, one or more pressure sensors can be coupled to one or more shelves to detect if the shelve has an item stored thereon. Other sensors, such as capacitor sensors, millimeter wave sensors, or infrared sensors can be used as well. A local and/or remote computer processing system can access the stored information, and based on some or all of the stored information, perform one or more of processes, examples of which are described below. Optionally, a user can specify how at least a portion of the information is to be used. Based on the scanned tag information, the system can determine when products that are inside the refrigerator, on dry products shelves, and/or other selected locations, will expire and will remind or suggest to the user (through a user interface, such as a touch screen display, a voice print, a hardcopy printout, etc.) that the products be consumed on or before the expiration date. The suggestion or reminder can first be provided by the system a number of days before the expiration date, wherein the number of days can be a default value stored in computer readable memory and/or can be based on a value set by the user and stored in computer readable memory. Optionally, in addition, the user can specify that expiration notices are to be provided for certain specified items and/or the user can specify that expiration notices are not to be provided for certain specified items. Optionally, when a suggestion or reminder is provided, the user can instruct the system not to provide further reminders regarding the expiring product or can instruct the system to provide another reminder at or after a specified time or period (e.g., a snooze instruction). The system will optionally suggest the reordering of products based on one or more of expiration dates, consumption patterns, delivery schedules, current household item inventory, and user preferences, such as: special diets, as fat free diet, low carb. diet, vegetarian diet, Kosher food only, or other special or selected diet. As similarly described above, the suggestion or reminder can first be provided a number of days before the expiration date, wherein the number of days can be a default value stored in computer readable memory and/or can be based on a value set by the user and stored in computer readable memory. Optionally, when a suggestion is provided, the user can optionally instruct the system not to provide further reminders regarding the product or can instruct the system to provide another reminder at a specified time or period. Other consumer food-related information can also be accessed and utilized by the system from computer memory. For example, recipes can be stored on a local and/or a remote information system. The recipes can include ingredients, quantities, and instruction of preparation. Optionally, the system can store and/or calculate from stored information, recipe ingredient quantity information for different serving sizes. Optionally, the recipes can be selected or downloaded from another computer system based on the products available in the house, including the contents inside the refrigerator and on other various locations in the house. The system can compare the available products or contents (e.g., those stored in the refrigerator and/or in other storage locations) with stored recipes, a serving size specified by the user, and/or user preferences, such as: special diets, including fat free diet, low carb, diet, vegetarian diet, Kosher food only, or other special diet. The system can suggest one or more recipes that more closely match the user's preferences, the available ingredients, and the desired serving size, and the recipe can then be prepared by or for the user. Because the system may not be aware of all the ingredients in the user's possession, the user can manually specify that the user does or does not have certain ingredients available, and the foregoing information can affect the recipes recommended to the user. By way of further example, the system can present on a display a list of recipe titles (e.g., teriyaki chicken, fried chicken, butter chicken, etc.), optionally with a brief listing of the main ingredients. The user can then select a listed recipe, the complete recipe (including a complete ingredient listing, ingredient quantities, cooking temperature, etc.) is then displayed, and the user can optionally print out the recipe. Because system may not be aware of all the ingredients in the user's possession, the user can manually specify that the user does or does not have certain ingredients available. By way of example, some or all of recipe information (e.g., cooking temperature and time) can be transmitted to a cooking device, such as an oven, which can use the information in the cooking process. By way of further example, as similarly discussed above, the system optionally reminds the user to replace a product before the expiration date gathered through products tags. The system can optionally be configured by the user to automatically trigger orders within a predetermined amount of time prior to the expiration date. Optionally, the order timing can be based in part on the time it takes to deliver the order once the order is placed, where, for example, the order will be placed to ensure the order will arrive on, or shortly before the expiration date. In addition, the user can optionally specify, via a user interface, that for future orders if an order value is below a certain amount and/or a delivery charge is greater than a certain cost, the order should not yet be placed. Optionally, the system determines if an item has been removed from a storage area (e.g., a refrigerator) by comparing previous scanned information with current scan information. If the system does not locate the item within a storage area within a predetermined amount of time (e.g., an hour, 4 hours, 8 hours, 12 hours, or 24 hours), the system optionally infers that the item has been fully consumed, and adds the item to an order. Optionally, the predetermined amount of time is settable by a user. The physical configuration of the refrigerator storage areas can be stored in computer local or remote physical memory. By way of example, the configuration information includes the placement, depth, width and height dimensions of the refrigerator and/or freezer storage areas. The configuration information can also store information regarding storage areas intended to store a particular type of food product. For example, information (e.g., dimensions, special temperature settings, etc.) regarding vegetable drawers, fruit drawers, dairy product storage areas, and the like can be stored. Shelve and drawer weight limitations (e.g., recommended maximum weight) are optionally stored as well. Certain configuration information can optionally be downloaded over a network from a remote computer system (e.g., from a Web site associated with the refrigerator or the system provider) based on, for example, the refrigerator model or serial number. In addition, the system can record which storage locations are occupied, and which locations are available for additional storage. The system can compare some or all of the foregoing information with product and packaging information (such as volume and dimensions including depth, width and height), that can be read from the item tag or retrieved from a local or remote database using an item identifier read from the item tag, enables the system, and determine one or more ways to organize items on shelves and in drawers. Optionally, the system can provide a user with suggestions or recommendations on how to organize the refrigerator and freezer by suggesting placement of products with respect to storage shelves and drawers. By way of illustration, the system can compare product dimensions and/or weight with the refrigerator or shelf configuration and/or available locations, and using the comparison results, suggest where a product or products should be placed via a user interface. This information can be presented in a touch screen display or other user interface. By way of example, the system can display a three dimensional representation of items already on storage shelves, and then highlight items that are first to be removed as part of the reorganization process. Once the user has removed the indicated items, the system displays where each of the removed items are to be placed on the storage shelves. Optionally, the system provides a printout of stored items and the storage locations so that the user can easier locate items and determine if the user has a certain items, and without having to physically search for items. Optionally, an “expired” control is provided, which, when activated, causes the system to display and/or printout a list of expired items and their locations. Optionally, the system provides a user interface with a search field, wherein the user can enter in the name of an item or an item type. The system then searches its database to locate matches or near matches, and display search results to the user. The search results can include a list of the matches or near matches, the quantity of the matching and near matching items, and their storage locations. As similarly described above, optionally, the system, via a suggestion user interface, provides item suggestions and recommendations to the user. For example, the system can suggest items to be consumed (e.g., via a meal recommendation including one or more of an appetizer, a main course, dessert, and/or a drink) based on item availability in the user's house and/or on information input by one or more users (e.g., members of the household, one or more physicians of a household member, etc.). For example, the user information can include food preferences, special diets, modes, etc., input by the user via a keyboard, a touch screen, voice recognition, or other input method. Optionally, the system stores different profiles and preferences for different users in the same household. Optionally, when a user wants the system to provide a meal recommendation, the user activates a physical or a soft meal suggestion icon or button. The system then retrieves the names of household members from its database, and presents the names of the household members on the meals suggestions user interface, optionally in addition to an “entire household” control. In order to indicate who will be participating in the meal, the user can select one or more of the household member names, or the “entire household”. Optionally, a user interface is provided via which the user can indicate which type of meal (e.g., breakfast, brunch, lunch, dinner), meal courses (e.g., salad, soup, appetizer, main course, dessert), and a food-type category (e.g., fish, meat, etc.) the user wants. The system will then access the profiles and preferences of the meal participants, as well as the item inventory, and provide a corresponding meal recommendation. Optionally, a user can trigger or provide a command through a system user interface to communicate to the central system or directly to a service provider, such as a laundry company or a newspaper/magazine service provider, to directly order their service or to trigger a request for servicing, such as the service of picking up or delivering goods, and/or to suspend a service, such as to suspend newspaper delivery for a specified period of time. Optionally, the system can further include a voice recording device and/or the voice recording device can be independent of the system. The voice recording device can include digital memory (e.g., a disk drive, FLASH memory, etc.) or analog memory (e.g., a cassette tape). A user can record a product description on the device by activating a record control, which can be in the form of a button, a switch, a voice recognition command or other record triggering method. In an example embodiment, the device records a product description verbally provided by the user and creates a digital file. The description can be provided as part of a verbally provided product order. Optionally, a different file is created for each recorded production description. The device transfers the file to a remote database over a network such as the Internet. The transfer can be performed substantially immediately, in response to a user command, or on a scheduled basis. A remote computer processing system receives, stores, and accesses such files, which can be received from a plurality of voice recording devices. The remote computer system then utilizes voice recognition software to translate the voice recording files into text files. Optionally, the voice recognition software increases recognition accuracy by, when there are more than one potential word matches, placing more weight on words related to the types items being purchased (produce, cereal, milk, etc.) and the users past purchase history. The remote computer system can optionally match the spoken order with a SKU (Stock Keeping Unit, e.g., an identifier, such as a unique numeric identifier associated with a specific product) retrieved from a SKU database. The SKU database optionally stores SKUs in association with a text description of the corresponding item. For example, if the user verbally ordered a cereal by name, the remote computer system translates the name into text or other computer readable form, and matches the text with text stored in association with a SKU (or other identifier) to locate the correct SKU. Optionally, the voice recognition and/or SKU matching and identification can be performed instead or additionally by the user's local system. The remote computer processing system optionally shares a text version (e.g., the textual representation of the order and/or the corresponding SKU) and/or recorded verbal version of the order. For example, the remote computer system can share the text and/or verbal version of the order via a web site, telephone, fax, short messaging system, or via other communication techniques. Thus, for example, the system can textually share an order that had been placed verbally with one or more product suppliers and/or with the user. For example, the remote system can add the item(s) identified in the verbal order to the user's shopping cart or other shopping list, optionally in association with a digital file that includes the user's spoken order. Users can then verify the text conversion of the spoken order. For example, the user can click on an item in an order list for which verification is requested, hear the user's previously recorded order, and determine if the written description in the shopping list matches the user's spoken order. Optionally, the system uses individual consumer information, such as the user's location and the user's account information and preference profile to better match the user's spoken order with a product. The system uses the product identification (e.g., SKU) generated from the verbal order to request quotes from providers, provide quotes to the user, and to offer additional or alternative products to the user. The user can then place an order for the identified product. Optionally, the system does not provide voice recognition. Instead, an icon corresponding to the voice recording appears in the user's online shopping list (e.g., an electronic shopping cart). Optionally, the icon has an associated recording date displayed therewith. The user can click on the icon, the system will play the recording to the user, and the user can manually key in the product name and/or search an online catalog. Optionally, in addition or instead, a picture of an item the user wants to order can be taken using a camera coupled to the system, a cell phone camera, a standalone camera, or other camera. The picture can be transmitted by the system or otherwise to the remote system. The remote system can then perform image recognition to come up with a “signature” identifying the item. The remote system can then locate a corresponding SKU from a SKU database, which optionally stores image signature information and/or an image, in association with a corresponding SKU. The remote system uses the product identification (e.g., SKU) generated from the image to request quotes from providers, provide quotes to the user, and to offer additional or alternative products to the user. The user can then place an order for the identified product. While the foregoing verbal and photographic order processes can be used with a variety of item types, it can be particularly useful with respect to items that often do not have bar codes, such as fresh fruits (e.g., a single apple) or vegetables. Optionally, the system does not provide image recognition. Instead, a thumbnail (or larger image size) version of the picture of the item, corresponding to the image captured by the camera, appears in the user's online shopping list (e.g., an electronic shopping cart), displayed on the user's local display. Optionally, the displayed picture has an associated image capture date displayed therewith. The user can click on the picture, and the system will optionally display a larger version of the picture. Thus, the picture acts as a reminder to the user. The user can then manually key in the product name and/or search an online catalog and/or the user's purchase history for the product to thereby add the product to the order list. Example embodiments will now be described with reference to the figures. Referring to FIG. 1, an item tracking and recommendation processing system 100 includes a central processing unit 102, computer readable memory 104 (e.g., removable and/or fixed: volatile memory, such as RAM, non-volatile memory, such as FLASH EEPROM, a hard disk drive, an optical drive, etc.), and a database 106, which can be stored, in whole or in part in the computer readable memory 104. A network interface 108 (e.g., a wireless or wired network interface) is provided to enable the item tracking and recommendation processing system 100 to access and/or transmit data (e.g., dimensional data regarding a refrigerator or other item storage system, recipes, user preference information, user account information, etc.) across a network, such as the Internet, a local network, and/or other network. The interface 108 can optionally include one or more of a digital subscriber line (DSL) interface, a T1 line interface, a satellite link, a cable hookup, a dial-up modem, etc. The system 100 can further include wired and/or wireless digital and/or analog input/output interfaces to receive and/or transmit information to one or more tag scanning sensors and/or presence sensors. The system 100 can include and/or be coupled to one or more user interface devices (e.g., a touch screen display, a printer, a keyboard, dedicated mechanical keys, voice recorder, etc.). For example, the system 100 can be coupled to one or more user interface devices, sensors, scanners, and/or other systems via a USB or FireWire bus, via a wired local network, such an Ethernet network, and/or a wireless network, such as an iEEE 802.11b or IEEE 802.11g compliant network, or a Bluetooth network. The example database 106 includes recipes, content information for one or more item storage units (e.g., refrigerator(s), pantry, etc.), household members and/or frequent visiting meal participants, user preferences (e.g., food preferences, item ordering preferences, payment preferences, etc. of household members and/or frequent visitors), a system serial number, and the like. The database 106, optionally also includes dimensional and configuration information for one or more storage units (e.g., available temperature settings, the existence of vegetable drawers, fruit drawers, dairy product storage areas, shelve and drawer weight limitations, etc.). For example, the database 106 can store a mapping of product codes or SKUs to product names, sizes, and packaging materials, as well as content information regarding items placed into storage units. Optionally, the database 106 stores shopping lists, passwords and/or unique identifiers for accessing remote databases and services. The following is an example database schema that includes fields for payment preferences, storage unit identifiers for one or more storage units (e.g., one or more refrigerators), storage unit shelf dimensions, food preferences for one or more users (e.g., food preferences for breakfast, brunch, lunch, dinner, food avoidances, medical or other dietary restrictions, etc.), and order generation/trigger preferences. User Database Schema FIELD DATA DESCRIPTION Alternative Form Alternative form of payment (credit of Payment card, electronic fund transfer, check, place on account, etc.), and corresponding payment information (credit card number, and credit card expiration date, bank account number, checking account number, etc.) Refrigeration Unit 1 Unique identifier, such as a serial number, Identifier associated with a first of the user's disposal units Refrigeration Unit 1 The capacity in units of measurement (gallons, Capacity liters, etc.) of Disposal Unit 1 Shelf 1 Shelf 1 dimensions Shelf 2 Shelf 2 dimensions Shelf n Shelf n dimensions User 1 Food Food preferences-Breakfast Preferences Food avoidance-Breakfast Food preferences-Brunch Food avoidance-Brunch Food preferences-Lunch Food avoidance-Lunch Food preferences-Dinner Food avoidance-Dinner Dietary restrictions User n Food Food preferences-Breakfast Preferences Food avoidance-Breakfast Food preferences-Brunch Food avoidance-Brunch Food preferences-Lunch Food avoidance-Lunch Food preferences-Dinner Food avoidance-Dinner Dietary restrictions Order Generation Generate/submit order preferences Preference The following is an example contents database schema that stores item information for the contents of one or more storage units. The information, or selected portions thereof, may have been scanned by one or more scanners from an item tag, manually entered by the user, or retrieved from a remote database using the item SKU or other identifier. The example schema includes fields for a product code, ingredients, calories, a diet category, a product name, dimensions, weight, an expiration date, a manufacturer, item location, item storage temperature, and cooking guidelines. Contents Database Schema FIELD DATA DESCRIPTION Product code The item SKU Ingredients The item ingredients Calories The number of calories in the item or the number of calories per item unit Diet Category low sodium, low cholesterol, low carbohydrate, non-fat, peanut-free, gluten- free, sugar-free, non-dairy, vegetarian, etc. Product name The text name of the item Dimensions One or more of length, width, height, diameter, volume Weight Original pre-use weight Expiration date Item expiration or “best if used by” date Manufacturer The name of the manufacturer or other manufacturer identifier Location Information Storage unit and/or shelf identifier of where item is stored Storage Temperature The temperature or temperature range at which the item is to be stored Cooking Information The temperature or temperature range at which the item is to be cooked, cooking time, cooking method (boiling, roasting, broiling, frying, microwave, etc.) Recipe Database Schema The following is an example recipe database schema. The example schema includes fields for ingredients (e.g., ingredient names, and amount per serving or per a specified number of servings), cooking instructions, calories per serving, and other nutritional information, such as the amount of one or more of salt, carbohydrates, protein, fiber, fat, vitamins, etc. per serving and/or the % percentage of a recommended daily amount of the foregoing a serving will provide. FIELD DATA DESCRIPTION Ingredient 1 Name and amount per serving Ingredient 2 Name and amount per serving Ingredient n Name and amount per serving Cooking Instructions Cooking method(s), time, temperature, etc. Calories/serving Salt, carbohydrates, protein, fiber, fat, vitamins/serving FIG. 2 illustrates an example embodiment of a networked storage system. A computer system 202 (which can be in the form of system 100 illustrated in FIG. 1), is coupled to a local scanner 204, a screen 206 (e.g., a touch screen that can receive user inputs via finger and/or pen), and optionally a microphone and/or camera 203. The microphone is optionally coupled to a digitizer which converts spoken language into a digital representation. The camera can be a digital still and/or video camera that captures images and stores them digitally and/or in analog form. The computer system 202, scanner, 204, and/or screen 206 optionally are physical, and optionally removably, mounted to a refrigerator 208. The computer system 202, scanner, 204, and/or screen 206 can optionally be mounted on a wall, a stand, or other supporting structure. The computer system 202 is optionally coupled to remote scanners via networks 218, 220 (e.g., WiFi networks). The remote scanners are mounted to and/or configured to scan one or more other storage units, such as refrigerator 210 and cabinet 212. Optionally, a storage unit, such as cabinet 212, includes multiple shelves with corresponding scanners. Thus, optionally, one computer system can collect and store information scanned from items stored in multiple storage units. Optionally, each storage unit can have a computer system that incorporates some or all of the elements of system 100. FIG. 3 illustrates an example meal suggestion process. At state 302, a user interface is displayed by an item tracking and recommendation processing system (ITRP), via which a user can indicate who is going to participate in a meal and the meal type (breakfast, lunch, dinner). Optionally, the system can infer the meal type based on the time of day by reading a real time clock (e.g., if the request is at 8:00, the system infers the meal is breakfast). At state 304, the ITRP retrieves information regarding which items are currently available (e.g., in one or more household storage units). At state 306, the system retrieves food preference information for selected meal participants. At state 308, the system matches user preferences and item availability for the meal type. At state 310 the system displays information regarding one or more meals that meet the user preferences and that can be prepared using the available food items. At state 312, the system receives a user selection of the displayed meals. At state 314, the system displays a detailed menu corresponding to the user selection. FIG. 4 illustrates an example order generation process. At state 402, the system retrieves expiration date information for items within one or more storage units (e.g., a refrigerator and/or cabinet). At state 404, the system retrieves a user preference regarding when an order should be generated relative to at least item expiration dates (e.g., a time prior to an expiration date selected by the user wherein the system is to ask the user if an item should be placed, also referred to as a time window). At state 406, the system compares the user preference with the expiration date information and determines which items have expiration dates that fall within the window. By way of example and not limitation, the time window can be one day or less, greater than one day, and/or selected based upon a projected delivery date or time. At state 408, the system presents to the user via a display device a list of items identified at state 406 and asks the user to select which items are to be ordered. At state 410, the system receives the user selections and orders the selected items from a provider selected by the user. FIG. 5 illustrates an example meal suggestion request user interface. The interface includes a Meal Selection section, wherein the user can indicate for which meal the user wants suggestions. In the illustrated example, the user can select from: breakfast, brunch, lunch, dinner, and a late night snack. A courses section allows the user to indicate what courses suggestions are to be provided for. The course selection optionally changes depending on the meal selection. For example, if the user selects breakfast, optionally, the course selection will not include soup or salad options. A “meal participants” user interface enables the user to indicate who is going to participate in the meal. The example list is based on user set-up information, wherein the user specifies household members and others that will be participating in the meal. In this example, a guest field is provided wherein the user can specify the number of guests attending for which food preference information is not available in the system database. The system can use the guest number information when providing ingredient quantities as part of recipes. Referring back to FIG. 5, a “provide recommendations” control is provided, which, when activated will cause the system to provide one or more meal recommendations. FIG. 6 illustrates another example meal suggestion request user interface. The interface provides one or more course suggestions in response to the user selections made via the interface illustrated in FIG. 5, user food preferences, and item availability. In this example, suggestions are provided for a salad, a main course, and a dessert. Once the user selects the desired suggestions, the user can activate a “provide recipe” control, and the system will then provide the corresponding recipes, with the recipe portions scaled to the number of meal participants. The user can optionally activate a “provide additional suggestions” control, and the system will provide additional suggestions for courses wherein the user has not yet made a selection. FIG. 7 illustrates an example user interface for ordering items. The example list includes items whose expiration dates are within a predetermined window and/or items were present in a storage unit (e.g., a refrigerator), but which the system has determined is no longer in the storage unit (e.g., has been removed from the storage unit and not replaced within a predetermined amount of time). The user can select which items are to be ordered and the quantity of the items. Optionally, the system defaults by placing check marks for each item and the user unchecks the item if the user does not want to order the item. Optionally, the system provides a default quantity, which can be based on a previous user specified value and/or on consumption patterns. FIG. 8 illustrates an example method for processing a voice order. At state 802, the user verbally provides an order. By way of illustration, the user may press a “record shopping list” control. In response, the system can prompt the user via a system display and/or via spoken instruction to verbally record a shopping list or a portion thereof. The recording can be intended as a reminder. The user may be given a limited amount of time (e.g., 5 seconds, 10 seconds, 30 seconds, 1 minute) to speak the order. The system can inform the user of the limited time, and provide a clock or other indicator (e.g., a countdown timer) that continuously displays the time remaining to record the order. Optionally, the user can be provided with an “extend recording time” control, via which the user can cause the system to provide additional recording time. At the end of the recording time, the user is optionally provided the opportunity to review the recording (e.g., have the recording played back), and to delete and re-record the shopping list if the previous recording was unsatisfactory. For example, the user can speak the order to the microphone 203, illustrated in FIG. 2. The system then digitizes and records the spoken order in a file. At state 804, the system transmits the digitized verbal order to a remote system, such as remote system 214. At state 806, the remote system performs voice recognition on the order in order to interpret the spoken order and converts the spoken order into text. By way of example, the remote system can use grammar constrained recognition and/or natural language recognition. The voice recognition system optionally uses training. At state 808, the remote system transmits the text version of the order to the user so that the user can verify if text version is an accurate interpretation of the spoken order. For example, the remote system can transmit the text version to the system 202 or another user computer for display to the user. Optionally, if the user determines that the order was not correctly translated, the user can provide a corrected order (e.g., via a keyboard, or by speaking the order again) to the remote system. At state 810, the remote system transmits the translated version of the order (e.g., the text version) to one or more providers (e.g., supermarkets, wholesale establishments, etc.) in order to receive quotes. The remote system can optionally match the translated version of the spoken order with a SKU retrieved from a SKU database, which stores SKUs in association with a text description of the corresponding item, and transmit the SKU to the providers. At state 812, the remote system receives quotes from the potential providers, and transmits the quotes to the user. At state 814, the user selects a provider and authorizes placement of the order. At state 816, the remote system places the order with the selected provider. It should be understood that certain variations and modifications of this invention would suggest themselves to one of ordinary skill in the art. The scope of the present invention is not to be limited by the illustrations or the foregoing descriptions thereof.

<SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is related to sensor systems and processes, and in particular for sensing items stored in storage units and performing related automated processes. The following embodiments are intended to be illustrative examples, and not to limit the scope of the invention. One example embodiment provides a networked refrigeration system, comprising: a first sensor configured to read information from item tags coupled to items, wherein the items are stored or intended to be stored in a refrigeration unit; a data store configured to store food preferences for a plurality of household members; instructions, stored in computer readable memory, configured to: cause a first user interface to be displayed to the first user, the first user interface listing household members; receive a user input indicating which household members will participate in a first meal; retrieve preference information for at least a portion of the household members that will participate in the first meal; retrieve information read from at least a first item tag; select at least a first recipe stored in computer readable memory based at least in part on preference information for at least one meal participant and item tag information; and provide the recipe to a first user. Another example embodiment provides a networked food storage system, comprising: a first sensor configured to read information from item tags coupled to items, wherein the items are stored or intended to be stored in a storage unit; a data store configured to store food preferences for at least a first user; instructions, stored in computer readable memory, configured to: cause a first user interface to be displayed to the first user via which the first user can request a meal suggestion; retrieve preference information for the first user from computer readable memory; retrieve information read from at least a first item tag; and provide a meal suggestion based at least in part on preference information for the first user and item tag information. Still another embodiment provides a method of providing meal suggestions, comprising: electronically receiving data read, via a first sensor, from a first item, the data including information related to the first item's ingredients; identifying a first user requesting a meal suggestion; reading from computer readable memory food preferences for at least the first user; and providing a meal suggestion based at least in part on preference information for the first user and item tag information. Yet another example embodiment provides a networked food storage system, comprising: a first sensor configured to read expiration date information from item tags, wherein the items are stored or intended to be stored in a storage unit; a data store configured to store expiration date information; and instructions, stored in computer readable memory, configured to: read expiration date information from the data store; determine if a first item has an expiration date within a first time window; if the first item has an expiration date within a first time window, identify the item on a shopping list. Still another example embodiment provides an electronic system, comprising: memory configured to store a digitized voice recording from a user; and instructions, stored in computer readable memory, configured to: read the digitized voice recording; identify a product identifier that corresponds to a first item referred to in the digitized voice recording; present a shopping list to the user that includes at least the first item. Another example embodiment provides an electronic system, comprising: memory configured to store a digital product image from a user; and instructions, stored in computer readable memory, configured to: perform object recognition with respect to the product image; select a product identifier that corresponds to the product in the image; present a shopping list to the user that includes at least the product.

B07C534

20180226

20180628

62435.0

B07C534

RUDY, ANDREW J

SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR SCANNING INFORMATION FROM STORAGE AREA CONTENTS

SMALL

CONT-ACCEPTED

B07C

PENDING

PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS

The present invention relates to pharmaceutical compositions comprising fixed dose combinations of a DPP-4 inhibitor drug and/or a SGLT-2 inhibitor drug, and metformin XR, processes for the preparation thereof, and their use to treat certain diseases.

1. A pharmaceutical composition comprising: a) an inner extended release core, wherein the inner extended release core is a formulation comprising metformin hydrochloride, a swellable and/or extended release polymer, and one or more further excipients; b) an intermediate seal coating; and c) an outer immediate release coating, wherein the outer immediate release coating is a film coat formulation comprising 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene, a film-coating agent, a plasticizer, and, optionally, a glidant. 2. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein the film-coating agent is hydroxypropyl methylcellulose. 3. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein the plastizicer is polyethylene glycol. 4. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein the plastizicer is propylene glycol. 5. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein the optional glidant is talc. 6. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein the seal coating comprises a film-coating agent, a plasticizer, and, optionally, a glidant, one or more pigments and/or colors. 7. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein the metformin hydrochloride is present in a unit dosage strength of 500, 750, 850, 1000 or 1500 mg. 8. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein the SGLT-2 inhibitor is 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene and is present in a unit dosage strength of 5, 10, 12.5 or 25 mg. 9. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, which is a tablet for oral administration. 10. The tablet according to claim 9 further comprising an outer film over-coat. 11. The tablet according to claim 10, wherein the outer film over-coat comprises a film-coating agent, a plasticizer, and, optionally, a glidant, one or more pigments and/or colors. 12. A method of using the pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1 for treating, preventing, slowing the progression, or delaying the onset of metabolic diseases either in type 2 diabetes patients who have not been previously treated with an antihyperglycemic agent, in type 2 diabetes patients with insufficient glycemic control despite therapy with one or two conventional antihyperglycemic agents selected from metformin, sulphonylureas, thiazolidinediones, glinides, alpha-glucosidase blockers, GLP-1 or GLP-1 analogues, and insulin or insulin analogues. 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the metabolic disease is type 2 diabetes mellitus and conditions related thereto. 14. The method of claim 12, wherein the SGLT-2 inhibitor is 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene. 15. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 7, wherein the hydroxypropyl methylcellulose is Hypromellose 2910, Methocel E5, or Methocel E15. 16. The pharmaceutical composition according to claim 3, wherein the polyethylene glycol is Macrogol 400, 6000 or 8000.

The present invention relates to pharmaceutical compositions containing a fixed dose combination (FDC) comprising a DPP-4 inhibitor drug (particularly 1-[(4-methyl-quinazolin-2-yl)methyl]-3-methyl-7-(2-butyn-1-yl)-8-(3-(R)-amino-piperidin-1-yl)-xanthine, also named linagliptin) and/or a SGLT-2 inhibitor drug (particularly 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene, also named Compound “A” herein), and metformin (particularly metformin hydrochloride) in extended release form (metformin XR); processes for the preparation thereof, and their use to treat certain diseases. In particular, the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a fixed dose combination of an extended release form of metformin hydrochloride, optionally seal coated, which is further coated with an immediate release form of 1-[(4-methyl-quinazolin-2-yl)methyl]-3-methyl-7-(2-butyn-1-yl)-8-(3-(R)-amino-piperidin-1-yl)-xanthine (linagliptin) and/or 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene (Compound “A”). Further, the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition, particularly a solid preparation (e.g. an oral solid dosage form, such as e.g. a tablet), comprising or consisting essentially of a) an inner extended release core comprising metformin (particularly metformin hydrochloride) and one or more excipients; b) an optional intermediate seal coating; and c) an outer immediate release coating comprising at least one active pharmaceutical ingredient selected from a DPP-4 inhibitor, preferably linagliptin, and a SGLT-2 inhibitor, preferably Compound “A”, and one or more excipients. In a more detailed aspect, the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition, particularly a solid preparation (e.g. an oral solid dosage form, such as a tablet) of a selected dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor (preferably linagliptin, particularly in immediate release form) and metformin (particularly metformin hydrochloride) in extended release form (metformin XR). In one embodiment of this aspect, the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition, particularly a solid preparation (e.g. an oral solid dosage form, such as a tablet), comprising a fixed dose combination of an extended release form of metformin hydrochloride, optionally seal coated, and further coated with an immediate release form of linagliptin. In another more detailed aspect, the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition, particularly a solid preparation (e.g. an oral solid dosage form, such as a tablet) of a selected SGLT-2 inhibitor (preferably 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene, particularly in immediate release form) and metformin (particularly metformin hydrochloride) in extended release form (metformin XR). In one embodiment of this aspect, the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition, particularly a solid preparation (e.g. an oral solid dosage form, such as a tablet), comprising a fixed dose combination of an extended release form of metformin hydrochloride, optionally seal coated, and further coated with an immediate release form of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene. In a further more detailed aspect, the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition, particularly a solid preparation (e.g. an oral solid dosage form, such as e.g. a tablet), comprising a first component, part or composition comprising metformin (particularly metformin hydrochloride) in extended release form and one or more excipients, and a second component, part or composition comprising a selected dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor (preferably linagliptin), particularly in immediate release form, and one or more excipients. In particular, the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition, particularly a solid preparation (e.g. an oral solid dosage form, such as a tablet), comprising an extended release form of metformin hydrochloride, optionally seal coated, and further coated with an immediate release form of linagliptin. In another further more detailed aspect, the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition, particularly a solid preparation (e.g. an oral solid dosage form, such as e.g. a tablet), comprising a first component, part or composition comprising metformin (particularly metformin hydrochloride) in extended release form and one or more excipients, and a second component, part or composition comprising a selected SGLT-2 inhibitor (preferably 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene), particularly in immediate release form, and one or more excipients. In particular, the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition, particularly a solid preparation (e.g. an oral solid dosage form, such as a tablet), comprising an extended release form of metformin hydrochloride, optionally seal coated, and further coated with an immediate release form of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene. In a yet further more detailed aspect, the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition, particularly a solid preparation (e.g. an oral solid dosage form, such as e.g. a tablet), comprising a) an inner extended release core comprising metformin (particularly metformin hydrochloride) and one or more excipients, b) an optional seal coating, and c) an outer immediate release coating comprising a selected dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor (preferably linagliptin) and one or more excipients. In another yet further more detailed aspect, the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition, particularly a solid preparation (e.g. an oral solid dosage form, such as e.g. a tablet), comprising a) an inner extended release core comprising metformin (particularly metformin hydrochloride) and one or more excipients, b) an optional seal coating, and c) an outer immediate release coating comprising a selected SGLT-2 inhibitor (preferably 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene) and one or more excipients. Particularly, the pharmaceutical compositions of this invention comprise an inner core formulation of metformin hydrochloride comprising a swellable and/or extended release material. In an embodiment, the pharmaceutical compositions of this invention comprise an inner extended release core which is a formulation (e.g. matrix fomulation) comprising metformin hydrochloride, a swellable and/or extended release material, and one or more further excipients. Particularly, the pharmaceutical compositions of this invention comprise an outer coat of active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) (linagliptin and/or 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene) in an immediate release polymer film. Further, the present invention relates to a coating process (e.g. coating technology and processing conditions) and immediate release coating formulations of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) in low doses (typically in doses of 0.5 to 25 mg) on top of tablet cores comprising active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) in high doses (typically in doses of 500-1500 mg) preferably, but not exclusively on extended release tablets. Anyhow, essential parts of the formulation and the process of this invention may be also applicable to any other fixed dose combination with the described setting. An aim of the present invention is to provide a pharmaceutical composition comprising a combination of a selected DPP-4 inhibitor (preferably linagliptin, particularly in immediate release form), and metformin (particularly metformin hydrochloride) in extended release form. Another aim of the present invention is to provide a pharmaceutical composition comprising a combination of a selected SGLT-2 inhibitor (preferably 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene, particularly in immediate release form), and metformin (particularly metformin hydrochloride) in extended release form. The objectives of are to identify suitable formulations and processing conditions, such as e.g. of a coat of linagliptin or of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene on top metformin XR cores, providing adequate: Chemical stability of the API (particularly linagliptin) in the API film coat, Assay of linagliptin or 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene in the API film-coat (e.g. 95-105%), Content uniformity of linagliptin or 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene (e.g. RSD<3%) in the API film-coat, Low defect rate of the API-film during film coating process, Fast dissolution of the API from the API film-coat and no changes of XR Metformin HCl dissolution, due to the API coating with immediate release of linagliptin or 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene, Processing aspects of coating process/technology, processing conditions and immediate release API (linagliptin or Compound “A”) coating formulations (API film coat), Processing aspects of coating process/technology, processing conditions and immediate release API (linagliptin or Compound “A”) coating formulations on top of metformin extended release tablets. A particular objective of the present invention is to provide a pharmaceutical composition and suitable coating process with very broad range of drug substance (linagliptin or Compound “A”)/drug substance (metformin) ratio: 1:400-1:40. And the ratio of very low dosed API, e.g. linagliptin with 1 mg or 2.5 mg to very high dosed metformin with 1000 mg and more. And the suitable immediate release dissolution of the low dosed API with high dosed extended release metformin. The unit dosage strength of the metformin hydrochloride for incorporation into the fixed-dose combination of the present invention is 500, 750, 850 or 1000 milligrams, or even more (e.g. 1500 mg). These unit dosage strengths of metformin hydrochloride represent the dosage strengths approved in the U.S. for marketing to treat Type 2 diabetes. The unit dosage strength of linagliptin for incorporation into the fixed-dose combination of the present invention is 2.5 or 5 milligrams, or even less (e.g. 0.5 mg or 1 mg). The unit dosage strength of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene for incorporation into the fixed-dose combination of the present invention is 5, 10, 12.5 or 25 milligrams. Specific embodiments of dosage strengths for linagliptin and metformin hydrochloride in the fixed-dose combinations of the present invention are the following: (1) 5 milligrams of linagliptin and 1000 milligrams metformin hydrochloride; (2) 2.5 milligrams of linagliptin and 1000 milligrams metformin hydrochloride; (3) 2.5 milligrams of linagliptin and 750 milligrams metformin hydrochloride. Specific embodiments of dosage strengths for 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene and metformin hydrochloride in the fixed-dose combinations of the present invention are the following: (1) 25 milligrams of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene and 1000 milligrams metformin hydrochloride; (2) 12.5 milligrams of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene and 1000 milligrams metformin hydrochloride; (3) 12.5 milligrams of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene and 750 milligrams metformin hydrochloride; (4) 10 milligrams of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene and 1000 milligrams metformin hydrochloride; (5) 10 milligrams of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene and 750 milligrams metformin hydrochloride; (6) 5 milligrams of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene and 1000 milligrams metformin hydrochloride; (7) 5 milligrams of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene and 750 milligrams metformin hydrochloride. (a) Metformin part: The first part in the present invention is a part (composition, particularly solid composition, e.g. a solid pharmaceutical composition for oral administration, e.g. tablet) comprising metformin (particularly metformin hydrochloride) in extended release form, particularly an extended release formulation of metformin. Exemplary extended release formulations of metformin are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,340,475; U.S. Pat. No. 6,488,962; U.S. Pat. No. 6,635,280; U.S. Pat. No. 6,723,340; U.S. Pat. No. 7,780,987; U.S. Pat. No. 6,866,866; U.S. Pat. No. 6,495,162; U.S. Pat. No. 6,790,459; U.S. Pat. No. 6,866,866; U.S. Pat. No. 6,475,521; and U.S. Pat. No. 6,660,300; the disclosures of which are incorporated herein in their entireties. A particular extended release formulation of metformin is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,723,340, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein in its entirety. In an embodiment, the fixed-dose combination products of the present invention comprise—as first part—an inner core matrix formulation with metformin hydrochloride dispersed therein, said matrix formulation containing an extended release material. The matrix formulation is compressed into a tablet form. In particular, the fixed-dose combination products of the present invention comprise—as first part—an inner core extended release formulation comprising metformin hydrochloride, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (hypromellose), polyethylene oxide, microcrystalline cellulose, and magnesium stearate. A particular extended release formulation of metformin is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,723,340 as follows: In an embodiment, the extended release material of the matrix comprises poly(ethylene oxide) and/or hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), preferably a combination of poly(ethylene oxide) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), preferably at a weight ratio that causes the matrix to swell upon contact with gastric fluid to a size large enough to provide gastric retention. The poly(ethylene oxide) component of the matrix may limit initial release of the drug and may impart gastric retention through swelling. The hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) component may lower the amount of poly(ethylene oxide) required while still allowing the swelling to occur. Preferably, the poly(ethylene oxide) has a viscosity average molecular weight of from about 2,000,000 to about 10,000,000 daltons, more preferably from about 4,000,000 to about 7,000,000 daltons. Preferably, the hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) has a viscosity of from about 4,000 centipoise to about 200,000 centipoise, more preferably from about 50,000 to about 200,000 centipoise, even more preferably 80,000 centipoise to about 120,000 centipoise, measured as a 2% solution in water. More preferably, the poly(ethylene oxide) has a viscosity average molecular weight of from about 4,000,000 to about 7,000,000 daltons, and the hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) has a viscosity of from about 80,000 centipoise to about 120,000 centipoise, measured as a 2% solution in water. In an embodiment, the weight ratio of the poly(ethylene oxide) to hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) is within the range from about 1:3 to 3:1, preferably 1:2 to 2:1. In a further embodiment, the weight ratio of the poly(ethylene oxide) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) in combination constitutes from about 15% to about 90%, or from about 30% to about 65%, or from about 40% to about 50%, by weight of the metformin part. Tablet cores in accordance with this invention can be prepared by common tabletting methods that involve mixing, comminution, and fabrication steps commonly practiced by and well known to those skilled in the art of manufacturing drug formulations. Examples of such techniques are: (1) Direct compression using appropriate punches and dies, typically fitted to a suitable rotary tabletting press; (2) Injection or compression molding; (3) Granulation by fluid bed, by low or high shear granulation, or by roller compaction, followed by compression; and (4) Extrusion of a paste into a mold or to an extrudate to be cut into lengths. When tablets are made by direct compression, the addition of lubricants may be helpful and is sometimes important to promote powder flow and to prevent breaking of the tablet when the pressure is relieved. Examples of typical lubricants are magnesium stearate (in a concentration of from 0.25% to 3% by weight, preferably about 1% or less by weight, in the powder mix), stearic acid (0.5% to 3% by weight), and hydrogenated vegetable oil (preferably hydrogenated and refined triglycerides of stearic and palmitic acids at about 1% to 5% by weight, most preferably about 2% by weight). Additional excipients may be added, such as e.g. granulating aids (e.g. low molecular weight HPMC at 2-5% by weight), binders (e.g. microcrystalline cellulose), and additives to enhance powder flowability, tablet hardness, and tablet friability and to reduce adherence to the die wall. An exemplary extended release metformin tablet core comprises metformin hydrochloride, a combination of poly(ethylene oxide) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (e.g. Methocel K100M) as a matrix for a swellable extended release tablet, microcrystalline cellulose as binder, low molecular weight hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (e.g. Methocel E5) as granulating aid, and magnesium stearate as lubricant. The composition of a representative metformin core tablet is provided as follows: metformin hydrochloride, e.g. 49.97% by weight of the first part, poly(ethylene oxide), e.g. 26.50% by weight of the first part, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (e.g. Methocel K100M), e.g. 16.08% by weight of the first part, microcrystalline cellulose, e.g. 4.99% by weight of the first part, low molecular weight hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (e.g. Methocel E5), e.g. 1.70% by weight of the first part, and magnesium stearate, e.g. 0.75% by weight of the first part. Tablets may be formulated by dry blending a granulation comprising metformin hydrochloride and low molecular weight HPMC (e.g. Methocel E5) and the remaining excipients listed above, followed by pressing on a tablet press. Such an extended release matrix formulation of metformin is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,723,340 (e.g. Example 3), the disclosure of which is incorporated herein in its entirety. As further example of a lubricant sodium stearyl fumarate may be mentioned (e.g. at about 0.25-3% by weight). In a further embodiment, the metformin extended release formulation allows for targeted, controlled delivery of metformin to the upper gastrointestinal (GI) tract. In a further embodiment, the metformin extended release formulation is a hydrogel matrix system and contains a swelling hydrophilic polymer and further excipients, which may allow the metformin tablet core to be retained in the stomach (‘gastric retention’) for approximately eight to nine hours. During this time, the tablet core's metformin is steadily delivered to the upper GI tract at the desired rate and time, without potentially irritating ‘burst’ of drug. This gradual, extended release typically allows for more of the metformin drug to be absorbed in the upper GI tract and minimizes the amount of drug that passes through to the lower GI tract. (b1) Linagliptin Part: In one variant, the second part in the present invention is a part (composition, particularly film coat) comprising linagliptin in immediate release form. In a particular embodiment, the fixed-dose combination products of the present invention comprise—as second part—a film coat formulation of linagliptin, said film coat formulation comprising linagliptin, a stabilizer for stabilizing linagliptin (e.g. a basic and/or nucleophilic excipient, preferably L-arginine as stabilizer), a film-coating agent (such as e.g. hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, e.g. Hypromellose 2910, Methocel E5, or Methocel E15), a plasticizer (such as e.g. polyethylene glycol, e.g. Macrogol 400, 6000 or 8000, or propylene glycol), and, optionally, a glidant (such as e.g. talc). In an embodiment, the weight ratio of the L-arginine to linagliptin is within the range from about 2:1 to about 1:1, up to about 0.2:1. The composition of a representative linagliptin containing film coat is provided as follows: linagliptin, e.g. 2.5 mg or 5 mg; L-arginine, e.g. depending from need of stabilizer amount, e.g. in the range from about 0.5 mg to about 10 mg (e.g. 5 mg); hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (e.g. Methocel E5, Methocel E15, or Pharmacoat 603 or 606), e.g. from about 25 mg to about 40 mg (especially from 34.5 mg to 38 mg, or 34.5 mg); polyethylene glycol (e.g. Macrogol 400, 6000 or 8000), e.g. from about 0 to about 12 mg; propylene glycol, e.g. from about 0 mg to about 15 mg (especially 9 mg); and talc, e.g. from about 0 mg to about 15 mg (especially 9 mg). Depending from need of stabilizer the amount of L-arginine may be in the range from 0.5 mg to 10 mg. With different dose and different arginine amount, the arginine amount may be substitued by hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC). In an embodiment, polyethylene glycol and propylene glycol are mutually exclusive in above composition, i.e. if polyethylene glycol is present then propylene glycol is absent, or if propylene glycol is present then polyethylene glycol is absent. The composition of a representative linagliptin containing film coat suspension further comprises water, e.g. from about 240 mg to about 1440 mg, especially in the range from 904 mg to 1440 mg. The total solids concentration of the suspension is from about 4% to about 12.5% w/w, especially from 4% to 6% w/w. Viscosity may be from about 10 mPas to 110 mPas (e.g. 46-56 mPas). The sum solids of the linagliptin coating suspension is from about 50 mg to about 120 mg. For example, the sum solids is 60 mg of solid amount of the film coating suspension for 2.5 mg linagliptin, and 120 mg sum solid amount of the film coating suspension for 5 mg linagliptin. Therefore with the same formulation of linagliptin and double coating time (i.e. double amount of coating suspension) it is possible to prepare the higher dose range of linagliptin. Hence different dosage strengths can be achieved by altering coating (spraying) times. (b2) 1-Chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene part: In another variant, the second part in the present invention is a part (composition, particularly film coat) comprising 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene in immediate release form. In another particular embodiment, the fixed-dose combination products of the present invention comprise—as second part—a film coat formulation of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene, said film coat formulation comprising 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene, a film-coating agent (such as e.g. hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, e.g. Hypromellose 2910, Methocel E5, or Methocel E15), a plasticizer (such as e.g. polyethylene glycol, e.g. Macrogol 400, 6000 or 8000, or propylene glycol), and, optionally, a glidant (such as e.g. talc). The composition of a representative 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene containing film coat is provided as follows: 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene, e.g. 5 mg, 10 mg, 12.5 mg or 25 mg; optionally, L-arginine, e.g. from about 5 mg to about 25 mg; hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (e.g. Methocel E5, Methocel E15, or Pharmacoat 603 or 606), e.g. from about 25 mg to about 40 mg (especially from 34.5 mg to 38 mg, or 34.5 mg); polyethylene glycol (e.g. Macrogol 400, 6000 or 8000), e.g. from about 0 to about 12 mg; propylene glycol, e.g. from about 0 mg to about 15 mg (especially 9 mg); and talc, e.g. from about 0 mg to about 15 mg (especially 9 mg). With different dose and different arginine amount, the arginine amount may be substitued by hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC). In an embodiment, polyethylene glycol and propylene glycol are mutually exclusive in above composition, i.e. if polyethylene glycol is present then propylene glycol is absent, or if propylene glycol is present then polyethylene glycol is absent. The composition of a representative 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene containing film coat suspension further comprises water, e.g. from about 240 mg to about 1440 mg, especially in the range from 904 mg to 1440 mg. The total solids concentration of the suspension is from about 4% to about 12.5% w/w, especially from 4% to 6% w/w. The sum solids of the 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene coating suspension is from about 50 mg to about 120 mg. For example, the sum solids is 60 mg of solid amount of the film coating suspension for 12.5 mg 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene, and 120 mg sum solid amount of the film coating suspension for 25 mg 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene. Therefore with the same formulation of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene and double coating time (i.e. double amount of coating suspension) it is possible to prepare the higher dose range of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene. Hence different dosage strengths can be achieved by altering coating (spraying) times. L-Arginine is preferably necessary for the stabilization of linagliptin. Alternatively, a seal coat may be used between the metformin XR core and the linagliptin-containing film coat. In one embodiment, a seal coat is present between the metformin XR core and the linagliptin-containing film coat (optionally further containing L-arginine). In another embodiment, the seal coat is absent between the metformin XR core and the linagliptin-containing film coat (preferably further containing L-arginine). For Compound “A” preferably no arginine is necessary. For Compound “A” the seal coating of metformin XR cores is optional. In one embodiment, a seal coat is present between the metformin XR core and the Compound “A” containing film coat. In another embodiment, the seal coat is absent between the metformin XR core and the Compound “A” containing film coat. Alternatively, for the API (linagliptin or Compound “A”) containing film coat, a film coat comprising a mixture of hydroxypropylcellulose and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, or a mixture of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyethylene glycol (PEG); or a commercial film-coat such as Opadry®, Opadry II® or other Opardy IR film coat, which are formulated powder blends provided by Colorcon, may be used. With Opadry II or PVA based API coating higher solid concentrations and shorter coating time durations are possible, therefore it works in a range of 10-30%, especially 20% solid concentration. This higher solid concentration, e.g. 20%, typically results in a shorter coating time, e.g. 2-5 hours. For example, further versions of API-containing film coat compositions comprising one or more of the following ingredients of Tables 1 or 2 may be provided, e.g. as follows from Tables 1 or 2: TABLE 1 Example formulations for API-coating of linagliptin on top of metformin XR cores PEG- containing PG- PG- PEG- version containing containing containing (reduced version version Further Further version arginine) (low DL) (high DL) version version Composition (e.g. 2.5 (e.g. 5 (e.g. 2.5 (e.g. 2.5 (e.g. 2.5 (e.g. 5 (% w/w) mg API) mg API) mg API) mg API) mg API) mg API) Linagliptin 4.20 4.39 4.55 5.29 4.16 4.16 HPMC 67.23 70.18 72.73 70.55 — — (e.g Pharmacoat 615)* HPMC (e.g — — — — 57.5 57.5 Methocel E5) Polyethylene 20.17 21.05 — — 15 15 glycol (e.g. PEG 6000) Propylene glycol — — 3.64 3.53 — — L-Arginine 8.40 4.39 9.09 10.58 8.33 8.33 Talc — — 10.00 10.05 15 15 Purified water ** ** ** ** ** ** Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Solid content of 5.95 5.70 5.50 5.67 4.0 4.0 suspension (%) *Alternative Methocel E15 **Solvent is a volatile component, which does not remain in the final product In one embodiment of the API coatings of this invention, the film-coating agent used is highly viscous. In another embodiment of the API coatings of this invention, the film-coating agent used is low viscous. TABLE 2 Further Example formulations for API-coating of linagliptin on top of metformin XR cores: PEG- PG- PEG- PEG- containing containing containing containing version version version version (reduced (low DL) (high DL) (e.g. arginine) (e.g. (e.g. Composition 2.5 mg (e.g. 5 mg 2.5 mg 2.5 mg (% w/w) API) API) API) API) Linagliptin 4.20 4.39 4.55 5.29 HPMC (e.g. 67.23 70.18 72.73 70.55 Pharmacoat 615) Polyethylene glycol 20.17 21.05 — — (e.g. PEG 6000) Propylene glycol — — 3.64 3.53 L-Arginine 8.40 4.39 9.09 10.58 Talc — — 10.00 10.05 Purified water ** ** ** ** Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Solid content of 5.95 5.70 5.50 5.67 suspension (%) **Solvent is a volatile component, which does not remain in the final product Film coating suspensions/solutions of API (linagliptin or Compound “A”) according to this invention can be prepared by common methods, such as follows: The film-coating agent hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), the plasticizer polyethylene glycol (PEG) (e.g. Macrogol 400, 6000 or 8000) or, as alternative plasticizer, propylene glycol (PG) and water are dissolved and mixed by a suitable mixer (e.g. by propeller mixer) to produce the API-free coating solution. Optionally, the glidant talc suspended in water is added and the obtained suspension is homogenized. Talc may be used optionally. The API (linagliptin or Compound “A”) and—preferably in case of linagliptin—the stabilizer L-arginine are dissolved or suspended in water and added to the aqueous solution of HPMC, PEG or PG, and, optional talc, and dispersed by a suitable mixer (e.g. by propeller mixer) to provide the API coating suspension. Alternatively, the film-coating agent hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) and water are dissolved and mixed by a suitable mixer (e.g. by Ultraturrax). The stabilizer L-arginine (which is present in case of linagliptin, and may be absent in case of Compound “A”), the plasticizer polyethylene glycol (PEG) (e.g. Macrogol 400, 6000 or 8000) or propylene glycol (PG), optional talc, and water are dispersed, e.g. by homogenization using e.g. ultra turrax. After degassing of the HPMC solution (or directly after manufacturing of the HPMC solution), the aqueous suspension of PEG or PG, optional L-arginine and optional talc are added to the aqueous HPMC solution and mixed/homogenized. The API (linagliptin or Compound “A”) is dissolved or suspended in water and added to the aqueous solution of HPMC, PEG or PG, optional L-arginine and optional talc to provide the API coating suspension. The film-coating operation is carried out in a conventional film coater. The API (linagliptin or Compound “A”) coating suspension/solution are coated at metformin XR cores via coating process. Preliminary preheating of the cores may be necessary, due to need of equilibrium of water amount of the cores. The spray rate and air flow through the coating pan is adjusted to produce a uniform coating and coverage of the entire width of the tablet bed. The amount of the coating suspension applied can be controlled by percent weight gain of tablet cores and typically ranges from about 4 to about 12.5%. In one aspect, this range results in linagliptin drug assay close to the desired 2.5 mg or 5 mg with a standard deviation of about 2-4% for content uniformity assay of linagliptin. The duration of the coating step is about 4-10 hours. The duration of the coating step depends on batch size, process parameters like spray rate and solid concentrations of the coating suspension. In another aspect, this range results in Compound “A” drug assay close to the desired 5 mg, 12.5 mg, 10 mg or 25 mg with a standard deviation of about 2-4% for content uniformity assay of Compound “A”. The duration of the coating step is about 4-10 hours. The duration of the coating step depends on batch size, process parameters like spray rate and solid concentrations of the coating suspension. The API coating suspension is applied to the tablet cores containing the metformin XR formulation and the amount of solids deposited in the API film layer is controlled to achieve the desired API doses. The weight of the cores and film coated tablets may be controlled by percent weight gain during the coating process. Instead of or in addition to weight gain method a PAT method, e.g. online NIR or Raman method for end point detection of assay of API may be used. An optional seal coat may separate the metformin XR core from the API-containing film coat. Typically, for the preparation of film-coated tablets a coating suspension is prepared and the tablet cores may be coated with the seal coating suspension using standard film coater. The film coating solvent is a volatile component, which does not remain in the final product. A typical seal film-coat comprises a film coating agent, a plasticizer, and, optionally, a glidant, one or more pigments and/or colors. The metformin XR core may be seal coated using a seal coating agent (and a plasticizer), such as with a mixture of hydroxypropylcellulose and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, a mixture of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyethylene glycol (PEG), a mixture of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and either polyethylene glycol (PEG) or propylene glycol (PG), or any other suitable immediate-release film-coating agent(s). A commercial film-coat is Opadry®, Opadry II® or other Opardy IR film coat, which are formulated powder blend provided by Colorcon. Optionally the seal coat may further comprise a glidant. The final pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention are tablets. Such tablets may be further film-coated with a final film over-coat, such as with a mixture of hydroxypropylcellulose and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose containing titanium dioxide and/or other coloring agents, such as iron oxides, dyes, and lakes; a mixture of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) containing titanium dioxide and/or other coloring agents, such as iron oxides, dyes, and lakes; a mixture of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and either polyethylene glycol (PEG) or propylene glycol (PG) containing titanium dioxide and/or other coloring agents, such as iron oxides, dyes, and lakes; or any other suitable immediate-release film-coating agent(s). The coat may provide taste masking and additional stability to the final tablet. A commercial film-coat is Opadry®, Opadry II® or other Opardy IR film coat, which are formulated powder blend provided by Colorcon. Preferably, for the preparation of film-coated tablets a coating suspension is prepared and the tablet cores are coated with the coating suspension, typically for the API-free film over-coat to a weight gain of about 2-4%, preferably about 3%, using standard film coater. The film coating solvent is a volatile component, which does not remain in the final product. A typical film-coat comprise a film coating agent, a plasticizer, and, optionally, a glidant, one or more pigments and/or colors. For example, the film coat may comprise hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), propylene glycol or polyethylene glycol, talc and, optionally, titanium dioxide and/or iron oxide (e.g. iron oxide yellow and/or red). The pharmaceutical tablet compositions of the present invention may also contain one or more additional formulation ingredients selected from a wide variety of excipients known in the pharmaceutical formulation art. According to the desired properties of the pharmaceutical composition, any number of ingredients may be selected, alone or in combination, based upon their known uses in preparing tablet compositions. Such ingredients include, but are not limited to, diluents, compression aids, glidants, disintegrants, lubricants, flavors, flavor enhancers, sweeteners, and preservatives. The term “tablet” as used herein is intended to encompass compressed pharmaceutical dosage formulations of all shapes and sizes. The present invention also provides methods particularly for treating Type 2 diabetes by orally administering to a host in need of such treatment a therapeutically effective amount of one of the fixed-dose combination pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention. In one embodiment the host in need of such treatment is a human. In another embodiment the pharmaceutical composition is in the dosage form of a tablet. The pharmaceutical compositions comprising the fixed-dose combination may be administered once-daily (QD), twice-daily (BID), thrice-daily (TID), or four-times daily. MANUFACTURE AND POLYMORPH The term “linagliptin” as employed herein refers to linagliptin, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, a hydrate or solvate thereof, or a polymorphic form thereof. Crystalline forms are described in WO 2007/128721. Preferred crystalline forms are the polymorphs A and B described therein. In particular, linagliptin is the free base 1-[(4-methyl-quinazolin-2-yl)methyl]-3-methyl-7-(2-butyn-1-yl)-8-(3-(R)-amino-piperidin-1-yl)-xanthine. As linagliptin or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, linagliptin is preferred. Methods for the manufacture of linagliptin are described in the patent applications WO 2004/018468 and WO 2006/048427 for example. 1-[(4-Methyl-quinazolin-2-yl)methyl]-3-methyl-7-(2-butyn-1-yl)-8-(3-(R)-amino-piperidin-1-yl)-xanthine (linagliptin) According to this invention, it is to be understood that the definition of the SGLT2 inhibitor, in particular 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene (Compound “A”), also comprises its hydrates, solvates and polymorphic forms thereof, and prodrugs thereof. With regard to the preferred 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene an advantageous crystalline form is described in the international patent applications WO 2006/117359 which hereby is incorporated herein in its entirety. This crystalline form possesses good solubility properties which enable a good bioavailability of the SGLT2 inhibitor. Furthermore, the crystalline form is physico-chemically stable and thus provides a good shelf-life stability of the pharmaceutical composition. 1-Chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene (Compound “A”) Methods for the manufacture of SGLT2 inhibitors according to this invention and of prodrugs thereof are known to the one skilled in the art. Advantageously, the compounds according to this invention can be prepared using synthetic methods as described in the literature, including patent applications as cited hereinbefore. Preferred methods of manufacture, in particular of 1-chloro-4-(β-D-glucopyranos-1-yl)-2-[4-((S)-tetrahydrofuran-3-yloxy)-benzyl]-benzene, are described in the WO 2006/120208. For avoidance of any doubt, the disclosure of each of the foregoing documents cited above in connection with the specified SGLT2 or DPP-4 inhibitors is specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. INDICATIONS As described herein by the administration of the pharmaceutical composition according to this invention, therapeutic effects can be achieved, which make it useful for treating and/or preventing certain diseases, disorders or conditions, such as e.g. those described herein. Therefore, a treatment or prophylaxis according to this invention is advantageously suitable in those patients in need of such treatment or prophylaxis who are diagnosed of one or more of the conditions selected from the group consisting of overweight and obesity, in particular class I obesity, class II obesity, class III obesity, visceral obesity and abdominal obesity. In addition a treatment or prophylaxis according to this invention is advantageously suitable in those patients in which a weight increase is contraindicated. The pharmaceutical composition as well as the methods according to the present invention allow a reduction of the HbA1c value to a desired target range, for example <7% and preferably <6.5%, for a higher number of patients and for a longer time of therapeutic treatment compared with a corresponding monotherapy. The pharmaceutical composition according to this invention and in particular the active ingredients therein exhibits a very good efficacy with regard to glycemic control, in particular in view of a reduction of fasting plasma glucose, postprandial plasma glucose and/or glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c). By administering a pharmaceutical composition according to this invention, a reduction of HbA1c equal to or greater than preferably 0.5%, even more preferably equal to or greater than 1.0% can be achieved and the reduction is particularly in the range from 1.0% to 2.0%. Furthermore, the method and/or use according to this invention is advantageously applicable in those patients who show one, two or more of the following conditions: (a) a fasting blood glucose or serum glucose concentration greater than 110 mg/dL, in particular greater than 125 mg/dL; (b) a postprandial plasma glucose equal to or greater than 140 mg/dL; (c) an HbA1c value equal to or greater than 6.5%, in particular equal to or greater than 7.0%, especially equal to or greater than 7.5%, even more particularly equal to or greater than 8.0%. The present invention also discloses the use of the pharmaceutical composition for improving glycemic control in patients having type 2 diabetes or showing first signs of pre-diabetes. Thus, the invention also includes diabetes prevention. If therefore a pharmaceutical composition according to this invention is used to improve the glycemic control as soon as one of the above-mentioned signs of pre-diabetes is present, the onset of manifest type 2 diabetes mellitus can be delayed or prevented. Furthermore, the pharmaceutical composition according to this invention is particularly suitable in the treatment of patients with insulin dependency, i.e. in patients who are treated or otherwise would be treated or need treatment with an insulin or a derivative of insulin or a substitute of insulin or a formulation comprising an insulin or a derivative or substitute thereof. These patients include patients with diabetes type 2 and patients with diabetes type 1. Therefore, according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a method for improving glycemic control and/or for reducing of fasting plasma glucose, of postprandial plasma glucose and/or of glycosylated hemoglobin HbA1c in a patient in need thereof who is diagnosed with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), impaired fasting blood glucose (IFG) with insulin resistance, with metabolic syndrome and/or with type 2 or type 1 diabetes mellitus characterized in that a pharmaceutical composition as defined hereinbefore and hereinafter is administered to the patient. According to another preferred embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a method for improving gycemic control in patients, in particular in adult patients, with type 2 diabetes mellitus as an adjunct to diet and exercise. Therefore, the method and/or use according to this invention is advantageously applicable in those patients who show one, two or more of the following conditions: (a) insufficient glycemic control with diet and exercise alone; (b) insufficient glycemic control despite oral monotherapy with metformin, in particular despite oral monotherapy at a maximal tolerated dose of metformin; (c) insufficient glycemic control despite oral monotherapy with another antidiabetic agent, in particular despite oral monotherapy at a maximal tolerated dose of the other antidiabetic agent. The lowering of the blood glucose level by the administration of a pharmaceutical composition according to this invention is insulin-independent. Therefore, a pharmaceutical composition according to this invention is particularly suitable in the treatment of patients who are diagnosed having one or more of the following conditions insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, pre-diabetes, type 2 diabetes mellitus, particular having a late stage type 2 diabetes mellitus, type 1 diabetes mellitus. Furthermore, a pharmaceutical composition according to this invention is particularly suitable in the treatment of patients who are diagnosed having one or more of the following conditions (a) obesity (including class I, II and/or III obesity), visceral obesity and/or abdominal obesity, (b) triglyceride blood level ≥150 mg/dL, (c) HDL-cholesterol blood level <40 mg/dL in female patients and <50 mg/dL in male patients, (d) a systolic blood pressure ≥130 mm Hg and a diastolic blood pressure ≥85 mm Hg, (e) a fasting blood glucose level ≥110 mg/dL. It is assumed that patients diagnosed with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), impaired fasting blood glucose (IFG), with insulin resistance and/or with metabolic syndrome suffer from an increased risk of developing a cardiovascular disease, such as for example myocardial infarction, coronary heart disease, heart insufficiency, thromboembolic events. A glycemic control according to this invention may result in a reduction of the cardiovascular risks. A pharmaceutical composition according to this invention exhibits a good safety profile. Therefore, a treatment or prophylaxis according to this invention is advantageously possible in those patients for which the mono-therapy with another antidiabetic drug is contraindicated and/or who have an intolerance against such drugs at therapeutic doses. In particular, a treatment or prophylaxis according to this invention may be advantageously possible in those patients showing or having an increased risk for one or more of the following disorders: renal insufficiency or diseases, cardiac diseases, cardiac failure, hepatic diseases, pulmonal diseases, catabolytic states and/or danger of lactate acidosis, or female patients being pregnant or during lactation. Furthermore, it can be found that the administration of a pharmaceutical composition according to this invention results in no risk or in a low risk of hypoglycemia. Therefore, a treatment or prophylaxis according to this invention is also advantageously possible in those patients showing or having an increased risk for hypoglycemia. A pharmaceutical composition according to this invention is particularly suitable in the long term treatment or prophylaxis of the diseases and/or conditions as described hereinbefore and hereinafter, in particular in the long term glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. The term “long term” as used hereinbefore and hereinafter indicates a treatment of or administration in a patient within a period of time longer than 12 weeks, preferably longer than 25 weeks, even more preferably longer than 1 year. Therefore, a particularly preferred embodiment of the present invention provides a method for therapy, preferably oral therapy, for improvement, especially long term improvement, of glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, especially in patients with late stage type 2 diabetes mellitus, in particular in patients additionally diagnosed of overweight, obesity (including class I, class II and/or class III obesity), visceral obesity and/or abdominal obesity. According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for preventing, slowing the progression of, delaying or treating of a condition or disorder selected from the group consisting of complications of diabetes mellitus such as cataracts and micro- and macrovascular diseases, such as dyslipidemia, nephropathy, retinopathy, neuropathy, tissue ischaemia, diabetic foot, arteriosclerosis, myocardial infarction, accute coronary syndrome, unstable angina pectoris, stable angina pectoris, stroke, peripheral arterial occlusive disease, cardiomyopathy, heart failure, heart rhythm disorders and vascular restenosis, in a patient in need thereof characterized in that a pharmaceutical composition according to the invention is administered to the patient. In particular one or more aspects of diabetic nephropathy such as hyperperfusion, proteinuria and albuminuria may be treated, their progression slowed or their onset delayed or prevented. The term “tissue ischaemia” particularly comprises diabetic macroangiopathy, diabetic microangiopathy, impaired wound healing and diabetic ulcer. The terms “micro- and macrovascular diseases” and “micro- and macrovascular complications” are used interchangeably in this application. According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for preventing, slowing the progression of, delaying or treating a metabolic disorder selected from the group consisting of type 2 diabetes mellitus, impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), impaired fasting blood glucose (IFG), hyperglycemia, postprandial hyperglycemia, overweight, obesity, metabolic syndrome, gestational diabetes and diabetes related to cystic fibrosis in a patient in need thereof characterized in that a pharmaceutical composition according to the invention is administered to the patient. According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for improving glycemic control and/or for reducing of fasting plasma glucose, of postprandial plasma glucose and/or of glycosylated hemoglobin HbA1c in a patient in need thereof characterized in that a pharmaceutical composition according to the invention is administered to the patient. The pharmaceutical composition according to this invention may also have valuable disease-modifying properties with respect to diseases or conditions related to impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), impaired fasting blood glucose (IFG), insulin resistance and/or metabolic syndrome. According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for preventing, slowing, delaying or reversing progression from impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), impaired fasting blood glucose (IFG), insulin resistance and/or from metabolic syndrome to type 2 diabetes mellitus in a patient in need thereof characterized in that a pharmaceutical composition according to the invention is administered to the patient. As by the use of a pharmaceutical composition according to this invention, an improvement of the glycemic control in patients in need thereof is obtainable, also those conditions and/or diseases related to or caused by an increased blood glucose level may be treated. By the administration of a pharmaceutical composition according to this invention excessive blood glucose levels are not converted to insoluble storage forms, like fat, but excreted through the urine of the patient. It can be seen that loss of fat may account for the majority of the observed weight loss whereas no significant changes in body water or protein content are observed. Therefore, no gain in weight or even a reduction in body weight is the result. According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for reducing body weight and/or body fat or preventing an increase in body weight and/or body fat or facilitating a reduction in body weight and/or body fat in a patient in need thereof characterized in that a pharmaceutical composition according to the invention is administered to the patient. By the administration of a combination or pharmaceutical composition according to the present invention, an abnormal accumulation of ectopic fat, in particular of the liver, may be reduced or inhibited. Therefore, according to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method for preventing, slowing, delaying or treating diseases or conditions attributed to an abnormal accumulation of ectopic fat, in particular of the liver, in a patient in need thereof characterized in that a pharmaceutical composition according to the invention is administered to the patient. Diseases or conditions which are attributed to an abnormal accumulation of liver fat are particularly selected from the group consisting of general fatty liver, non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFL), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), hyperalimentation-induced fatty liver, diabetic fatty liver, alcoholic-induced fatty liver or toxic fatty liver. Another aspect of the invention provides a method for maintaining and/or improving the insulin sensitivity and/or for treating or preventing hyperinsulinemia and/or insulin resistance in a patient in need thereof characterized in that a pharmaceutical composition according to the invention is administered to the patient. According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for preventing, slowing progression of, delaying, or treating new onset diabetes after transplantation (NODAT) and/or post-transplant metabolic syndrome (PTMS) in a patient in need thereof characterized in that a pharmaceutical composition according to the invention is administered to the patient. According to a further aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for preventing, delaying, or reducing NODAT and/or PTMS associated complications including micro- and macrovascular diseases and events, graft rejection, infection, and death in a patient in need thereof characterized in that a pharmaceutical composition according to the invention is administered to the patient. The pharmaceutical composition according to the invention is capable of facilitating the lowering of serum total urate levels in the patient. Therefore according to another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for treating hyperuricemia and hyperuricemia-associated conditions, such as for example gout, hypertension and renal failure, in a patient in need thereof characterized in that a pharmaceutical composition according to the invention is administered to the patient. The administration of a pharmaceutical composition increases the urine excretion of glucose. This increase in osmotic excretion and water release and the lowering of urate levels are beneficial as a treatment or prevention for kidney stones. Therefore in a further aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for treating or preventing kidney stones in a patient in need thereof characterized in that a pharmaceutical composition according to the invention is administered to the patient. The invention also relates to a pharmaceutical composition according to this invention for use in a method as described hereinbefore and hereinafter. The invention also relates to a use of a pharmaceutical composition according to this invention for the manufacture of a medicament for use in a method as described hereinbefore and hereinafter. DEFINITIONS The term “active ingredient” of a pharmaceutical composition according to the present invention means the SGLT2 inhibitor, the DPP-4 inhibitor and/or metformin according to the present invention. The term “body mass index” or “BMI” of a human patient is defined as the weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters, such that BMI has units of kg/m2. The term “overweight” is defined as the condition wherein the individual has a BMI greater than or 25 kg/m2 and less than 30 kg/m2. The terms “overweight” and “pre-obese” are used interchangeably. The term “obesity” is defined as the condition wherein the individual has a BMI equal to or greater than 30 kg/m2. According to a WHO definition the term obesity may be categorized as follows: the term “class I obesity” is the condition wherein the BMI is equal to or greater than 30 kg/m2 but lower than 35 kg/m2; the term “class II obesity” is the condition wherein the BMI is equal to or greater than 35 kg/m2 but lower than 40 kg/m2; the term “class III obesity” is the condition wherein the BMI is equal to or greater than 40 kg/m2. The term “visceral obesity” is defined as the condition wherein a waist-to-hip ratio of greater than or equal to 1.0 in men and 0.8 in women is measured. It defines the risk for insulin resistance and the development of pre-diabetes. The term “abdominal obesity” is usually defined as the condition wherein the waist circumference is >40 inches or 102 cm in men, and is >35 inches or 94 cm in women. With regard to a Japanese ethnicity or Japanese patients abdominal obesity may be defined as waist circumference ≥85 cm in men and ≥90 cm in women (see e.g. investigating committee for the diagnosis of metabolic syndrome in Japan). The term “euglycemia” is defined as the condition in which a subject has a fasting blood glucose concentration within the normal range, greater than 70 mg/dL (3.89 mmol/L) and less than 100 mg/dL (5.6 mmol/L). The word “fasting” has the usual meaning as a medical term. The term “hyperglycemia” is defined as the condition in which a subject has a fasting blood glucose concentration above the normal range, greater than 100 mg/dL (5.6 mmol/L). The word “fasting” has the usual meaning as a medical term. The term “hypoglycemia” is defined as the condition in which a subject has a blood glucose concentration below the normal range, in particular below 70 mg/dL (3.89 mmol/L) or even below 60 mg/dl. The term “postprandial hyperglycemia” is defined as the condition in which a subject has a 2 hour postprandial blood glucose or serum glucose concentration greater than 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L). The term “impaired fasting blood glucose” or “IFG” is defined as the condition in which a subject has a fasting blood glucose concentration or fasting serum glucose concentration in a range from 100 to 125 mg/dl (i.e. from 5.6 to 6.9 mmol/l), in particular greater than 110 mg/dL and less than 126 mg/dl (7.00 mmol/L). A subject with “normal fasting glucose” has a fasting glucose concentration smaller than 100 mg/dl, i.e. smaller than 5.6 mmol/l. The term “impaired glucose tolerance” or “IGT” is defined as the condition in which a subject has a 2 hour postprandial blood glucose or serum glucose concentration greater than 140 mg/dl (7.8 mmol/L) and less than 200 mg/dL (11.11 mmol/L). The abnormal glucose tolerance, i.e. the 2 hour postprandial blood glucose or serum glucose concentration can be measured as the blood sugar level in mg of glucose per dL of plasma 2 hours after taking 75 g of glucose after a fast. A subject with “normal glucose tolerance” has a 2 hour postprandial blood glucose or serum glucose concentration smaller than 140 mg/dl (7.8 mmol/L). The term “hyperinsulinemia” is defined as the condition in which a subject with insulin resistance, with or without euglycemia, has fasting or postprandial serum or plasma insulin concentration elevated above that of normal, lean individuals without insulin resistance, having a waist-to-hip ratio <1.0 (for men) or <0.8 (for women). The terms “insulin-sensitizing”, “insulin resistance-improving” or “insulin resistance-lowering” are synonymous and used interchangeably. The term “insulin resistance” is defined as a state in which circulating insulin levels in excess of the normal response to a glucose load are required to maintain the euglycemic state (Ford ES, et al. JAMA. (2002) 287:356-9). A method of determining insulin resistance is the euglycaemic-hyperinsulinaemic clamp test. The ratio of insulin to glucose is determined within the scope of a combined insulin-glucose infusion technique. There is found to be insulin resistance if the glucose absorption is below the 25th percentile of the background population investigated (WHO definition). Rather less laborious than the clamp test are so called minimal models in which, during an intravenous glucose tolerance test, the insulin and glucose concentrations in the blood are measured at fixed time intervals and from these the insulin resistance is calculated. With this method, it is not possible to distinguish between hepatic and peripheral insulin resistance. Furthermore, insulin resistance, the response of a patient with insulin resistance to therapy, insulin sensitivity and hyperinsulinemia may be quantified by assessing the “homeostasis model assessment to insulin resistance (HOMA-IR)” score, a reliable indicator of insulin resistance (Katsuki A, et al. Diabetes Care 2001; 24:362-5). Further reference is made to methods for the determination of the HOMA-index for insulin sensitivity (Matthews et al., Diabetologia 1985, 28:412-19), of the ratio of intact proinsulin to insulin (Forst et al., Diabetes 2003, 52(Suppl. 1): A459) and to an euglycemic clamp study. In addition, plasma adiponectin levels can be monitored as a potential surrogate of insulin sensitivity. The estimate of insulin resistance by the homeostasis assessment model (HOMA)-IR score is calculated with the formula (Galvin P, et al. Diabet Med 1992;9:921-8): HOMA-IR=[fasting serum insulin (μU/mL)]×[fasting plasma glucose(mmol/L)/22.5] As a rule, other parameters are used in everyday clinical practice to assess insulin resistance. Preferably, the patient's triglyceride concentration is used, for example, as increased triglyceride levels correlate significantly with the presence of insulin resistance. Patients with a predisposition for the development of IGT or IFG or type 2 diabetes are those having euglycemia with hyperinsulinemia and are by definition, insulin resistant. A typical patient with insulin resistance is usually overweight or obese, but this is not always the case. If insulin resistance can be detected, this is a particularly strong indication of the presence of pre-diabetes. Thus, it may be that in order to maintain glucose homoeostasis a person have e.g. 2-3 times as high endogenous insulin production as a healthy person, without this resulting in any clinical symptoms. The methods to investigate the function of pancreatic beta-cells are similar to the above methods with regard to insulin sensitivity, hyperinsulinemia or insulin resistance: An improvement of beta-cell function can be measured for example by determining a HOMA-index for beta-cell function (Matthews et al., Diabetologia 1985, 28:412-19), the ratio of intact proinsulin to insulin (Forst et al., Diabetes 2003, 52(Suppl. 1): A459), the insulin/C-peptide secretion after an oral glucose tolerance test or a meal tolerance test, or by employing a hyperglycemic clamp study and/or minimal modeling after a frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test (Stumvoll et al., Eur J Clin Invest 2001, 31:380-81). The term “pre-diabetes” is the condition wherein an individual is pre-disposed to the development of type 2 diabetes. Pre-diabetes extends the definition of impaired glucose tolerance to include individuals with a fasting blood glucose within the high normal range ≥100 mg/dL (J. B. Meigs, et al. Diabetes 2003; 52:1475-1484) and fasting hyperinsulinemia (elevated plasma insulin concentration). The scientific and medical basis for identifying pre-diabetes as a serious health threat is laid out in a Position Statement entitled “The Prevention or Delay of Type 2 Diabetes” issued jointly by the American Diabetes Association and the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (Diabetes Care 2002; 25:742-749). Individuals likely to have insulin resistance are those who have two or more of the following attributes: 1) overweight or obese, 2) high blood pressure, 3) hyperlipidemia, 4) one or more 1st degree relative with a diagnosis of IGT or IFG or type 2 diabetes. Insulin resistance can be confirmed in these individuals by calculating the HOMA-IR score. For the purpose of this invention, insulin resistance is defined as the clinical condition in which an individual has a HOMA-IR score >4.0 or a HOMA-IR score above the upper limit of normal as defined for the laboratory performing the glucose and insulin assays. The term “type 1 diabetes” is defined as the condition in which a subject has, in the presence of autoimmunity towards the pancreatic beta-cell or insulin, a fasting blood glucose or serum glucose concentration greater than 125 mg/dL (6.94 mmol/L). If a glucose tolerance test is carried out, the blood sugar level of a diabetic will be in excess of 200 mg of glucose per dL (11.1 mmol/l) of plasma 2 hours after 75 g of glucose have been taken on an empty stomach, in the presence of autoimmunity towards the pancreatic beta cell or insulin. In a glucose tolerance test 75 g of glucose are administered orally to the patient being tested after 10-12 hours of fasting and the blood sugar level is recorded immediately before taking the glucose and 1 and 2 hours after taking it. The presence of autoimmunity towards the pancreatic beta-cell may be observed by detection of circulating islet cell autoantibodies [“type 1A diabetes mellitus”], i.e., at least one of: GAD65 [glutamic acid decarboxylase-65], ICA [islet-cell cytoplasm], IA-2 [intracytoplasmatic domain of the tyrosine phosphatase-like protein IA-2], ZnT8 [zinc-transporter-8] or anti-insulin; or other signs of autoimmunity without the presence of typical circulating autoantibodies [type 1B diabetes], i.e. as detected through pancreatic biopsy or imaging). Typically a genetic predisposition is present (e.g. HLA, INS VNTR and PTPN22), but this is not always the case. The term “type 2 diabetes” is defined as the condition in which a subject has a fasting blood glucose or serum glucose concentration greater than 125 mg/dL (6.94 mmol/L). The measurement of blood glucose values is a standard procedure in routine medical analysis. If a glucose tolerance test is carried out, the blood sugar level of a diabetic will be in excess of 200 mg of glucose per dL (11.1 mmol/l) of plasma 2 hours after 75 g of glucose have been taken on an empty stomach. In a glucose tolerance test 75 g of glucose are administered orally to the patient being tested after 10-12 hours of fasting and the blood sugar level is recorded immediately before taking the glucose and 1 and 2 hours after taking it. In a healthy subject, the blood sugar level before taking the glucose will be between 60 and 110 mg per dL of plasma, less than 200 mg per dL 1 hour after taking the glucose and less than 140 mg per dL after 2 hours. If after 2 hours the value is between 140 and 200 mg, this is regarded as abnormal glucose tolerance. The term “late stage type 2 diabetes mellitus” includes patients with a secondary drug failure, indication for insulin therapy and progression to micro- and macrovascular complications e.g. diabetic nephropathy, or coronary heart disease (CHD). The term “HbA1c” refers to the product of a non-enzymatic glycation of the haemoglobin B chain. Its determination is well known to one skilled in the art. In monitoring the treatment of diabetes mellitus the HbA1 c value is of exceptional importance. As its production depends essentially on the blood sugar level and the life of the erythrocytes, the HbA1c in the sense of a “blood sugar memory” reflects the average blood sugar levels of the preceding 4-6 weeks. Diabetic patients whose HbA1c value is consistently well adjusted by intensive diabetes treatment (i.e. <6.5% of the total haemoglobin in the sample), are significantly better protected against diabetic microangiopathy. For example, metformin on its own achieves an average improvement in the HbA1c value in the diabetic of the order of 1.0-1.5%. This reduction of the HbA1C value is not sufficient in all diabetics to achieve the desired target range of <6.5% and preferably <6% HbA1c. The term “insufficient glycemic control” or “inadequate glycemic control” in the scope of the present invention means a condition wherein patients show HbA1c values above 6.5%, in particular above 7.0%, even more preferably above 7.5%, especially above 8%. The “metabolic syndrome”, also called “syndrome X” (when used in the context of a metabolic disorder), also called the “dysmetabolic syndrome” is a syndrome complex with the cardinal feature being insulin resistance (Laaksonen DE, et al. Am J Epidemiol 2002; 156:1070-7). According to the ATP III/NCEP guidelines (Executive Summary of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association (2001) 285:2486-2497), diagnosis of the metabolic syndrome is made when three or more of the following risk factors are present: 1. Abdominal obesity, defined as waist circumference >40 inches or 102 cm in men, and >35 inches or 94 cm in women; or with regard to a Japanese ethnicity or Japanese patients defined as waist circumference ≥85 cm in men and ≥90 cm in women; 2. Triglycerides: ≥150 mg/dL 3. HDL-cholesterol <40 mg/dL in men 4. Blood pressure ≥130/85 mm Hg (SBP ≥130 or DBP ≥85) 5. Fasting blood glucose ≥100 mg/dL The NCEP definitions have been validated (Laaksonen DE, et al. Am J Epidemiol. (2002) 156:1070-7). Triglycerides and HDL cholesterol in the blood can also be determined by standard methods in medical analysis and are described for example in Thomas L (Editor): “Labor and Diagnose”, TH-Books Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Frankfurt/Main, 2000. According to a commonly used definition, hypertension is diagnosed if the systolic blood pressure (SBP) exceeds a value of 140 mm Hg and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) exceeds a value of 90 mm Hg. If a patient is suffering from manifest diabetes it is currently recommended that the systolic blood pressure be reduced to a level below 130 mm Hg and the diastolic blood pressure be lowered to below 80 mm Hg. The definitions of NODAT (new onset diabetes after transplantation) and PTMS (post-transplant metabolic syndrome) follow closely that of the American Diabetes Association diagnostic criteria for type 2 diabetes, and that of the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) and the American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, for the metabolic syndrome. NODAT and/or PTMS are associated with an increased risk of micro- and macrovascular disease and events, graft rejection, infection, and death. A number of predictors have been identified as potential risk factors related to NODAT and/or PTMS including a higher age at transplant, male gender, the pre-transplant body mass index, pre-transplant diabetes, and immunosuppression. The term “gestational diabetes” (diabetes of pregnancy) denotes a form of the diabetes which develops during pregnancy and usually ceases again immediately after the birth. Gestational diabetes is diagnosed by a screening test which is carried out between the 24th and 28th weeks of pregnancy. It is usually a simple test in which the blood sugar level is measured one hour after the administration of 50 g of glucose solution. If this 1 h level is above 140 mg/dl, gestational diabetes is suspected. Final confirmation may be obtained by a standard glucose tolerance test, for example with 75 g of glucose. The term “hyperuricemia” denotes a condition of high serum total urate levels. In human blood, uric acid concentrations between 3.6 mg/dL (ca. 214 μmol/L) and 8.3 mg/dL (ca. 494 μmol/L) are considered normal by the American Medical Association. High serum total urate levels, or hyperuricemia, are often associated with several maladies. For example, high serum total urate levels can lead to a type of arthritis in the joints known as gout. Gout is a condition created by a build up of monosodium urate or uric acid crystals on the articular cartilage of joints, tendons and surrounding tissues due to elevated concentrations of total urate levels in the blood stream. The build up of urate or uric acid on these tissues provokes an inflammatory reaction of these tissues. Saturation levels of uric acid in urine may result in kidney stone formation when the uric acid or urate crystallizes in the kidney. Additionally, high serum total urate levels are often associated with the so-called metabolic syndrome, including cardiovascular disease and hypertension. The term “hyponatremia” denotes a condition of a positive balance of water with or without a deficit of sodium, which is recognized when the plasma sodium falls below the level of 135 mml/L. Hyponatremia is a condition which can occur in isolation in individuals that over-consume water; however, more often hyponatremia is a complication of medication or other underlying medical condition that leas to a diminished excretion of water. Hyponatremia may lead to water intoxication, which occurs when the normal tonicity of extracellular fluid falls below the safe limit, due to retention of excess water. Water intoxication is a potentially fatal disturbance in brain function. Typical symptoms of water intoxication include nausea, vomiting, headache and malaise. The terms “treatment” and “treating” comprise therapeutic treatment of patients having already developed said condition, in particular in manifest form. Therapeutic treatment may be symptomatic treatment in order to relieve the symptoms of the specific indication or causal treatment in order to reverse or partially reverse the conditions of the indication or to stop or slow down progression of the disease. Thus the compositions and methods of the present invention may be used for instance as therapeutic treatment over a period of time as well as for chronic therapy. The terms “prophylactically treating”, “preventivally treating” and “preventing” are used interchangeably and comprise a treatment of patients at risk to develop a condition mentioned hereinbefore, thus reducing said risk.

A61K9209

20180227

20180705

70578.0

A61K924

HOLLOMAN, NANNETTE

PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

A61K

PENDING

INTERNAL TENSIONING STRUCTURE USEABLE WITH INFLATABLE DEVICES

An internal tensioning structure for use in an inflatable product fulfills the basic function of maintaining two adjacent inflatable surfaces in a desired geometric arrangement when the inflatable product is pressurized. The tensioning structure is formed by connecting a pair of plastic sheets to spaced-apart strands, such as strings or wires. When pulled taut, the strands provide a high tensile strength. At the same time, the plastic sheets facilitate a strong, long-lasting weld between the tensioning structure and the inflatable product.

1. An inflatable product comprising: a first sheet; a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet, the first and second sheets spaced apart when the product is inflated to define a gap; a tensioning structure sized to span the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet, the tensioning structure comprising: a plurality of strands uniformly spaced apart and arranged substantially parallel to one another, the plurality of strands extending across the gap; and a first weld sheet having the plurality of strands uniformly affixed to a surface of the first weld sheet; and a second weld sheet disposed opposite the first weld sheet, the plurality of strands captured between the first and second weld sheets when the first and second weld sheets are welded to one another. 2. The inflatable product of claim 1, wherein: the plurality of strands define a first side, a second side, and plurality of holes extending through the plurality of strands from the first side to the second side, the first weld sheet is in direct contact with the second weld sheet at the plurality of holes extending through the strands, and the first weld sheet is spaced from the second weld sheet by respective ones of the plurality of strands. 3. The inflatable product of claim 1, wherein each one of the plurality of strands interrupts an otherwise full surface-area contact between the first weld sheet and the second weld sheet. 4. The inflatable product of claim 1, wherein the first sheet comprises an upper sheet of an inflatable mattress, and the second sheet comprises a lower sheet of the inflatable mattress. 5. The inflatable product of claim 4, wherein the tensioning structure comprises a plurality of tensioning structures spaced apart from one another along a length of the first sheet and the second sheet. 6. The inflatable product of claim 4, wherein the upper sheet includes a sleeping surface and the lower sheet includes a ground-contacting surface. 7. The inflatable product of claim 6, wherein: the upper sheet is a double layered construct; and a first inflatable chamber is formed between the upper sheet and the lower sheet, the product further comprising a second inflatable chamber within the double layered construct of the first sheet. 8. The inflatable product of claim 4, further comprising a side wall coupled to the first sheet and the second sheet. 9. The inflatable product of claim 1, wherein the plurality of strands comprise tensile strands, each of the a plurality of discrete tensioning structures further comprising at least one reinforcement strand coupled to the tensile strands. 10. The inflatable product of claim 1, wherein the plurality of strands collectively have an area-to-weight ratio between 8,000 and 5,000,000 square centimeters per kilogram. 11. The inflatable product of claim 1, wherein the plurality of strands collectively have an area-to-weight ratio between 12,500 and 2,500,000 square centimeters per kilogram. 12. The inflatable product of claim 1, wherein the plurality of strands collectively have an area-to-weight ratio between 20,000 and 1,000,000 square centimeters per kilogram. 13. The inflatable product of claim 1, wherein the first and second weld sheets are about 0.10 millimeters in thickness. 14. The inflatable product of claim 1, wherein: the plurality of strands are contained within a single plane, and the single plane is perpendicular to the first and second sheets when the product is inflated. 15. The inflatable product of claim 1, wherein the first and second weld sheets define a width corresponding to an overall width of the plurality of strands, and the tensioning structure further comprises a plurality of weld strips affixed to a first side of one of the first and second weld sheets. 16. The inflatable product of claim 22, wherein another of the plurality of weld strips is affixed to an opposing side of the tensioning structure, on the other of the first and second weld sheets. 17. An inflatable product comprising: a first sheet; a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet to define an inflatable chamber, the first and second sheets spaced apart when the inflatable chamber is inflated to define a gap; a tensioning structure spanning the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet, the tensioning structure comprising: a plurality of strands spaced apart and arranged substantially parallel to one another, each of the plurality of strands having a first terminal end positioned adjacent to the first sheet, a second terminal end positioned adjacent to the second sheet, and an axial extent between the first and second terminal ends that is substantially perpendicular to the first and second sheets; a first weld sheet; and a second weld sheet disposed opposite the first weld sheet and affixed to the first weld sheet with the plurality of strands captured between the first and second weld sheets, the first and second weld sheets having full surface-area contact in spaces between the plurality of strands; and a valve in communication with the inflatable chamber to facilitate inflation and deflation of the inflatable product. 18. The inflatable product of claim 17, wherein: each of the first and second sheets is made of plastic having a thickness of 0.34 millimeters; and each of the first and second weld sheets is made of plastic having a thickness of 0.10 millimeters. 19. The inflatable product of claim 17, wherein the first and second weld sheets are thinner than the first and second sheets. 20. The inflatable product of claim 17, wherein each of the first and second weld sheets is made of plastic having a thickness 20% to 40% less than a conventional plastic sheet having a thickness of 0.36 millimeters to 0.8 millimeters. 21. The inflatable product of claim 17, further comprising a second tensioning structure neighboring the tensioning structure of claim 1 and spanning the gap between the first and second sheets, wherein a distance between the neighboring tensioning structures is greater than the gap between the first and second sheets. 22. The inflatable product of claim 17, wherein the tensioning structure is welded to the first sheet near the first terminal ends of the plurality of strands and to the second sheet near the second terminal ends of the plurality of strands. 23. The inflatable product of claim 17, wherein the plurality of strands are uniformly spaced apart from one another. 24. An inflatable product comprising: a first sheet; a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet to define an inflatable chamber, the first and second sheets spaced apart when the inflatable chamber is inflated to define a gap; a tensioning structure spanning the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet, the tensioning structure comprising: a plurality of strands spaced apart and arranged substantially parallel to one another, each of the plurality of strands having a first terminal end positioned adjacent to the first sheet, a second terminal end positioned adjacent to the second sheet, and an axial extent between the first and second terminal ends that is substantially perpendicular to the first and second sheets; a first weld sheet; and a second weld sheet disposed opposite the first weld sheet and affixed to the first weld sheet with the plurality of strands captured between the first and second weld sheets; wherein the first and second weld sheets are thinner than the first and second sheets; and a valve in communication with the inflatable chamber to facilitate inflation and deflation of the inflatable product. 25. The inflatable product of claim 24, wherein: each of the first and second sheets is made of plastic having a thickness of 0.34 millimeters; and each of the first and second weld sheets is made of plastic having a thickness of 0.10 millimeters. 26. The inflatable product of claim 24, wherein each of the first and second weld sheets is made of plastic having a thickness 20% to 40% less than a conventional plastic sheet having a thickness of 0.36 millimeters to 0.8 millimeters. 27. The inflatable product of claim 24, wherein the first and second weld sheets have full surface-area contact in spaces between the plurality of strands. 28. The inflatable product of claim 24, wherein the first and second weld sheets are welded to one another in spaces between the plurality of strands. 29. The inflatable product of claim 24, wherein the tensioning structure further comprises at least one reinforcement strand disposed substantially perpendicular to the plurality of strands. 30. The inflatable product of claim 24, wherein the tensioning structure is welded to the first sheet near the first terminal ends of the plurality of strands and to the second sheet near the second terminal ends of the plurality of strands.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of the following U.S. patent applications, the disclosures of which are all expressly incorporated by reference herein: U.S. Application No. Filing Date Current Status 15/597,956 May 17, 2017 co-pending 15/581,638 Apr. 28, 2017 co-pending 14/444,453 Jul. 28, 2014 now U.S. Pat. No. 9,802,359 14/444,337 Jul. 28, 2014 now U.S. Pat. No. 9,156,203 13/727,143 Dec. 26, 2012 co-pending 13/668,799 Nov. 5, 2012 now U.S. Pat. No. 8,562,773 13/668,746 Nov. 5, 2012 now abandoned Each of the above U.S. applications is a continuation of PCT Application Serial No. PCT/US2012/042079, filed Jun. 12, 2012, which claims priority to the following Chinese patent applications. The disclosures of the above-identified PCT Application and the below-identified Chinese patent applications are all expressly incorporated by reference herein. Chinese Application No. Filing Date 201210053143.X Mar. 2, 2012 201210053146.3 Mar. 2, 2012 201220075738.0 Mar. 2, 2012 201220075742.7 Mar. 2, 2012 BACKGROUND The present disclosure relates to an inflatable product structure, and in particular to an inflatable product structure which is light in weight and low in cost. Inflatable products, are light in weight, easy to house, and easy to carry. Such products technologies have been used for outdoor items and toys, as well as various household goods including inflatable beds, inflatable sofas and the like. Many inflatable products utilize internal structures in order to form the product into its intended, predetermined shape upon inflation. For example, one type of inflatable bed, referred to as a wave-shaped, straight-strip or I-shaped inflatable bed, may include a tension-band type internal structure arranged along wave-shaped, straight-line or I-shaped pathways within the internal cavity. Another type of inflatable bed, referred to as a column-type inflatable bed, has tension bands arranged into honeycomb-shaped or cylindrical structures within the inflatable cavity. These internal tension-band structures disposed in the cavity of the inflatable bed give shape to the bed as internal pressure increases, thereby preventing the inflatable bed from expanding evenly on all sides in the manner of a balloon. More particularly, in order to maintain an inflatable bed as a rectangular shape, the tension bands join the upper and lower surfaces of the inflatable bed to one another. To allow passage of pressurized air to both sides of these joining structures, the tension bands may be formed as belts stretching between the upper and lower surfaces, or as vertical expanses of material with air columns formed therein. The number and spacing of the tension bands is proportional to the sharpness of the rectangularity of the inflated product. That is to say, a greater number and/or linear extent of tension bands within the pressurized cavity results in a more “flat” bed surface. In conventional inflatable products such as the inflatable beds described above, the tension bands are made of PVC sheets with a sufficient thickness to ensure spreading of force and concomitant reductions in stress in the product material. For example, the tension bands of known inflatable beds or sofas may have a thickness of about 0.36 mm. For some known water carrier devices, such as inflatable swimming pools, the internal tension bands may have a thickness of about 0.38 mm, while “sandwich” type inflatable swimming pools may have a thickness of 0.7-0.8 mm. Thus, conventional inflatable structures utilizing belt- or sheet-like PVC tension bands meet the force requirements of the product by varying the thickness of the tension bands. However, where continuous plastic strips or belts are utilized, such tension bands contribute to increased weight of the inflatable product. Similarly, an increase in thickness and/or spatial density of solid-strip tension bands also increases the compressed/folded volume of the deflated inflatable structure. SUMMARY The present disclosure provides an internal tensioning structure for use in an inflatable product, and a method for producing the same. The tensioning structure fulfills the basic function of maintaining two adjacent inflatable surfaces in a desired geometric arrangement when the inflatable product is pressurized. The tensioning structure is formed by connecting a pair of plastic strips sheets via spaced-apart strands, such as strings or wires. When pulled taut, the strands provide a high tensile strength between the two opposed plastic strips. At the same time, the plastic strips facilitate a strong, long-lasting weld between the tensioning structure and the inflatable product. Various configurations of the tensioning structure are contemplated within the scope of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, a pair of parallel plastic strips has a plurality of strands extending therebetween to connect the plastic strips to one another, with the strands substantially parallel to one another and substantially perpendicular to the plastic strips. In another embodiment, a similar arrangement of two parallel plastic strips are connected by a plurality of strands with each adjacent pair of such strands converging to a point at one of the plastic strips in a “V” configuration. Either embodiment may be incorporated into a tensioning structure with one of a number of geometric arrangements within the inflatable cavity, such as linear, cylindrical, wave-shaped, etc. According to one embodiment thereof, the present disclosure provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet and a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet, the first and second sheets spaced apart to define a gap when the inflatable product is inflated. The inflatable product further includes a tensioning structure having a gap portion spanning the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet to maintain a spatial relationship between the first and second sheets when the inflatable product is inflated. The gap portion has an extent measured along the surface of at least one of the first sheet and the second sheet. The gap portion occupies a volume and has an operable area occupied by gap portion of the tensioning structure defined as the total area of the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet, as measured along the extent of the gap portion of the tensioning structure. The gap portion of the tensioning structure defines an operable area-to-volume ratio of at least 10 square millimeters per cubic millimeter. According to another embodiment thereof, the present disclosure provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet and a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet. The first and second sheets are spaced apart to define a gap when the inflatable product is inflated. The inflatable product further includes a tensioning structure having a gap portion spanning the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet to maintain a spatial relationship between the first and second sheets when the inflatable product is inflated. The gap portion has an extent measured along the surface of at least one of the first sheet and the second sheet. The gap portion has an operable area occupied by gap portion of the tensioning structure defined as the total area of the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet, as measured along the extent of the gap portion of the tensioning structure. The gap portion of the tensioning structure has a total weight such that the tensioning structure defines an operable area-to-weight ratio of at least 6,000 square centimeters per kilogram. According to another embodiment thereof, the present disclosure provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet and a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet. The first and second sheets are spaced apart to define a gap when the inflatable product is inflated; The inflatable product further comprises a tensioning structure having a gap portion spanning the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet to maintain a spatial relationship between the first and second sheets when the inflatable product is inflated. The gap portion of the tensioning structure has an average thickness of less than 0.125 millimeters. According to yet another embodiment thereof, the present disclosure provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet; a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet, the first and second sheets spaced apart to define a gap; a tensioning structure spanning the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet, the tensioning structure comprising: a plurality of strands uniformly spaced apart and arranged substantially parallel to one another; and a plurality of weld strips spaced apart from one another and substantially perpendicular to the plurality of strands, each of the plurality of weld strips affixed to each of the plurality of strands, and each of the plurality of weld strips affixed to at least one of the first sheet and the second sheet. According to still another embodiment thereof, the present disclosure provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet; a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet, the first and second sheets spaced apart to define a gap; a tensioning structure spanning the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet, the tensioning structure comprising: a plurality of strands uniformly spaced apart and arranged in parallel; and a first weld sheet having the plurality of strands affixed to an upper surface of the first weld sheet. According to still another embodiment thereof, the present disclosure provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet; a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet, the first and second sheets spaced apart to define a gap; a tensioning structure spanning the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet, the tensioning structure comprising: an upper weld strip; a lower weld strip arranged substantially parallel to the upper weld strip and spaced apart from the upper weld strip span the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet; and a plurality of end-to-end V-shaped strands arranged between weld strips, each of the V-shaped strands having upper and lower ends fixed to the upper and lower weld strips, respectively. According to still another embodiment thereof, the present disclosure provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet; a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet, the first and second sheets spaced apart to define a gap, the first sheet and the second sheet cooperating to at least partially bound an inflatable chamber; a plurality of tensioning structures welded to respective inner surfaces of the first and second sheets such that the plurality of tensioning structure span the gap, each of the plurality of tensioning structures comprising: an upper weld strip affixed to one of the first sheet and the second sheet; a lower weld strip affixed to the other of the first sheet and the second sheet; and a plurality of strands connecting the upper and lower weld strips to one another. According to still another embodiment thereof, the present invention provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet; a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet, the first and second sheets spaced apart to define a gap, the first sheet and the second sheet cooperating to at least partially bound an inflatable chamber; a plurality of tensioning structures welded to inner surfaces of the first and second sheets such that the plurality of tensioning structures span the gap, each of the plurality of tensioning structures comprising: a weld sheet; a plurality of strands, and the plurality of strands substantially evenly spaced and arranged substantially parallel to one another, the plurality of strands affixed to the weld sheet; and a weld strip affixed to each end of the weld sheet such that a longitudinal extent of the weld strip is substantially perpendicular to the plurality of strands, respective ends of the plurality of strands are affixed to the weld strip, and each of the weld strips are welded to one of the first sheet and the second sheet. According to still another embodiment thereof, the present invention provides a method for producing a tensioning structure of an inflatable product, the method comprising: arranging at least one of a welder and an adhesive device downstream of a strand guide; supplying a plurality of strands to the welder or the adhesive device via the strand guide, such that the supplied strands are substantially uniformly spaced apart and arranged substantially parallel to one another; positioning weld strips on a first die of the welder or gluing device, the weld strips having a longitudinal extent corresponding to an overall width of the plurality of strands; advancing a second die of the welder or gluing device into an operable position in which the first and second dies are disposed at opposing sides of the weld strips, activating the welder or gluing device to fixedly connect the weld strips to the plurality of strands, such that the weld strips are affixed to the plurality of strands in a spaced apart and substantially parallel arrangement, and such that the weld strips are substantially perpendicular to the plurality of strands. According to still another embodiment thereof, the present invention provides a method for producing a tensioning structure of an inflatable product comprises: arranging a hot roller downstream of a strand guide; supplying a plurality of strands to the hot roller via the strand guide, such that the supplied strands are substantially uniformly spaced apart and arranged substantially parallel to one another; arranging a conveying roller downstream of the strand guide, the conveying roller operable to deliver at least one weld sheet to the hot roller, the at least one weld sheet having a width corresponding to an overall width of the plurality of strands; and passing the plurality of strands and the at least one weld sheet through the hot roller, such that the plurality of strands become affixed to the at least one weld sheet. According to still another embodiment thereof, the present invention provides a method for producing a tensioning structure, the method comprising: arranging a first pair of weld strips parallel to one another on a joining device; wrapping at least one continuous strand around a plurality of members arranged along a pair of rows adjacent the first pair of weld strips, respectively, each of the pair of rows of members offset with respect to the other of the pair of rows of members, the step of wrapping comprising alternating between the pair of rows, such that the at least one continuous strand forms a plurality of end-to-end V-shaped strands; and using the joining device to join the first pair of weld strips to the plurality of strands at respective V-shaped corners formed by the at least one continuous strand, such that the tensioning structure has a tensile strength along a direction perpendicular to a longitudinal extent of the first pair of weld strips. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above mentioned and other features and advantages of this disclosure, and the manner of attaining them, will become more apparent and the invention itself will be better understood by reference to the following description of embodiments of the invention taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is an exploded, perspective view of an inflatable structure incorporating a tensioning structure made in accordance with the present disclosure; FIG. 2 is an enlarged perspective view of the tensioning structure shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is an exploded, perspective view of an inflatable bed incorporating tensioning structures made in accordance with the present disclosure; FIG. 4 is an assembled view of the inflatable bed of FIG. 3, in which the inflatable bed material is made transparent to show the internal arrangement of the tensioning structures; FIG. 5 is an exploded, perspective view of an inflatable bed incorporating an alternative geometric arrangement of tensioning structures made in accordance with the present disclosure; FIG. 6 is an assembled view of the inflatable bed of FIG. 5, in which the inflatable bed material is made transparent to show the internal spatial arrangement of the tensioning structures; FIG. 7 is a perspective view of an apparatus for producing bulk material for the tensioning structures shown in FIGS. 3-6; FIG. 8 is an exploded, perspective view showing a first embodiment of the bulk material created by the apparatus of FIG. 7; FIG. 9 is a perspective view showing a first embodiment of the bulk material created by the apparatus of FIG. 7; FIG. 10 is a perspective view showing a second embodiment of the bulk material created by the apparatus of FIG. 7; FIG. 11 is a perspective view showing a second embodiment of the bulk material created by the apparatus of FIG. 7; FIG. 12 is an exploded, perspective view of a first alternative tensioning structure made in accordance with the present disclosure; FIG. 13 is an assembled, perspective view of the first alternative tensioning structure shown in FIG. 12; FIG. 14 is an exploded, perspective view of a second alternative tensioning structure made in accordance with the present disclosure; FIG. 15 is an exploded, perspective view of a third alternative tensioning structure made in accordance with the present disclosure; FIG. 16 is an assembled, perspective view of the third alternative tensioning structure shown in FIG. 15; FIG. 17 is an exploded, perspective view of a fourth alternative tensioning structure made in accordance with the present disclosure; FIG. 18 is an exploded, perspective view of a fifth alternative tensioning structure made in accordance with the present disclosure; FIG. 19 is an assembled, perspective view of the fifth alternative tensioning structure shown in FIG. 18; FIG. 20 is an exploded, perspective view of an inflatable bed incorporating alternative tensioning structures made in accordance with the present disclosure; FIG. 21 is an assembled view of the inflatable bed of FIG. 22, in which the inflatable bed material is made transparent to show the internal arrangement of the tensioning structures; FIG. 22 is an exploded, perspective view of an inflatable bed incorporating an alternative tensioning structures made in accordance with the present disclosure, configured in an alternative geometric arrangement; FIG. 23 is an assembled view of the inflatable bed of FIG. 22, in which the inflatable bed material is made transparent to show the internal spatial arrangement of the tensioning structures; FIG. 24 is a perspective view of an apparatus for producing bulk material for the first through fifth alternative tensioning structures shown in FIGS. 12-19; FIG. 25 is an exploded, perspective view of a sixth alternative tensioning structure made in accordance with the present disclosure; FIG. 26 is an assembled, perspective view of the sixth alternative tensioning structure shown in FIG. 25; FIG. 27 is an exploded, perspective view of an inflatable bed incorporating the sixth alternative tensioning structure shown in FIG. 25; FIG. 28 is an assembled view of the inflatable bed of FIG. 27, in which the inflatable bed material is made transparent to show the internal arrangement of the tensioning structures; FIG. 29 is a perspective view of an apparatus for producing bulk material for the sixth alternative tensioning structures shown in FIGS. 25-28; FIG. 30 is an exploded, perspective view of a seventh alternative tensioning structure made in accordance with the present disclosure; FIG. 31 is an assembled, perspective view of the seventh alternative tensioning structure shown in FIG. 30; FIG. 32 is a perspective view of an apparatus for producing bulk material for the seventh alternative tensioning structures shown in FIGS. 30 and 31; FIG. 33 is a top plan view of portions of tensioning structures bunched together during a welding process; FIG. 34 is a top plan view of portions of a tensioning structure collapsed when the mattress is deflated for storage or shipment; FIG. 35 is a view similar to FIG. 33 showing portions of tensioning structures with strands placed in piles during a welding process; and FIG. 36 is a view similar to FIG. 33 showing portions of tensioning structures shifted relative to each other during a welding process. Corresponding reference characters indicate corresponding parts throughout the several views. The exemplifications set out herein illustrate exemplary embodiments of the present invention, and such exemplifications are not to be construed as limiting the scope of the invention in any manner. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present disclosure provides tensioning structures which give shape to inflatable devices, such as inflatable couches, beds or swimming pools. The tensioning structures are lightweight and occupy minimal volume when the device is deflated and packed away, while also functioning as a strong and durable internal support upon inflation and use of the inflatable device. An exemplary tensioning structure in accordance with the present disclosure utilizes thin and flexible string- or wire-like strands which join two areas of fabric to one another. The strands are firmly connected to the adjacent fabric via an intermediate material, such as a strip or sheet, and the intermediate material is in turn firmly connected to the fabric. The area of contact between intermediate material and the attached strands may be manipulated to impart a connection strength commensurate with the tensile strength of the strand. Similarly, the area of contact between the intermediate material and the adjacent fabric may also be manipulated to impart a fabric/tensioning structure connection strength commensurate with the aggregate tensile strength of all strands in the tensioning structure. Various tensioning structures and methods of manufacturing the same are described in detail below. It is contemplated that any of the present described tensioning structures may be used in any inflatable product, either alone, as a group or in combination with one another as required or desired for a particular design. In addition, it is contemplated that tensioning structures in accordance with the present disclosure can be used in other contexts, such as in camping equipment, or in any other context where a lightweight, packable structure is needed to join two pieces of material that are urged away from one another in use. 1. Weld Strips Joined by Spaced-Apart Strands. Turning now to FIGS. 1 and 2, tensioning structure 3 is shown joining upper material 1 to lower material 2. In the illustrated embodiment, tensioning structure 3 includes upper and lower weld strips 31 connected to one another by a plurality of substantially parallel strands 32 that define a gap portion extending between a gap between upper and lower sheets 1, 2. The upper and lower weld strips 31 are in turn welded to the upper material 1 and the lower material 2, respectively, such that forces urging upper and lower materials 1, 2 are encountered by tension in strands 32. Optionally, reinforcing strands 5 (FIG. 3) may be provided along the longitudinal extent of weld strip 31 (i.e., substantially perpendicular to strands 32). Reinforcing strands 5, when provided, may be coupled to tensile strands 32, such as by folding strands 32 over reinforcing strands 5, tying strands 5, 32 to one another, or adhesively securing strands 5, 32 to one another. When so coupled, reinforcing strands 5 provide additional surface area contact with weld strips 31 and thereby improve the resistance of securing strands 5 to pulling free from weld strips 31. In addition, the presence of reinforcing strands 32 within weld strips 31 improves the tensile strength of weld strips 31 along their longitudinal extents. The plurality of strands 32 in the tensioning structure 3 as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 are arranged such that the strands 32 are substantially parallel to one another when strands 32 are pulled taut (i.e., when weld strips 31 are drawn away from one another). In addition, adjacent pairs of strands 32 may have even intervals therebetween, such that a substantially constant tensile strength of tensioning structure 3 is maintained across the longitudinal extent of weld strips 31. In an exemplary embodiment, strands 32 may extend along the entire width of weld strips 31, as illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2, such that a large area of contact between strands 32 and weld strips 31 is achieved. For clarity, FIGS. 1 and 2 illustrate only a limited number of strands 32 affixed to strips 31 in this way, it being appreciated that all strands 32 in a tensioning structure 3 may be so affixed. Strands 32 include first and second terminal ends 34 positioned along first longitudinal edges 36, 38 of strips 31. Strands 32 extends through second longitudinal edges 40, 42 of strips 31 that are parallel and spaced apart from first longitudinal edges 36, 38. Strips 32 have a length 44 extending along longitudinal edges 36, 38, 40, 42 and a width 46 defined between respective first longitudinal edges 36, 38 and second longitudinal edges 40, 42. Strips have upper surfaces 48, 50 and lower surfaces 52, 54. When attached to upper and lower sheets 1, 2, strands 32 are bent to form a first leg 56, relative to the bend, that extends along gap portion 33 and a pair of second legs 58 having a length substantially equal to width 46 of strips 32. When tensioning structures 3 are affixed to upper and lower sheets 1, 2, air mattress 10 has different ply counts at different locations. For example, air mattress 10 has a single ply count at portions of upper and lower sheets 1, 2 that are spaced apart from tensioning structures 3 and has a triple ply count at portions of upper and lower sheets 1, 2 that are adjacent to the tensioning structure. For example, upper sheet 1 defines a single ply count away from tensioning structure 3 and cooperates with the pair of weld strips 31 of an adjacent tensioning structure 3 to define a triple ply count. In embodiments using a single weld strip 31, the ply count is only two where upper sheet 1 is adjacent to such a tensioning structure 3. In one exemplary application shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, a number of tensioning structures 3 are used in an inflatable structure such as air mattress 10, which includes a sleeping surface at upper material 1 and a ground-contacting surface at lower material 2. Annular side band 4 is fixedly connected or welded to the peripheries of the upper material 1 and the lower material 2 to form an inflatable chamber. A valve 6 may be provided to facilitate inflation and deflation of the mattress 10. Although mattress 10 is shown as a single layer, double layers may also be provided. Additional mattress features may also be provided such as those shown in U.S. Pat. No. 7,591,036 titled Air-Inflated Mattress, the entire disclosure of which is expressly incorporated by reference herein. In addition to mattresses, tensioning structure may be used in other inflatable products such as inflatable boats, inflatable islands, floatation devices, swimming pools, inflatable slides, and any other inflatable devices. Each of the plurality of tensioning structures 3 is welded to respectively opposed portions of the inner surfaces of upper and lower materials 1, 2, as described in detail above. As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, the tensioning structure 3 of the illustrated embodiment defines an overall longitudinal extent (that is, along the longitudinal direction of weld strips 31) corresponding to the width or length of the sleeping and ground-contacting materials 1, 2 of mattress 10. As noted above, tensioning structures 3 are connected to upper and lower material 1, 2 by weld strips 31. Such welding is accomplished by abutting one of weld strips 31 to one of upper and lower materials 1, 2 and then applying heat to melt and fuse the material of weld strips 31 to the abutting material. In an exemplary embodiment, weld strips 31 and upper and lower material 1, 2 are both made of PVC, and the welding process is accomplished by applying 105 degree Celsius heat for approximately 0.5 seconds. Upper and lower sheets 1, 2 and weld strips 31 have thicknesses ranging from 0.15 to 1.0 millimeters with 0.34 millimeters being preferred for upper and lower sheets 1, 2 and 0.18 millimeters being preferred for weld strips 31. Weld strips 31 are preferably 12.7 millimeters wide and may range from 1 to 100 millimeters wide. The PVC used preferably has a tensile strength ranging from at least 7 kgf/cm to 73 kgf/cm and a density ranging from 0.8-2.5 grams per centimeter cubed with a preferred density of 1.5 grams per centimeter cubed. Being made of PVC, weld strips 31 and upper and lower sheets 1, 2 are plastic sheets that are a integral, homogenous, non-fibrous, non-fabric material. During assembly of tensioning structures 3, strands 32 do not pierce weld strips 31, but are sandwiched between the respective pairs of weld strips 31. In FIGS. 3 and 4, tensioning structures 3 are welded to upper and lower material 1, 2 along a substantially linear path, with the plurality of structures 3 substantially parallel to one another and equally spaced across materials 1, 2. However, it is contemplated that the welding geometry may take any other suitable geometry, such as a wave-like path, I-shaped path, Z-shaped path or V-shaped path. One exemplary alternative geometry is a cylindrical or columnar arrangement, as illustrated in FIGS. 5 and 6. In this arrangement, upper and lower weld strips 31 are each connected at their ends in an end-to-end manner to form an arcuate ring, such as a circular ring as illustrated. The plurality of strands 32 between the upper and lower weld strips 31 thus form a closed columnar periphery, thereby forming the body of a column. Upon assembly of inflatable bed 10, this column is welded to upper and lower materials 1, 2 in a similar fashion as described herein with respect to linearly arranged tensioning structure 3. When mattress 10 is inflated, the introduction of pressurized air into the cavity of mattress urges upper and lower materials 1, 2 apart from one another. When sufficiently pressurized, strands 32 become taut and tensioning structures 3 prevent any further spreading apart of upper and lower materials 1, 2 in the vicinity of each tensioning structure 3. Further pressurization causes further tensile stress within tensioning structures 3, and additional forces on the weld between tensioning structures 3 and the adjacent material. In an exemplary embodiment of mattress 10, tensioning structure 3 includes as few as one strand every two centimeters, 1, 2, 3, 4, strands per centimeter of longitudinal extent of weld strips 31, or as much as 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, or more strands per centimeter, or may have any number of strands per centimeter within any range defined by any of the foregoing values. According to the preferred embodiment, there is about 2.8 millimeters between strands (i.e., 3.6 strands per centimeter). Strands 32 may be made of regular cotton, polyester, nylon thread made of multiple filaments twisted together, of the type typically used in clothing seams, or any other strand types. These regular threads provide substantial tensile strength at a very low cost. According to alternative embodiments, strands 32 may be woven together to form a fabric. According to another embodiment, non-woven fabric may be used to form the portion of tensioning structure 3 extending through the gap between sheets 1, 2. As shown in FIG. 3, the distance between adjacent tensioning structures 3 is much greater than the distance between adjacent strands of each tensioning structure 3. The distance between adjacent tensioning structures 3 is also greater than the gap between upper and lower sheets 1, 2. Similarly, the distance between adjacent tensioning structures 3 is greater than width 46 of strips 31 so that strips 31 of adjacent tensioning structures 3 are spaced apart. According to the present disclosure, the threads may range from diameters of 0.1 to 1.0 millimeters. According to the preferred embodiment, the thread has a diameter of 0.2 millimeters. According to the present disclosure, the tensile strength of the threads may range from 0.2 kgf to 10 kgf per thread. According to the preferred embodiment, the tensile strength of the thread is 3 kgf per thread. According to the preferred embodiment, the threads have a density range from 0.01 to 0.3 grams per meter. According the preferred embodiment, the threads are 0.085 grams per meter. Of course, it is appreciated that other materials could be used, such as monofilament lines, metal wires or cables, plastic and the like. The above-described exemplary arrangement of tensioning structure 3 yields a strong finished product suitable for use in a wide variety of inflatable products. In exemplary embodiments, tensioning structure 3 has strands 32 with an overall axial span between 5 centimeters and 65 centimeters, rendering strands 32 suitable to span a correspondingly sized gap formed between the spaced-apart weld strips 31. Therefore, this exemplary embodiment is suitable for use in mattress 10 having an inflated thickness approximately equal to the axial span of strands 32. This exemplary embodiment further uses the regular thread material noted above with a strand density in the ranges given above. The resulting exemplary tensioning structure 3 has an overall tensile strength between 5.9 and 23.3 kgf per linear centimeter (where linear centimeters are measured along the longitudinal extent of weld strips 31). When mattress 10 is inflated, tensioning structure defines an operable area along its longitudinal extent and across the gap between upper and lower materials 1, 2. More particularly, the area occupied by tensioning structure 3 is defined as the total area of the gap between the material sheets joined by tensioning structure 3, with such gap measured along the longitudinal extent of the tensioning structure such that the measured area is inclusive of each of the plurality of strands 32. Where tensioning structure 3 is linearly arranged and upper and lower materials 1, 2 are parallel to one another (as shown, for example, in FIGS. 3 and 4), this area is simply the longitudinal extent of tensioning structure 3 multiplied by the space between upper and lower materials 1 and 2. Where tensioning structure 3 takes a non-linear path (such as the columnar, arcuate path shown in FIGS. 5 and 6, for example), or upper and lower materials 1 and 2 are non-parallel, the above-described method for measuring area still results in an accurate operable area. The above-described exemplary arrangement of tensioning structure 3 achieves high tensile strength while promoting light weight and low packed volume of the finished inflatable product. According to the present disclosure, strands 32 and the area between strands 32 define a gap portion 33 (see FIG. 1) of tensioning structure 3 spanning the gap between upper and lower materials/sheets 1, 2 that maintains a spatial relationship between the first and second sheets when mattress 10 is inflated. As shown in FIG. 1, the collection of strands 32 that define this gap portion 33 having an extent 35 measured along the surface of at least one of first sheet 1 and second sheet 2. Strands 32 of this gap portion 33 of tension structure 3 collectively occupy a volume. Gap portion 33 has an operable area defined by extent 35 of gap portion 33 (also closely approximate to a length of weld strips 31) and length 37 of strands 32. The operable area is occupied by strands 32 of tensioning structure 3 and defines a total area of the gap between first sheet 1 and second sheet 2, as measured along extent 35 of gap portion 33 of tensioning structure 3. For example, if strands 32 of an example tension structure have a length 37 of 100 millimeters between first and second sheets 1, 2 and extent 35 of gap portion 33 is 100 millimeters, the operable area of gap portion 33 defined by strands 32 is 10,000 square millimeters. Assuming that there are 3.6 strands per centimeter, there will be 3,571 millimeters of strands 32 within the 10,000 square millimeter operable area. If strands 32 have a diameter of 0.2 millimeters, the total volume occupied by strands 32 will be 112.2 millimeters cubed. In this example, gap portion 33 of tensioning structure 3 defines an operable area-to-volume ratio of 89.13 millimeters squared per millimeters cubed (ex. 10,000 millimeter squared/112.2 millimeters cubed). According to the present disclosure, the operable area-to-volume ratio may range from 10 to 3,000 millimeters squared per millimeter cubed. Because of use of strands 32 rather than PVC sheets, the overall weight of mattress 10 can also be reduced. Gap portion 33 of tensioning structure 3 defined by strands 32 has a total weight and operable area, as discussed above. In the above example, the operable area was 10,000 square millimeters (100 millimeters by 100 millimeters) and there were 3.6 strands per centimeter. This results in 3,571 millimeters of thread. At a density of 0.085 grams per meter of thread, the total thread will weigh 0.304 grams. As a result, an operable area-to-weight ratio will be about 32,941 square millimeters per gram (or 329,412 square centimeters per kilogram) in the preferred embodiment (ex. 10,000 square millimeters/0.304 grams). According to some embodiments of the present disclosure, the operable area-to-weight ratio is between 8,000 and 5,000,000 square centimeters per kilogram. According to other embodiments, the operable area-to-weight ratio is between 12,500 and 2,500,000 square centimeters per kilogram. According to other embodiments, the operable area-to-weight ratio is between 20,000 and 1,000,000 square centimeters per kilogram. Because of use of strands 32 rather than PVC sheets, the average thickness of gap portion 33 of tensioning structure 3 extending between first and second sheets 1, 2 can also be reduced. Gap portion 33 of tensioning structure 3 defined by strands 32 has an average thickness and operable area, as discussed above. The average thickness is reduced by the nominally circular cross section of strands 32 and the gaps between each strand 32. For example, the maximum thickness of gap portion 33 is the diameter of strands 32 (0.2 millimeters in the above example). The minimum thickness of gap portion 33 is zero in unoccupied areas between strands 32. When averaged over the total area of gap portion 33 occupied by strands 32 and the total area of gap portion 33 without strands 33, the average thickness is less than the diameter of strands 32. Furthermore, if the distance between strands 32 is increased, the average thickness decreases because more of gap portion 33 is unoccupied by strands (i.e., the amount of gap portion 33 with zero thickness increases, which decreases the average thickness of gap portion 33). In the above example, the operable area was 10,000 square millimeters (100 millimeters by 100 millimeters) and there were 3.6 strands per centimeter (or 2.8 millimeter from strand 32 to strand 32). In contrast to the maximum thickness of a circular thread, which is the diameter, the average thickness of a circular thread is pi*diameter/4. Using strands 32 with a diameter of 0.2 millimeters, results in average thickness of 0.157 millimeters for each strand 32. Because of the gaps between strands 32, the average thickness of gap portion 33 defined by strands 32 and the gaps therebetween is 0.0112 millimeters (i.e. 2.8 millimeters between strands 32 has a thickness of zero, which reduces the average thickness of gap portion 33 to much less than the average thickness of strands 32). According to some embodiments of the present disclosure, the average thickness of the gap portion of tensioning structure 3 is between 0.0003 to 0.1 millimeters. According to other embodiments, the average thickness is between 0.001 and 0.05 millimeters. According to other embodiments, the average thickness is between 0.005 and 0.02 millimeters. Turning now to FIG. 7, an apparatus 20 suitable for manufacturing tensioning structure 3 is shown. To operate apparatus 20 to this end, a plurality of strands 32 are provided from a bulk thread supply 11, which may be a yarn stand containing several spools of yarn for example. Thread supply 11 continuously delivers the plurality of strands 32 via strand guide A, which includes a plurality of apertures through which individual strands 32 pass after delivery from thread supply 11 and before incorporation into bulk tensioning structure material 30 (shown in FIG. 9 and described below). Strand guide A maintains uniform spacing of strands 32 from one another, and arranges strands 32 parallel to one another such that the plurality of strands 32 are substantially planar. The width of weld strips 31, the distance between neighboring pairs of weld strips 31, and the spacing between neighboring pairs of strands 32 can be set to any values as required or desired by an intended use, such as in a particular inflatable product. These planar, parallel and even spaced strands 32 are then passed in to welder 40, as shown in FIG. 7. Welder 40 may be a thermofusion device, using heat to join two plastic materials together, or may be a high-frequency welder, in which electromagnetic waves take advantage of excitable chemical dipoles in the plastic material to soften and join the materials to one another. Moreover, any suitable welding method may be employed by welder 40, as required or desired for a particular material and process. Another alternative is to forego a welding process and use adhesive to join strands 32 to weld strips 31. Where adhesive connection is utilized, welder 40 may be replaced by a similarly arranged adhesive device, such as a gluing device. Yet another alternative is to utilize a sewing machine to mechanically join weld strips 31 to strands 32. Moreover, weld strips 31 need not be welded to upper or lower materials 1, 2, and the term “weld strip” as used herein refers to any strip of material suitable for affixation to another material, whether by application of heat, application of adhesive, mechanical joining methods such as sewing and riveting, or any other suitable method. Weld strips 31, having a length corresponding to the width of the arranged plurality of strands 32, are positioned on lower dies B1 of welder 40. Strands 32 are advanced over weld strips 31 as illustrated, and upper dies B2 are then lowered into contact with weld strips 31. Energy (i.e., heat or electromagnetic waves) is applied to fixedly connect the weld strip 31 with each of the plurality of strands 32 such that the respective strands 32 are fixed in the spaced apart and parallel configuration dictated by strand guide A. When so fixed, bulk material 30 (FIG. 9) is complete and ready for use. The finished bulk material 30 may then be delivered to a take-up device (not shown), such as a spool or roll. This allows bulk material 30 to be continuously produced and stored for later use. Bulk material 30 can be converted into tensioning structure 3 (FIG. 2) by cutting down the center of weld strip 31. Tensioning structure 3 can then be applied to various inflatable products by trimming the length and width thereof according to the dimensions of the product. As noted above, reinforcement strand 5 may be added to tensioning structure 3 to further improve the strength thereof, including the tensile strength of weld strips 31. To add at least one reinforcement strand 5 to bulk material 30, reinforcement strands 5 are arranged perpendicular to the plurality of strands 32, and abutting the respective weld strips 31. Upper die B2 of welder 40 is pressed down to fixedly connect the weld strips 31 to both reinforcement strands 5 and the plurality of strands 32, as described above. Reinforcement strands 5 are illustrated in FIG. 3 but omitted from FIG. 4 for clarity. As shown in FIG. 4, tensioning structures 30 are positioned within band 4 and welded to upper and lower sheet 1, 2. Although shown as perpendicular to sheets 1, 2 in FIG. 4, after welding, weld strips 31 lay flat on sheets 1, 2 after welding as shown in the lower portion of FIG. 1. Similarly, in mattresses 10 of FIGS. 6, 21, 23, and 28, weld strips 31 are shown perpendicular to sheets 1, 2, but will lay flat on sheets 1, 2 upon welding as shown in the lower portion of FIG. 1. As illustrated in FIGS. 8 and 9, bulk material 30 (FIG. 9) may be formed using a single layer of weld strips 31 connecting to strands 32. In another exemplary embodiment shown in FIGS. 10 and 11, bulk material 30 may be manufactured as a dual layer structure using a pair of weld strips both above and below strands 32. The use of two mutually opposed weld strips employs a gripping action to “trap” or capture the strands 32 therebetween, thereby contributing to a high-strength coupling interface. When implemented in an inflatable product, the resulting dual-layer tensioning structure 3 has improved strength and can be welded to upper or lower material 1, 2 (FIGS. 1, 3 and 4) on either side. As shown in FIGS. 10 and 11 and discussed above, at least one reinforcement strand 5 may also be captured between the weld strips 31. 2. Sheet-Backed Tensioning Structures with Affixed Strands. An alternatively arranged tensioning structure is shown in FIGS. 12 and 13 as tensioning structure 103. Structure 103 is substantially similar to tensioning structure 3 described above, with reference numerals of structure 103 analogous to the reference numerals used in structure 3, except with 100 added thereto. Elements of structure 103 correspond to similar elements denoted by corresponding reference numerals of structure 3, except as otherwise noted. Tensioning structure 103 includes a plurality of strands 32 which are evenly spaced and arranged substantially parallel to one another, in a similar fashion to tensioning structure 3 described above. However, tensioning structure 103 includes weld sheet 131 in place of weld strips 31 of structure 3. Rather than affixing the ends of strands 32 to weld strips 31, the entire length of strands 32 are affixed to weld sheet 131. Weld sheet 131 serves to provide for proper positioning and protection of the plurality of strands 32, such as to avoid knotting or damage of strands 32 during practical use. However, because tensioning structure 103 includes strands 32 embedded therein, weld sheet 131 does not need to bear significant tensile loads and can be kept to a minimal thickness. For example, weld sheet 131 may be 0.10 millimeters in thickness. In FIGS. 12 and 13, a single weld sheet 131 is used, though other arrangements are contemplated. FIG. 14, for example, illustrates tensioning structure 103 (FIG. 13) with an extra weld sheet 131 applied opposite the first weld sheet 131. Similar to the embodiment of tensioning structure 3 using mutually opposed weld strips 31 (FIGS. 10 and 11), the mutually opposed weld sheets 131 may be used to encapsulate strands 32. FIGS. 15 and 16 illustrate tensioning structure 203, which is substantially similar to tensioning structure 3 described above, with reference numerals of structure 203 analogous to the reference numerals used in structure 3, except with 200 added thereto. Elements of structure 203 correspond to similar elements denoted by corresponding reference numerals of structure 3, except as otherwise noted. However, structure 203 represents a hybrid approach combining elements of tensioning structures 3 and 103, in which a plurality of weld strips 31 are used to encapsulate a portion of strands 32 between strips 31 and weld sheet 131. The addition of weld strips 31 to the weld sheet 131 improves the strength of the weld connection between tensioning structure 203 and the adjacent product material (e.g., upper and/or lower material 1, 2 of inflatable bed 10 shown in FIGS. 2 and 3). FIG. 17 illustrates tensioning structure 303, which is substantially similar to tensioning structure 3 described above, with reference numerals of structure 303 analogous to the reference numerals used in structure 3, except with 300 added thereto. Elements of structure 303 correspond to similar elements denoted by corresponding reference numerals of structure 3, except as otherwise noted. Moreover, structure 303 incorporates all the elements of tensioning structure 203 but adds a second, lower layer of weld strips 31 attached to weld sheet 131 opposite the first, upper layer of weld strips 31. Thus, there is a dual-layer structure of opposing weld strips 31 further augmenting weld sheet 131, rendering tensioning structure 303 very strong and robust both along the extent of strands 32 and at the weld between strands 32 and the adjacent material, e.g., material 1, 2 of inflatable bed 10 (FIGS. 3 and 4). Turning to FIGS. 18 and 19, yet another tensioning structure 403 is illustrated. Tensioning structure 403 is substantially similar to tensioning structure 3 described above, with reference numerals of structure 403 analogous to the reference numerals used in structure 3, except with 400 added thereto. Elements of structure 403 correspond to similar elements denoted by corresponding reference numerals of structure 3, except as otherwise noted. However, the plurality of strands 32 used in structure 403 are discontinuous. As shown in FIGS. 13 and 14, the plurality of strands 32 may be trimmed to any desired length, and then affixed to weld sheet 131 by hot pressing. Upon installation into an inflatable product use, the affixed strands 32 may be cut to length, and welded into place as described above. Thus, using tensioning structures 403 has the potential to reduce consumption of the material used for strands 32 and avoid unnecessary waste thereto, thereby lower material cost. Optionally, as shown in FIG. 20, each end of the weld sheet 131 (i.e., at the ends of strands 32) may include a reinforcing strand 5 arranged similarly to tensioning structure 3 discussed above. Reinforcing strands 5 are omitted from FIG. 21 for clarity. The sheet-backed embodiments illustrated as tensioning structures 103, 203, 303 and 403 in FIGS. 12-19 may be integrated into an inflatable device in a similar fashion as tensioning structures 3 described above. For example, FIGS. 20 and 21 illustrate integration of tensioning structures 103 into inflatable bed 10, which is accomplished by the same method as described above. Tensioning structures 103, 203, 303 and 403 may also be formed into a variety of geometric configurations, as discussed above with respect to tensioning structure 3. These configurations include a wave-like path, I-shaped path, Z-shaped path or V-shaped path. As illustrated in FIGS. 22 and 23, is a cylindrical or columnar arrangement may also be utilized. In this arrangement, weld sheet 131 (and upper and lower weld strips 31, if present) is connected at its ends in an end-to-end manner to form an arcuate ring, such as a circular ring as illustrated. The plurality of strands 32 between thus cooperate with the material of weld sheet 131 to form a closed columnar periphery, thereby forming the body of a column. The axial ends of this columnar structure can then be welded to upper material 1 and lower material 2, respectively, of inflatable bed 10. Turning now to FIG. 24, an apparatus 120 suitable for manufacturing tensioning structures 103, 203, 303 or 403 is shown. Operation of apparatus 120 is accomplished by first supplying a plurality of strands 32 from a yarn stand or other stock of yard, as described above with respect to apparatus 20. Strands 32 are continuously delivered via strand guide A, described above, which provides uniformly spaced apart and parallel strands 32 to the downstream welder 140. Welder 140 includes a conveying roller C downstream of strand guide A, which continuously delivers a weld sheet 131 of width sufficient to correspond to the width of the plurality of strands 32. Downstream of roller C, the plurality of strands 32 are near to or abutting weld sheet 131. The plurality of strands 32 and weld sheet 131 then advance together through hot roller D, which heats and compresses the material such that strands 32 become fixed to the softened material of weld sheet 131. After passage through roller D, tensioning structure 103 as shown in FIG. 13 is complete. The bulk material for tensioning structure 103 may be wound onto a take-up spool for later cutting into a tensioning structure 103 of appropriate size for a particular application. When the thus tensioning structure 103 is applied to an inflatable product such as inflatable bed 10 (FIGS. 21 and 22), the weld sheet 131 may have a relatively small thickness given the level of internal pressure (and, therefore, tension) expected to be encountered by structure 103 during inflation and use of the product. For example, the thickness may be reduced by 20%-40% with respect known internal tensioning structures lacking strands 32. Because strands 32 are positioned and configured to bear the tensile loads applied to tensioning structure 103, weld sheet 131 need only provide for proper positioning and protection of the plurality of strands 32, such as to avoid knotting or damage of strands 32 during practical use. In one exemplary embodiment, the thickness of weld sheet 131 may be as small as 0.10 millimeters. Where a second weld sheet 131 is added to tensioning structure 103, as shown in FIG. 14 and described above, a second roller C (not shown) may be provided opposite the illustrated roller C of FIG. 24, such that rollers C are disposed on either side of strands 32. Both sheets 131 are then passed through the hot pressing roller D, capturing strands 32 between the two layers of plastic sheets. Where a plurality of weld strips 31 are added to create tensioning structure 203, as shown in FIGS. 15 and 16 and described above, a finished tensioning structure 103 made using apparatus 120 may be further processed using apparatus 20 as shown in FIG. 7 and described above. After the intermediate sheeted product equivalent to tensioning structure 103 exiting from hot rollers D, weld strips 31 may be added to one or both sides of the intermediate sheeted product. At least one reinforcement strand 5 may be added as required or desired, such that reinforcement strands 5 are perpendicular to the plurality of strands 32, as described in detail above. Where weld strips 31 are added to both sides of a sheeted intermediate product to create tensioning structure 303, a process similar to the above may be employed in which an intermediate sheeted product exits rollers D and receives additional weld strips 31. However, weld strips 31 are added to both sides instead of to a single side, in accordance with the method of manufacturing a dual-layer version of bulk material 30 using welder 40 as described above. Of course, at least one reinforcement strand 5 may be added in a similar fashion as previously described. 3. Weld Strips Joined by V-Shaped Strands. An alternatively arranged tensioning structure is shown in FIGS. 25 and 26 as tensioning structure 503. Structure 503 is substantially similar to tensioning structure 3 described above, with reference numerals of structure 503 analogous to the reference numerals used in structure 3, except with 500 added thereto. Elements of structure 503 correspond to similar elements denoted by corresponding reference numerals of structure 3, except as otherwise noted. However, strand 532 in tensioning structure 503 have a staggered, V-shaped arrangement, and may be formed from a single strand wound back and forth rather than a plurality of separate and discrete strands as used in tensioning structure 3 for example. As described below in the context of the method of manufacture of tensioning structure 503, strand 532 may be a single, continuous strand woven between weld strips 31, 31′, with the point of each “V” affixed to at least one of the weld strips 31, 31′. Turning now to FIG. 29, an apparatus 220 suitable for manufacturing tensioning structure 503 is shown. Operation of apparatus 220 is accomplished by disposing a lower pair of weld strips 31 such that the lower pair are substantially parallel and spaced apart upon joining device 540. In the illustrated embodiment, weld strips 31 are unspooled from rolls of weld strip material contained within a pair of unreeling devices 550. Next, continuous strand 532 is wrapped successively around a set of adjacent hook-shaped members 541 disposed at either side of joining device 540, with the plurality of hook-shaped members 541 arranged in two respective rows corresponding to the location of the previously-placed lower pair of weld strips 31. In an exemplary embodiment, hook-shaped members 541 are uniformly spaced from one another and arranged at the outer sides of lower pair of weld strips 31, with each row of hook-shaped members 541 offset with respect to the other row. With this arrangement, the continuous strand 532 forms a plurality of end-to-end “V” shaped strands when wrapped around successive hook-shaped members 541 in alternating rows thereof, as shown. That is to say, the corner of each “V” is formed at a respective hook-shaped members 541, and successive corners traced along continuous strand 532 will alternate between rows of hook-shaped members 541. Next, a second pair of weld strips 31′ are positioned over the first pair of weld strips 31, respectively, and are clamped thereto such that each “V” shaped corner formed by strand 532 is disposed between one of the first pair of weld strips 31 and the abutting one of the second pair of weld strips 31′. The second pair of weld strips 31′ may also be unspooled from unreeling devices 550. Finally, the abutting pairs of weld strips 31, 31′ are joined to one another and to strand 532, such as by welding or by one of the other attachment methods discussed above. For example, weld strips 31, 31′, may be joined by a high frequency welder or another thermofusion device. It is also contemplated that strand 532 can be fixed to weld strips 31, 31′, and weld strips 31 can be fixed to weld strips 31′, by adhesive or by sewing. As with other tensioning structures discussed above, tensioning structure 503 may be produced and stored in bulk and later applied to various inflatable products. The length and width of tensioning structure 503 may be trimmed to accommodate the internal length or width of the inflatable product. In one alternative embodiment, it may be not necessary to provide the second layer of weld strips 31′, and instead to fix only the first layer of weld strips 31 to the strand 532. Fixing strand 532 to the single layer of weld strips 31 may be accomplished in a similar fashion to the single-layer weld strip and weld sheet embodiments described above. Turning to FIGS. 30-32 tensioning structure 503 may also be provided with at least one reinforcement strand 5 extending along the longitudinal extent of at least one of weld strips 31, 31′. Similar to the uses of reinforcement strands 5 in the embodiments described above, reinforcement strands 5 may be arranged on one of the lower pair of weld strips 31 and/or between the lower and upper pairs of weld strips 31, 31′. A tensioning structure in accordance with the present disclosure, including tensioning structures 3, 103, 203, 303, 403 and 503 discussed above, has a high tensile strength along the axial extent of the strands 32, 532 extending between respective weld strips and/or along weld sheets. This high tensile strength is complemented with a full-strength weld between the adjacent material of an inflatable product, which is facilitated by the full surface-area contact provided by the weld strip and/or weld sheet interface between strands 32, 532 and such adjacent material. In this way, the tensioning structure performs well an internal structure of the inflatable product, while facilitating an overall reduction in weight and deflated/folded volume of the inflatable product. For example, a loose arrangement of strands 32 is significantly lighter than a one-piece sheet of comparable size and tensile strength. Where weld sheets 131 are employed, such sheets act to ensure a consistent position and arrangement of the plurality of strands 32 (or 532), thereby prevent such strands from becoming wound or otherwise entangled with one another. Meanwhile, weld strips 31 can be utilized to provide a robust structure for welding the tensioning structure into the inflatable product, thereby ensuring that the high tensile strength offered by the strands of the tensioning structure is fully realized. In addition, the use of weld sheet 131 can significantly reduce the weight of the entire inflatable product with respect to a traditional, relatively thicker one-piece sheet which is also responsible for handling tensile loading. In other words, weld sheet 131 reduces by 20%-40% in thickness with respect to an existing tensioning structures having comparable thicknesses of 0.36 mm to 0.8 mm as noted above. As illustrated in FIG. 33, tensioning structures 3 have a distance 39 between adjacent tensioning structures 3. As discussed above, strands 32 have a length 37 that approximates a height 37 of tensioning structures 3 when mattress 10 is inflated. During construction of typical mattresses using PVC tensioning structures (not shown), the height of PVC tensioning structures is practically limited by the distance between adjacent PVC tensioning structures. This limitation is the result of the typical manufacturing process wherein the PVC tensioning structures are all aligned on a lower sheet 2 and simultaneously welded to lower sheet 2. If the PVC tensioning structures are too tall, they will overlap adjacent PVC tensioning structures causing adjacent PVC tensioning structures to be welded together and resulting in dysfunctional PVC tensioning structures. To increase the height of PVC tensioning structures, the PVC tensioning structures may be folded in half along their length while one edge is being welded. By folding the PVC tensioning structure, the maximum height may be increased to slightly less than twice the distance between adjacent PVC tensioning structures (ex. 15 millimeters less than twice the height of the PVC tensioning structure). Providing more than one fold is impracticable. Because gap portions 33 of tensioning structures 3 are made of strands 32 rather than typical PVC sheets discussed above, they are much more flexible than typical PVC tensioning structures. As a result of this flexibility, mattresses 10 can be readily manufactured having heights 37 greater than twice distance 39 between adjacent tensioning structures 3. During manufacture, weld strips 31 of each of the plurality of tensioning structures 3 are aligned in their respective position for welding to lower sheet 1. The other weld strip 31 of these tensioning structures 3 are moved adjacent to the weld strip 31 to be welded as shown in FIG. 33. Because of their flexibility, strands 32 bunch on top of themselves or on top of nearby strands 32 allowing multiple layers of strands 32 to readily lie on top of one another. By allowing multiple layers of strands 32 to lie on top of each other, height 37 of tensioning structures 3 can be greater than twice distance 39 between tensioning structures 3. According to embodiments, length 37 of strands 32 may be 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6 or more times longer than distance 39 between tensioning structures 3. As shown in FIG. 33, loops 41 form in strands 32 during bunching and portions of strands 32 may be positioned under weld strip 31 that is currently not being welded. Although each strand 32 shown in FIG. 33 only has one loop 41 and is only overlapping one other strand 32, each strand 32 may have multiple loops 41 and may overlap multiple other strands 32, particularly when the distance between stands 32 along weld strips 31 is shorter than that illustrated in FIG. 33. In addition to the bunching arrangement shown in FIG. 33 to facilitate welding of weld strips 31 to lower sheet 2, other orientations of long strands 32 can be used to prevent a portion of one tensioning structure 3 from overlapping an adjacent tensioning structure 3 during welding. For example, as shown in FIG. 35, strands may be collected in piles 43 to account for moving welds strips 31 of each tensioning structure 3 adjacent each other. The turns of piles 43 account for the decreased distance between weld strips 31 when weld strips 31 are moved together. According to another example, weld strips 31 of each tensioning structure 3 are shifted along the extent or length of tensioning structures 3 as shown in FIG. 36. The shifting results in strands 32 forming acute angles with weld strips 31 and accounts for the decreased distance between weld strips 31. By accommodating strands 32 that are longer than the distance between adjacent tensioning structures 3, tensioning structures 3 may be made taller without interfering with the process of welding tensioning structures 3 to upper and lower sheets 1, 2. As mentioned above, strands 32 may be longer than shown in FIGS. 33-36. With such longer strands 32, more or larger loops 41 (FIG. 33), larger and/or taller piles 43 (FIG. 35), or greater shifting (FIG. 36) may be used to accommodate the longer strands 32 to avoid tensioning structures 3 overlapping during welding. When prepared for shipping or storage, mattresses 10 are deflated. During deflation, strands 32 may bunch as shown in FIG. 33. Further, strands 32 from adjacent tensioning structures 3 will contact each other and may become interleaved with strands 32 from one tensioning structure 3 positioned between strands 32 of another tensioning structure. Further, because strands 32 are very flexible, they collapse readily when contacted by other structures when mattress 10 is deflated for shipping or storage. For example, when strands 32 contact upper or lower sheets 1, 2 when deflated, they comply to upper and lower sheets 1, 2 to allow upper and lower sheets 1, 2 to compact more closely. At least partially because of this compaction, the overall deflated volume of mattress 10 is reduced when compared to mattresses using PVC sheet tensioning structures. When collapsed, strands 32 from a tensioning structure 3 may become interleaved with strands 32 from the same tensioning structure 32, loops 41 may form, piles 43 may form, and/or strands 32 may become angled to weld strips 31 in a manner similar to that shown in FIG. 36. As shown in FIG. 34, when collapsed, strands 32 may be oriented in different directions with some overlapping as shown in the bottom two strands 32 and other following substantially the same direction as shown in the top three strands 32. Some strands 32 collapse in directions that are not perpendicular to the extent of weld strips 31. For example, the lowest-most strand 32 in FIG. 34 leaves left-most weld strip 31 is a perpendicular direction to this weld strip 31, turns up to be parallel to this weld strip 31, returns to perpendicular to this weld strip 31, turns down to be parallel to this weld strip 31, and then loops under this weld strip 31 to attached to the other weld strip 31 in a perpendicular direction to the other weld strip 31. According to some embodiments, the overall folded or deflated volume of mattress 10 may be 8-25% less than comparable mattresses with PVC sheet tensioning structures. According to the preferred embodiment, the volume is about 16% less. A tensioning structure in accordance with the present disclosure is also a low-cost option for imparting a desired structure and shape to an inflatable device. For example, a large reduction in PVC material may be achieved by use of the present tensioning structure, as compared to a one-piece sheet of comparable size and tensile strength. While the disclosure has been described as having exemplary designs, the present disclosure can be further modified within the spirit and scope of this invention. This application is therefore intended to cover any variations, uses or adaptations of the disclosure using its general principles. Further, this application is intended to cover such departures from the present disclosure as come within known or customary practice in the art to which this disclosure pertains.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The present disclosure relates to an inflatable product structure, and in particular to an inflatable product structure which is light in weight and low in cost. Inflatable products, are light in weight, easy to house, and easy to carry. Such products technologies have been used for outdoor items and toys, as well as various household goods including inflatable beds, inflatable sofas and the like. Many inflatable products utilize internal structures in order to form the product into its intended, predetermined shape upon inflation. For example, one type of inflatable bed, referred to as a wave-shaped, straight-strip or I-shaped inflatable bed, may include a tension-band type internal structure arranged along wave-shaped, straight-line or I-shaped pathways within the internal cavity. Another type of inflatable bed, referred to as a column-type inflatable bed, has tension bands arranged into honeycomb-shaped or cylindrical structures within the inflatable cavity. These internal tension-band structures disposed in the cavity of the inflatable bed give shape to the bed as internal pressure increases, thereby preventing the inflatable bed from expanding evenly on all sides in the manner of a balloon. More particularly, in order to maintain an inflatable bed as a rectangular shape, the tension bands join the upper and lower surfaces of the inflatable bed to one another. To allow passage of pressurized air to both sides of these joining structures, the tension bands may be formed as belts stretching between the upper and lower surfaces, or as vertical expanses of material with air columns formed therein. The number and spacing of the tension bands is proportional to the sharpness of the rectangularity of the inflated product. That is to say, a greater number and/or linear extent of tension bands within the pressurized cavity results in a more “flat” bed surface. In conventional inflatable products such as the inflatable beds described above, the tension bands are made of PVC sheets with a sufficient thickness to ensure spreading of force and concomitant reductions in stress in the product material. For example, the tension bands of known inflatable beds or sofas may have a thickness of about 0.36 mm. For some known water carrier devices, such as inflatable swimming pools, the internal tension bands may have a thickness of about 0.38 mm, while “sandwich” type inflatable swimming pools may have a thickness of 0.7-0.8 mm. Thus, conventional inflatable structures utilizing belt- or sheet-like PVC tension bands meet the force requirements of the product by varying the thickness of the tension bands. However, where continuous plastic strips or belts are utilized, such tension bands contribute to increased weight of the inflatable product. Similarly, an increase in thickness and/or spatial density of solid-strip tension bands also increases the compressed/folded volume of the deflated inflatable structure.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present disclosure provides an internal tensioning structure for use in an inflatable product, and a method for producing the same. The tensioning structure fulfills the basic function of maintaining two adjacent inflatable surfaces in a desired geometric arrangement when the inflatable product is pressurized. The tensioning structure is formed by connecting a pair of plastic strips sheets via spaced-apart strands, such as strings or wires. When pulled taut, the strands provide a high tensile strength between the two opposed plastic strips. At the same time, the plastic strips facilitate a strong, long-lasting weld between the tensioning structure and the inflatable product. Various configurations of the tensioning structure are contemplated within the scope of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, a pair of parallel plastic strips has a plurality of strands extending therebetween to connect the plastic strips to one another, with the strands substantially parallel to one another and substantially perpendicular to the plastic strips. In another embodiment, a similar arrangement of two parallel plastic strips are connected by a plurality of strands with each adjacent pair of such strands converging to a point at one of the plastic strips in a “V” configuration. Either embodiment may be incorporated into a tensioning structure with one of a number of geometric arrangements within the inflatable cavity, such as linear, cylindrical, wave-shaped, etc. According to one embodiment thereof, the present disclosure provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet and a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet, the first and second sheets spaced apart to define a gap when the inflatable product is inflated. The inflatable product further includes a tensioning structure having a gap portion spanning the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet to maintain a spatial relationship between the first and second sheets when the inflatable product is inflated. The gap portion has an extent measured along the surface of at least one of the first sheet and the second sheet. The gap portion occupies a volume and has an operable area occupied by gap portion of the tensioning structure defined as the total area of the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet, as measured along the extent of the gap portion of the tensioning structure. The gap portion of the tensioning structure defines an operable area-to-volume ratio of at least 10 square millimeters per cubic millimeter. According to another embodiment thereof, the present disclosure provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet and a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet. The first and second sheets are spaced apart to define a gap when the inflatable product is inflated. The inflatable product further includes a tensioning structure having a gap portion spanning the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet to maintain a spatial relationship between the first and second sheets when the inflatable product is inflated. The gap portion has an extent measured along the surface of at least one of the first sheet and the second sheet. The gap portion has an operable area occupied by gap portion of the tensioning structure defined as the total area of the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet, as measured along the extent of the gap portion of the tensioning structure. The gap portion of the tensioning structure has a total weight such that the tensioning structure defines an operable area-to-weight ratio of at least 6,000 square centimeters per kilogram. According to another embodiment thereof, the present disclosure provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet and a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet. The first and second sheets are spaced apart to define a gap when the inflatable product is inflated; The inflatable product further comprises a tensioning structure having a gap portion spanning the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet to maintain a spatial relationship between the first and second sheets when the inflatable product is inflated. The gap portion of the tensioning structure has an average thickness of less than 0.125 millimeters. According to yet another embodiment thereof, the present disclosure provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet; a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet, the first and second sheets spaced apart to define a gap; a tensioning structure spanning the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet, the tensioning structure comprising: a plurality of strands uniformly spaced apart and arranged substantially parallel to one another; and a plurality of weld strips spaced apart from one another and substantially perpendicular to the plurality of strands, each of the plurality of weld strips affixed to each of the plurality of strands, and each of the plurality of weld strips affixed to at least one of the first sheet and the second sheet. According to still another embodiment thereof, the present disclosure provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet; a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet, the first and second sheets spaced apart to define a gap; a tensioning structure spanning the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet, the tensioning structure comprising: a plurality of strands uniformly spaced apart and arranged in parallel; and a first weld sheet having the plurality of strands affixed to an upper surface of the first weld sheet. According to still another embodiment thereof, the present disclosure provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet; a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet, the first and second sheets spaced apart to define a gap; a tensioning structure spanning the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet, the tensioning structure comprising: an upper weld strip; a lower weld strip arranged substantially parallel to the upper weld strip and spaced apart from the upper weld strip span the gap between the first sheet and the second sheet; and a plurality of end-to-end V-shaped strands arranged between weld strips, each of the V-shaped strands having upper and lower ends fixed to the upper and lower weld strips, respectively. According to still another embodiment thereof, the present disclosure provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet; a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet, the first and second sheets spaced apart to define a gap, the first sheet and the second sheet cooperating to at least partially bound an inflatable chamber; a plurality of tensioning structures welded to respective inner surfaces of the first and second sheets such that the plurality of tensioning structure span the gap, each of the plurality of tensioning structures comprising: an upper weld strip affixed to one of the first sheet and the second sheet; a lower weld strip affixed to the other of the first sheet and the second sheet; and a plurality of strands connecting the upper and lower weld strips to one another. According to still another embodiment thereof, the present invention provides an inflatable product comprising: a first sheet; a second sheet disposed opposite the first sheet, the first and second sheets spaced apart to define a gap, the first sheet and the second sheet cooperating to at least partially bound an inflatable chamber; a plurality of tensioning structures welded to inner surfaces of the first and second sheets such that the plurality of tensioning structures span the gap, each of the plurality of tensioning structures comprising: a weld sheet; a plurality of strands, and the plurality of strands substantially evenly spaced and arranged substantially parallel to one another, the plurality of strands affixed to the weld sheet; and a weld strip affixed to each end of the weld sheet such that a longitudinal extent of the weld strip is substantially perpendicular to the plurality of strands, respective ends of the plurality of strands are affixed to the weld strip, and each of the weld strips are welded to one of the first sheet and the second sheet. According to still another embodiment thereof, the present invention provides a method for producing a tensioning structure of an inflatable product, the method comprising: arranging at least one of a welder and an adhesive device downstream of a strand guide; supplying a plurality of strands to the welder or the adhesive device via the strand guide, such that the supplied strands are substantially uniformly spaced apart and arranged substantially parallel to one another; positioning weld strips on a first die of the welder or gluing device, the weld strips having a longitudinal extent corresponding to an overall width of the plurality of strands; advancing a second die of the welder or gluing device into an operable position in which the first and second dies are disposed at opposing sides of the weld strips, activating the welder or gluing device to fixedly connect the weld strips to the plurality of strands, such that the weld strips are affixed to the plurality of strands in a spaced apart and substantially parallel arrangement, and such that the weld strips are substantially perpendicular to the plurality of strands. According to still another embodiment thereof, the present invention provides a method for producing a tensioning structure of an inflatable product comprises: arranging a hot roller downstream of a strand guide; supplying a plurality of strands to the hot roller via the strand guide, such that the supplied strands are substantially uniformly spaced apart and arranged substantially parallel to one another; arranging a conveying roller downstream of the strand guide, the conveying roller operable to deliver at least one weld sheet to the hot roller, the at least one weld sheet having a width corresponding to an overall width of the plurality of strands; and passing the plurality of strands and the at least one weld sheet through the hot roller, such that the plurality of strands become affixed to the at least one weld sheet. According to still another embodiment thereof, the present invention provides a method for producing a tensioning structure, the method comprising: arranging a first pair of weld strips parallel to one another on a joining device; wrapping at least one continuous strand around a plurality of members arranged along a pair of rows adjacent the first pair of weld strips, respectively, each of the pair of rows of members offset with respect to the other of the pair of rows of members, the step of wrapping comprising alternating between the pair of rows, such that the at least one continuous strand forms a plurality of end-to-end V-shaped strands; and using the joining device to join the first pair of weld strips to the plurality of strands at respective V-shaped corners formed by the at least one continuous strand, such that the tensioning structure has a tensile strength along a direction perpendicular to a longitudinal extent of the first pair of weld strips.

A47C27087

20180227

20180705

95558.0

A47C2708

KURILLA, ERIC J

INTERNAL TENSIONING STRUCTURE USEABLE WITH INFLATABLE DEVICES

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

A47C

PENDING

GIMBAL AND LOCKING STRUCTURE

A gimbal includes a yaw-axis structure and a locking structure. The yaw-axis structure includes a rotating member and a bearing member connected to the rotating member. The locking structure is coupled to the rotating member and includes a cover fixed on the rotating member with a receiving slot formed between the cover and the rotating member, a locking switch received in the receiving slot and slidable along the receiving slot, and a positioning snap member. One end of the positioning snap member is connected to the locking switch via an elastic member. Another end of the positioning snap member includes a snap-fit portion configured to be snapped to the bearing member to effect a yaw-axis locking of the gimbal when the locking switch is pushed downwards to exert a pressure on the positioning snap member and the snap-fit portion is aligned with a preset position of the bearing member.

1. A gimbal comprising: a yaw-axis structure including: a rotating member; and a bearing member rotatably connected to the rotating member; and a locking structure coupled to the rotating member, the locking structure includes: a cover fixed on the rotating member, a receiving slot being formed between the cover and the rotating member; a locking switch received in the receiving slot and being slidable along the receiving slot; and a positioning snap member, one end of the positioning snap member being connected to the locking switch via an elastic member, and another end of the positioning snap member including a snap-fit portion, wherein the snap-fit portion is configured to be snapped to the bearing member to effect a yaw-axis locking of the gimbal when the locking switch is pushed downwards to exert a pressure on the positioning snap member via the elastic member and the snap-fit portion is aligned with a preset position of the bearing member. 2. The gimbal of claim 1, wherein the locking structure further includes a switch cap rigidly connected to the locking switch and received in and slidable along an open slot of the rotating member. 3. The gimbal of claim 1, wherein the elastic member includes a spring, one end of the spring being connected to the locking switch and another end of the spring being connected to the positioning snap member. 4. The gimbal of claim 1, wherein: the locking switch includes a hollow-square structure having a cavity and an opening at one end of the locking switch, the elastic member and the one end of the positioning snap member connected with the elastic member are accommodated in the cavity of the locking switch, and the other end of the positioning snap member is positioned outside the locking switch. 5. The gimbal of claim 4, wherein the one end of the positioning snap member connected with the elastic member includes a T-shaped structure. 6. The gimbal of claim 1, wherein the bearing member includes an opening or a recess at the preset position of the bearing member. 7. A locking structure comprising: a cover configured to be fixed on a rotating member of a yaw-axis structure of a gimbal and form a receiving slot between the cover and the rotating member; a locking switch configured to be received in the receiving slot and slidable along the receiving slot; and a positioning snap member, one end of the positioning snap member being connected to the locking switch via an elastic member, and another end of the positioning snap member including a snap-fit portion, wherein the snap-fit portion is configured to be snapped to a bearing member of the yaw-axis structure to effect a yaw-axis locking of the gimbal when the locking switch is pushed downwards to exert a pressure on the positioning snap member via the elastic member and the snap-fit portion is aligned with a preset position of the bearing member. 8. The locking structure of claim 7, further comprising: a switch cap rigidly connected to the locking switch and received in and slidable along an open slot of the rotating member. 9. The locking structure of claim 7, wherein the elastic member includes a spring, one end of the spring being connected to the locking switch and another end of the spring being connected to the positioning snap member. 10. The locking structure of claim 7, wherein: the locking switch includes a hollow-square structure having a cavity and an opening at one end of the locking switch, the elastic member and the one end of the positioning snap member connected with the elastic member are accommodated in the cavity of the locking switch, and the other end of the positioning snap member is positioned outside the locking switch. 11. The locking structure of claim 10, wherein the one end of the positioning snap member connected with the elastic member includes a T-shaped structure. 12. The locking structure of claim 7, wherein the bearing member includes an opening or a recess at the preset position of the bearing member. 13. A handle gimbal comprising: a handle including a battery compartment; and a gimbal coupled to the handle, the gimbal including: a yaw-axis structure connected to the handle and including a locking structure; a roll-axis structure connected to the yaw-axis structure and configured to be rotated by the yaw-axis structure; and a pitch-axis structure connected to the roll-axis structure and configured to be rotated by the roll-axis structure, the pitch-axis structure being configured to support a load and drive the load to rotate, wherein the yaw-axis structure is configured to be locked by the locking structure when the yaw-axis structure rotates to a preset position in a non-operational state of the gimbal. 14. The handle gimbal of claim 13, wherein: the yaw-axis structure further includes: a rotating member; and a bearing member rotatably connected to the rotating member, and the locking structure is provided at one of the rotating member and the bearing member, and configured to engage with another one of the rotating member and the bearing member to lock a rotational position of the rotating member relative to the bearing member. 15. The handle gimbal of claim 14, wherein the locking structure includes: a positioning snap member movably provided on the one of the rotating member and the bearing member, and configured to engage with the other one of the rotating member and the bearing member; a locking switch coupled with the positioning snap member and configured to drive the positioning snap member to move to put the positioning snap member in a locked state or an unlocked state; and an elastic member configured to provide an elastic restoring force to the positioning snap member, to automatically restore a position of the positioning snap member. 16. The handle gimbal of claim 15, wherein the locking switch is slidably connected to the one of the rotating member and the bearing member, and is configured to drive the positioning snap member to slide relative to the other one of the rotating member and the bearing member, such that the positioning snap member is engaged with or disengaged from the other one of the rotating member and the bearing member. 17. The handle gimbal of claim 15, wherein: the positioning snap member is configured to rotate around a shaft arranged at a middle part of the positioning snap member, one end of the positioning snap member is an engaging end and another end of the positioning snap member is a driving end, and the locking switch is configured to push the driving end to lift up the engaging end, such that the positioning snap member is disengaged from the other one of the rotating member and the bearing member. 18. The handle gimbal of claim 17, wherein the positioning snap member is configured to remain engaged with the other one of the rotating member and the bearing member under the elastic force of the elastic member. 19. The handle gimbal of claim 15, wherein: the positioning snap member is configured to rotate around a shaft arranged at a middle part of the positioning snap member, one end of the positioning snap member is an engaging end, and the locking switch is configured to push the engaging end, such that the engaging end and the positioning snap member are engaged with the other one of the rotating member and the bearing member. 20. The handle gimbal of claim 19, wherein the positioning snap member is configured to remain disengaged from the other one of the rotating member and the bearing member under the elastic force of the elastic member.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This is a continuation application of International Application No. PCT/CN2015/088243, filed on Aug. 27, 2015, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD The disclosure relates to a gimbal and, more particularly, to a locking structure for locking a motor shaft of a gimbal in a non-operational state and a method of controlling a gimbal. BACKGROUND A three-axis gimbal comprises motors for driving the gimbal to rotate about three axes, including a pitch-axis motor controlling a movement about a pitch axis, a yaw-axis motor controlling a movement about a yaw axis, and a roll-axis motor controlling a movement about a roll axis. A gimbal can rotate within particular angular ranges about the pitch axis, the yaw axis, and the roll axis, respectively. For example, a gimbal can rotate in an angular range of −135° to +45° about the pitch axis, in an angular range of −330° to +330° about the yaw axis, and in an angular range of −45° to +45° about the roll axis. In other words, existing gimbals are provided with limiting structures to limit an operating angle in an operational state. However, attitude of the gimbal is not locked when the gimbal is in a non-operational state, making it inconvenient to store or transport the gimbal. SUMMARY In accordance with the disclosure, there is provided a gimbal including a yaw-axis structure and a locking structure. The yaw-axis structure includes a rotating member and a bearing member rotatably connected to the rotating member. The locking structure is coupled to the rotating member and includes a cover fixed on the rotating member with a receiving slot formed between the cover and the rotating member, a locking switch received in the receiving slot and being slidable along the receiving slot, and a positioning snap member. One end of the positioning snap member is connected to the locking switch via an elastic member. Another end of the positioning snap member includes a snap-fit portion configured to be snapped to the bearing member to effect a yaw-axis locking of the gimbal when the locking switch is pushed downwards to exert a pressure on the positioning snap member via the elastic member and the snap-fit portion is aligned with a preset position of the bearing member. Also in accordance with the disclosure, there is provided a locking structure including a cover a locking switch, and a positioning snap member. The locking structure is configured to be fixed on a rotating member of a yaw-axis structure of a gimbal and form a receiving slot between the cover and the rotating member. The locking switch is configured to be received in the receiving slot and slidable along the receiving slot. One end of the positioning snap member is connected to the locking switch via an elastic member, and another end of the positioning snap member includes a snap-fit portion. The snap-fit portion is configured to be snapped to a bearing member of the yaw-axis structure to effect a yaw-axis locking of the gimbal when the locking switch is pushed downwards to exert a pressure on the positioning snap member via the elastic member and the snap-fit portion is aligned with a preset position of the bearing member. Also in accordance with the disclosure, there is provided a handle gimbal including a handle and a gimbal coupled to the handle. The handle includes a battery compartment. The gimbal including a yaw-axis structure connected to the handle and including a locking structure, a roll-axis structure connected to the yaw-axis structure and configured to be rotated by the yaw-axis structure, and a pitch-axis structure connected to the roll-axis structure and configured to be rotated by the roll-axis structure. The pitch-axis structure is further configured to support a load and drive the load to rotate. The yaw-axis structure is configured to be locked by the locking structure when the yaw-axis structure rotates to a preset position in a non-operational state of the gimbal. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a structure of a gimbal in accordance with an embodiment of the disclosure. FIG. 2 shows a structure of the gimbal of FIG. 1 viewed from another direction. FIG. 3 shows an operating angle range of the gimbal of FIG. 1 about a yaw axis in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 4 shows an angle at which the gimbal of FIG. 1 is locked with respect to the yaw axis in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 5 shows a structure of the gimbal of FIG. 1 with some components thereof being removed. FIG. 6 shows a front view of a locking structure of the gimbal of FIG. 1. FIG. 7 shows a top view of the locking structure of the gimbal of FIG. 6. FIG. 8 shows a sectional view taken along VIII-VIII of FIG. 7. FIG. 9 and FIG. 10 show exploded views from different angles of the locking structure of the gimbal of FIG. 1. FIG. 11 shows a perspective view of the locking structure of the gimbal of FIG. 1 in accordance with another embodiment. FIG. 12 shows the locking structure of the gimbal of FIG. 11 viewed from another angle. FIG. 13 shows a sectional view taken along XIII-XIII of FIG. 12. FIG. 14 and FIG. 15 show a process of performing a yaw-axis locking of the gimbal of FIG. 1. FIG. 16 is a simplified diagram showing the locking structure of the gimbal of FIG. 1 in accordance with another embodiment. FIG. 17 is a simplified diagram showing the locking structure of the gimbal of FIG. 1 in accordance with yet another embodiment. FIG. 18 is a flowchart of a method of controlling a gimbal in accordance with embodiments of the disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS Technical solutions of the present disclosure will be described with reference to the drawings. It will be appreciated that embodiments as described in the disclosure are some rather than all of the embodiments of the present disclosure. Other embodiments, which are conceived by those having ordinary skills in the art on the basis of the disclosed embodiments without inventive efforts, should fall within the scope of the present disclosure. FIGS. 1 and 2 show a gimbal 100 in accordance with an embodiment of the disclosure. The gimbal 100 can be a three-axis gimbal comprising a pitch-axis structure 1, a yaw-axis structure 2, and a roll-axis structure 3. A camera 4 can be attached to the pitch-axis structure 1. A motor of the pitch-axis structure 1 can drive the camera 4 to perform a pitch movement about the pitch axis. The pitch-axis structure 1 is attached to the roll-axis structure 3, and a motor of the roll-axis structure 3 can drive the camera 4 to perform a roll movement about the roll axis. The roll-axis structure 3 is attached to the yaw-axis structure 2, and a motor of the yaw-axis structure 2 can drive the camera 4 to perform a yaw movement about the yaw axis. The yaw-axis structure 2 is attached to a base 5 through which the gimbal can be mounted onto a fixing surface (not shown). The gimbal 100 further comprises a locking structure 6. In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 1, the locking structure 6 is provided at the yaw-axis structure 2 and configured to limit a rotation of the gimbal 100 about the yaw axis in a non-operational state (hereinafter referred to as a “yaw-axis locking”). It will be appreciated that, the technical solution provided in the disclosure can be applied to a two-axis gimbal although a three-axis gimbal is shown throughout the drawings. For example, the locking structure 6 can be provided at a yaw-axis structure of a two-axis gimbal to effect a yaw-axis locking when the two-axis gimbal is in a non-operational state. FIGS. 3 and 4 schematically show the rotation of the gimbal 100 about the yaw axis in the operational and the non-operational states, respectively. As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, a Cartesian coordinate system is established with respect to a center of rotation of the yaw-axis structure 2 of the gimbal 100 (i.e., the yaw axis, denoted by Y). FIG. 3 shows an operating angle range from, e.g., about −330° (i.e., about 330° in a counterclockwise direction) to about +330° (i.e., about 330° in a clockwise direction) of the gimbal 100 about the yaw axis in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 4 shows that the roll-axis structure 3 has rotated about the yaw axis for an angle of, e.g., about −90° (i.e., about 90° in a counterclockwise direction) when the yaw axis of the gimbal 100 is locked in the non-operational state. FIGS. 5 to 10 show a structure of the locking structure 6 in accordance with an embodiment of the disclosure. In some embodiments, as shown in FIGS. 6-10, the locking structure 6 comprises a locking switch 61, a switch cap 62, a positioning snap member 63, an elastic member 64, and a cover 65. The cover 65 is fixed onto a rotating member 21 of the yaw-axis structure 2. In some instances, the cover 65 can be fixed onto the rotating member 21 using a screw. A receiving slot 66 is formed between the cover 65 and the rotating member 21. The locking switch 61 and the positioning snap member 63 are received in the receiving slot 66 and configured to be slidable along the receiving slot 66. The switch cap 62 is rigidly connected to the locking switch 61. In some embodiments, the switch cap 62 can be fixed to the locking switch 61 using a screw. The rotating member 21 includes an open slot 211 in which the switch cap 62 is received. The switch cap 62 can be slid along the open slot 211, to control the locking switch 61 to slide along the receiving slot 66. The locking switch 61 is connected to the positioning snap member 63 via the elastic member 64 (e.g., a spring assembly). A relative movement between the positioning snap member 63 and the locking switch 61 can be effected as the elastic member 64 is capable of being compressed and stretched. In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 9, the locking switch 61 has a substantially hollow-square structure. The locking switch 61 comprises a cavity 611. An opening 613 is provided at a sidewall 612 of the hollow-square structure, such that the cavity 611 of the locking switch 61 is in communication with an exterior of the locking switch 61. One end of the positioning snap member 63 has a T-shaped structure. A T-head 631 (head of the T-shaped structure) of the positioning snap member 63 can be accommodated in the cavity 611 of the locking switch 61 and connected to a sidewall 614 of the cavity 611 of the locking switch 61 opposite to the opening 613 via the elastic member 64. Except for the T-head 631, remaining portion (not labeled in the drawings) of the positioning snap member 63 can be positioned exterior to the locking switch 61 and can be continuous to the T-head 631 through the opening 613 of the locking switch 61. The other end of the positioning snap member 63 includes a snap-fit portion 632. In some embodiments, when the gimbal 100 is in the non-operational state, the gimbal 100 can be rotated about the yaw axis until the snap-fit portion 632 reaches a preset position of a bearing member 22. The bearing member 22 can be snapped at the preset position to effect the yaw-axis locking of the gimbal. In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 8, an opening 221 is provided at the preset position of the bearing member 22 of the yaw-axis structure 2. The snap-fit portion 632 of the positioning snap member can be snapped into the opening 221 to effect the yaw-axis locking of the gimbal 100, thereby preventing the gimbal 100 from rotating about the yaw axis. A configuration of the bearing member 22 and the rotating member 21 can be determined according to actual needs. In some embodiments, the bearing member 22 can be a stator of a motor, and the rotating member 21 can be a rotor of a motor. In some other embodiments, the bearing member 22 can be a component fixedly connected to a stator of a motor, and the rotating member 21 can be a component fixedly connected to a rotor of a motor. In some other embodiments, the opening 221 can be replaced by a recess. For instance, a recess can be provided at the preset position of the bearing member 22 of the yaw-axis structure 2. The yaw-axis locking of the gimbal 100 in the non-operational state can be effected by the snap-fit portion 632 of the positioning snap member 63 mating with the recess. In the example shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, a preset locking position in the non-operational state is at about −90° (i.e., 90° in a counterclockwise direction). The yaw-axis locking of the gimbal 100 can be effected by rotating the gimbal about the yaw axis to the locking position and snap the snap-fit portion into the opening 221. Referring to FIGS. 11 to 13, in some embodiments, the yaw-axis structure 2 further comprises a limiting member 68. The limiting member 68 can mate with the positioning snap member 63 to limit the positioning snap member 63 when the positioning snap member 63 is slid to a locked position or a released position. In the illustrative embodiment shown in FIGS. 11 to 13, the limiting member 68 includes an elastic pillar. The locking switch 61, which is connected to the positioning snap member 63, includes two limiting slots 61a and 61b. The elastic pillar can be held in the limiting slot 61b when the positioning snap member 63 is slid to the locked position, and the elastic pillar can be held in the other limiting slot 61a when the positioning snap member 63 is slid to the released position. In some embodiments, the two limiting slots 61a and 61b can be directly provided at the positioning snap member 63. In some other embodiments, the limiting member 68 can include an elastic sheet. In these embodiments, the locking switch 61, which is connected to the positioning snap member 63, can include two bosses. The elastic sheet can be held at one of the bosses when the positioning snap member 63 is slid to the locked position, and the elastic pillar can be held at the other one of the bosses when the positioning snap member 63 is slid to the released position. In some embodiments, the two bosses can be directly provided on the positioning snap member 63. A process of automatically locking the yaw axis of the gimbal will be described below in detail. When the switch cap 62 is positioned in proximity to or at an upper end of the open slot 211 of the rotating member 21, the locking switch 61, which is rigidly connected to the switch cap 62, can be positioned in proximity to an upper end of the receiving slot 66 or at an upper end of the receiving slot 66. The positioning snap member 63 can be lifted up by the locking switch 61 via the elastic member 64, such that the snap-fit portion 632 of the positioning snap member 63 is disengaged from the opening 221 of the yaw-axis bearing member 22 and the yaw axis of the gimbal 100 is thus unlocked. A normal operation of the gimbal can be performed when the yaw axis of the gimbal 100 is unlocked. If the yaw axis of the gimbal 100 is to be locked when the gimbal 100 is in a non-operational state, the switch cap 62 can be moved downwards to drive the locking switch 61 to move downwards in the receiving slot 66. The elastic member 64 can be compressed by the locking switch 61 to cause a downward movement of the positioning snap member 63. At this point, if the gimbal 100 is not at the preset locked position, the gimbal 100 would not be locked as the snap-fit portion of the positioning snap member 63 is not aligned with the opening 221 of the bearing member 22, as shown in FIG. 14. The gimbal 100 can be rotated about the yaw axis to drive the locking structure 6 to rotate. The locking structure 6 can thus be moved relative to the bearing member 22 of the yaw-axis structure 2 of the gimbal 100. When the positioning snap member 63 is rotated to a position corresponding to the opening 221 of the bearing member 22, the positioning snap member 63 can be moved downwards under the pressure of the elastic member 64, such that the snap-fit portion 632 enters the opening 221 to engage with the bearing member 22, thereby effecting the yaw-axis locking of the gimbal 100, as shown in FIG. 15. FIG. 16 is a simplified diagram showing the locking structure 6 in accordance with another embodiment. A positioning snap member 63′ can be driven to rotate about a shaft 67. The positioning snap member 63′ comprises an engaging end 633 and a driving end 634. The shaft 67 is provided between the engaging end 633 and the driving end 634. The engaging end 633 can be configured to engage with the bearing member 22. The driving end 634 is connected to an elastic member 64′, which is capable of exerting a force onto the driving end 634. The engaging end 633 can be engaged with the bearing member 22 under the force exerted from the elastic member 64′ when the bearing member 22 is rotated relative to the rotating member 21 to a preset position. In addition, the locking switch can push the driving end 634 to lift up the engaging end 633, such that the engaging end 633 is disengaged from the bearing member 22. In some embodiments, the elastic member 64′ can be an elastic compressing member for providing a pushing force onto the driving end 634. The bearing member 22 can be provided with a recess 222. The engaging end 633 of the positioning snap member 63′ can be engaged with the bearing member 22 by snapping to the recess 222 of the bearing member 22. FIG. 17 is a simplified diagram showing the locking structure 6 in accordance with yet another embodiment. Different from the configuration shown in FIG. 16, the elastic member 64′ can be an elastic stretching member and connected to the driving end 634 of the positioning snap member 63′. The positioning snap member 63′ can be maintained to be disengaged from the bearing member 22 under an elastic force of the elastic member 64′. The engaging end 633 can be pushed by the locking switch to engage with the bearing member 22 when the bearing member 22 is rotated relative to the rotating member 21 to a preset position. In some other embodiments, the locking structure 6 can be provided at the bearing member 22. The yaw-axis locking of the gimbal 100 can be effected by engaging the locking structure 6 with the rotating member 21. FIG. 18 illustrates a method of controlling the gimbal 100. As shown in FIG. 18, at 70, the bearing member 22 is rotated to a preset position. At 71, a rotational position of the bearing member 22 relative to the rotating member 21 is locked, placing the yaw-axis structure 2 into a locked state. At 72, a position of the positioning snap member 63 or 63′ is restored to unlock the yaw-axis structure 2. In some embodiments, locking the rotational position of the bearing member 22 relative to the rotating member 21 (process 71 in FIG. 18) can comprise pushing the positioning snap member 63 or 63′ to protrude or rotate, such that the positioning snap member 63 or 63′ is snapped to a corresponding one of the rotating member 21 and the bearing member 22. In some embodiments, restoring the position of the positioning snap member 63 or 63′ to unlock the yaw-axis structure 2 (process 72 in FIG. 18) can comprise restoring the position of the positioning snap member 63 or 63′ to unlock the yaw-axis structure by an elastic restoring force provided by the elastic member 64 or 64′ connected to the positioning snap member 63 or 63′. In some other embodiments, the position of the positioning snap member 63 or 63′ can be restored to unlock the yaw-axis structure by raising or reversely rotating the positioning snap member 63 or 63′ using the locking switch 61 or 61′. The gimbal 100 can be applied to various types of gimbal mechanisms, such as a gimbal onboard an unmanned aerial vehicle, a gimbal onboard a land vehicle, a handle gimbal, or a handheld gimbal. For example, the gimbal 100 can be used in a handle gimbal which comprises a handle and the gimbal 100. The handle can include a battery compartment for one or more batteries. The gimbal 100 can be coupled to the handle. For example, the yaw-axis structure 2 of the gimbal 100 can be connected to the handle. The roll-axis structure 3 can be connected to the yaw-axis structure 2 and can be rotated by the yaw-axis structure 2. The pitch-axis structure 1 can be connected to the roll-axis structure 3 and can be rotated by the roll-axis structure 3. The pitch-axis structure 1 can be configured to support a load and drive the load to rotate. The yaw-axis structure 2 can include the locking structure 5. When the roll-axis structure 3 is rotated by the yaw-axis structure 2 to a preset position in a non-operational state of the gimbal, the rotating member 21 and the bearing member 22 of the yaw-axis structure 2, which are rotatable with respect to one another, can be engaged with each other by the snap-fit portion of the locking structure, such that the yaw-axis structure 2 is locked. According to the gimbal 100, the locking structure of the gimbal 100, and the method of controlling the gimbal 100 provided by embodiments of the disclosure, when the gimbal 100 rotates about the yaw axis while the gimbal 100 is in the non-operational state, the positioning snap member can be pushed out at a preset position to engage with the rotating member 21 or the bearing member 22 of the yaw-axis structure 2, to effect the yaw-axis locking of the gimbal 100 in the non-operational state. Furthermore, the yaw-axis locking of the gimbal 100 in the non-operational state can be conveniently effected as the preset position can be reached automatically using the elastic member. The foregoing disclosure is merely illustrative of the embodiments of the disclosure but not intended to limit the scope of the disclosure. Any equivalent modifications to a structure or process flow, which are made without departing from the specification and the drawings of the disclosure, and a direct or indirect application in other relevant technical fields, shall also fall into the scope of the disclosure.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>A three-axis gimbal comprises motors for driving the gimbal to rotate about three axes, including a pitch-axis motor controlling a movement about a pitch axis, a yaw-axis motor controlling a movement about a yaw axis, and a roll-axis motor controlling a movement about a roll axis. A gimbal can rotate within particular angular ranges about the pitch axis, the yaw axis, and the roll axis, respectively. For example, a gimbal can rotate in an angular range of −135° to +45° about the pitch axis, in an angular range of −330° to +330° about the yaw axis, and in an angular range of −45° to +45° about the roll axis. In other words, existing gimbals are provided with limiting structures to limit an operating angle in an operational state. However, attitude of the gimbal is not locked when the gimbal is in a non-operational state, making it inconvenient to store or transport the gimbal.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In accordance with the disclosure, there is provided a gimbal including a yaw-axis structure and a locking structure. The yaw-axis structure includes a rotating member and a bearing member rotatably connected to the rotating member. The locking structure is coupled to the rotating member and includes a cover fixed on the rotating member with a receiving slot formed between the cover and the rotating member, a locking switch received in the receiving slot and being slidable along the receiving slot, and a positioning snap member. One end of the positioning snap member is connected to the locking switch via an elastic member. Another end of the positioning snap member includes a snap-fit portion configured to be snapped to the bearing member to effect a yaw-axis locking of the gimbal when the locking switch is pushed downwards to exert a pressure on the positioning snap member via the elastic member and the snap-fit portion is aligned with a preset position of the bearing member. Also in accordance with the disclosure, there is provided a locking structure including a cover a locking switch, and a positioning snap member. The locking structure is configured to be fixed on a rotating member of a yaw-axis structure of a gimbal and form a receiving slot between the cover and the rotating member. The locking switch is configured to be received in the receiving slot and slidable along the receiving slot. One end of the positioning snap member is connected to the locking switch via an elastic member, and another end of the positioning snap member includes a snap-fit portion. The snap-fit portion is configured to be snapped to a bearing member of the yaw-axis structure to effect a yaw-axis locking of the gimbal when the locking switch is pushed downwards to exert a pressure on the positioning snap member via the elastic member and the snap-fit portion is aligned with a preset position of the bearing member. Also in accordance with the disclosure, there is provided a handle gimbal including a handle and a gimbal coupled to the handle. The handle includes a battery compartment. The gimbal including a yaw-axis structure connected to the handle and including a locking structure, a roll-axis structure connected to the yaw-axis structure and configured to be rotated by the yaw-axis structure, and a pitch-axis structure connected to the roll-axis structure and configured to be rotated by the roll-axis structure. The pitch-axis structure is further configured to support a load and drive the load to rotate. The yaw-axis structure is configured to be locked by the locking structure when the yaw-axis structure rotates to a preset position in a non-operational state of the gimbal.

F16M11123

20180227

20180705

87489.0

F16M1112

STERLING, AMY JO

GIMBAL AND LOCKING STRUCTURE

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

F16M

PENDING

ELECTRONIC CIGARETTE

An electronic cigarette includes a battery assembly, an atomizer assembly and a cigarette bottle assembly. An external thread electrode is located in one end of battery assembly. An internal thread electrode is located in one end of atomizer assembly. The battery assembly and the atomizer assembly are connected by the screwthread electrode. The cigarette bottle assembly is inserted into the other end of the atomizer assembly and both form a cigarette type or cigar type body.

1. A vaporizing device comprising: a battery assembly comprising a battery assembly housing having a first end and a second end, with a battery electrically connected to a circuit board within the battery assembly housing; an indicator in the battery assembly housing electrically connected to the circuit board; a first electrode in the battery assembly housing; an atomizer assembly comprising: an atomizer assembly housing having a first end and a second end; a liquid supply in the atomizer assembly housing; a wire coil wound around a part of a porous body which is perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of the device; the porous body in contact with liquid from the liquid supply; an airflow path in the atomizer assembly housing leading to an outlet; a second electrode in the first end of the atomizer assembly housing; the atomizer assembly engageable with the battery assembly to form the vaporizing device, with electricity conducted from the battery to the wire coil through the first and second electrodes for heating the wire coil. 2. The vaporizing device of claim 1 wherein the indicator comprises an LED. 3. The vaporizing device of claim 1 further including an air flow sensor electrically connected to the circuit board. 4. The vaporizing device of claim 1 with the porous body comprising a fiber material. 5. The vaporizing device of claim 4 with the porous body moving liquid to the wire coil by capillary action. 6. The vaporizing device of claim 1 further including a switch which switches the wire coil on and off. 7. The vaporizing device of claim 1 wherein the liquid supply comprises a plastic bottle containing the liquid and having a mouthpiece, with the outlet in the mouthpiece. 8. The vaporizing device of claim 1 with the liquid comprising 0.1-3.5% nicotine. 9. A vaporizing device comprising: a battery assembly comprising a battery, and an LED electrically connected to a circuit board within a battery assembly housing; a first electrode in an end of the battery assembly housing; an atomizer assembly comprising an atomizer in an atomizer assembly housing; the atomizer including a wire coil wound around a porous body, with the wire coil and the porous body positioned perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of the device, the porous body in contact with a supply of liquid; the wire coil and the porous body in an airflow path through the atomizer assembly housing leading to an outlet; wherein air passes across the wire coil and the porous body; a second electrode at an end of the atomizer assembly housing; and the battery assembly and the atomizer assembly electrically connected by engagement of the first electrode with the second electrode. 10. The vaporizing device of claim 9 further including an air flow sensor electrically connected to the circuit board. 11. The vaporizing device of claim 9 with the porous body comprising a fiber material. 12. The vaporizing device of claim 9 with the porous body moving liquid to the wire coil by capillary action. 13. The vaporizing device of claim 9 further including a switch which switches the wire coil on and off. 14. The vaporizing device of claim 9 wherein the supply of liquid comprises a plastic bottle containing liquid and having a mouthpiece, with the outlet in the mouthpiece. 15. The vaporizing device of claim 9 with the liquid comprising 0.1-3.5% nicotine. 16. A vaporizing device comprising: a battery assembly comprising a battery, an LED, and a micro-controller unit electrically connected to a circuit board within a battery assembly housing; a first electrode in an end of the battery assembly housing; an atomizer assembly comprising an atomizer in an atomizer assembly housing; the atomizer including a wire coil wound around a porous body, with the wire coil and the porous body positioned perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of the device, the porous body in contact with liquid contained in a plastic bottle having a mouthpiece; the wire coil and the porous body in an airflow path through the atomizer assembly housing leading to an outlet in the mouthpiece; wherein air passes across the wire coil and the porous body; an air flow sensor electrically connected to the circuit board; a second electrode at an end of the atomizer assembly housing; and the battery assembly and the atomizer assembly electrically connected by engagement of the first electrode with the second electrode, and with electricity conducted from the battery to the wire coil through the first and second electrodes.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/634,698, filed Jun. 27, 2017 and now pending, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/158,421, filed May 18, 2016, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,808,033, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/754,521, filed Jan. 30, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,370,205, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/226,819, filed Jan. 15, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,375,957, which is a § 371 national phase application of International Patent Application No. PCT/CN2007/001576, filed May 15, 2007, which claims the benefit of Chinese Patent Application No. 200620090805.0, filed May 16, 2006. All of these applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. BACKGROUND Although smoking causes serious respiratory diseases and cancers, it is difficult to get smokers to quit smoking. Nicotine is the effective ingredient in cigarettes. Nicotine is a micro-molecular alkaloid which is basically harmless to humans at low dosages. Tar is the major harmful substance in tobacco. Tobacco tar contains thousands of ingredients, dozens of which are carcinogenic. Cigarette substitutes have used relatively pure nicotine in patches, chewing gum and aerosols. Still disadvantages remain with cigarette substitutes or products for helping smokers to quit smoking. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An improved electronic cigarette has a battery assembly, an atomizer assembly and a cigarette bottle assembly. The battery assembly connects with one end of the atomizer assembly, and the cigarette bottle assembly is inserted into the other end of the atomizer assembly, thus forming one cigarette type or cigar type body. Use of the electronic cigarette reduces cancer risks and fire hazards while providing a simulated smoking experience. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a side view of an electronic cigarette. FIG. 2A is a view of the battery assembly. FIG. 2B is a view of another battery assembly. FIG. 3 is the diagram of the atomizer assembly. FIG. 4 is the diagram of the cigarette bottle assembly. FIG. 5A is a section view of an electronic cigarette. FIG. 5B is a section view of another embodiment. FIG. 6 is a diagram of a charger. FIG. 7 is the electric circuit diagram. FIG. 8 is a side view of an atomizer. FIG. 9 is an end view of the atomizer shown in FIG. 8. FIG. 10 is a diagram of a spray atomizer. FIG. 11 is an end view of the atomizer shown in FIG. 10. FIG. 12 is a section view of another embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS As shown in FIG. 1, an electronic cigarette has an appearance similar to a cigarette inserted into the cigarette holder. As shown in FIG. 2A, the electronic cigarette includes a battery assembly, an atomizer assembly and a cigarette bottle assembly. An external thread electrode (209) is located in one end of the battery assembly, and an internal thread electrode (302) is located in one end of the atomizer assembly. The battery assembly and atomizer assembly are connected through the screw thread electrode into an electronic cigarette. The cigarette bottle assembly is inserted into the other end of atomizer assembly. As shown in FIG. 2A, the battery assembly includes an indicator (202), lithium ion battery (203), MOSFET electric circuit board (205), sensor (207), silica gel corrugated membrane (208), primary screw thread electrode (209), primary negative pressure cavity (210), and primary shell (211). On one end of the primary shell (211) is an external thread electrode (209). On the other end is an indicator (202), where there is an indicator cap (201) on one side having a small hole (501). On the other side, the lithium ion battery (203) and MOSFET (Metallic Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Tube) electric circuit board (205) are connected successively. The sensor (207) is located on MOSFET electric circuit board (205). Between the primary screw thread electrode (209) and sensor (207) is a silica gel corrugated membrane (208), on which there is the primary negative pressure cavity (210). The sensor (207) is connected with the silica gel corrugated membrane (208) through the switch spring (212). The sensor (207) may be switch sensor made of elastic alloy slice, a linear output Hall sensor, a semiconductor force-sensitive chip, a semiconductor matrix thermoelectric bridge chip, capacitance or inductance sensor. The indicators (202) include two red LEDs. The lithium ion battery (203) may be either a rechargeable polymer lithium ion battery or a rechargeable lithium ion battery. The external thread electrode (209) is a gold-coated stainless steel or brass part with a hole drilled in the center. The silica gel corrugated membrane (208) may alternatively be made of fluorinated rubber, butyronitrile rubber, or elastic alloy film. As shown in FIG. 3, the atomizer assembly includes the internal thread electrode (302), air-liquid separator (303), atomizer (307) and the secondary shell (306). One end of the secondary shell (306) is inserted into the cigarette bottle assembly for connection, while the other end has an internal thread electrode (302), in which there is the secondary negative pressure cavity (301). The air-liquid separator (303) and the atomizer (307) are connected with the internal thread electrode (302) successively. On the secondary shell (306), there is an air intake hole (502). The air-liquid separator (303) is made of stainless steel or plastic with a hole. The internal thread electrode (302) is a gold-coated stainless steel or brass part with a hole in the center. The atomizer (307) may be a capillary impregnation atomizer as in FIGS. 8 and 9, or a spray atomizer as in FIGS. 10 and 11. As shown in FIG. 4, the cigarette bottle assembly includes the cigarette liquid bottle (401), fiber (402) and suction nozzle (403). The fiber (402) containing cigarette liquid is located on one end of the cigarette liquid bottle (401). This end is inserted into the secondary shell (306) and lies against the atomizer (307). The suction nozzle (403) is located on the other end of the cigarette liquid bottle (401). Between the fiber (402) and interior wall of the cigarette liquid bottle (401) is an air intake hole (503). As shown in FIG. 5A, the standby state has the fully charged battery assembly shown on FIG. 2A fastened onto the atomizer assembly shown on FIG. 3, which is then inserted into the cigarette bottle assembly shown in FIG. 4. When the user slightly sucks the suction nozzle (403), negative pressure forms on the silica gel corrugated membrane (208) through the air intake hole (503) and the primary and secondary negative pressure cavities (210, 301). The silica gel corrugated membrane (208), under the action of suction pressure difference, distorts to drive the switch spring (212) and sensor (207), thus switching MOSFET electric circuit board (205). At this moment, the indicators (202) are lit gradually; the lithium ion battery (203) electrifies the heating body (305) inside the atomizer (307) through MOSFET electric circuit board (205) as well as the internal and external thread electrodes (302, 209). The heating body (305) inside the atomizer (307) produces heat. The fiber (402) inside the cigarette liquid bottle (401) contains cigarette liquid, which soaks the micro-porous ceramics (801) inside the atomizer through the fiber (402). The air enters through the air intake hole (502), passes through the run-through hole on the air-liquid separator (303), and helps to form air-liquid mixture in the spray nozzle (304) of the atomizer (307). The air-liquid mixture sprays onto the heating body (305), gets vaporized, and is quickly absorbed into the airflow and condensed into aerosol, which passes through the air intake hole (503) and suction nozzle (403) to form white mist type aerosol. When suction stops, the switch spring (212) and sensor (207) are reset; the atomizer (307) stops working; the indicators (202) gradually die down. When the operation times reaches the pre-set value, the atomizer (307) provides a work delay of 5-20 seconds per time, so as to remove the micro-dirt accumulated on the heating body (305). Besides the micro-porous ceramics, the liquid supply material of the atomizer (307) may also be foamed ceramics, micro-porous glass, foamed metal, stainless steel fiber felt, terylene fiber, nylon fiber, nitrile fiber, aramid fiber or hard porous plastics. The heating body (305) is made of the micro-porous ceramics on which nickel-chromium alloy wire, iron-chromium alloy wire, platinum wire, or other electro thermal materials are wound. Alternatively, it may be a porous component directly made of electrically conductive ceramics or PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) ceramics and associated with a sintered electrode. The surface of the heating body (305) is sintered into high-temperature glaze to fix the zeolite grains, which are made of natural zeolite, artificial non-organic micro-porous ceramics or aluminum oxide grains. The cigarette liquid bottle (401) and suction nozzle (403) in the cigarette bottle assembly are made of non-toxic plastic. The fiber (402) inside of them is made of polypropylene fiber or nylon fiber to absorb cigarette liquid. In the battery assembly, there is a fine hole (501) on the indicator cap (201) for balancing the pressure difference on both sides of the silica gel corrugated membrane (208). The cigarette liquid contains 0.1-3.5% nicotine, 0.05-5% tobacco flavor, 0.1-3% organic acid, 0.1-0.5% stabilizer, and propanediol for the remaining. The primary and secondary shells (211, 306) are made of stainless steel tube or copper alloy tube with baked-enamel coating of real cigarette color. As shown in FIG. 12, the diameter of the battery assembly may be increased in proportion, so that it is consistent with the diameter of the atomizer assembly. Its shell may be decorated with the leaf veins and sub-gloss brown-yellow baked-enamel coating, to create a cigar type device. For charging the lithium ion battery (203), the screw thread electrode (601) matches the external thread electrode (209) on the battery assembly, so that it may be used as the charging interface. The design in FIG. 2B is difference from the design in FIG. 1A as follows: Microcircuit (206) is added between MOSFET electric circuit board (205) and sensor (207). On the surface of the primary shell (211), there is a screen (204) for display of the power of the lithium ion battery (203) and the sucking times. As shown in FIG. 5B, a fully charged battery assembly is attached onto the atomizer assembly, which is then inserted into the cigarette bottle assembly shown on FIG. 4. When the user slightly sucks the suction nozzle (403), negative pressure forms on the silica gel corrugated membrane (208) through the air intake hole (503) and the primary and secondary negative pressure cavities (210, 301). The silica gel corrugated membrane (208), under the action of suction pressure difference, distorts to drive the switch spring (212) and sensor (207), thus activating the Microcircuit (206) and MOSFET electric circuit board (205). At this moment, the indicators (202) are lit gradually; the lithium ion battery (203) electrifies the heating body (305) inside the atomizer (307) through MOSFET electric circuit board (205) as well as the internal and external thread electrodes (302, 209), so that the heating body (305) inside the atomizer (307) produces heat. The fiber (402) inside the cigarette liquid bottle (401) contains cigarette liquid, which soaks the micro-porous ceramics (801) inside the atomizer through the fiber (402). The air enters through the air intake hole (502), passes through the run-through hole on the air-liquid separator (303), and helps to form air-liquid mixture in the spray nozzle (304) of the atomizer (307). The air-liquid mixture sprays onto the heating body (305), gets vaporized, and is quickly absorbed into the airflow and condensed into aerosol, which passes through the air intake hole (503) and suction nozzle (403) to form white mist type aerosol. As shown in FIG. 7, when the action of suction activates the sensor, Microcircuit (206) scans the sensor (207) in the power-saving mode of pulse, and according to the signal parameters of the sensor (207), restricts the atomizing capacity with the integral function of frequency to single operation time. Also, the microcircuit (206) accomplishes the pulse width modulation and over discharging protection for the constant power output, automatic cleansing for thousands of times per operation, step lighting/dying down control of the indicator, display of the operation times and battery capacity, automatic recovery after sensor malfunction shutdown, etc. The unit and its connecting structure may also be loaded with drugs for delivery to the lung. Above are just specifications of an example and do not necessarily restrict the scope of protection. Any equivalent modification made on the basis of the design spirit shall fall into the scope of protection.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Although smoking causes serious respiratory diseases and cancers, it is difficult to get smokers to quit smoking. Nicotine is the effective ingredient in cigarettes. Nicotine is a micro-molecular alkaloid which is basically harmless to humans at low dosages. Tar is the major harmful substance in tobacco. Tobacco tar contains thousands of ingredients, dozens of which are carcinogenic. Cigarette substitutes have used relatively pure nicotine in patches, chewing gum and aerosols. Still disadvantages remain with cigarette substitutes or products for helping smokers to quit smoking.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An improved electronic cigarette has a battery assembly, an atomizer assembly and a cigarette bottle assembly. The battery assembly connects with one end of the atomizer assembly, and the cigarette bottle assembly is inserted into the other end of the atomizer assembly, thus forming one cigarette type or cigar type body. Use of the electronic cigarette reduces cancer risks and fire hazards while providing a simulated smoking experience.

A24F47008

20180228

20180705

79125.0

A24F4700

KRINKER, YANA B

ELECTRONIC CIGARETTE

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

A24F

PENDING

SAMPLE ANALYZER AND COMPUTER PROGRAM PRODUCT

A sample analyzer prepares a measurement sample from a blood sample or a body fluid sample which differs from the blood sample; measures the prepared measurement sample; obtains characteristic information representing characteristics of the components in the measurement sample; sets either a blood measurement mode for measuring the blood sample, or a body fluid measurement mode for measuring the body fluid sample as an operating mode; and measures the measurement sample prepared from the blood sample by executing operations in the blood measurement mode when the blood measurement mode has been set, and measuring the measurement sample prepared from the body fluid sample by executing operations in the body fluid measurement mode that differs from the operations in the blood measurement mode when the body fluid measurement mode has been set, is disclosed. A computer program product is also disclosed.

1. A sample analyzer comprising: a plurality of chambers each configured to receive a sample, the sample selectively comprising (i) a blood sample or (ii) a body fluid sample, wherein the body fluid sample contains body fluid, other than blood, which comprises one of cerebrospinal fluid, thoracic fluid, abdominal fluid, fluid collecting in the cardiac sac, synovial fluid, dialysate from peritoneal dialysis, or intraperitoneal rinse; a plurality of detectors each configured to interrogate cells in the sample and output measurements on cells in the sample; a controller programmed to selectively execute a blood measuring algorithm or a body fluid measuring algorithm different from the blood measuring algorithm, wherein the blood measuring algorithm defines a sequence of operations for sensing cells in the blood sample, and the body fluid measuring algorithm defines a sequence of operations for sensing cells in the body fluid sample, the controller programmed to: display a selection screen arranged to allow a user to select either the blood sample or the body fluid sample for measurement; in response to selection of the blood sample for measurement, execute the blood measuring algorithm to reconfigure the sample analyzer into a blood sample analyzer operable to: introduce the blood sample into one of the plurality of chambers; operate one of the plurality of detectors to sense cells in the introduced blood sample; and derive a digitally analyzable form of measurements of the cells in the introduced blood sample; and in response to selection of the body fluid sample for measurement, execute the fluid measuring algorithm to reconfigure the sample analyzer into a body fluid sample analyzer operable to: introduce the body fluid sample into said one or another of the plurality of chambers; operate said one or another of the plurality of detectors to sense cells in the introduced body fluid sample; and derive a digitally analyzable form of measurements of the cells in the introduced body fluid sample. 2. The sample analyzer according to claim 1, wherein the blood measuring algorithm is executable to run the blood sample analyzer to sense the cells in the introduced blood sample for a first measurement time, and the body fluid measuring algorithm is executable to run the body fluid sample analyzer to sense the cells in the introduced body fluid sample for a second measurement time, wherein the second measurement time is longer than the first measurement time. 3. The sample analyzer according to claim 1, wherein the controller is programmed to wash said one of the plurality of chambers to reduce a carryover effect on the measurements on the cells in the body fluid sample before introducing the body fluid sample into said one of the plurality of chambers. 4. The sample analyzer according to claim 1, wherein the body fluid measuring algorithm is executable to analyze the digitally analyzable form of measurements of the cells in the introduced body fluid sample and count a type of cells of interest among the cells in the introduced body fluid sample. 5. The sample analyzer according to claim 4, wherein the body fluid measuring algorithm is executable to count at least one of mono-nucleated cells or poly-nucleated cells among the cells in the introduced body fluid sample. 6. The sample analyzer according to claim 5, wherein the body fluid measuring algorithm is executable to calculate a relative amount of the at least one of mono-nucleated cells or poly-nucleated cells. 7. The sample analyzer according to claim 5, wherein the blood measuring algorithm is executable to count at least one of neutrophil, lymphocyte, monocyte, eosinophil or basophil. 8. The sample analyzer according to claim 1, wherein the controller is programmed to: introduce a cell-free sample into said one of the plurality of chambers for measurement by said one of the plurality of detectors, the cell-free sample having no cells contained in the cell-free sample; and run the cell-free sample through said one of the plurality of chambers and said one of the plurality of detectors, and the controller is further programmed to analyze the digitally analyzable form of measurements of the cell-free sample and count cells carried over into the cell-free sample from a test sample previously measured. 9. A method for analyzing a sample by a sample analyzer that comprises a plurality of chambers each configured to receive a sample selectively comprising (i) a blood sample or (ii) a body fluid sample, and a plurality of detectors each configured to interrogate cells in the sample and output measurements of the cells in the sample, the method comprising; displaying a selection screen arranged to allow a user to select either the blood sample or the body fluid sample for measurement, wherein the body fluid sample contains body fluid other than blood, which comprises one of cerebrospinal fluid, thoracic fluid, abdominal fluid, fluid collecting in the cardiac sac, synovial fluid, dialysate from peritoneal dialysis, or intraperitoneal rinse; in response to selection of the blood sample for measurement, executing a blood measuring algorithm defining a sequence of operations for sensing cells in the blood sample, wherein executing the blood measuring algorithm comprising reconfiguring the sample analyzer into a blood sample analyzer operable to: introduce the blood sample into one of the plurality of chambers; operate one of the plurality of detectors to sense cells in the introduced blood sample; and derive, from measurements from said one of the plurality detectors, a digitally analyzable form of measurements on the cells in the introduced blood sample; and in response to selection of the body fluid sample for measurement, executing a body fluid measuring algorithm, different from the blood measuring algorithm, which defines a sequence of operations for sensing cells in the body fluid sample, wherein executing the body fluid measuring algorithm comprises reconfiguring the sample analyzer into a body fluid sample analyzer operable to: introduce the body fluid sample into said one or another of the plurality of chambers; operate said one or another of the plurality of detectors to sense cells in the introduced body fluid sample; and derive, from measurements from said one or another of the plurality of detectors, a digitally analyzable form of measurements on the cells in the introduced body fluid sample. 10. The method according to claim 9, wherein executing the blood measuring algorithm comprises operating the blood sample analyzer to sense the cells in the introduced blood sample for a first measurement time, executing the body fluid measuring algorithm comprises operating the foody fluid sample analyzer to sense the cells in the introduced body fluid sample for a second measurement time, wherein the second measurement time is longer than the first measurement time. 11. The method according to claim 9, further comprising: washing said one of the plurality of chambers; and introducing the body fluid sample into said one of the plurality of chambers after washing to reduce a carryover effect on the measurement of the cells in the body fluid sample. 12. The method according to claim 9, wherein executing the body fluid measuring algorithm comprises analyzing the digitally analyzable form of measurements of the cells in the introduced body fluid sample and counting a type of cells of interest among the cells in the introduced body fluid sample. 13. The method according to claim 12, wherein counting a type of cells of interest comprises counting at least one of mono-nucleated cells or poly-nucleated cells among the cells in the introduced body fluid sample. 14. The method according to claim 13, wherein executing the body fluid measuring algorithm further comprising calculating a relative amount of the at least one of mono-nucleated cells or poly-nucleated cells. 15. The method according to claim 12, wherein counting a type of cells of interest comprises counting at least one of neutrophil, lymphocyte, monocyte, eosinophil or basophil. 16. The sample analyzer according to claim 9, further comprising: introducing a cell-free sample into said one of the plurality of chambers for measurement by said one of the plurality of detectors, wherein the cell-free sample having no cells contained in the cell-free sample; running the cell-free sample through said one of the plurality of chambers and said one of the plurality of detectors; and analyzing the digitally analyzable form of measurements of the cell-free sample and counting cells carried over into the cell-free sample from a test sample previously measured.

This application is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/595,319 filed Jan. 13, 2015, which is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/891,667 filed May 10, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,968,661, which is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/023,830 filed Jan. 31, 2008, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,440,140, claiming priority to Japanese Application No. 2007-022523 filed on Feb. 1, 2007 and to Japanese Application No. 2007-095226 filed on Mar. 30, 2007, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a sample analyzer and a computer program product capable of measuring not only blood, but also body fluids other than blood such as cerebrospinal fluid, (spinal fluid), fluid of the thoracic cavity (pleural fluid), abdominal fluid and the like. BACKGROUND In the field of clinical examinations, blood is routinely collected from a body and used as a sample which is measured by a sample analyzer to aid diagnosis and monitor treatment. Furthermore, body fluids other than blood are also often used as samples which are measured by a sample analyzer. The body fluids are usually transparent and contain very few cells, however, cells such as bacteria, abnormal cells, and hemorrhage (blood cells) and the like may be found in cases of disease, tumors of related organs, and injury. When cerebrospinal fluid, which is one type of body fluid, is measured, for example, it is possible to make the following estimations from the measurement results. Increase of red blood cells: subarachnoidal hemorrhage Increase of neutrophils: meningitis Increase of eosinophils: infectious disease (parasites and fungus) Increase of monocytes: tuberculous meningitis, viral meningitis Other cells: advanced meningeal tumor Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2003-344393 discloses a blood cell analyzer which is capable of measuring cells in a body fluid. In Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2003-344393, an operator prepares a measurement sample prior to performing the measurements by mixing a fluid sample and reagent (aldehyde, surface active agent, and cyclodextrin) in order to stably store the body fluid for a long period, and this measurement sample is later subjected to fluid analysis by the sample analyzer. In the art of Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2003-344393, however, the measurement sample is not prepared by the sample analyzer when the body fluid is measured, rather the measurement sample must be prepared by the operator of the analyzer. Furthermore, the sample analyzer disclosed in Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2003-344393 does not disclose measurement operations suited to the fluid when measuring a body fluid. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The scope of the present invention is defined solely by the appended claims, and is not affected to any degree by the statements within this summary. A first aspect of the present invention is a sample analyzer comprising: a measuring part for preparing a measurement sample from a blood sample or a body fluid sample that differs from the blood sample, measuring the prepared measurement sample, and obtaining characteristic information representing characteristics of components within the measurement sample; a mode setting means for setting either a blood measurement mode for measuring the blood sample, or a body fluid measurement mode for measuring the body fluid sample as an operating mode; a first control means for controlling the measuring part so as to execute operations in the blood measurement mode when the blood measurement mode has been set by the mode setting means; and a second control means for controlling the measuring part so as to execute operations in the body fluid measurement mode which differs from the operations in the blood measurement mode when the body fluid measurement mode has been set by the mode setting means. A second aspect of the present invention is a sample analyzer comprising: a measuring part for preparing a measurement sample from a blood sample or a body fluid sample that differs from the blood sample, measuring the prepared measurement sample, and obtaining characteristic information representing characteristics of components within the measurement sample; a mode setting means for setting either a blood measurement mode for measuring the blood sample, or a body fluid measurement mode for measuring the body fluid sample as an operating mode; a first analyzing means for executing a first analysis process based on the characteristic information obtained by measuring the measurement sample prepared by the measuring part from the blood sample when the blood measurement mode has been set by the mode setting means; and a second analyzing means for executing a second analysis process which differs from the first analysis process based on the characteristic information obtained by measuring the measurement sample prepared by the measuring part from the body fluid sample when the body fluid measurement mode has been set by the mode setting means. A third aspect of the present invention is a sample analyzer comprising: a measuring part for preparing a measurement sample from a blood sample or a body fluid sample that differs from the blood sample, measuring the prepared measurement sample, and obtaining characteristic information representing characteristics of components within the measurement sample; a mode switching means for switching an operating mode from a blood measurement mode for measuring the blood sample to a body fluid measurement mode for measuring the body fluid sample; and a blank measurement controlling means for controlling the measuring part so as to measure a blank sample that contains neither the blood sample nor the body fluid sample when the mode switching means has switched the operating mode from the blood measurement mode to the body fluid measurement mode. A fourth aspect of the present invention is a computer program product, comprising: a computer readable medium; and instructions, on the computer readable medium, adapted to enable a general purpose computer to perform operations, comprising: a step of preparing a measurement sample from a blood sample or a body fluid sample which differs from the blood sample; a step of measuring the prepared measurement sample; a step of obtaining characteristic information representing characteristics of the components in the measurement sample; a step of setting either a blood measurement mode for measuring the blood sample, or a body fluid measurement mode for measuring the body fluid sample as an operating mode; and a step of measuring the measurement sample prepared from the blood sample by executing operations in the blood measurement mode when the blood measurement mode has been set, and measuring the measurement sample prepared from the body fluid sample by executing operations in the body fluid measurement mode that differs from the operations in the blood measurement mode when the body fluid measurement mode has been set. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an exterior view of a blood cell analyzer of a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of the measuring unit of the analyzer; FIG. 3 is a block diagram of the fluid supplying unit; FIG. 4 shows the optical system of the white blood cell detection unit; FIG. 5 shows the RBC/PLT detection unit; FIG. 6 shows the HGB detection unit; FIG. 7 is a flow chart of the sample measuring process; FIG. 8 shows the display screen for setting the measurement mode; FIG. 9 is a flow chart showing the pre sequence process; FIG. 10 is a schematic view of a scattergram derived from measurements of a DIFF measurement sample prepared from body fluid; FIG. 11 compares measurement results by the blood cell analyzer of the embodiment and measurement results by a reference method; FIG. 12 is a schematic view of a scattergram derived from measurements of a DIFF measurement sample prepared from blood; FIG. 13 is a display screen showing the measurement results in the blood measurement mode; FIG. 14 is a display screen showing the measurement results in the body fluid measurement mode; FIG. 15 is a display screen showing the measurement results in the body fluid measurement mode; FIG. 16 is a display screen showing the measurement results in the body fluid measurement mode; and FIG. 17 is a confirmation screen at the start of the blank check which is displayed in the body fluid measurement mode. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The preferred embodiments of the present invention will be described hereinafter with reference to the drawings. FIG. 1 shows a sample analyzer 1. The sample analyzer 1 is configured as an automatic multi-item blood cell analyzer which performs blood analysis by measuring blood samples held in sample containers (blood collection tubes), obtaining characteristics information representing the characteristics of the blood cells contained in the sample, and analyzing the characteristic information. The sample analyzer 1 is also capable of analyzing body fluids. In the blood cell analyzer of the present embodiment, the body fluids used as analysis objects include, fluid within the body cavity other than blood. Specifically, cerebrospinal fluid (spinal fluid, CSF: fluid filling the ventricle or sublemmal cavity), fluid of the thoracic cavity (pleural fluid, PE: fluid collected in pleural cavity), abdominal fluid (fluid collected in the abdominal cavity), fluid of the cardiac sac (fluid collected in the cardiac sac), synovial fluid (fluid present in joints, synovial sac, peritenon) and the like. Among types of body fluid which can be analyzed are dialysate of peritoneal dialysis (CAPD), intraperitoneal rinse and the like. Cells are usually not observed in these body fluids, however, the fluids may contain blood cells, abnormal cells, and cells such as bacteria in the case of disease, tumor of related organs, or injury. For example, it is possible to clinically estimate the following from measurement results in the case of cerebrospinal fluid. For example, subarachnoidal hemorrhage is indicted when there is an increase of red blood cells, meningitis is indicated when there is an increase of neutrophils, infectious disease (parasitic and fungal) is indicated when there is an increase of eosinophils, tuberculous meningitis and viral meningitis are indicated when there is an increase of monocytes, and advanced meningeal tumor is indicated when there is an increase of other cells. ed In the case of abdominal and thoracic fluids, cancers may be indicated when analysis of finds nucleated cells other than blood cells, that is, the fluid contains nucleated cells of mesothelial cells, macrophages, tumor cells and the like. The sample analyzer 1 is provided with a measuring unit 2 which has the function of measuring blood and body fluid samples, and a data processing unit 3 which obtains analysis results by processing the measurement results output from the measurement unit 2. The data processing unit 3 is provided with a control unit 301, a display unit 302, and an input unit 303. Although the measuring unit 2 and data processing unit 3 are separate devices in FIG. 1, the both may also be integrated in a single apparatus. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of the measuring unit 2 of the analyzer 1. As shown in FIG. 2, the measuring unit 2 is provided with a blood cell detecting unit 4, an analog processing unit 5 which processes the output (analog signals) of the detecting unit 4, microcomputer unit 6, display and operating unit 7, and a device 8 for measuring blood and body fluids. The device 8 includes a fluid supplying unit 81 which is described below. FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing the structure of the fluid supplying unit 81. As shown in FIG. 3, the fluid supplying unit 81 is provided with a sample aspiration nozzle 18, a plurality of reagent containers, a sampling valve 12, and reactions chambers 13 through 17. The sample aspiration nozzle 18 aspirates sample from a sample container, and delivers the sample to the sampling valve 12. The sampling valve 12 divides the delivered sample into several aliquots of predetermined volume. The number of divisions differs depending on the mode of measurement (discrete mode); in the CBC mode the sample is divided into three aliquots to measure the number of red blood cells, the number of white blood cells, the number of platelets, and the hemoglobin concentration. In addition to the CBC measurement items, the sample is divided into four aliquots in the CBC-DIFF mode so as to also classify five types of white blood cells. Furthermore, In addition to the measurement items of the CBC+DIFF mode, the sample is divided into five aliquots in the CBC+DIFF+RET mode so as to also measure reticulocytes. Similarly, in addition to the measurement items of the CBC+DIFF mode, the sample is divided into five aliquots in the CBC+DIFF+NRBC mode so as to also measure nucleated red blood cells. In addition to the measurement items of the CBC+DIFF+RET mode, the sample is divided into six aliquots in the CBC+DIFF+RET+NRBC mode so as to also measure nucleated red blood cells. The above mentioned measurement modes are blood measuring modes which measure whole blood. Finally, the sample is divided into two aliquots in the body fluid measuring mode for measuring body fluid. Reagent (dilution solution) is introduced from a reagent container to the sampling valve, and the aliquots of the divided sample are delivered together with the reagent to the reaction chambers 13 through 17 and an HGB detection unit 43, which is described later. a predetermined amount of sample (aliquot) and a predetermined amount of reagent and a predetermined amount of stain collected by the sampling valve 12 are supplied to the reaction chamber 13 by a dosage pump which is not shown in the drawing, the sample and reagent are mixed to prepare a measurement sample for four classifications of white blood cells (DIFF). The reagent “stomatolyzer 4DL” made by Sysmex Corporation may be used as the dilution solution. This reagent contains surface active agent and induces hemolysis of red blood cells. The reagent “stomatolyzer 4DS” made by Sysmex Corporation may be used as the stain. This stain contains ethylene glycol, low molecular alcohol, and polymethene colorant; a 50× dilute sample is ultimately prepared by staining the blood cell component after hemolysis by the dilution agent. When the body fluid measurement mode has been selected, a measurement sample for the classification of white blood cells is prepared from a fluid sample under the conditions of the amount of the sample and reagent used for the four classifications of white blood cells are identical, the reagents are identical, and the amounts of the reagent are identical. In the white blood cell classification of the body fluid measurement mode, the white blood cells are classified, not in four types, but two types, as shall be described later. A predetermined amount of sample collected by the sampling value 12, a predetermined amount of hemolytic dilution agent, and a predetermined amount of stain solution are supplied to the reaction chamber 14 by a dosage pump which is not shown in the drawing, the sample and reagents are then mixed to prepare a measurement sample for measuring nucleated red blood cells (NRBC). A predetermined amount of sample collected by the sampling valve 12, a predetermined amount of dilution agent, and a predetermined amount of stain solution are supplied to the reaction chamber 15 by a dosage pump which is not shown in the drawing, the sample and reagents are then mixed to prepare a measurement sample for measuring reticulocytes (RET). A predetermined amount of sample collected by the sampling valve 12, and a predetermined amount of hemolytic dilution agent are supplied to the reaction chamber 16 by a dosage pump which is not shown in the drawing, the sample and reagents are then mixed to prepare a measurement sample for measuring white blood cells and basophils (WBC/BASO). A predetermined amount of sample collected by the sampling valve 12, and a predetermined amount of dilution solution are supplied to the reaction chamber 17 by a dosage pump which is not shown in the drawing, the sample and reagents are then mixed to prepare a measurement sample for measuring red blood cells and platelets (RBC/PLT). A predetermined amount of sample collected by the sampling valve 12, and a predetermined amount of hemolytic dilution agent are supplied to the HGB detection unit 43 which is described later. The detection device 4 is provided with a white blood cell detection unit 41 for detecting white blood cells. The white blood cell detection unit 41 is also used to detect nucleated red blood cells and reticulocytes. In addition to the white blood cell detection unit, the detection device 4 is also provided with an RBC/PLT detection unit 42 for measuring the number of red blood cells and the number of platelets, and an HGB detection unit 43 for measuring the amount of pigment in the blood. The white blood cell detection unit 41 is configured as an optical detection unit, specifically, a detection unit which uses a flow cytometric method. Cytometry measures the optical properties and physical properties of cells and other biological particles, and flow cytometry measures these particles as they pass by in a narrow flow. FIG. 4 shows the optical system of the white blood cell detection unit 41. In the same drawing, the beam emitted from a laser diode 401 irradiates, via a collimator lens 402, the blood cells passing through the interior of a sheath flow cell 403. The intensity of the front scattered light, the intensity of the side scattered light, and the intensity of the side fluorescent light from the blood cells within the sheath flow cell irradiated by the light are detected by the white blood cell detection unit 41. The scattered light is a phenomenon due to the change in the direction of travel of the light caused by particles such as blood cells and the like which are present as obstructions in the direction of travel of the light. Information on the characteristics of the particles related to the size and composition of the particles can be obtained by detecting this scattered light. The front scattered light emerges from the particles in approximately the same direction as the direction of travel of the irradiating light. Characteristic information related to the size of the particle (blood cell) can be obtained from the front scattered light. The side scattered light emerges from the particle in an approximate perpendicular direction relative to the direction of travel of the irradiating light. Characteristic information related to the interior of the particle can be obtained from the side scattered light. When a particle is irradiated by laser light, the side scattered light intensity is dependent on the complexity (that is, nucleus shape, size, density, and granularity) of the interior of the cell. therefore, the blood cells can be classified (discriminated) and the number of cells can be counted by using the characteristics of the side scattered light intensity. Although the front scattered light and side scattered light are described as the scattered light used in the present embodiment, the present invention is not limited to this configuration inasmuch as scattered light of any angle may also be used relative to the optical axis of the light emitted from a light source that passes through the sheath flow cell insofar as scattered light signals are obtained which represent the characteristics of the particles necessary for analysis. When fluorescent material such as a stained blood cell is irradiated by light, light is given off by the particle at a wavelength which is longer than the wavelength of the irradiating light. The intensity of the fluorescent light is increased by the stain, and characteristics information can be obtained relating to the degree of staining of the blood cell by measuring the fluorescent light intensity. The classification and other measurements of the white blood cells can then be performed by the difference in the (side) fluorescent light intensity. As shown in FIG. 4, the front scattered light from the blood cell (white blood cells and nucleated red blood cells) which pass through the sheath flow cell 403 is received by a photodiode (front scattered light receiving unit) 406 through a collective lens 404 and pinhole 405. The side scattered light is received by a photo multiplexer (side scattered light receiving unit) 411 through a collective lens 407, dichroic mirror 408, optical filter 409, and pinhole 410. The side fluorescent light is received by a photo multiplexer (side fluorescent light receiving unit) 412 through the collective lens 407 and dichroic mirror 408. The photoreception signals output from the light receiving units 406, 411, and 412 are subjected to analog processing such as amplification and waveform processing and the like by an analog processing unit 5 which is configured by amps 51, 52, 53 and the like, and the analog-processed photoreception signals are provided to the microcomputer 6. The configuration of the RBC/PLT detection unit 42 is described below. FIG. 5 is a schematic view briefly showing the structure of the RBC/PLT detection unit 42. The RBC/PLT detection unit 42 is capable of measuring the numbers of red blood cells and platelets by a sheath flow-DC detection method. The RBC/PLT detection unit 42 has a sheath flow cell 42a as shown in FIG. 5. The sheath flow cell 42a is provided with a sample nozzle 42b which is open toward the top so that sample can be supplied from the reaction chamber 17 to the sample nozzle 42b. The sheath flow cell 42a has a tapered chamber 42c which narrows toward the top, and the sample nozzle 42b is disposed in the center part within the chamber 42c. An aperture 42d is provided at the top end of the chamber 42c, and this aperture 42d is aligned with the center position of the sample nozzle 42b. Measurement sample supplied from the sample supplying unit is sent upward from the tip of the sample nozzle 42b, and front sheath fluid is simultaneously supplied to the chamber 42c and flows upward toward the aperture 42d. The flow of the measurement sample, which is encapsulated in the front sheath fluid, is narrowly constricted by the tapered chamber 42c and the blood cells within the measurement sample pass one by one through the aperture 42d. Electrodes are provided at the aperture 42d, and a direct current is supplied between these electrodes. The change in the resistance of the direct current is detected at the aperture 42d when the measurement sample flows through the aperture 42d, and the electrical signal of the change in resistance is output to the controller 25. Since the resistance of the direct current increases when blood cells pass through the aperture 42d, the electrical signals reflect information of the passage of the blood cells through the aperture 42d so that the numbers of red blood cells and platelets can be counted by subjecting these electrical signals to signal processing. A recovery tube 42e, which extends vertically, is provided above the aperture 42d. The recovery tube 42e is disposed within a chamber 42f which is connected to the chamber 42c through the aperture 42d. The inner wall of the chamber 42f is separated from the bottom end of the recovery tube 42e. This chamber 42f is configured to supply a back sheath, and this back sheath flows downward through the chamber 42f in a region outside the recovery tube 42e. The back sheath which flows outside the recovery tube 42e arrives at the bottom part of the chamber 42f, and thereafter flows between the inner wall of the chamber 42f and the bottom end of the recovery tube 42e so as to flow into the interior of the recovery tube 42e. The blood cells which has passed through the aperture 42d are therefore prevented from refluxing, thus preventing erroneous detection of the blood cells. The configuration of the HGB detection unit 43 is described below. The HGB detection unit 43 is capable of measuring the amount of hemoglobin (HGB) by an SLS hemoglobin method. FIG. 6 is a perspective view of the structure of the HGB detection unit 43. The HGB detection unit 43 has a cell 43a for accommodating a diluted sample, a light-emitting diode 43b for emitting light toward the cell 43a, and a photoreceptor element 43c for receiving the transmission light that has passed through the cell 43a. A fixed amount of blood is diluted with dilution fluid and a predetermined hemolytic agent at a predetermined dilution ratio by the sampling valve 12 to prepare a dilute sample. The hemolytic agent has properties which transform the hemoglobin in the blood to SLS-hemoglobin. The dilute sample is supplied to the cell 43a and accommodated therein. In this condition, the light-emitting diode 43b emits light that passes through the cell 43a and is received by the photoreceptor element 43c which is disposed opposite the light-emitting diode 43b with the cell 43a interposed therebetween. Since the light-emitting diode 43b emits light having a wavelength that is highly absorbed by the SLS-hemoglobin, and the cell 43a is configured of plastic material which has a high light transmittancy, the photoreceptor element 43c only receives the transmission light absorbed by the dilute sample of the light emitted from the light-emitting diode 43b. The photoreceptor element 43c outputs electrical signals which correspond to the amount of received light (optical density) to the microcomputer 6, and the microcomputer 6 compares the optical density with the optical density of the dilution solution which was measured previously, then calculates the hemoglobin value. The microcomputer 6 is provided with an A/D converter 61 for converting the analog signals received from the analog processing unit 5 to digital signals. The output of the A/D converter 61 is sent to a calculation unit 62 of the microcomputer 6, and calculations are performed for predetermined processing of the photoreception signals in the calculation unit 62. The calculation unit 62 prepares distribution data (two-dimensional scattergrams (unclassified) and unidimensional histograms) based on the output of the detection device 4. The microcomputer 6 is provided with a controller 63 configured by a memory for the control processor and the operation of the control processor, and a data analyzing unit 64 configured by a memory for the analysis processor and the operation of the analysis processor. The controller 63 controls the device 8 configured by a sampler (not shown in the drawing) for automatically supplying blood collection tubes, and a fluid system and the like for preparing and measuring samples, as well as performing other controls. The data analyzing unit 64 executes analysis processing such as clustering and the like on the distribution data. The analysis results are sent to an external data processing device 3 through an interface 65, and the data processing device 3 processes the data for screen display, storage and the like. The microcomputer 6 is further provided with an interface 66 which is interposed between the microcomputer 6 and the display and operating unit 7, and an interface 67 which is interposed between the microcomputer 6 and the device 8. The calculation unit 62, controller 63, and interfaces 66 and 67 are connected through a bus 68, and the controller 63 and the data analyzing unit 64 are connected through a bus 69. The display and operating unit 7 includes a start switch by which the operator specifies to start a measurement, and a touch panel type liquid crystal display for displaying various types of setting values and analysis results, and receiving input from the operator. The operation of the sample analyzer 1 of the present embodiment is described below. FIG. 7 is a flow chart showing the flow of the operation of the sample analyzer of the present embodiment. The sample analyzer 1 starts when a user turns on the power source of the sample analyzer 1 (step S1). The sample analyzer 1 first executes a self check during startup (step S2). In the self check, the microcomputer 6 tests and checks the operation of all operating device of the sample analyzer 1, and performs a blank check operation which measures a blank sample that does not contain a real sample. Next, the microcomputer 6 sets an initial measurement mode (step S3). The CBC+DIFF mode is the initial setting. Specifically, in the process of step S3, parameters (operating conditions) for performing blood measurements are set, for example, which reaction chamber to use and the set time for the measurement. The blood measurement mode is thus set as the initial operating mode in the sample analyzer 1 of the present embodiment. The sample analyzer 1 therefore remains in a standby state waiting to receive a measurement start instruction. The microcomputer 6 displays a screen on the liquid crystal display which alerts the operator to the standby state (step S4). In the standby state, the operator can change the measurement mode by operating the display and operation unit 7. FIG. 8 is a schematic view of an input screen for setting the measurement mode. This screen is provided with discrete display regions including the sample number 120, type of sample uptake mode 121, type of discrete test (measurement mode) 122, and type of sample 123. The three sample uptake modes include a manual mode for aspirating a sample after the operator has manually inserted a sample container in the sample aspiration nozzle 18, a capillary mode for aspirating a measurement sample via the sample aspiration nozzle 18 after the operator has previously prepared the measurement sample by mixing a sample and reagent, and a closed mode for supplying a sample by automatically transporting a sample container using a conveyer device. The types of samples include NORMAL, which are normal blood samples; HPC, which are hematopoietic progenitor cell samples; and BODY FLUID, which are other fluids of the body. The operator can specify the sample take-up mode, measurement mode, and type of sample. When the blood measurement mode has been specified, the NORMAL sample type is specified, and an optional sample take-up mode and measurement mode are specified. When specifying the BODY FLUID measurement mode, the operator specifies MANUAL mode as the take-up mode, [CBC+DIFF], [CBC+DIFF+RET], [CBC+DIFF+NRBC], or [CBC+DIFFNRBC+RET] as the DISCRETE test, and [BODY FLUID] as the type of sample. In step S4, the operator specifies the desired mode. The operator presses the start switch to start the measurement when blood measurement is performed without changing the initially set measurement mode (step S5: N). The microcomputer 6 receives the instruction to start the measurement (step S6), and the blood sample is aspirated by the sample aspiration nozzle (step S7). After the blood sample has been aspirated, the sample is introduced to the previously mentioned sampling valve 18, and the necessary sample preparation is performed for the measurement according to the type discrete test of the measurement mode (step S14). The measurement operation is then executed for this measurement sample (step S16). When [7] is set as the type of discrete test, for example, HGB, WBC/BASO, DIFF, RET, NRBC, and RBC/PLT measurement samples are prepared. Thereafter, the WBC/BASO, DIFF, RET, and NRBC measurement samples are measured by the white blood cell detection unit 41, the RBC/PLT measurement sample is measured by the RBC/PLT detection unit 42, and the HGB measurement sample is measured by the HGB detection unit 43. At this time, the WBC/BASO, DIFF, RET, and NRBC measurement samples are introduced to the white blood cell detection unit 41 in the order NRBC, WBC/BASO, DIFF, RET and sequentially measured since only a single white blood cell detection unit 41 is provided. In this measurement operation, the calculation unit 62 creates particle distribution maps (scattergram, histogram). The scattergram created from the optical information obtained by the DIFF measurement is described below. The calculation unit 62 generates a two-dimensional scattergram (particle distribution map) using, as characteristic parameters, the side scattered light and side fluorescent light among the photoreception signals output from the white blood cell detection unit 41 in the DIFF measurement. This scattergram (referred to as “DIFF scattergram” hereinafter) plots the side scattered light intensity on the X axis and the side fluorescent light on the Y axis; red blood cell ghost clusters, lymphocyte clusters, monocyte clusters, neutrophil+basophil clusters, and eosinophil clusters normally appear. These clusters are recognized by processing performed on the DIFF scattergram by the data analyzing unit 64. Analysis processing is then performed based on the partible distribution maps obtained by the measurement (step S18). In the analysis processing, the data analyzing unit 64 of the microcomputer 6 classifies the four white blood cell clusters (lymphocyte cluster, monocyte cluster, neutrophil+basophil cluster, and eosinophil cluster), and the red blood cell ghost cluster as shown in FIG. 12 from the DIFF scattergram prepared by the calculation unit 62 when the DIFF measurement samples were measured by the white blood cell detection unit 41. In the analysis process of the present embodiment, each particle plotted on the scattergram and the degree of attribution of particles to each cluster at a distance from the center of gravity of each cluster is obtained. Then, each particle is attributed to a cluster according to the degree of attribution. The particle classification method is disclosed in detail in U.S. Pat. No. 5,555,196. The basophil cluster, and white blood cell clusters other than basophils, and the red blood cell ghost cluster are classified on the scattergram obtained by the WBC/BASO measurement. White blood cells are classified in five groups based on the results of the four classifications and numbers of white blood cells (refer to FIG. 12) by the analysis processing of the DIFF scattergram, and the results of the two classification and numbers of white blood cells by the analysis processing of the WBC/BASO scattergram. Specifically, the data analysis unit 64 subtracts the basophil cell count obtained by the analyzing the WBC/BASO scattergram from the neutrophil+basophil cell count obtained by analyzing the DIFF scattergram, to obtain the neutrophil cell count and the basophil cell count. Thus, five classifications of white blood cells are obtained as well as the number of blood cells in each classification. In addition, the trough is detected in the curve in the unidimensional histogram created based on the characteristic information from the detection unit 42, and the particles are classified as red blood cells and platelets in the RBC/PLT measurement. The analysis results thus obtained are output to the display unit 302 of the data processing unit 3 (step S20). When input specifying the measurement mode is received as described above in step S5, the microcomputer 6 sets the parameters (operating conditions) for the body fluid measurement, for example, the reaction chamber to use and the set time of the measurement and the like (step S8). In the present embodiment, the measurement time is three times the time for blood measurement, as will be described later. The measuring unit 2 starts the pre sequence (step S10) when the measurement mode has been switched from the previous measurement mode (in this instance, the blood measurement mode) to the body fluid measurement mode (step S9). The pre sequence is a process of preparing for the body fluid measurement. Since samples which have a low concentration of blood cell component are measured in the body fluid measurement, the setting is switched from the blood measurement mode ([1:NORMAL] is displayed in FIG. 8) to the body fluid measurement mode, and the lack of background influence is confirmed in the body fluid measurement results. The pre sequence includes a blank check operation. The blank check determination standard of the pre sequence is set at a fraction and is more strict than the determination standard of the blank check (for example, the blank check performed after power on and automatic wash) performed in the blood measurement mode. When the setting is changed from the body fluid measurement mode to the blood measurement mode, this pre sequence is not performed since there is no background influence (carry over effect) on the normal blood measurement results. Furthermore, when body fluid samples are measured in a repeated body fluid measurement mode, this pre sequence is not performed since there is normally no background influence. There is concern, however, that the next sample measurement may be affected when the body fluid sample analysis results exceed a predetermined value due to an extremely high number of particles in the body fluid since the measurement results are high, and therefore the operator is alerted of this concern that the analysis results of the next sample may be affected. Then, the blank check measurement is performed. A configuration is desirable in which a message “please press VERIFY” is output to the screen, and the blank check is performed when the operator presses the VERIFY button. In this case, a configuration is possible in which a CANCEL button may be provided on the screen to transition to the standby screen without performing a blank check when the operator presses the CANCEL button. It is also desirable that a flag indicate the low reliability of the measurement results when a blank check is not performed. Wasted reagent and time can thus be avoided by performing an additional blank check only when needed. FIG. 9 is a flow chart showing the sequence of the pre sequence process performed when the measurement mode is changed from the blood measurement mode to the body fluid measurement mode. The sample analyzer 1 performs the pre sequence by measuring a blank sample using the measuring unit 2 (step S31), comparing the measurement result with predetermined tolerance values and determining whether or not the measurement results are less than the tolerance values using the microcomputer 6 (step S32). When the measurement results are less than the tolerance values, the microcomputer 6 ends the pre sequence and the process returns. When the measurement results are not less than the tolerance value, the microcomputer 6 determines whether or not the blank check was executed the set number of times (for example, three times) (step S33), and when the number of executions of the blank check is less than a predetermined number, the process returns to step S31 and the blank check is performed again for the predetermined number of times. When the measurement results of the blank check performed a predetermined number of times are not less than the tolerance values, a screen is displayed with includes a VERIFY button, BLANK CHECK button, and AUTOMATIC WASH button and the blank check measurement results are displayed on the display and operation unit 7 (step S34). When the operator has pressed the VERIFY button (step S35), the microcomputer 6 ends the pre sequence and the process returns. When the BLANK CHECK button has been pressed (step S36), the process returns to step S31 and the blank check is performed again; when the AUTOMATIC WASH button has been pressed (step S37), automatic washing is performed using a special washing solution (srtep S38), and thereafter the process returns to step S31 and the blank check is performed again. When the pre sequence ends as described above, the sample analyzer 1 enters the standby state (step S11). When the operator presses the start switch and starts the body fluid measurement, the sample aspiration nozzle 18 of the measuring unit 2 is immersed in the sample container in the same manner as for the manual measurement of the blood sample. When the instruction to start measurement is received by the microcomputer 6 (step S12), the body fluid aspiration begins (step S13). After the body fluid sample has been aspirated, the body fluid sample is introduced to the sampling valve 91 in the same manner as the blood sample. Then, the RBC/PLT measurement sample is prepared by the reaction chamber 13 (step S15). Subsequently, the DIFF measurement sample is measured by the white blood cell detection unit 41, and the RBC/PLT measurement sample is measured by the RBC/PLT detection unit 42 (step S17). Since only the DIFF measurement sample is measured by the white blood cell detection unit 41 in the body fluid measurement mode, the measurement is completed in a shorter time than the blood measurement even though the measurement time is longer than the measurement time in the blood measurement mode. the analysis accuracy of the low particle concentration body fluid sample can therefore be improved by increasing the measurement time of the body fluid measurement to be longer than the measurement time of the blood measurement. Although the measurement accuracy can be improved due to the increased number of particles counted by lengthening the measurement time, a two to six fold increase in the measurement time is suitable because the sample processing ability is reduced when the measurement time is excessively long, and there is a limit to the performance of the syringe pump which delivers the measurement sample to the white blood cell detection unit 41. In the present embodiment, the measurement time in the body fluid measurement mode is set at three times the measurement time of the blood measurement mode. The RBC/PLT measurement sample is introduced to the electrical resistance detection unit 41 in the same manner for all measurement modes, and measurement is performed under a fixed flow speed condition. The analysis processing is performed thereafter based on the characteristic information obtained by the measurements (step S19), and the analysis results are output to the display unit 302 of the data processing unit 3 (step S21). In the analysis processing of the blood measurement mode, the DIFF scattergram and the like are analyzed, and information is calculated for five types of white blood cell subclasses (NEUT: neutrophil, LYMPH: lymphocyte, MONO: monocyte, EO: eosinophil, and BASO: basophil), whereas in the analysis processing of the body fluid measurement mode, two subclasses (MN: mononuclear cell, PMN: polymorphonuclear cell) are classified in a partially integrated form because there are a lesser number of blood cells and these cells are sometimes damaged. The lymphocytes and monocytes belong to mononuclear cells, and neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils belong to polymorphonuclear cells. Since the classification algorithm is the same as the algorithm described for the analysis processing in the blood measurement mode, further description is omitted. Next, the analysis results obtained in step S19 are compared to the tolerance value (predetermined threshold value) (step S22). The tolerance value is the same value as the tolerance value used in the blank check of the pre sequence performed in step S10. When the analysis result is greater than the tolerance value (step S22: Y), the verification screen 151 at the start of the blank check is displayed, as shown in FIG. 17. A message is displayed on the verification screen 151 indicating there is concern that the measurement of the next sample may be influenced due to the high measurement result. Then, the blank check measurement is performed. A message display area 152 for displaying the message “please press the VERIFY button”, a VERIFY button 153, and a CANCEL button 154 are displayed. Next, determinations are made as to whether or not the user has pressed the VERIFY button 153 or the CANCEL button 154 (step S24), and the blank check is executed when the VERIFY button has been pressed (VERIFY in step S24) (step S25). The process returns to step S5 without performing the blank check when the analysis result obtained in step S19 is less than the tolerance value (step S22: N), and the when the CANCEL button has been pressed (CANCEL in step S24). Anomalous particles (macrophages, mesothelial cells, tumor cells and the like) other than blood cells may be present in the body fluid sample. Although it is rare for such anomalous cells to be present in cerebrospinal fluid, such cells appear comparatively frequently in abdominal and thoracic fluids. The influence of these anomalous particles must be eliminated in order to obtain a high precision classification of blood cells within the body fluid regardless of the type of body fluid. White blood cells in body fluid can be measured with greater precision based on the new knowledge than anomalous particles appear in the top part of the DIFF scattergram produced by this blood cell analyzer of the present invention. This aspect was not considered in the previously mentioned conventional art. FIG. 10 is a schematic view of a scattergram obtained by measuring and analyzing a DIFF measurement sample prepared from body fluid and white blood cell measurement reagent in the body fluid measurement mode of the blood cell analyzer 1 of the present embodiment. The vertical axis of the scattergram represents the side fluorescent light intensity (the fluorescent light intensity at the top is greatest), and the horizontal axis represents the side scattered light intensity (the scattered light intensity at the right side is greatest). A red blood cell ghost Gc caused by hemolysis is distributed in the region LF in which the fluorescent light intensity is weakest in the scattergram, anomalous particles such as mesothelial cells and the like is distributed in the region HF in which the fluorescent light intensity is greatest, and mononuclear white blood cells Mc and polynulcear white blood cells Pc are distributed in the intermediate region MF. In the analysis of the scattergram, the particle component distributed in the region MF is analyzed as white blood cells after excluding region LF and region HF, and the particles are classified and counted in two groups. Lymphocytes and monocytes are included in the mononuclear white blood cells Mc, and neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils are included in the polynuclear white blood cells Pc. Since fewer and damaged blood cells are contained in body fluid, white blood cells are classified and counted as mononuclear white blood cells and polynuclear white blood cells when analyzing white blood cells in body fluid. Anomalous particles (nucleated cells such as tumor cells, macrophages, mesothelial cells) other than blood cells may also be present in body fluid. Although it is rare for such anomalous cells to be present in cerebrospinal fluid, such cells appear comparatively frequently in abdominal and thoracic fluids. In the scattergram of FIG. 10, such nucleated cells other than white blood cells are distributed in region HF. In the present embodiment, it is possible to determine accurate white blood cells counts even in body fluid which contains such nucleated cells other than white blood cells since nucleated cells other than white blood cells can be identified. The degree of occurrence of anomalous cells can be determined by counting the cells which appear in region HF. In the present embodiment, cells are demarcated in the regions LF, MF, and HF by threshold values for demarcating each region; these threshold values may also be changed manually. FIG. 11 compares the analysis results of the blood cell analyzer 1 of the present embodiment and the count results of a reference method to show the validity of the scattergram analysis method described above. The sample material is thoracic fluid; in the drawing, “this method” refers to the white blood cell count (WBC) and anomalous particle count (Others) calculated by the blood cell analyzer 1 of the present embodiment, and “Ref” refers to the calculation result by the reference methods (Fuchs Rosenthal calculation method and site-spin method). Examples 1, 2, and 3 are the results of analysis of thoracic fluid in which anomalous particles were plentiful, and the correlation between the reference methods and the analysis results of the blood cell analyzer 1 of the present invention can be readily understood. FIG. 13 shows a screen 200 which is displayed on the display unit 302 of the data processing unit 3, showing the analysis results of the DIFF measurement sample prepared from blood. A sample number display region which displays a sample number 101 is provided at the top of the screen 200, and an attribute display region which displays patient attributes is provided adjacently. The attribute display region specifically includes a patient ID, patient name, date of birth, sex, hospital department/ward, attending physician, date of measurement, time of measurement, comments and the like. A measurement result display region which displays the measurement results is provided at the bottom of the attribute display region. The measurement result display region includes several pages, and these pages can be displayed by selecting a plurality of tabs 102. Tabs have a plurality of arrangements matching the main screen, graph screen, and measurement items. FIG. 12 is a screen which is displayed when the graph screen tab has been selected. A graph display region 104 for displaying graphs and a measurement value display region 103 for displaying the measurement result values are provided in the left half of the measurement value display region, and a distribution map display region for displaying the measurement result distribution map 105 is provided in the right half. WBC, RBC, . . . , NEUT#, . . . , BASO#, . . . , NEUT#, . . . , BASO% and the like, data, and units are displayed in the measurement value display region, and flagging results representing sample anomalies and disease suspicions which are clinically useful information relating to WBC, PLT, RBC or RET are displayed in the flag display region 104. Six distribution maps are displayed in the distribution map display region 105. The scattergram on the upper left side is a DIFF scattergram. The WBC/BASO scattergram is shown at the top right, the immature cell (IMI) scattergram is shown at mid left, and the RET scattergram is shown at mid right. The RBC scattergram is shown at the bottom left, and the PLT scattergram is shown at the bottom right. FIG. 14 shows a screen 110 displayed in the display area 302 of the data processing unit 3 as the measurement results of the DIFF measurement sample prepared from body fluid. A sample number display region 111 for displaying a sample number is provided at the top of the screen 110, and a patient attribute display region is provided adjacently. An [F], which indicates measurement has been conducted in the body fluid measurement mode, is displayed at the left end of the sample number display region 111. Thus, it can be clearly recognized that the analysis results are for body fluid measurement results. The measurement result display region includes a plurality of pages which are selectable by tab 112. In this example, the tab for body fluid measurement is selected. The measurement value display region 113 includes the name of the measurement items for body fluid measurement rather than the measurement results of the blood measurement mode; WBC-BF (WBC count), RBC-BF (RBC count), MN# (mononuclear cell count (lymphocytes+monocytes)), PMN# (polymorphonuclear cell count (neutrophils+basophils+eosinophils)), MN% (ratio of mononuclear cells among white blood cells), PMN% (ratio of polymorphonuclear cells among white blood cells), measurement values, and units are associated and displayed. A flag display region 114 is provided in the body fluid measurement similar to the blood measurement. Two distribution maps 115 are displayed in the distribution map display region, and the top scattergram is a DIFF scattergram. The bottom scattergram is an RBC scattergram. FIG. 15 shows an example in which the Research BF tab 112 is selected in the screen 110 of FIG. 14. This screen displays the same items as screen 110 with the exception that a research parameter display region 116 is also displayed. The research parameter display region 116 displays number of particles in region HF [HF-BF#], the ratio of the number of particles in the region HF relative to the number of particles in the region including both region HF and region MF [HF-BF%], and the number of particles in the region including both region HF and region MF [TC-BF#] in FIG. 10. [HF-BF%] is the percentage of HF-BF relative to TC-BF. FIG. 16 shows a screen 120 showing a list of stored samples which is displayed on the display unit 302 of the data processing unit 3. Reference number 130 refers to a patient attribute display region. Provided above this region is a measurement result display region which displays the measurement result selected by a tab. A row 131 on the left end of the measurement result display region is used to indicate whether the validation operation has been performed or not for the measurement result. A “V” symbol indicates validation has been performed. A row 132 on the right indicates the measurement mode. An “F” symbol indicates the measurement results are for the body fluid mode. Although there are high value samples that require blank checking in the body fluid mode, and inverted “F” symbol can be displayed to indicate the blank check has not been performed (that is, CANCEL was selected in step S24). Although the structure and functions of the blood cell analyzer of the present invention have been described as being pre-established in the blood cell analyzer, the same functions may be realized by a computer program so that the functions of the present invention can be realized in a conventional blood cell analyzer by installing the computer program in a conventional blood cell analyzer. Although the amount of sample, type of reagent, and amount of reagent are the same when preparing measurement samples for the white blood cell classification measurement in the blood measurement mode and the white blood cell classification measurement in the body fluid measurement mode in the present embodiment, the present invention is not limited to this configuration inasmuch the amount of sample and the amount of reagent used to prepare a measurement sample for white blood cell classification in the body fluid measurement mode may be greater than the amount of sample and the amount of reagent used to prepare a measurement sample for white blood cell classification in the blood measurement mode. Since the measurement time is greater and the amount of measurement sample needed for measurement is greater for white blood cell classification in the body fluid measurement mode than in the blood measurement mode, it is thereby possible to prepare suitable amounts of measurement sample for white blood cell classification in the blood measurement mode and for white blood cell classification in the body fluid measurement mode. Moreover, the type of reagent used for white blood cell classification in the blood measurement mode may differ from the type of reagent used for white blood cell classification in the body fluid measurement mode. Although white blood cell classification is performed in the body fluid measurement mode using scattered light and fluorescent light in the present embodiment, the present invention is not limited to this configuration inasmuch as white blood cell classification may also be performed in the body fluid measurement mode using, for example, scattered light and absorbed light. The measurement of absorbed light may be accomplished by preparing a measurement sample by mixing a staining reagent to stain the white blood cells, and other reagent together with the sample, supplying this measurement sample to a flow cell to form a sample flow within the flow cell, irradiating this sample flow with light, and receiving the light emitted from the sample flow via a photoreceptor element such as a photodiode or the like. The light is absorbed by the white blood cells when the white blood cells pass through the flow cell, and the degree of that absorption can be grasped as the amount of light received by the photoreceptor element. Such measurement of absorbed light is disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,122,453, and 5,138,181. furthermore, electrical resistance may be measured rather than scattered light, in which case white blood cells can be classified by the electrical resistance and absorbed light.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>In the field of clinical examinations, blood is routinely collected from a body and used as a sample which is measured by a sample analyzer to aid diagnosis and monitor treatment. Furthermore, body fluids other than blood are also often used as samples which are measured by a sample analyzer. The body fluids are usually transparent and contain very few cells, however, cells such as bacteria, abnormal cells, and hemorrhage (blood cells) and the like may be found in cases of disease, tumors of related organs, and injury. When cerebrospinal fluid, which is one type of body fluid, is measured, for example, it is possible to make the following estimations from the measurement results. Increase of red blood cells: subarachnoidal hemorrhage Increase of neutrophils: meningitis Increase of eosinophils: infectious disease (parasites and fungus) Increase of monocytes: tuberculous meningitis, viral meningitis Other cells: advanced meningeal tumor Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2003-344393 discloses a blood cell analyzer which is capable of measuring cells in a body fluid. In Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2003-344393, an operator prepares a measurement sample prior to performing the measurements by mixing a fluid sample and reagent (aldehyde, surface active agent, and cyclodextrin) in order to stably store the body fluid for a long period, and this measurement sample is later subjected to fluid analysis by the sample analyzer. In the art of Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2003-344393, however, the measurement sample is not prepared by the sample analyzer when the body fluid is measured, rather the measurement sample must be prepared by the operator of the analyzer. Furthermore, the sample analyzer disclosed in Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2003-344393 does not disclose measurement operations suited to the fluid when measuring a body fluid.

<SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The scope of the present invention is defined solely by the appended claims, and is not affected to any degree by the statements within this summary. A first aspect of the present invention is a sample analyzer comprising: a measuring part for preparing a measurement sample from a blood sample or a body fluid sample that differs from the blood sample, measuring the prepared measurement sample, and obtaining characteristic information representing characteristics of components within the measurement sample; a mode setting means for setting either a blood measurement mode for measuring the blood sample, or a body fluid measurement mode for measuring the body fluid sample as an operating mode; a first control means for controlling the measuring part so as to execute operations in the blood measurement mode when the blood measurement mode has been set by the mode setting means; and a second control means for controlling the measuring part so as to execute operations in the body fluid measurement mode which differs from the operations in the blood measurement mode when the body fluid measurement mode has been set by the mode setting means. A second aspect of the present invention is a sample analyzer comprising: a measuring part for preparing a measurement sample from a blood sample or a body fluid sample that differs from the blood sample, measuring the prepared measurement sample, and obtaining characteristic information representing characteristics of components within the measurement sample; a mode setting means for setting either a blood measurement mode for measuring the blood sample, or a body fluid measurement mode for measuring the body fluid sample as an operating mode; a first analyzing means for executing a first analysis process based on the characteristic information obtained by measuring the measurement sample prepared by the measuring part from the blood sample when the blood measurement mode has been set by the mode setting means; and a second analyzing means for executing a second analysis process which differs from the first analysis process based on the characteristic information obtained by measuring the measurement sample prepared by the measuring part from the body fluid sample when the body fluid measurement mode has been set by the mode setting means. A third aspect of the present invention is a sample analyzer comprising: a measuring part for preparing a measurement sample from a blood sample or a body fluid sample that differs from the blood sample, measuring the prepared measurement sample, and obtaining characteristic information representing characteristics of components within the measurement sample; a mode switching means for switching an operating mode from a blood measurement mode for measuring the blood sample to a body fluid measurement mode for measuring the body fluid sample; and a blank measurement controlling means for controlling the measuring part so as to measure a blank sample that contains neither the blood sample nor the body fluid sample when the mode switching means has switched the operating mode from the blood measurement mode to the body fluid measurement mode. A fourth aspect of the present invention is a computer program product, comprising: a computer readable medium; and instructions, on the computer readable medium, adapted to enable a general purpose computer to perform operations, comprising: a step of preparing a measurement sample from a blood sample or a body fluid sample which differs from the blood sample; a step of measuring the prepared measurement sample; a step of obtaining characteristic information representing characteristics of the components in the measurement sample; a step of setting either a blood measurement mode for measuring the blood sample, or a body fluid measurement mode for measuring the body fluid sample as an operating mode; and a step of measuring the measurement sample prepared from the blood sample by executing operations in the blood measurement mode when the blood measurement mode has been set, and measuring the measurement sample prepared from the body fluid sample by executing operations in the body fluid measurement mode that differs from the operations in the blood measurement mode when the body fluid measurement mode has been set.

G01N335091

20180228

20180705

96864.0

G01N3350

SINES, BRIAN J

SAMPLE ANALYZER AND COMPUTER PROGRAM PRODUCT

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

G01N

PENDING

VIDEO ROUTER

The embodiments described herein provide a data transmission system comprising a plurality of video routers, a supervisory system for transmitting one or more router configuration signals to one or more video routers, and a control communication network for coupling the plurality of video routers and the supervisory system. Each router in the system comprises a backplane including a plurality of backplane connections, at least one line card and at least one fabric card. Each line card comprises a plurality of input ports and output ports where each input and output port is coupled to a respective external signal through the backplane. Each line card further comprises a line card cross-point switch having a plurality of input switch terminals and a plurality of output switch terminals. Each fabric card comprises a fabric card cross-point switch having a plurality of input switch terminal and a plurality of output switch terminals. Furthermore, each line card and each fabric card comprises a card controller where the card controller selectively couples one or more input switch terminals of a cross-point switch to the output switch terminals of that cross-point switch. The cross-point switches being manipulated by the card controller may belong to one or more different cards within the same video router.

1. A priority based transmission system comprising: a plurality of data signals; a plurality of video routers; a supervisory system configured to transmit one or more router configuration signals to one or more video routers, the one or more router configuration signals comprising a data signal path; a controller communication network for coupling the plurality of video routers and the supervisory system; wherein, each video router comprises: a backplane including a plurality of backplane connections, at least one line card, the line card comprising: a plurality of input ports and output ports, each input port and output port being coupled to a respective data signal through the backplane, and a line card cross-point switch having a plurality of input switch terminals and a plurality of output switch terminals, wherein a first plurality of input and output switch terminals are coupled to a respective plurality of input and output ports and a second plurality of input and output switch terminals are coupled to a respective plurality of backplane connections, and at least one fabric card, each fabric card comprising: a fabric card cross-point switch having a plurality of input switch terminals and a plurality of output switch terminals, wherein the plurality of input and output switch terminals are coupled to a respective plurality of backplane connections, wherein the data signal path comprises an input switch terminal, one or more cross-point switches from one or more video routers, and an output switch terminal, and wherein, each line card and fabric card comprises a card controller, the card controller being coupled to one or more cross-point switches and configured to determine the path of one or more data signals based on the router configuration signals. 2. The system of claim 1 wherein a first path and a second path are determined based on a first priority and a second priority, the first path corresponding to a first data signal and the second path corresponding to a second data signal. 3. The system of claim 2 wherein the first priority and the second priority are equal. 4. The system of claim 2 wherein the first priority is higher than the second priority and the first path replaces at least a portion of the second path. 5. The system of claim 2 wherein the first priority is higher than the second priority. 6. The system of claim 3 wherein the first path is determined based on an availability of backplane connections. 7. The system of claim 3 wherein the card controller determines a selected routing from at least two proposed routings, each proposed routing comprising a first proposed route and a second proposed route, the first proposed route corresponding to the first data signal and the second proposed route corresponding to the second data signal. 8. The system of claim 7 wherein the determining the selected routing from at least two proposed routings further comprises determining a selected routing based on a priority score. 9. The system of claim 7 wherein the determining the selected routing from at least two proposed routings further comprises determining a selected routing based on a historical measurement of a property of the first path. 10. The system of claim 9 wherein the historical measurement of a property of the first path comprises a previously measured frequency of transmission failures of the first path. 11. A method of priority based routing of video signals from a plurality of input ports to a plurality of output ports using at least one video router of the data transmission system of claim 1, the method comprising: receiving a data stream at an input port of a card, the card being a line card; receiving one or more router configuration signals by one or more card controllers, at least one card controller being a line card controller of the line card; and configuring one or more cross-point switches by card controllers to determine the path of one or more data signals based on the one or more router configuration signals. 12. The method of claim 11 further comprising determining a first path and a second path based on a first priority and a second priority, the first path corresponding to a first data signal and the second path corresponding to a second data signal. 13. The method of claim 12 wherein the first priority and the second priority are equal. 14. The method of claim 12 wherein the first priority is higher than the second priority and the first path replaces at least a portion of the second path. 15. The method of claim 12 wherein the first priority is higher than the second priority. 16. The method of claim 12 wherein the determination of the first path is based on an availability of backplane connections. 17. The method of claim 12 wherein the determination by the card controller of a selected routing from at least two proposed routings, each proposed routing comprising a first proposed route and a second proposed route, the first proposed route corresponding to the first data signal and the second proposed route corresponding to the second data signal. 18. The method of claim 17 wherein the determining the selected routing from at least two proposed routings further comprises determining a selected routing based on a priority score, the priority score determined from. 19. The method of claim 17 wherein the determining the selected routing from at least two proposed routings further comprises determining a selected routing based on a historical measurement of a property of the first path. 20. The method of claim 19 wherein the historical measurement of a property of the first path comprises a previously measured frequency of transmission failures of the first path.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/484,852, filed on Apr. 11, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/505,124, filed on Oct. 2, 2014, (now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,654,391), which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/885,588, filed Oct. 2, 2013. The entire contents of the applications are hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD The described embodiments relate to routers for video signals and other data streams. BACKGROUND The number of devices coupled to data communications networks is increasing rapidly. The routing of data streams from and to such devices is increasingly more complex and difficulty in allocating efficient routes, or even any route at all, in various components in a communication network can affect the quality of service delivery to a user of a device. For example, communication networks typically contain routers that couple an input data stream received at an input port to an output port at which the data stream is available to a downstream device. As the size of routers increases (i.e. as the number of input and output ports on a router increases, then complexity of creating efficient routing within the router and between network devices increase non-linearly. It is desirable to provide an efficient system and methods that allows a network device to efficiently configure routes for data streams. SUMMARY In one aspect, in at least one embodiment described herein, there is provided a data transmission system comprising a plurality of video routers, a supervisory system for transmitting one or more router configuration signals to one or more video routers, and a control communication network for coupling the plurality of video routers and the supervisory system. Each router in the system comprises a backplane including a plurality of backplane connections, at least one line card and at least one fabric card. Each line card comprises a plurality of input ports and output ports where each input and output port is coupled to a respective external signal through the backplane. Each line card further comprises a line card cross-point switch having a plurality of input switch terminals and a plurality of output switch terminals. Each fabric card comprises a fabric card cross-point switch having a plurality of input switch terminal and a plurality of output switch terminals. Furthermore, each line card and each fabric card comprises a card controller where the card controller selectively couples one or more input switch terminals of a cross-point switch to the output switch terminals of that cross-point switch. The cross-point switches being manipulated by the card controller may belong to one or more different cards within the same video router. In some cases, the card controller of a first card in a first video router configures a corresponding cross-point switch of the first card to route a data stream from an input port to an output port, where the first card and the second card are a line card or a fabric card. In some other cases, the card controller of a first card in a first video router configures a cross-point switch of a second card in the first video router to route a data stream from an input port to an output port, where the first card and the second card are a line card or a fabric card. In various cases, where when a data stream is received at an input port of a first card, a first card controller corresponding to the first card is configured to transmit a data request to the supervisory system, where the supervisory system is configured to: determine an output destination identifying an output port, and generate one or more router configuration signals for one or more card controllers based on the output destination, wherein the one or more card controllers configure one or more cross-point switches to route the data stream to the output port. In various cases, where when a data stream is received at an input port of a first card, a first card controller corresponding to the first card is configured to: determine an output destination identifying an output port, and transmit a data request to the supervisory system, where the supervisory system is configured to: generate one or more router configuration signals for one or more card controllers based on the output destination, wherein the one or more card controllers configure one or more cross-point switches to route the data stream to the output port. In various cases, where if the data stream is designated a priority stream, at least one of the one or more card controllers reconfigures the corresponding cross-point switch to route the priority stream. In various cases, where the backplane comprises a plurality of backplane connectors for receiving the at least one line card and the at least one fabric card. In various cases, where each backplane connector comprises a plurality of backplane contacts, wherein each line card and each fabric card comprises a plurality of card pins, and wherein the plurality of backplane contacts and the plurality of card pins provide an electrical connection when coupled. In various cases, the system further comprises a switch configuration database coupled to the controller communication network and configured to store coupling of the input switch terminals of at least one line card cross-point switch and the fabric card cross-point switch to corresponding output switch terminals. In various cases, the switch configuration database is provided within the card controllers. In another aspect, in at least one embodiment described herein, there is provided a method of routing video signals from a plurality of input ports to a plurality of output ports using at least one video router of a data transmission system disclosed herein. The method comprises receiving a data stream at an input port of a card, the card being a line card, receiving one or more router configuration signals by one or more card controllers, at least one card controller being a line card controller of the line card, and configuring one or more cross-point switches by card controllers based on the one or more router configuration signals to route the data stream between the input port and an output destination, wherein at least one of the one or more cross-point switches correspond to a cross-point switch of the line card. In various embodiments, the method of routing video signals is configured to operate in accordance with the devices defined above or in accordance with the teachings herein. In another aspect, in at least one embodiment described herein, there is provided a data transmission system comprising a control layer, a data layer and a controller communication network for coupling the control layer and the data layer. The control layer comprises a supervisory system configured to transmit one or more router configuration signals to one or more video routers, the one or more router configuration signals comprising instructions to selectively configure the one or more routers, and one or more card controllers provided in the one or more video routers, each card controller configured to selectively couple input switch terminals of one or more cross-point switches to output switch terminals of the corresponding one or more cross-point switches. The data layer comprises one or more cross-point switches, the one or more cross-point switches provided in the one or more video routers, each cross-point switch comprising a plurality of input switch terminals and a plurality of output switch terminals, a backplane including a plurality of backplane connections, wherein a subset of the plurality of input switch terminals and the output switch terminals are coupled to a respective plurality of backplane connections, a plurality of input ports and a plurality of output ports corresponding to each video router, where the supervisory system is configured to: receive a request signal from a card controller, and transmit a router configuration signal to one or more card controllers, the router configuration signal comprising instructions to selectively couple input switch terminals to output switch terminals of the one or more cross-point switches coupled to the one or more card controllers. In various embodiments, the data transmission system is configured to operate in accordance with the devices and methods defined above or in accordance with the teachings herein. Other features and advantages of the present application will become apparent from the following detailed description taken together with the accompanying drawings. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific examples, while indicating preferred embodiments of the application, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the application will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a better understanding of the applicant's teachings described herein, reference will now be made, by way of example only, to the accompanying drawings which show at least one exemplary embodiment, and in which: FIG. 1 is a cross-section of a video router according to an example embodiment; FIG. 2 is a cross-section of a video router according to another example embodiment; FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a video router according to an example embodiment; FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a video router according to another example embodiment; FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a video router according to another example embodiment; FIG. 6 is a block diagram of a video router according to another example embodiment; FIG. 7 is a block diagram of a control hierarchy of a video router according to an example embodiment. For simplicity and clarity of illustration, elements shown in the figures have not necessarily been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements may be exaggerated relative to other elements for clarity. Further, where considered appropriate, reference numerals may be repeated among the figures to indicate corresponding or analogous elements. DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Reference is first made to FIGS. 1 and 2, which illustrates a first video router 100 with an integrated control layer. Router 100 includes a frame or housing 102, a backplane 104 and a plurality of cards 106, such as a first card 106a, a second card 106b, a third card 106c, a fourth card 106d, a fifth card 106e and a sixth card 106f. The frame 102 includes a plurality of frame slots 108 in which cards may be received and held in place. The backplane 104 includes backplane connector 110 corresponding to each slot 108 and each card 106. Each backplane connector includes a plurality of backplane pins or contacts 112. Each card 106 includes a plurality of card pins or contacts 114, each of which corresponds to a backplane pin 112 of the corresponding backplane connector. When a card 106 is installed in frame 102, the card pins 114 couple with corresponding backplane pins 112 making an electrical connection through which a data signal may be transmitted. Cards 106 may include various types of cards. For example, some of the cards may be line cards 116, such as a first line card 116a and a second line card 116d, which include input ports or output ports for respectively receiving and transmitting data signals, or both input and output ports. Other cards 106 may be fabric cards 140, such as a first fabric card 140b and a second fabric card 140c, which facilitate switching of signals between various input and port ports. Reference is made to FIGS. 3, 4 and 5, which schematically illustrate components of router 100. In the present example embodiment, each input port 118 or output port 120 on a line card 116a is coupled to an external signal through the backplane 104. In the illustrated embodiment of FIG. 3, input port 118 comprises a first input port 118a, a second input port 118b and a third input port 118c, and output port 120 comprises a first output port 120a, a second output port 120b, a third output port 120c and a fourth output port 120d. The backplane may, for example, include a pass-through connector to which a line card port 118, 120 may be coupled within frame 102 and to which a cable (not shown) may be coupled on the rear of the backplane. The line card port 118, 120 is electrically coupled to the cable (not shown), allowing the line card to receive or transmit a data signal on the cable. In other embodiments, line card ports may be directly coupled to a cable or may be coupled to a cable through the backplane using a coupling other than a pass-through connector. Line card 116a includes a line card crosspoint switch 124a with a plurality of switch terminals. In this example, crosspoint switch 124a has a plurality of input switch terminals 128 and a plurality of output switch terminals 130. Each input port 118 is coupled to at least one input switch terminal 128 and each output port 120 is coupled to at least one output switch terminal 130. In addition, a plurality of input switch terminals 128 are coupled to the backplane 104 through the corresponding backplane connector 110. A plurality of output switch terminals 130 are coupled to the backplane 104 through the corresponding backplane connector 110. Line card 116a also includes a line card controller 132a that is coupled to crosspoint switch 124a and which provides control signals to couple or decouple particular input switch terminals 128 to particular output switch terminals 130. Card controller 132a is coupled to a controller communication network 136 at a control system terminal 134a through which the card controller 132a may communicate with other cards 106 and with external control devices such as an external supervisor 138. In some embodiments, a line card controller 132a may be coupled to controller communication network 136 through the backplane or through another communication bus in frame 102 to which the line card is couple when installed in the frame. Each fabric card, such as fabric card 140b includes a card controller 132b and a crosspoint switch 124b, which are coupled together and operate in a manner similar to the card controller 132a and crosspoint switch 124a of line card 116a. Crosspoint switch 124b includes a plurality of input switch terminals 128 and output switch terminals 130 that are coupled to the backplane 104. The crosspoint switch 124b may be configured to couple any of the input switch terminals 128 to any of the output switch terminals 130 under the control of card controller 132b. As illustrated in FIG. 3, router 100 further includes a fabric card 140c, which includes a card controller 132c and a crosspoint switch 124c, and a line card 116d, which includes a card controller 132d and a crosspoint switch 124d. Each crosspoint switch 124a, 124b, 124c, 124d in router 100 is coupled to the controller communication network 136 through which the configuration of the crosspoint switch 124a, 124b, 124c, 124d may be changed by card controller 132a, 132b, 132c, 132d on other cards 106. Router 100 also includes a switch configuration table or database 150. Database 150 records the current setting for every input switch terminal and output switch terminal in all cross-point switches 124a, 124b, 124c, 124d in the router 100. For example, part of the contents of database 150 may be: Switch Terminal Setting 124a 128a1 Coupled to 130c3 124a 128a2 Coupled to 130a27 124a 128a3 Open 124a 128a4 Coupled to 130a8 . . . . . . . . . 124a 130a3 Coupled to 128a1 124a 130a4 Open 124a 130a5 Coupled to 128a2 124a 130a6 Open 124a 130a7 Coupled to 128a2 124b 130a8 Coupled to 128a4 . . . . . . . . . 124b 128b1 Open . . . . . . . . . 124c 128c35 Coupled to 130c14 . . . . . . . . . 124c 130c14 Coupled to 128c35 . . . . . . . . . 124d 128d12 Coupled to 130d5 124d 130d5 Coupled to 128d12 . . . . . . . . . where router 100 of FIG. 4 comprises a first input port 118a1, a second input port 118a2, a third input port 118a3, a fourth input port 118a4, a fifth input port 118a5, a sixth input port 118a6, a seventh input port 118a7, a first output port 120a1, a second output port 120a2, a third output port 120a3, a fourth output port 120a4, a fifth output port 120a5, a sixth output port 120a6, a seventh output port 120a7, a first input switch terminal 128a1, a second input switch terminal 128a2, a third input switch terminal 128a3, a fourth input switch terminal 128a4, a fifth input switch terminal 128a5, a sixth input switch terminal 128a6, a seventh input switch terminal 128a7, an nth input switch terminal 128an, a (n+1)th input switch terminal 128a(n+1), a (n+2)th input switch terminal 128a(n+2), a first output switch terminal 130a1, a second output switch terminal 130a2, a third output switch terminal 130a3, a fourth output switch terminal 130a4, a fifth output switch terminal 130a5, a sixth output switch terminal 130a6, a seventh output switch terminal 130a7, an nth output switch terminal 130an, a (n+1)th output switch terminal 130a(n+1) and a (n+2)th output switch terminal 130a(n+2). Database 150 is accessible to each of the controllers 132a, 132b, 132c, 132d. In some embodiments, the database 150 may be recorded in a central location, for example, in one of the controllers 132a, 132b, 132c, 132d where the local controller 132a, 132b, 132c, 132d may access the database directly and each of the other controllers may access the database through the controller communication network 136. In other embodiments, the database may be a distributed database with components that are located in multiple locations within router 100. For example, components of database 150a, 150b may be located in each of the controllers 132a, 132b, as is illustrated in FIGS. 4 and 5. Each controller 132a, 132b may contain the status of the cross-point switch 124a, 124b in the same card 106. Controllers 132a, 132b, 132c, 132d on other cards 106 may access the status of non-local cross-points switches through the controller communication network 136. In other embodiments, the database may be recorded in a data storage device or system that is external to router 100, but which is accessible to the controller 132a, 132b, 132c, 132d. In still other embodiments, a copy of the entire database 150 may be maintained at each controller 132a, 132b, 132c, 132d. A synchronization system that locks some or all of each copy of the database may be used to ensure that all copies of the database 150 are maintained in synchronization. In such embodiments, each controller 132a, 132b, 132c, 132d may use only its local copy of the entire database 150. In various embodiments, a combination of these techniques may be used to maintain database 150. As illustrated in FIG. 5, the backplane 104 includes a plurality of static point-to-point backplane connections 152 that couple output switch terminals on one card 106 to input switch terminals on another card 106. For example, backplane connections may couple output switch terminal 130a27 on line card 116a to input switch terminal 128c35 on fabric card 140c. Various embodiments may include as many or as few backplane connections between output switch terminals to input switch terminals. In any particular embodiment, the sizes of the various crosspoint switches 124a, 124b, 124c, 124d and the number of backplane connections can be selected to provide a desired level of functionality in the router. For example, in a router designed for a specific purpose, for example, in which only a limited number of couplings between input ports 118 and output ports 120 may be required, may have a correspondingly limited number of backplane connections 152. Fabric cards are typically useful to increase the flexibility with which a particular input port can be coupled to a particular output port. In some embodiments, all cards 106 may be line cards with no fabric cards. By selectively configuring one or more crosspoint switches 124a, 124b, 124c, 124d, a particular input port 118 on one line card 116 may be coupled to a particular output port 120 on the same or another line card. Reference is made to FIG. 4. For example, if: input port 118a4 is fixedly coupled to input switch terminal 128a4; switch crosspoint switch 124a couples input switch terminal 128a4 to output switch terminal 130a7; and output switch terminal 130a7 is fixedly coupled to output port 120a7, then an input data signal received input port 118a4 on line card 116a will be coupled to output port 120a7. Reference is made to FIG. 6. If: input port 118a2 is fixedly coupled to switch input terminal 128a2; switch input terminal 128a2 is coupled to output switch terminal 130a27 in crosspoint switch 124a; output switch terminal 130a27 is coupled to input switch terminal 128c35 in fabric card 140c through backplane connection 152a; switch input terminal 128c35 is coupled to output switch terminal 130c14 in crosspoint switch 124c; output switch terminal 130c14 is coupled to input switch terminal 128d12 through the backplane connection 152b; switch input terminal 128d12 is coupled to output switch terminal 130d5 in crosspoint switch 124d; and output switch terminal 130d5 is fixedly coupled to output port 120d5, then an input data signal received at input port 118a2 on line card 116a will be coupled to output port 120d5 on line card 116d. In router 100, each controller 132a, 132b, 132c, 132d is coupled to each crosspoint switch 124a, 124b, 124c, 124d in the router and may instruct any crosspoint switch 124a, 124b, 124c, 124d to couple specific input switch terminals and output switch terminals within the crosspoint switch 124a, 124b, 124c, 124d. Through one or more steps through crosspoint switches and through backplane connection 152, an input signal received at an input port 118 may be coupled to an output port 120 on the same or a different line card. In some embodiments, the crosspoint switches and the number of pairs of output switch terminals and input switch terminals coupled by backplane connections 152 may be sufficient to allow any input port 118 to be coupled to any output port 120, possibly through a variety of different routes. A particular controller 132a, 132d in a line card 116a, 116d may be configured to ensure that a data signal or data stream received at the line card is routed through to an appropriate destination for the data stream. For example, when a data stream is initially received at an input port 118, the controller examines the packets in the data stream, which will identify a destination for the data stream. The controller then determines which output port 120 in the router (which may be on the same line card as the controller or on another line card) is coupled to the destination. The controller then determines a path through the router and configures one or more crosspoint switches to provide the path between the input port 118 and the output port 120. The controller will typically select a route based on router configuration data that is previously recorded in the controller. The router configuration data includes information about the availability of backplane connections between different cards and may include additional information about the router structure or configuration. The controller will also typically consider the contents of the database 150. Typically a controller will not change the configuration of an input switch terminal or an output switch terminal that is already in use (i.e. coupled to a corresponding switch terminal). In some embodiments, a priority level for some or all of the couplings between different pairs of input switch terminal and output switch terminal may be maintained in database 150. A controller may determine a priority level for a data stream that the controller is routing through router 100. If an input switch or an output switch terminal is in use, but the stored priority level for the stream being routed through the switch is lower than the priority of the stream that the controller is attempting to route, then the control may change the configuration of the switch to use it for the higher priority data stream. In some cases, the router may have multiple paths through which a data stream can be routed from a particular input port 118 to a particular output port 120 and it may be possible to provide a needed routing for a high priority data stream without disrupting a lower priority data stream. Each controller may be configured to identify multiple routings to reduce disruption to existing routes set up within the router. In some conditions, a controller may not be able to determine a route by which a data stream can be delivered to a particular output port 120. In such conditions, the controller 132 may send a routing request to a supervisor 138 through the controller communication network 136. A supervisor will typically be an external device that can monitor and control the configuration of crosspoint switches 124a, 124b, 124c, 124d in the router 100 and possibly in other routers. In some embodiments, a supervisor 138 may be built into a router. In some embodiments, duplicate or multiple supervisors may be provided to provide redundancy or improved responsiveness when a request is sent to a supervisor or a group of supervisors. Each time a controller 132a, 132b, 132c, 132d changes the configuration of a switch 124a, 124b, 124c, 124d, the changes are recorded in the database 150. A supervisor may receive various types of requests. For example, a controller may ask a supervisor to provide a route from a particular input port to a particular output port. A controller may ask a supervisor to examine a packet to determine the output port to which the packet (and the corresponding data stream) should be coupled, and possibly also to provide a routing between the input port on which the data stream is received and the output port. In some embodiments, a supervisor may directly change the configuration of crosspoint switches 124a, 124b, 124c, 124d and update database 150 and advise the requesting controller that the request has been satisfied and optionally provide details of configuration changes made in the router. In other embodiments, a supervisor may provide a response to a controller making a request and the controller may then implement the details of the response. In some embodiments, each controller 132a, 132b, 132c, 132d may record some or all of the routes that are used by the controller, including some or all of the requests provided by a supervisor. The controller 132a, 132b, 132c, 132d may subsequently refer to the recorded requests to select routes for data streams between input ports 118 and output ports 120 based on the previously recorded routes. In some embodiments, the controller may track performance information such as the frequency with which transmission failures occur in particular routes and may select more reliable routes. Over time, the recorded route may become a library allowing a controller 132a, 132b, 132c, 132d to resolve an increasing number of routing requirement without sending a request to a supervisor. In addition, some or all of the controllers may be configured to find routes without reference to previously recorded route or making a request to a supervisor. In this manner, the controllers 132a, 132b, 132c, 132d in each card 106 are able to provide routes for data streams through the router 100. Some of the routes may traverse only the line card on which a data stream is received while other routes may traverse various line cards, fabric cards and backplane connections. In doing so, the controller can reduce the number of requests transmitted to the supervisor, increasing the rate at which data streams can be coupled through a router, particularly when a router receives, routes and transmits a large number of data streams. Router 100 has been described as a video router. A video router will typically receive audio/video data streams (which may be referred to as transport streams). In some embodiments, the data streams may also include non-video streams or may not include any video streams at all. Reference is next made to FIG. 7, which illustrates a control hierarchy between the card controllers, supervisors, other routers and other devices in a system. In some situations, a plurality of routers 700 may be coupled to provide a data transmission system. For example, routers 700 may be installed in a video processing facility such as a television studio or broadcast facility. Some or all of the routers may receive and transmit a plurality of input and output data streams. In some facilities, hundreds, thousands or even millions of data streams may be received and transmitted. The group of routers will typically be interconnected with a variety of other equipment including signal processors, analytic devices and other devices that generate or require data streams that are switched through one or more routers. Each router 700 is coupled to a supervisor system 754, which may include a plurality of supervisors 738, such as a first supervisor sub-system 738a, a second supervisor sub-system 738b, a third supervisor sub-system 738c, a fourth supervisor sub-system 738d, a fifth supervisor sub-system 738e, a sixth supervisor sub-system 738f, a seventh supervisor sub-system 738g and an eighth supervisor sub-system 738h. The supervisor system 754 forms a hierarchy in conjunction with the controllers 732 in each router. As described above, a card controller 732 on a card 706, including a line card 716 and a fabric card 740, in a router 700 may control the configuration of the corresponding switch 724 on its card 706 and may also be authorized to control the configuration of switches 724 on other cards within the same router. The controller may send requests to a corresponding supervisor sub-system 738a when the controller is unable to determine a route for a data stream, for example, when the controller is unable to allocate switches or connections to set up a required route, or when a route may require coordination between routers or under other conditions, which may include instructions from a supervisor to always make a request to the supervisor when certain types of data streams are received or after a particular time or other conditions. In some cases, two or more supervisors may be assigned to each router and may act as primary and backup routers, may operate in parallel, or may operate in a distributed manner to manage the flow and latency or requests made to the supervisory system 754. The supervisory system 754 may itself be coupled to other devices in a facility via a controller communication network 736 to receive and provide control and status information about the routers 700. Such control and status information may be used to control the routing of data streams within and between routers 700. For example, the other devices in the facility may identify high priority data streams that are to be switched through one or more routers 700 to reach a particular destination. Supervisor system 754 may instruct one or more of the routers to configure an appropriate route between a port on which a high priority data stream is to be received and its destination. In such a situation, a supervisor sub-system 738 may instruct the routers to configure a route directly, without previously having received a request from a controller 732. FIG. 7 illustrates a control hierarchy in which the supervisory system 754 communicates with other devices, which may be at the same or a different facility as the supervisory system. Supervisors 738 in the supervisor system 754 control the routing of data streams within and between the routers and between the routers and other devices. Controllers 732 in the routers can control routes directly within the router and may request control instructions from supervisors to generate requests. The supervisory system 754 and the controllers 732 are part of a control layer 756 that provides routes for data streams. FIG. 7 also illustrates a data layer 758 in which the data streams are transmitted. The data layer 758 includes input ports 718, switches 724, backplane connections 752 and output ports 720. The control layer 756 configures the data layer so that data streams are able to traverse the data layer between input ports and output ports. The present invention has been described here by way of example only. Various modification and variations may be made to these exemplary embodiments without departing from the scope of the invention, which is limited only by the appended claims.

<SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The number of devices coupled to data communications networks is increasing rapidly. The routing of data streams from and to such devices is increasingly more complex and difficulty in allocating efficient routes, or even any route at all, in various components in a communication network can affect the quality of service delivery to a user of a device. For example, communication networks typically contain routers that couple an input data stream received at an input port to an output port at which the data stream is available to a downstream device. As the size of routers increases (i.e. as the number of input and output ports on a router increases, then complexity of creating efficient routing within the router and between network devices increase non-linearly. It is desirable to provide an efficient system and methods that allows a network device to efficiently configure routes for data streams.

<SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In one aspect, in at least one embodiment described herein, there is provided a data transmission system comprising a plurality of video routers, a supervisory system for transmitting one or more router configuration signals to one or more video routers, and a control communication network for coupling the plurality of video routers and the supervisory system. Each router in the system comprises a backplane including a plurality of backplane connections, at least one line card and at least one fabric card. Each line card comprises a plurality of input ports and output ports where each input and output port is coupled to a respective external signal through the backplane. Each line card further comprises a line card cross-point switch having a plurality of input switch terminals and a plurality of output switch terminals. Each fabric card comprises a fabric card cross-point switch having a plurality of input switch terminal and a plurality of output switch terminals. Furthermore, each line card and each fabric card comprises a card controller where the card controller selectively couples one or more input switch terminals of a cross-point switch to the output switch terminals of that cross-point switch. The cross-point switches being manipulated by the card controller may belong to one or more different cards within the same video router. In some cases, the card controller of a first card in a first video router configures a corresponding cross-point switch of the first card to route a data stream from an input port to an output port, where the first card and the second card are a line card or a fabric card. In some other cases, the card controller of a first card in a first video router configures a cross-point switch of a second card in the first video router to route a data stream from an input port to an output port, where the first card and the second card are a line card or a fabric card. In various cases, where when a data stream is received at an input port of a first card, a first card controller corresponding to the first card is configured to transmit a data request to the supervisory system, where the supervisory system is configured to: determine an output destination identifying an output port, and generate one or more router configuration signals for one or more card controllers based on the output destination, wherein the one or more card controllers configure one or more cross-point switches to route the data stream to the output port. In various cases, where when a data stream is received at an input port of a first card, a first card controller corresponding to the first card is configured to: determine an output destination identifying an output port, and transmit a data request to the supervisory system, where the supervisory system is configured to: generate one or more router configuration signals for one or more card controllers based on the output destination, wherein the one or more card controllers configure one or more cross-point switches to route the data stream to the output port. In various cases, where if the data stream is designated a priority stream, at least one of the one or more card controllers reconfigures the corresponding cross-point switch to route the priority stream. In various cases, where the backplane comprises a plurality of backplane connectors for receiving the at least one line card and the at least one fabric card. In various cases, where each backplane connector comprises a plurality of backplane contacts, wherein each line card and each fabric card comprises a plurality of card pins, and wherein the plurality of backplane contacts and the plurality of card pins provide an electrical connection when coupled. In various cases, the system further comprises a switch configuration database coupled to the controller communication network and configured to store coupling of the input switch terminals of at least one line card cross-point switch and the fabric card cross-point switch to corresponding output switch terminals. In various cases, the switch configuration database is provided within the card controllers. In another aspect, in at least one embodiment described herein, there is provided a method of routing video signals from a plurality of input ports to a plurality of output ports using at least one video router of a data transmission system disclosed herein. The method comprises receiving a data stream at an input port of a card, the card being a line card, receiving one or more router configuration signals by one or more card controllers, at least one card controller being a line card controller of the line card, and configuring one or more cross-point switches by card controllers based on the one or more router configuration signals to route the data stream between the input port and an output destination, wherein at least one of the one or more cross-point switches correspond to a cross-point switch of the line card. In various embodiments, the method of routing video signals is configured to operate in accordance with the devices defined above or in accordance with the teachings herein. In another aspect, in at least one embodiment described herein, there is provided a data transmission system comprising a control layer, a data layer and a controller communication network for coupling the control layer and the data layer. The control layer comprises a supervisory system configured to transmit one or more router configuration signals to one or more video routers, the one or more router configuration signals comprising instructions to selectively configure the one or more routers, and one or more card controllers provided in the one or more video routers, each card controller configured to selectively couple input switch terminals of one or more cross-point switches to output switch terminals of the corresponding one or more cross-point switches. The data layer comprises one or more cross-point switches, the one or more cross-point switches provided in the one or more video routers, each cross-point switch comprising a plurality of input switch terminals and a plurality of output switch terminals, a backplane including a plurality of backplane connections, wherein a subset of the plurality of input switch terminals and the output switch terminals are coupled to a respective plurality of backplane connections, a plurality of input ports and a plurality of output ports corresponding to each video router, where the supervisory system is configured to: receive a request signal from a card controller, and transmit a router configuration signal to one or more card controllers, the router configuration signal comprising instructions to selectively couple input switch terminals to output switch terminals of the one or more cross-point switches coupled to the one or more card controllers. In various embodiments, the data transmission system is configured to operate in accordance with the devices and methods defined above or in accordance with the teachings herein. Other features and advantages of the present application will become apparent from the following detailed description taken together with the accompanying drawings. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific examples, while indicating preferred embodiments of the application, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the application will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description.

H04L4560

20180302

20180705

57776.0

H04L12773

ASEFA, DEBEBE A

VIDEO ROUTER

UNDISCOUNTED

CONT-ACCEPTED

H04L