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Phenomena such as civilisation, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others.

The state Objection to the state and its institutions is a sine qua non of anarchism.

Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies.

Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite.

Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is open or transparent, as it still has the ability to coerce people.

Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption.

Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the ruling class is distinct from the rest of society.

Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary.

Robert Paul Wolff believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate.

Bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be."

A. John Simmons and Leslie Green, who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely.

Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ.

Gender, sexuality, and free love As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists address, analyse, and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy imposed by gender roles.

Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing.

Sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker, who opposed age of consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men.

A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was free love.

In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support polyamory, relationship anarchy, and queer anarchism.

Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men.

The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure.

Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together.

Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love.

Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, and pro-choice (utilising a contemporary term), and had a similar agenda.

Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on suffrage but were supportive of one another.

During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the second wave of feminism, radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well.

By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents.

With the third wave of feminism, sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject of study for anarchists, yielding a post-structuralist critique of sexual normality.

Some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation.

Education The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism.

Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of mutual aid.

Anarchist writers such as William Godwin (Political Justice) and Max Stirner ("The False Principle of Our Education") attacked both state education and private education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges.

In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francisco Ferrer established the Escuela Moderna in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church.

Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process whilst giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance.

Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to foster class consciousness among students.

The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later arrested.

Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools around the world.

Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy, who published the essay Education and Culture, also established a similar school with its founding principle being that "for education to be effective it had to be free."

In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became the Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion.

Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality would lead children to morally good conclusions; however, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation.

Ferrer believed that moral indoctrination was necessary and explicitly taught pupils that equality, liberty and social justice were not possible under capitalism, along with other critiques of government and nationalism.

Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers (Paul Goodman, Herbert Read, and Colin Ward) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in consumerism as part of a consumer society.

Contemporary anarchists such as Ward claim that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality.

While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions.

Judith Suissa names three schools as explicitly anarchists' schools, namely the Free Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England, and the Paideia School in Spain.

The arts The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others.

In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the New Apocalyptics and the neo-romanticism movement.

In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk.

Anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Herbert Read stated that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life.

Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends.

In his book Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas, Chris Robé claims that "anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism."

Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists (Peter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Gustav Landauer and Camillo Berneri) and publications such as Anarchy wrote about matters pertaining to the arts.

Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists.

It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests.

As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect.

The 19th-century neo-impressionist movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road towards socialism.

In Les chataigniers a Osny by anarchist painter Camille Pissarro, the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community.

Criticism The most common critique of anarchism is the assertion that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary for human survival.

Philosopher Bertrand Russell supported this critique, stating that "[p]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government."

Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing; a response would be that major anarchist thinkers advocated anarchist federalism.

Another criticism of anarchism is the belief that it is inherently unstable: that an anarchist society would inevitably evolve back into a state.

Thomas Hobbes and other early social contract theorists argued that the state emerges in response to natural anarchy in order to protect the people's interests and keep order.

Philosopher Robert Nozick argued that a "night-watchman state", or minarchy, would emerge from anarchy through the process of an invisible hand, in which people would exercise their liberty and buy protection from protection agencies, evolving into a minimal state.

Anarchists reject these criticisms by arguing that humans in a state of nature would not just be in a state of war.

Anarcho-primitivists in particular argue that humans were better off in a state of nature in small tribes living close to the land, while anarchists in general argue that the negatives of state organization, such as hierarchies, monopolies and inequality, outweigh the benefits.

Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a list of common arguments against anarchism which includes critiques such as that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, such as at protests, but in the world of ethics as well.

Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state cannot be defeated practically.

This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it.

The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory as a ruling theory that has no ruling theory.

Anarchism also calls for collective action whilst endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken.

Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong.

Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons' Moral Principles and Political Obligations.

Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay to argue against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious.

Edmundson says that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate.

In The Problem of Political Authority, Michael Huemer defends philosophical anarchism, claiming that "political authority is a moral illusion."

One of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority.

Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success.

Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction.

Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such as doctors or lawyers as reliable, nor does it involve a complete surrender of independent judgment.

Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state, and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, respectively.

Classical anarchism has been criticised for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering.

Friedrich Engels, considered to be one of the principal founders of Marxism, criticised anarchism's anti-authoritarianism as inherently counter-revolutionary because in his view a revolution is by itself authoritarian.

Academic John Molyneux writes in his book Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism that "anarchism cannot win", believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas.

The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values.

According to the Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence.

Marxists state that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act.

In the anarchist vision, the conflict between liberty and equality was resolved through coexistence and intertwining.

See also Anarchism by country Governance without government List of anarchist political ideologies List of books about anarchism References Explanatory notes Citations General and cited sources Primary sources Secondary sources Tertiary sources Further reading Criticism of philosophical anarchism.

A defence of philosophical anarchism, stating that "both kinds of 'anarchism' [i.e. philosophical and political anarchism] are philosophical and political claims." (

p. 137) Anarchistic popular fiction novel.

An argument for philosophical anarchism.

External links Anarchy Archives – an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism.

Anti-capitalism Anti-fascism Economic ideologies Far-left politics Left-wing politics Libertarian socialism Libertarianism Political culture Political ideologies Political movements Social theories Socialism

Albedo (; ) is the fraction of sunlight that is diffusely reflected by a body.

It is measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation).

Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity Je to the irradiance Ee (flux per unit area) received by a surface.

The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface.

These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location, and time (see position of the Sun).

While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period.

The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages.

Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation.

Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm).