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The most common types of<unk> include action, cortical reflex, essential, palatal, those seen in the progressive<unk> epilepsies, reticular reflex, sleep and stimulus-sensitive. Epilepsy forms * Cortical reflex<unk> is thought to be a type of epilepsy that originates in the cerebral cortex – the outer layer, or "gray matter", of the brain, responsible for much of the information processing that takes place in the brain. In this type of<unk> , jerks usually involve only a few muscles in one part of the body, but jerks involving many muscles may occur. Cortical reflex<unk> can be intensified when patients attempt to move in a certain way or perceive a particular sensation. * Essential<unk> occurs in the absence of epilepsy or other apparent abnormalities in the brain or nerves. It can occur randomly in people with no family history, or among members of the same family, indicating that it sometimes may be an inherited disorder. Essential<unk> tends to be stable without increasing in severity over time. Some scientists speculate that some forms of essential<unk> may be a type of epilepsy with no known cause. * Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME) usually consists of jerking and muscle twitches of the upper extremities. This may include the arms, shoulders, elbows, and very rarely, the legs. JME is among the most common types of epilepsy and can affect one of every 14 people with the disease. These seizures typically occur shortly after waking up. Onset for JME can be seen around puberty for most patients. Administration of medications that also treat multiple seizure types is usually the most effective form of treatment. * Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (LGS), or childhood epileptic encephalopathy, is a rare epileptic disorder accounting for 1–4% of childhood epilepsies. The syndrome has much more severe symptoms ranging from multiple seizures daily, learning disabilities, abnormal findings in electroencephalogram (EEG). Earlier age of seizure onset is correlated with higher risk of cognitive impairment. * Progressive<unk> epilepsy (PME) is a group of diseases characterized by<unk> , epileptic seizures, tonic-clonic seizures, and other serious symptoms such as trouble walking or speaking. These rare disorders often get worse over time and can be fatal. Studies have identified at least three forms of PME. Lafora disease is inherited as an autosomal recessive disorder, meaning that the disease occurs only when a child inherits two copies of a defective gene, one from each parent. Lafora disease is characterized by<unk> , epileptic seizures, and dementia (progressive loss of memory and other intellectual functions). A second group of PME diseases belonging to the class of cerebral storage diseases usually involves<unk> , visual problems, dementia, and dystonia (sustained muscle contractions that cause twisting movements or abnormal postures). Another group of PME disorders in the class of system degenerations often is accompanied by action<unk> , seizures, and problems with balance and walking. Many of these PME diseases begin in childhood or adolescence. Treatment is not normally successful for any extended period of time. * Reticular reflex<unk> is thought to be a type of generalized epilepsy that originates in the brainstem, the part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord and controls vital functions such as breathing and heartbeat. Myoclonic jerks usually affect the whole body, with muscles on both sides of the body affected simultaneously. In some people, myoclonic jerks occur in only a part of the body, such as the legs, with all the muscles in that part being involved in each jerk. Reticular reflex<unk> can be triggered by either a voluntary movement or an external stimulus. Diaphragmatic flutter A very rare form includes the diaphragmatic flutter, the Belly Dancer's Syndrome, or Van Leeuwenhoek's disease. It was first described by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1723, who suffered from it. The condition characterizes spoken communication that sounds like a short-breathed hiccup. These muscle spasms can recur dozens of times per day. Rate of diaphragmatic contraction ranges between 35 and 480 contractions per minute, with the average rate found to be 150. Studies show that possible causes include disruptions within the central or peripheral nervous systems, anxiety, nutritional disorder, and certain pharmaceuticals. No single treatment has proven effective, though blocking or crushing of the phrenic nerve can provide instantaneous relief when pharmacologic treatment has proven ineffective. Only about 50 people in the world have been diagnosed with diaphragmatic flutter. Other forms * Action<unk> is characterized by muscular jerking triggered or intensified by voluntary movement or even the intention to move. It may be made worse by attempts at precise, coordinated movements. Action<unk> is the most disabling form of<unk> and can affect the arms, legs, face, and even the voice. It is often associated with tonic-clonic seizures and diffuse neuronal disease such as post-hypoxic encephalopathy, uremia, and the various forms of PME, although, in the case of focal cerebral damage, the disease may be restricted to one limb. This type of<unk> often is caused by brain damage that results from a lack of oxygen and blood flow to the brain when breathing or heartbeat is temporarily stopped. Over-excitement of the sensorimotor cortex (cortical reflex<unk> or reticular formation (reticular reflex<unk> is also a cause of action<unk> . Serotonin and GABA neurotransmitters are thought to cause this lack of inhibition, which is a possible explanation as to why improvements are made with the administration of serotonin precursors. Systems involved include the cerebellodentatorubral, pyramidal, extrapyramidal, optic, auditory, posterior columns and gracile and cuneate nuclei, spinocerebellar tracts, motor neurons of cranial nerves and anterior horns, and muscle fibers. * Palatal<unk> is a regular, rhythmic contraction of one or both sides of the rear of the roof of the mouth, called the soft palate. These contractions may be accompanied by<unk> in other muscles, including those in the face, tongue, throat, and diaphragm. The contractions are very rapid, occurring as often as 150 times a minute, and may persist during sleep. The condition usually appears in adults and can last indefinitely. People with palatal<unk> usually regard it as a minor problem; some complain of an occasional "clicking" sound, a noise made as the soft palate muscles contract. * Middle ear<unk> occurs in the muscles of the middle ear. These muscles may include the tensor tympani and stapedius muscles. It can involve the muscles surrounding the Eustachian tube, which include the tensor veli palatini, levator veli palatini, and salpingopharyngeus. Sufferers describe it as a thumping sound or sensation in the ear. * Spinal<unk> is<unk> originating in the spinal cord, including segmental and propriospinal<unk> . The latter is usually due to a thoracic generator producing truncal flexion jerk. It is often stimulus-induced with a delay due to the slow conducting propriospinal nerve fibers. * Stimulus-sensitive<unk> is triggered by a variety of external events, including noise, movement, and light. Surprise may increase the sensitivity of the patient. * Sleep<unk> occurs during the initial phases of sleep, especially at the moment of dropping off to sleep, and include familiar examples of<unk> such as the hypnic jerk. Some forms appear to be stimulus-sensitive. Some people with sleep<unk> are rarely troubled by it, or need treatment. If it is a symptom of more complex and disturbing sleep disorders, such as restless legs syndrome, it may require medical treatment.<unk> can be associated with patients with Tourette syndrome. | Myoclonus | Chorea | Chorea | Clonus | Opisthotonus | Opsoclonus | Synkinesis | Paratonia | 00
| 15,659 |
* Nausea / Vomiting * Headache * Dizziness * Excess urine production * Dehydration * Hypoelectrolytemia (esp. hypokalemia / hypomagnesia) | Chlorothiazide | Cyclothiazide | Amiloride | Spironolactone | Hydrochlorothiazide | Furosemide | Bumetanide | Torasemide | 00
| 36,558 |
<unk> is a rare disease caused by the interruption of peripheral or central sensory pathways of the<unk> nerve. A slowly enlarging, uninflammed ulcer can occur in the area that has suffered the<unk> nerve damage; including but not limited to the cheek beside the ala nasi. These sores affect the skin supplied by the sensory component of the<unk> nerve. Similar lesions may also occur in the corners of the eyes, inside the ear canal, on the scalp or inside the mouth. It has been stated that the ulceration is due to the constant "picking" of the patient. While this does occur, the picking behavior is an incomplete explanation of the disease presentation: the lack of feeling or pain allows the patient to continue scratching or picking the area, and, although there is no feeling, there is constant neuropathic pain. Sixty cases were reported from 1982 to 2002. | Trigeminal trophic syndrome | Trigeminal autonomic cephalgia | Ictal headache | Flicker vertigo | Thunderclap headache | Todd's paresis | Bulbar palsy | Migraine-associated vertigo | 00
| 54,951 |
<unk> is an abnormal clinical and laboratory<unk> condition that is frequently observed in infants. It is commonly presented within the first 72 hours of a newborn's life. Healthy term infants go through a physiological nadir of serum calcium levels at 7.5 - 8.5 mg/dL by day 2 of life.<unk> is a low blood calcium level. A total serum calcium of less than 8 mg/dL (2mmol/L) or ionized calcium less than 1.2 mmol/L in term neonates is defined as<unk> . In preterm infants, it is defined as less than 7mg/dL (1.75 mmol/L) total serum calcium or less than 4mg/dL (1 mmol/L) ionized calcium. Both early onset<unk> (presents within 72h of birth) and late onset<unk> (presents in 3-7 days after birth) require calcium supplementation treatment. Infants with intrauterine growth retardation, perinatal asphyxia, preterm, and diabetic mothers are most likely to develop<unk> . It is not understood why premature infants have<unk> , but a proposed idea is that a large increase of calcitonin may lead to<unk> . Another hypothesis includes impaired secretion of PTH or Parathyroid hormone. | Neonatal hypocalcemia | Neonatal diabetes | Neonatal hypoglycemia | Transient hyperammonemia of the newborn | Transient neonatal diabetes | Shaken baby syndrome | Permanent neonatal diabetes | Neonatal sepsis | 00
| 66,188 |
Mechanism of<unk> -switch recombination that allows isotype<unk> in activated B cells.<unk> , also known as isotype<unk> , isotypic commutation or<unk> -switch recombination (CSR), is a biological mechanism that changes a B cell's production of<unk> from one type to another, such as from the isotype IgM to the isotype IgG. During this process, the constant-region portion of the antibody heavy chain is changed, but the variable region of the heavy chain stays the same (the terms variable and constant refer to changes or lack thereof between antibodies that target different epitopes). Since the variable region does not change,<unk><unk> does not affect antigen specificity. Instead, the antibody retains affinity for the same antigens, but can interact with different effector molecules. | Immunoglobulin class switching | Alloantigen recognition | Antibody opsonization | Memory T cell inflation | Fragment antigen-binding | Complement-dependent cytotoxicity | Immune tolerance | Antibody-dependent enhancement | 00
| 44,433 |
The clinical presentation of<unk> can vary greatly, making diagnosis difficult. With the variety of phenotypes, clinical suspicion of<unk> can result from a variety of different presentations. Symptoms vary based on the disease phenotype, and even within families or between twins. When<unk> is suspected based on clinical symptoms, the initial testing usually includes plasma very long chain fatty acid (VLCFA) determination using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The concentration of unsaturated VLCFA, particularly 26 carbon chains is significantly elevated in males with<unk> , even prior to the development of other symptoms. Confirmation of<unk> after positive plasma VLCFA determination usually involves molecular genetic analysis of ABCD1. In females, where plasma VLCFA measurement is not always conclusive (some female carriers will have normal VLCFA in plasma), molecular analysis is preferred, particularly in cases where the mutation in the family is known. Although the clinical phenotype is highly variable among affected males, the elevations of VLCFA are present in all males with an ABCD1 mutation. Because the characteristic elevations associated with<unk> are present at birth, well before any symptoms are apparent, there have been methods developed in the interests of including it in newborn screening programs. One of the difficulties with<unk> as a disease included in universal newborn screening is the difficulty in predicting the eventual phenotype that an individual will express. The accepted treatment for affected boys presenting with the cerebral childhood form of the disease is a bone marrow transplant, a procedure which carries significant risks. However, because most affected males will demonstrate adrenal insufficiency, early discovery and treatment of this symptom could potentially prevent complications and allow these patients to be monitored for other treatment in the future, depending on the progression of their disease. The Loes score is a rating of the severity of abnormalities in the brain found on MRI. It ranges from 0 to 34, based on a point system derived from the location and extent of disease and the presence of atrophy in the brain, either localized to specific points or generally throughout the brain. A Loes score of 0.5 or less is classified as normal, while a Loes score of 14 or greater is considered severe. It was developed by neuroradiologist Daniel J. Loes MD and is an important tool in assessing disease progression and the effectiveness of therapy. | Adrenoleukodystrophy | Hereditary inclusion body myopathy | Inclusion body myositis | Mitochondrial myopathy | Familial amyloid neuropathy | Familial amyloid polyneuropathy | Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease | Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome | 00
| 3,621 |
<unk> prevention is initiated with assessing the risk for its development. Some people have a higher risk of developing<unk> and its possible development into thromboembolism. Some of these risk factors are related to inflammation. "Virchow's triad" has been suggested to describe the three factors necessary for the formation of<unk> : stasis of blood, vessel wall injury, and altered blood coagulation. Some risk factors predispose for venous<unk> while others increase the risk of arterial<unk> . Newborn babies in the neonatal period are also at risk of a thromboembolism. + Risk factors for<unk> Factor Notes References Previous episodes of<unk> Vasoconstriction Slow or turbulent blood flow slow flow is modifiable with exercise Stroke Heart failure Sedentary life style modifiable Plaster cast transient Dehydration modifiable Acute respiratory failure Dysrhythmias Shock Obesity modifiable Pregnancy and the post-partum period Varicose veins Surgery Trauma Estrogen-based oral contraceptive discontinuation reduces risk Hormone replacement therapy discontinuation reduces risk Ovarian hyper-stimulation therapy to treat infertility Compression of a vein or artery by abnormality, tumor, hematoma Long surgeries Pacing wires Local vein damage, incompetent valves Central venous catheters Dialysis catheters Repetitive motion injury Immobility modifiable risk Spinal cord injury Age Cancers Sepsis Polycythemia Protein C and/or S deficiency congenital; associated with Warfarin necrosis Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome altered coagulation Factor V Leiden defect altered coagulation Prothrombin G20210A defect altered coagulation Hyperhomocysteinemia altered coagulation Elevated factors II, VIII, IX, XI altered coagulation Antithrombin III deficiency altered coagulation Falls and hip fracture related to immobility Selective estrogen-receptor modulators Erythropoiesis-stimulating agents Acute medical illness Inflammatory bowel disease Nephrotic syndrome Myeloproliferative disorders Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinnuria Thrombophilias Post-menopausal hormone replacement therapy discontinuation reduces risk Right heart failure Venous inflammation/phlebitis when a thrombus forms, it is thrombophlebitis Ambient air pollution thought to be related to inflammation | Thrombosis | Thrombus | Angiopathy | Sclerosis | Calcification | Infarction | Adhesion | Abscess | 00
| 7,219 |
An<unk> ,<unk> rdiogram, cardiac<unk> or simply an<unk> , is an ultrasound of the heart. It is a type of medical imaging of the heart, using standard ultrasound or Doppler ultrasound.<unk> has become routinely used in the diagnosis, management, and follow-up of patients with any suspected or known heart diseases. It is one of the most widely used diagnostic imaging modality in cardiology. It can provide a wealth of helpful information, including the size and shape of the heart (internal chamber size quantification), pumping capacity, and the location and extent of any tissue damage, assessment of valves and cardiac masses. An<unk> rdiogram can also give physicians other estimates of heart function, such as a calculation of the cardiac output, ejection fraction, and diastolic function (how well the heart relaxes).<unk> is an important tool in assessing wall motion abnormality in patients with suspected cardiac disease. It is a tool which helps in reaching an early diagnosis of myocardial infarction showing regional wall motion abnormality of the heart. Also, it is important in treatment and follow-up in patients with heart failure, by assessing ejection fraction.<unk> can help detect cardiomyopathies, such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, dilated cardiomyopathy, and many others. The use of stress<unk> may also help determine whether any chest pain or associated symptoms are related to heart disease. The biggest advantage of<unk> is that it is not invasive (does not involve breaking the skin or entering body cavities) and has no known risks or side effects. Not only can an<unk> rdiogram create ultrasound images of heart structures, but it can also produce accurate assessment of the blood flowing through the heart by Doppler<unk> , using pulsed- or continuous-wave Doppler ultrasound. This allows assessment of both normal and abnormal blood flow through the heart. Color Doppler, as well as spectral Doppler, is used to visualize any abnormal communications between the left and right sides of the heart, any leaking of blood through the valves (valvular regurgitation), and estimate how well the valves open (or do not open in the case of valvular stenosis). The Doppler technique can also be used for tissue motion and velocity measurement, by tissue Doppler<unk> .<unk> was also the first ultrasound subspecialty to use intravenous contrast.<unk> is performed by cardiac sonographers, cardiac physiologists (UK), or physicians trained in<unk> . Recognized as the "Father of<unk> ", the Swedish physician Inge Edler (1911-2001), a graduate of Lund University, was the first of his profession to apply ultrasonic pulse<unk> imaging in diagnosing cardiac disease, which the acoustical physicist Floyd Firestone had developed to detect defects in metal castings. In fact, Edler in 1953 produced the first<unk> using an industrial Firestone-Sperry Ultrasonic Reflectoscope. In developing<unk> , Edler worked with the physicist Carl Hellmuth Hertz, the son of the Nobel laureate Gustav Hertz and grandnephew of Heinrich Rudolph Hertz. | Echocardiography | Magnetocardiography | Doppler echocardiography | Tissue Doppler echocardiography | Phonocardiogram | Coronary CT calcium scan | Ballistocardiography | Intracoronary optical coherence tomography | 00
| 11,162 |
In psychiatry,<unk> or pedantic speech is communication characterized by situationally-inappropriate formality. This formality can be expressed both through abnormal prosody as well as speech content that is "inappropriately pompous, legalistic, philosophical, or quaint". Often, such speech can act as evidence for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or a thought disorder, a common symptom in schizophrenia or schizotypal personality disorder. To diagnose<unk> , researchers have previously looked for the following characteristics: * speech conveying more information than necessary * vocabulary and grammar expected from formal writing rather than conversational speech * unneeded repetition or corrections While literal and long-winded word content is often the most identifiable feature of<unk> , such speech often displays irregular prosody, especially in resonance. Often, the loudness, pitch, rate, and nasality of pedantic speech vary from normal speech, resulting in the perception of pedantic or<unk> speaking. For example, overly loud or high-pitched speech can come across to listeners as overly forceful while slow or nasal speech creates an impression of condescension. These attributions, which are commonly found in patients with ASD, partially account for why<unk> has been considered a diagnostic criterion for the disorder.<unk> , along with atypical intonation, semantic drift, terseness, and perseveration, are all qualities known to be commonly impaired during conversation with adolescents on the autistic spectrum. Often,<unk> found in children with ASD will also be especially stereotypic or rehearsed. Patients with schizophrenia are also known to experience<unk> . This symptom is attributed to both an inability to access more commonly used words and a difficulty understanding pragmatics—the relationship between language and context. However,<unk> appears as a less common symptom compared to a certain number of other symptoms of the psychosis (Adler et al 1999). This element of cognitive disorder is also exhibited as a symptom in the narcissistic personality disorder (Akhtar & Thomson 1982). | Stilted speech | Hypernasal speech | Stuttering | Hoarse voice | Nasal voice | Alaryngeal speech | Kussmaul breathing | Speech delay | 00
| 62,363 |
Many people who believe they suffer from<unk> seek out traditional medicinal cures thought to restore balance to yin and yang. An affected person may also go to a medical clinic that specializes in Western sexual health. If no medical problems are found, therapy may be used to help deal with stress, or anxiety medicines may be used. | Shenkui | Hwabyeong | Ysguborwen | Shin-bang | Evenor | Yinshu | Sumpong | Ya mong | 00
| 65,548 |
The cause is unknown, and likely related to genetic abnormalities. Children with Fanconi anemia can sometimes display hypoplasia of the<unk> . | Thumb hypoplasia | Maxillary hypoplasia | Renal hypoplasia | Condylar hypoplasia | Radial aplasia | Hemifacial microsomia | Webbed neck | Ape hand deformity | 00
| 59,860 |
Deaths per million persons in 2012 due to<unk> Disability-adjusted life year for Alzheimer and other<unk> s per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004. The most common type of<unk> is Alzheimer's disease. Other common types include vascular<unk> ,<unk> with Lewy bodies, frontotemporal<unk> , and mixed<unk> (commonly Alzheimer's disease and vascular<unk> . Less common causes include normal pressure hydrocephalus, Parkinson's disease<unk> , syphilis, HIV, and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. The number of cases of<unk> worldwide in 2021 was estimated at 55 million, with close to 10 million new cases each year. By 2050, the number of people living with<unk> is estimated to be over 150 million globally. An estimated 58% of people with<unk> are living in low and middle income countries. The prevalence of<unk> differs in different world regions, ranging from 4.7% in Central Europe to 8.7% in North Africa/Middle East; the prevalence in other regions is estimated to be between 5.6 and 7.6%. The number of people living with<unk> is estimated to double every 20 years. In 2016<unk> resulted in about 2.4 million deaths, up from 0.8 million in 1990. Around two-thirds of individuals with<unk> live in low- and middle-income countries, where the sharpest increases in numbers were predicted in a 2009 study. The annual incidence of<unk> diagnosis is nearly 10 million worldwide. Almost half of new<unk> cases occur in Asia, followed by Europe (25%), the Americas (18%) and Africa (8%). The incidence of<unk> increases exponentially with age, doubling with every 6.3 year increase in age.<unk> affects 5% of the population older than 65 and 20–40% of those older than 85. Rates are slightly higher in women than men at ages 65 and greater. The disease trajectory is varied and the median time from diagnosis to death depends strongly on age at diagnosis, from 6.7 years for people diagnosed aged 60–69 to 1.9 years for people diagnosed at 90 or older.<unk> impacts not only individuals with<unk> , but also their carers and the wider society. Among people aged 60 years and over,<unk> is ranked the 9th most burdensome condition according to the 2010 Global Burden of Disease (GBD) estimates. The global costs of<unk> was around US$818 billion in 2015, a 35.4% increase from US$604 billion in 2010. Affected ages About 3% of people between the ages of 65–74 have<unk> , 19% between 75 and 84, and nearly half of those over 85 years of age. As more people are living longer,<unk> is becoming more common. For people of a specific age, however, it may be becoming less frequent in the developed world, due to a decrease in modifiable risk factors made possible by greater financial and educational resources. It is one of the most common causes of disability among the elderly but can develop before the age of 65 when it is known as early-onset<unk> or presenile<unk> . Less than 1% of those with Alzheimer's have gene mutations that cause a much earlier development of the disease, around the age of 45, known as early-onset Alzheimer's disease. More than 95% of people suffering from Alzheimer's disease have the sporadic form (late onset, 80–90 years of age). Worldwide the cost of<unk> in 2015 was put at US$818 billion. People with<unk> are often physically or chemically restrained to a greater degree than necessary, raising issues of human rights. Social stigma is commonly perceived by those with the condition, and also by their caregivers. | Dementia | Delirium | Pseudodementia | Procidentia | Hypothyroidism | Subcortical dementia | Anti-Hu associated encephalitis | Vascular dementia | 00
| 2,810 |
The long-term heavy consumption of alcohol (alcohol use disorder) can cause severe detrimental effects. Health effects associated with alcohol intake in large amounts include an increased risk of developing an alcohol use disorder, malnutrition, chronic pancreatitis, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, gastritis, stomach ulcers, alcoholic liver disease, certain types of dementia, and several types of cancer. In addition, damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system (e.g., painful peripheral neuropathy) can occur from chronic heavy alcohol consumption. Besides, an increased risk for accidents exist like car accidents and related injuries. Even light and moderate alcohol consumption increase the risk for developing certain types of cancer. In fact, a 2018 study confirms that no level of alcohol consumption is safe, even a little. The long-term use of alcohol is capable of damaging nearly every organ and system in the body. The developing adolescent brain is particularly vulnerable to the toxic effects of alcohol. In addition, the developing fetal brain is also vulnerable, and fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) may result if pregnant mothers consume alcohol. While alcohol consumption does not improve overall health, the inverse relation in Western cultures between alcohol consumption and cardiovascular disease has been known for over 100 years. Many physicians do not promote alcohol consumption; however, given the many health concerns associated with it, some suggest that alcohol should be regarded as a recreational drug, and promote exercise and good nutrition to combat cardiovascular disease. Negative effects include increased risk of liver diseases, oropharyngeal cancer, esophageal cancer and pancreatitis. Conversely moderate intake of alcohol may have some beneficial effects on gastritis and cholelithiasis. Chronic alcohol misuse has serious effects on physical and mental health. Chronic excess alcohol intake, or alcohol dependence, can lead to a wide range of neuropsychiatric or neurological impairment, cardiovascular disease, liver disease, and malignant neoplasms. The psychiatric disorders which are associated with alcoholism include major depression, dysthymia, depersonalization, mania, hypomania, panic disorder, phobias, generalized anxiety disorder, personality disorders, schizophrenia, suicide, neurologic deficits (e.g. impairments of working memory, emotions, executive functions, visuospatial abilities and gait and balance) and brain damage. Alcohol dependence is associated with hypertension, coronary heart disease, and ischemic stroke, cancer of the respiratory system, and also cancers of the digestive system, liver, breast and ovaries. Heavy drinking is associated with liver disease, such as cirrhosis. Excessive alcohol consumption can have a negative impact on aging. Some nations have introduced alcohol packaging warning messages that inform consumers about alcohol and cancer, and about risk of fetal alcohol syndrome for women who drink while pregnant. | Long-term effects of alcohol | Short-term effects of alcohol consumption | Long-term effects of cannabis | Impact of alcohol on aging | Toxic alcohol | Molecular and epigenetic mechanisms of alcoholism | Alcohol use and sleep | Antidepressants and suicide risk | 00
| 11,161 |
Deaths from liver cancer per million persons in 2012 Globally, liver cancer is common and increasing. Most recent epidemiological data suggests that liver cancer is in the top 10 for both prevalence and mortality (noted to be the 6th leading cause of cancer and 4th most common cause of death). The Global Burden of Disease Liver Cancer Collaboration found that from 1990 to 2015 the new cases of liver cancer per year increased by 75%. Estimates based on most recent data suggest that each year there are 841,000 new liver cancer diagnoses and 782,000 deaths across the globe. Liver cancer is the most common cancer in Egypt, the Gambia, Guinea, Mongolia, Cambodia, and Vietnam. In terms of gender breakdown, globally liver cancer is more common in men than in women. Given that HCC is the most common type of liver cancer, the areas around the world with the most new cases of HCC each year are Northern and Western Africa as well as Eastern and South-Eastern Asia. China has 50% of HCC cases globally, and more than 80% of total cases occur in sub-Saharan Africa or in East-Asia due to hepatitis B virus. In these high disease burden areas, evidence indicates the majority of the HBC and HCV infections occur via perinatal transmission (also called mother-to-child transmission). However, it is important to note that the risk factors for HCC varies by geographic region. For example, in China chronic HBV infection and aflatoxin are the largest risk factors; whereas, in Mongolia it is a combination of HBV and HCV co-infection and high levels of alcohol use that are driving the high levels of HCC. In terms of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma, we currently do not have sufficient epidemiological data because it is a rare cancer. According to the United States National Cancer Institute, the incidence of cholangiocarcinoma is not known. Cholangiocarcinoma also has a significant geographical distribution, with Thailand showing the highest rates worldwide due to the presence of liver fluke. In the United States there were 42,810 new cases of liver and intrahepatic bile duct cancer in 2020, which represents 2.4% of all new cancer cases in the United States. There are about 89.950 people who have liver and intrahepatic liver cancer in the United States. In terms of mortality, the 5-year survival rate for liver and intrahepatic bile duct cancers in the United States is 19.6%. In the United States there is an estimated 1% chance of getting liver cancer across the lifespan, which makes this cancer relatively rare. Despite the low number of cases, it is one of the top causes of cancer deaths. | complications of Hepatitis | medical cause of Hepatitis | complications of Cirrhosis | complications of Cholera | medical cause of Liver cancer | complications of Amoebiasis | medical cause of Cirrhosis | complications of Acute liver failure | 00
| 46,246 |
Classification It can be divided by the origin: * supraventricular tachycardia * ventricular tachycardia | Paroxysmal tachycardia | Tachycardia | Junctional tachycardia | Automatic tachycardia | Inappropriate sinus tachycardia | Ventricular escape beat | Sinus arrhythmia | Sinoatrial arrest | 00
| 30,628 |
<unk> sarcoma is a type of cancer that may be a bone sarcoma or a soft-tissue sarcoma. Symptoms may include swelling and pain at the site of the tumor, fever, and a bone fracture. The most common areas where it begins are the legs, pelvis, and chest wall. In about 25% of cases, the cancer has already spread to other parts of the body at the time of diagnosis. Complications may include a pleural effusion or paraplegia. The cause of<unk> sarcoma is unknown. Most cases appear to occur randomly. It is sometimes grouped together with primitive neuroectodermal tumors, in a category known as the<unk> family of tumors. The underlying mechanism often involves a genetic change known as a reciprocal translocation. Diagnosis is based on biopsy of the tumor. Treatment often includes chemotherapy, radiation therapy, surgery, and stem cell transplant. Targeted therapy and immunotherapy are being studied. Five-year survival is about 70%. A number of factors, however, affect this<unk> timate. James<unk> in 1920<unk> tablished that the tumor is a distinct type of cancer. It affects about one in a million people per year in the United States.<unk> sarcoma occurs most often in teenagers and young adults and represents 2% of childhood cancers. Caucasians are affected more often than African Americans or Asians. Males are affected more often than females. | Ewing's sarcoma | Osteosarcoma | Osteoblastoma | Eosinophilic granuloma | Enchondroma | Neuroblastoma | Synovial sarcoma | Osteomyelitis | 00
| 44,563 |
<unk> is indicated for the symptomatic relief of allergy such as hay fever (allergic rhinitis), urticaria (hives), chronic idiopathic urticaria, and other skin allergies. For allergic rhinitis,<unk> is indicated for both nasal and eye symptoms - sneezing, runny nose, and itchy or burning eyes. Similarly to cetirizine,<unk> attenuates the itching associated with Kimura's disease. Forms An example of a<unk> 10-mg tablet (Rx) The drug is available in many different forms, including tablets, oral suspension, and syrup, and in combination with pseudoephedrine. Also available are quick-dissolving tablets. | Loratadine | Desloratadine | Rupatadine | Olopatadine | Roxadustat | Terfenadine | Mibolerone | Ecallantide | 00
| 12,363 |
<unk> was originally approved to treat Philadelphia chromosome-negative relapsed or refractory B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia in adults and children. It is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) in first or second complete remission with minimal residual disease greater than or equal to 0.1% as well as relapsed or refractory B-cell precursor ALL. | Blinatumomab | Loncastuximab tesirine | Margetuximab | Tositumomab | Siltuximab | Dinutuximab | Isatuximab | Polatuzumab vedotin | 00
| 51,310 |
<unk> is the inability to rhythmically perform music, to keep time, and to replicate musical or rhythmic patterns. It has been caused by damage to the cerebrum or rewiring of the brain. | Auditory arrhythmia | Ocular flutter | Auditory fatigue | Silent sinus syndrome | Epilepsy | Photosensitive epilepsy | Reflex syncope | Ectopia lentis | 00
| 67,042 |
<unk> is a rare condition characterized by generalized obesity and fatty tumors in the adipose tissue. In the past,<unk> 's was considered synonymous with lipedema and adiposis dolorosa, but it is now considered a separate disease and adiposis dolorosa is considered an antiquated term that is no longer necessary. In<unk> 's, the tumors are normally painful and found in multiples on the extremities. The cause and mechanism of<unk> remains unknown. Possible causes include nervous system dysfunction, mechanical pressure on nerves, adipose tissue dysfunction, and trauma.<unk> was first described at Jefferson Medical College by neurologist Francis Xavier<unk> in 1892. | Dercum's disease | Freiberg disease | Butcher's wart | Martorell's ulcer | Marjolin's ulcer | Coats' disease | Swaim's Panacea | Dieulafoy's lesion | 00
| 37,134 |
<unk> is a rare long-term fungal infection that is typically found just under the skin of the nose, sinuses, cheeks and upper lips. It may present with a nose bleed or a blocked or runny nose. Typically there is a firm painless swelling which can slowly extend to the nasal bridge and eyes, sometimes causing facial disfigurement. Most cases are caused by Conidiobolus coronatus, a fungus found in soil and in the environment in general, which can infect healthy people. It is usually acquired by inhaling the spores of the fungus, but can be by direct infection through a cut in the skin such as an insect bite. The extent of disease may be seen using medical imaging such as CT scanning of the nose and sinus. Diagnosis may be confirmed by biopsy, microscopy, culture and histopathology. Treatment is with long courses of antifungals and sometimes cutting out infected tissue. The condition has a good response to antifungal treatment, but can recur. The infection is rarely fatal. The condition occurs more frequently in adults working or living in the tropical forests of South and Central America, West Africa and Southeast Asia. Males are affected more than females. The first case in a human was described in Jamaica in 1965. | Conidiobolomycosis | Soft-tissue sarcoma | Chromoblastomycosis | Basidiobolomycosis | Lobomycosis | Phycomycosis | Paracoccidioidomycosis | Actinomycosis | 00
| 43,356 |
+Classification of the trinucleotide repeat, and resulting disease status, depends on the number of CAG repeats in Huntington's disease Repeat count Classification Disease status 40 Full-penetrance Affected<unk> s generally show genetic anticipation: their severity increases with each successive generation that inherits them. This is likely explained by the addition of CAG repeats in the affected gene as the gene is transmitted from parent to child. For example, Huntington's disease occurs when there are more than 35 CAG repeats on the gene coding for the protein HTT. A parent with 35 repeats would be considered normal and would not exhibit any symptoms of the disease. However, that parent's offspring would be at an increased risk of developing Huntington's compared to the general population, as it would take only the addition of one more CAG codon to cause the production of mHTT (mutant HTT), the protein responsible for disease. Huntington's very rarely occurs spontaneously; it is almost always the result of inheriting the defective gene from an affected parent. However, sporadic cases of Huntington's in individuals who have no history of the disease in their families do occur. Among these sporadic cases, there is a higher frequency of individuals with a parent who already has a significant number of CAG repeats in their HTT gene, especially those whose repeats approach the number (36) required for the disease to manifest. Each successive generation in a Huntington's-affected family may add additional CAG repeats, and the higher the number of repeats, the more severe the disease and the earlier its onset. As a result, families that have suffered from Huntington's for many generations show an earlier age of disease onset and faster disease progression. Non-trinucleotide expansions The majority of diseases caused by expansions of simple DNA repeats involve trinucleotide repeats, but tetra-, penta- and dodecanucleotide repeat expansions are also known that cause disease. For any specific hereditary<unk> , only one repeat expands in a particular gene. | Trinucleotide repeat disorder | Lysosomal storage disease | Ribosomopathy | Lipid storage disorder | Trinucleotide repeat expansion | Creatine transporter defect | Cerebral creatine deficiency | Peroxisomal disorder | 00
| 29,047 |
To prevent future instances of<unk> the child is instructed to cease all physical and sports activities that involve the use of the affected elbow until the symptoms are relieved | Panner disease | Mondor's disease | Ollier disease | Premature thelarche | Minor's disease | Haff disease | Chandler's disease | Adiposogenital dystrophy | 00
| 60,998 |
<unk> usually indicate a fatal outcome. However, survival has been reported. | Duret haemorrhages | Splinter hemorrhage | Cavernous sinus thrombosis | Pseudoaneurysm | Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis | Pseudosubarachnoid hemorrhage | Vitreous hemorrhage | Cirsoid aneurysm | 00
| 34,416 |
Transmission of HTLV-1 is believed to occur from mother to child; by sexual contact; and through exposure to contaminated blood, either through blood transfusion or sharing of contaminated needles. | Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma | T-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma | Thymoma with immunodeficiency | Atypical chronic myeloid leukemia | AIDS-related lymphoma | Aggressive NK-cell leukemia | T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia | B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia | 00
| 21,274 |
The exact mechanism of the action of general anaesthetics has not been delineated.<unk> is known to act as a positive allosteric modulator of the GABAA and glycine receptors, and as a negative allosteric modulator of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, as well as affecting other ligand-gated ion channels. | Desflurane | Methoxyflurane | Isoflurane | Halothane | Sevoflurane | Etomidate | Remifentanil | Ketamine | 00
| 15,928 |
There are no definitive diagnostic tests for<unk> . It is a poorly understood disorder, even though it accounts for 90–95% of prostatitis diagnoses.<unk> may be inflammatory (Category IIIa) or non-inflammatory (Category IIIb), based on levels of pus cells in expressed prostatic secretions (EPS), but these subcategories are of limited use clinically. In the inflammatory form, urine, semen, and other fluids from the prostate contain pus cells (dead white blood cells or WBCs), whereas in the non-inflammatory form no pus cells are present. Recent studies have questioned the distinction between categories IIIa and IIIb, since both categories show evidence of inflammation if pus cells are ignored and other more subtle signs of inflammation, like cytokines, are measured. In 2006, Chinese researchers found that men with categories IIIa and IIIb both had significantly and similarly raised levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine TGFβ1 and pro-inflammatory cytokine IFN-γ in their EPS when compared with controls; therefore measurement of these cytokines could be used to diagnose category III prostatitis. A 2010 study found that nerve growth factor could also be used as a biomarker of the condition. For<unk> patients, analysis of urine and expressed prostatic secretions for leukocytes is debatable, especially due to the fact that the differentiation between patients with inflammatory and non-inflammatory subgroups of<unk> is not useful. Serum PSA tests, routine imaging of the prostate, and tests for Chlamydia trachomatis and Ureaplasma provide no benefit for the patient. Extraprostatic abdominal/pelvic tenderness is present in >50% of patients with<unk><unk> <unk><unk> but only 7% of controls. Healthy men have slightly more bacteria in their semen than men with CPPS. The high prevalence of WBCs and positive bacterial cultures in the asymptomatic control population raises questions about the clinical usefulness of the standard Meares-Stamey four-glass test as a diagnostic tool in men with<unk> . By 2000, the use of the four-glass test by American urologists was rare, with only 4% using it regularly. Men with<unk> are more likely than the general population to suffer from<unk> fatigue<unk> (CFS), and Irritable Bowel<unk> (IBS). Experimental tests that could be useful in the future include tests to measure semen and prostate fluid cytokine levels. Various studies have shown increases in markers for inflammation such as elevated levels of cytokines, myeloperoxidase, and chemokines. Differential diagnosis Some conditions have similar symptoms to<unk> prostatitis: bladder neck hypertrophy and urethral stricture may both cause similar symptoms through urinary reflux (inter alia) and can be excluded through flexible cystoscopy and urodynamic tests. Nomenclature A distinction is sometimes made between "IIIa" (Inflammatory) and "IIIb" (Noninflammatory) forms of<unk> , depending on whether pus cells (WBCs) can be found in the expressed prostatic secretions (EPS) of the patient. Some researchers have questioned the usefulness of this categorisation, calling for the Meares–Stamey four-glass test to be abandoned. In 2007, the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) began using the umbrella term Urologic<unk><unk> <unk><unk> s (UCPPS), for research purposes, to refer to<unk><unk> s associated with the bladder (i.e. interstitial cystitis/painful bladder<unk> , IC/PBS) and the prostate gland (i.e.<unk> ,<unk> . Older terms for this condition are "prostatodynia" (prostate<unk> and non-bacterial<unk> prostatitis. These terms are no longer in use. Symptom classification A classification system called "UPOINT" was developed by urologists Shoskes and Nickel to allow clinical profiling of a patient's symptoms into six broad categories: * Urinary symptoms * Psychological dysfunction * Organ-specific symptoms * Infectious causes * Neurologic dysfunction * Tenderness of the<unk> floor muscles The UPOINT system allows for individualized and multimodal therapy. | Chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome | Benign prostatic hyperplasia | symptom of Benign prostatic hyperplasia | Cancer | symptom of Urethral cancer | Prostatitis | symptoms of Bladder cancer | Overactive bladder | 00
| 49,882 |
Almost all women present with uterine fibroids, approximately 76% with dermal manifestations and 10-16% with renal tumors. The uterine fibroids tend to occur at younger age and larger and more numerous than in general population. They may be distinguishable from sporadic fibroids by special histological features such as prominent nucleoli with perinucleolar halos. The skin presentation is of asymmetrical, reddish-brown nodules or papules with a firm consistency, predominantly located on the limbs (multiple cutaneous leiomyoma), although they may occur anywhere, including the face. The lesions, which are typically painful and most often present during the third decade of life, are piloleiomyomata—a benign smooth muscle tumour arising from the arrectores pilorum muscles of the skin. These tumours may also arise in the tunica dartos of the scrotum and the mammillary muscle of the nipple (genital leiomyoma), the smooth muscle of blood vessels (angioleiomyoma) and the lung (pulmonary lymphangioleiomyomatosis). A pseudo-Darier sign may be present. The renal cell carcinoma tends to be of the papillary (type 2) form and tends to occur more commonly in women than men with this syndrome. These cancers present earlier than is usual for renal cell carcinomas (typically in the twenties and thirties) and to be at relatively advanced stages at presentation. Tumours have rarely been reported in children. These tumours occur in ~20% of those with this mutation suggesting that other factors are involved in the pathogenesis. Associated conditions Other relatively rare conditions have been reported in association with this disease. It is not yet known if these associations are fortuitous or manifestations of the condition itself. Cerebral cavernomas and massive, macronodular adrenocortical disease have also been reported in association with this syndrome. A case of cutis verticis gyrata, disseminated collagenoma and Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease in association with a mutation in the fumarate hydratase gene has also been reported. Two cases of ovarian mucinous cystadenoma have also been reported with this mutation. | Hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell cancer syndrome | Menke-Hennekam syndrome | Hereditary leiomyomatosis and renal cell carcinoma | Fryns syndrome | Heerfordt syndrome | Serrated polyposis syndrome | Hereditary breast–ovarian cancer syndrome | Ehlers–Danlos syndromes | 00
| 62,784 |
<unk> is defined as the theoretical possibility that sequence similarities between foreign and self-peptides are sufficient to result in the cross-activation of autoreactive T or B cells by pathogen-derived peptides. Despite the prevalence of several peptide sequences which can be both foreign and self in nature, a single antibody or TCR (T cell receptor) can be activated by just a few crucial residues which stresses the importance of structural homology in the theory of<unk> . Upon the activation of B or T cells, it is believed that these "peptide mimic" specific T or B cells can cross-react with self-epitopes, thus leading to tissue pathology (autoimmunity).<unk> is a phenomenon that has been just recently discovered as one of several ways in which autoimmunity can be evoked. A<unk> mimicking event is, however, more than an epiphenomenon despite its low statistical probability of occurring and these events have serious implications in the onset of many human autoimmune disorders. In the past decade the study of autoimmunity, the failure to recognize self antigens as "self", has grown immensely. Autoimmunity is thought by many researchers to be a result of a loss of immunological tolerance, the ability for an individual to discriminate between self and non-self, though others are beginning to think that many autoimmune diseases are due to mutations governing programmed cell death, or to environmental products that injure target tissues, thus causing a release of immunostimulatory alarm signals,. Growth in the field of autoimmunity has resulted in more and more frequent diagnosis of autoimmune diseases. Consequently, recent data show that autoimmune diseases affect approximately 1 in 31 people within the general population. Growth has also led to a greater characterization of what autoimmunity is and how it can be studied and treated. With an increased amount of research, there has been tremendous growth in the study of the several different ways in which autoimmunity can occur, one of which is<unk> . The mechanism by which pathogens have evolved, or obtained by chance, similar amino acid sequences or the homologous three-dimensional crystal structure of immunodominant epitopes remains a mystery. | Molecular mimicry | Microbial synergy | Immunologic activation | Cross-reactivity | Vasculogenic mimicry | Antibiotic synergy | Antigenic variation | Antibody opsonization | 00
| 38,374 |
<unk> refers to the development of widespread dermatitis or dermatitis distant from a local inflammatory focus. Autosensitization<unk> or “id” reaction) refers to an acute, pruritic papulovesicular eruption that develops at cutaneous sites distant from a primary focus and is unrelated to the inciting cause of the primary inflammation. The pathogenesis is not fully understood. One hypothesis is that<unk> is due to hyperirritability of the skin induced by immunologic or nonimmunologic stimuli and mediated by epidermal cytokines. Histologic findings are nonspecific and include spongiosis and a dermal lymphohistiocytic infiltrate with eosinophils. | Autoeczematization | Jurosomatic illness | Anticipatory grief | Transference neurosis | Identity disorder | Morbid love | Dissociative identity disorder | Amotivational syndrome | 00
| 36,912 |
<unk> associated with HIV infection typically affects individuals with advanced HIV and low T helper cell counts. It affects both men and women as well as children with HIV and is found throughout the world.<unk> may also affect individuals with hematologic disease such as leukemia and lymphoma. It may also affect otherwise normal infants in a self-limited form. HIV-negative individuals can also develop<unk> — this is more common in Japan. | Eosinophilic folliculitis | Gram-negative folliculitis | Tufted folliculitis | Steroid folliculitis | Perforating folliculitis | Fungal folliculitis | Hot tub folliculitis | Superficial pustular folliculitis | 00
| 40,969 |
The<unk> states that the ratio of<unk> s to harms among patients taking new drugs tends to vary inversely with how extensively a drug is marketed. Two Americans, Howard Brody and Donald Light, have defined the<unk> , inspired by Tudor Hart's inverse care<unk> . A drug effective for a serious disorder is less and less effective as it is promoted for milder cases and for other conditions for which the drug was not approved. Although effectiveness becomes more diluted, the risks of harmful side effects persist, and thus the<unk> -harm ratio worsens as a drug is marketed more widely. The<unk> highlights the need for comparative effectiveness research and other reforms to improve evidence-based prescribing. | Inverse benefit law | Precautionary principle | Inverse care law | Information-theoretic death | Evidence-based medical ethics | Listing's law | Clinical equipoise | Evidence-based practice | 00
| 60,776 |
Total score is calculated by simple addition. A score less than 3 carries good prognosis but total score more than 8 carries high risk of mortality. | Rockall score | Manchester score | Baux score | FOUR score | Kapandji score | Eagle score | Krenning score | Alvarado score | 00
| 47,598 |
<unk> , also known as nanoparticle albumin–bound<unk> or nab-paclitaxel, is an injectable formulation of<unk> used to treat breast cancer, lung cancer and pancreatic cancer, among others.<unk> kills cancer cells by preventing the normal breakdown of microtubules during cell division. In this formulation,<unk> is<unk> ed to albumin as a delivery vehicle. It is manufactured and sold in the United States by Celgene under the trade name Abraxane where it is designated as an orphan drug as first-line treatment, in combination with gemcitabine, for the orphan disease "metastatic adenocarcinoma of the pancreas". This treatment was approved in the United States in 2005, and the European Union in 2008, for breast cancer cases where cancer did not respond to other chemotherapy or has relapsed. In 2012, the FDA widened the approved uses to include treatment for NSCLC. In 2013, the FDA approved<unk> for use in treating advanced pancreatic cancer as a less toxic (although less effective) alternative to FOLFIRINOX. | Protein-bound paclitaxel | Hypoxia-activated prodrug | Peripherally selective drug | Small molecule drug conjugate | Monoclonal antibody | Tissue-selective estrogen complex | Small modular immunopharmaceutical | Bisphosphonate | 00
| 46,371 |
<unk> is an adenoviral vector for vaccines that was developed by the Jenner Institute, University of Oxford. The vector is a chimpanzee adenovirus modified to avoid its replication. Adenoviruses are effective vectors for inducing and boosting cellular immunity to encoded recombinant antigens. However, the widespread seroprevalence of neutralizing antibodies to common human adenovirus serotypes limits their use. Simian adenoviruses do not suffer from the same disadvantages. Therefore, investigators have tested new vaccines using the chimp adenovirus<unk> as a vector. For example, a vaccine for influenza infection was designed using the vector expressing influenza antigens, nucleoprotein (NP), and matrix protein 1 (M1), creating a vaccine candidate named<unk> NP+M1. __TOC__ | ChAdOx1 | CYP1A2 | Caspase-9 | P14arf | CYP2J2 | CYP1A1 | CYP3A5 | CYP3A4 | 00
| 73,959 |
<unk> is a small bright red dome-shaped bump on the skin. It ranges between 0.5 - 6 mm in diameter and usually several are present, typically on the chest and arms, and increasing in number with age. If scratched, they may bleed. They are a harmless benign tumour, containing an abnormal proliferation of blood vessels, and have no relationship to cancer. They are the most common kind of angioma, and increase with age, occurring in nearly all adults over 30 years. Campbell de Morgan is the nineteenth-century British surgeon who first described them. | Cherry angioma | Spider angioma | Angiokeratoma | Tufted angioma | Lymphohemangioma | Chorangioma | Chorioangioma | Universal angiomatosis | 00
| 21,605 |
For diagnostic purposes, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and (18Ffluorodeoxyglucose) positron emission tomography (FDG-PET) are applied. They measure either atrophy or reductions in glucose utilization. The three clinical subtypes of frontotemporal lobar degeneration, frontotemporal dementia, semantic dementia and progressive nonfluent aphasia, are characterized by impairments in specific neural networks. The first subtype with behavioral deficits, frontotemporal dementia, mainly affects a frontomedian network discussed in the context of social cognition. Semantic dementia is mainly related to the inferior temporal poles and amygdalae; brain regions that have been discussed in the context of conceptual knowledge, semantic information processing, and social cognition, whereas progressive nonfluent aphasia affects the whole left frontotemporal network for phonological and syntactical processing. | medical cause of Frontotemporal dementia | medical cause of Dementia | medical cause of Parkinsonism | complications of Frontotemporal lobar degeneration | symptom of Alzheimer's disease | symptom of Pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration | medical cause of Metachromatic leukodystrophy | symptom of Bannayan–Riley–Ruvalcaba syndrome | 00
| 27,328 |
Localised disease Localised disease (carcinoma-in-situ) and the precursor condition, anal intraepithelial neoplasia (anal dysplasia or AIN) can be ablated with minimally invasive methods such as infrared photocoagulation. Previously,<unk> was treated with surgery, and in early-stage disease (i.e., localised<unk> of the anus without metastasis to the inguinal lymph nodes), surgery is often curative. The difficulty with surgery has been the necessity of removing the internal and external anal sphincter, with concomitant fecal incontinence. For this reason, many patients with<unk> have required permanent colostomies. Current gold-standard therapy is chemotherapy and radiation treatment to reduce the necessity of debilitating surgery. This "combined modality" approach has led to the increased preservation of an intact anal sphincter, and therefore improved quality of life after definitive treatment. Survival and cure rates are excellent, and many patients are left with a functional sphincter. Some patients have fecal incontinence after combined chemotherapy and radiation. Biopsies to document disease regression after chemotherapy and radiation were commonly advised, but are not as frequent any longer. Current chemotherapy consists of continuous infusion 5-FU over four days with bolus mitomycin given concurrently with radiation. 5-FU and cisplatin are recommended for metastatic<unk> . Metastatic or recurrent disease 10 to 20% of patients treated for<unk> will develop distant metastatic disease following treatment. Metastatic or recurrent<unk> is difficult to treat, and usually requires chemotherapy. Radiation is also employed to palliate specific locations of disease that may be causing symptoms. Chemotherapy commonly used is similar to other squamous cell epithelial neoplasms, such as platinum analogues, anthracyclines such as doxorubicin, and antimetabolites such as 5-FU and capecitabine. JD Hainsworth developed a protocol that includes Taxol and Carboplatinum along with 5-FU. | Anal cancer | Genital wart | Anal fissure | Hemorrhoid | Anal fistula | Genital ulcer | Anorectal varices | Perianal cellulitis | 00
| 14,963 |
<unk> s <unk> s), also known as estrogen<unk> agonist/antagonists (ERAAs), are a class of drugs that act on the estrogen<unk> (ER). A characteristic that distinguishes these substances from pure ER agonists and antagonists (that is, full agonists and silent antagonists) is that their action is different in various tissues, thereby granting the possibility to selectively inhibit or stimulate estrogen-like action in various tissues. | Selective estrogen receptor modulator | Selective androgen receptor modulator | Selective estrogen receptor degrader | Selective progesterone receptor modulator | Antiestrogen | Antiandrogen | Aromatase inhibitor | Steroidal aromatase inhibitor | 00
| 20,460 |
A man in a sweat-drenched shirt, after some physical exertion. Diaphoresis is a non-specific symptom or sign, which means that it has many possible causes. Some causes of diaphoresis include physical exertion, menopause, fever, ingestion of toxins or irritants, and high environmental temperature. Strong emotions (anger, fear, anxiety) and recall of past trauma can also trigger sweating. The vast majority of sweat glands in the body are innervated by sympathetic cholinergic neurons. Sympathetic postganglionic neurons typically secrete norepinephrine and are named sympathetic adrenergic neurons; however, the sympathetic postganglionic neurons that innervate sweat glands secrete acetylcholine and hence are termed sympathetic cholinergic neurons. Sweat glands, piloerector muscles, and some blood vessels are innervated by sympathetic cholinergic neurons. Pathological sweating Diaphoresis may be associated with some abnormal conditions, such as hyperthyroidism and shock. If it is accompanied by unexplained weight loss or fever or by palpitations, shortness of breath, or chest discomfort, it suggests serious illness. Diaphoresis is also seen in an acute myocardial infarction (heart attack), from the increased firing of the sympathetic nervous system, and is frequent in serotonin syndrome. Diaphoresis can also be caused by many types of infections, often accompanied by fever and/or chills. Most infections can cause some degree of diaphoresis and it is a very common symptom in some serious infections such as malaria and tuberculosis. In addition, pneumothorax can cause diaphoresis with splinting of the chest wall. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and other malignant diseases (e.g. leukemias) can also cause diaphoresis. Diabetics relying on insulin shots or oral medications may have low blood sugar (hypoglycemia), which can also cause diaphoresis. Drugs (including caffeine, morphine, alcohol, antidepressants and certain antipsychotics) may be causes, as well as withdrawal from alcohol, benzodiazepines, nonbenzodiazepines or narcotic painkiller dependencies. Sympathetic nervous system stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines have also been associated with diaphoresis. Diaphoresis due to ectopic catecholamine is a classic symptom of a pheochromocytoma, a rare tumor of the adrenal gland. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (e.g. some insecticides) also cause contraction of sweat gland smooth muscle leading to diaphoresis. Mercury is well known for its use as a diaphoretic, and was widely used in the 19th and early 20th century by physicians to "purge" the body of an illness. However, due to the high toxicity of mercury, secondary symptoms would manifest, which were erroneously attributed to the former disease that was being treated with mercurials. Infantile acrodynia (childhood mercury poisoning) is characterized by excessive<unk> . A clinician should immediately consider acrodynia in an afebrile child who is sweating profusely. Some people can develop a sweat allergy. The allergy is not due to the sweat itself but instead to an allergy-producing protein secreted by bacteria found on the skin. Tannic-acid has been found to suppress the allergic response along with showering. Hyperhidrosis In some people, the body's mechanism for cooling itself is overactive—so overactive that they may sweat four or five times more than is typical. Millions of people are affected by this condition, but more than half never receive treatment due to embarrassment, lack of awareness, or lack of concern. While it most commonly affects the armpits, feet, and hands, it is possible for someone to experience this condition over their whole body. The face is another common area for hyperhidrosis to be an issue. Sweating uncontrollably is not always expected and may be embarrassing to sufferers of the condition. It can cause both physiological and emotional problems in patients. It is generally an inherited problem that is found in each ethnic group. It is not life-threatening, but it is threatening to a person's quality of life. Treatments for hyperhidrosis include antiperspirants and surgical removal of sweat glands. In severe cases, botulinum toxin injections or surgical cutting of nerves that stimulate the excessive sweating (Endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy) may be an option. Night sweats Night sweats, also known as nocturnal hyperhidrosis, is the occurrence of excessive sweating during sleep. The person may or may not also perspire excessively while awake. One of the most common causes of night sweats in women over 40 is the hormonal changes related to menopause and perimenopause. This is a very common occurrence during the menopausal transition years. While night sweats might be relatively harmless, it can also be a sign of a serious underlying disease. It is important to distinguish night sweats due to medical causes from those that occur simply because the sleep environment is too warm, either because the bedroom is unusually hot or because there are too many covers on the bed. Night sweats caused by a medical condition or infection can be described as "severe hot flashes occurring at night that can drench sleepwear and sheets, which are not related to the environment". Some of the underlying medical conditions and infections that cause these severe night sweats can be life-threatening and should promptly be investigated by a medical practitioner. | Perspiration | Seclusion | Jactitation | Harm avoidance | Effacement | Heal | Self-administration | Latch | 00
| 5,295 |
<unk> is a parasitic disease caused by Giardia duodenalis (also known as G. lamblia and G. intestinalis). Infected individuals who experience symptoms (about 10% have no symptoms) may have diarrhea, abdominal pain, and weight loss. Less common symptoms include vomiting and blood in the stool. Symptoms usually begin 1 to 3 weeks after exposure and, without treatment, may last two to six weeks or longer.<unk> usually spreads when Giardia duodenalis cysts within feces contaminate food or water that is later consumed orally. The disease can also spread between people and through other animals. Cysts may survive for nearly three months in cold water.<unk> is diagnosed via stool tests. Prevention may be improved through proper hygiene practices. Asymptomatic cases often do not need treatment. When symptoms are present, treatment is typically provided with either tinidazole or metronidazole. Infection may cause a person to become lactose intolerant, so it is recommended to temporarily avoid lactose following an infection. Resistance to treatment may occur in some patients.<unk> occurs worldwide. It is one of the most common parasitic human diseases. Infection rates are as high as 7% in the developed world and 30% in the developing world. In 2013, there were approximately 280 million people worldwide with symptomatic cases of<unk> . The World Health Organization classifies<unk> as a neglected disease. It is popularly known as beaver fever in North America. | Giardiasis | Irritable bowel syndrome | Cryptosporidiosis | Cyclosporiasis | Eosinophilic gastroenteritis | Dientamoebiasis | Opisthorchiasis | Amoebiasis | 00
| 12,120 |
With treatment, the five-year survival rate is >80% and fewer than 30% of affected individuals require long-term dialysis. A study performed in Australia and New Zealand demonstrated that in patients requiring renal replacement therapy (including dialysis) the median survival time is 5.93 years. Without treatment, virtually every affected person will die from either advanced kidney failure or lung hemorrhages. | Goodpasture syndrome | Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis | CHILD syndrome | Hopkins syndrome | CREST syndrome | MOMO syndrome | OSLAM syndrome | Pitt–Hopkins syndrome | 00
| 19,510 |
<unk> is a type of skin cancer in which the cells do not make any melanin. They can be pink, red, purple or of normal skin color, and are therefore difficult to diagnose correctly. They can occur anywhere on the body, just as a typical<unk> can. Often,<unk> s are mistaken for benign lesions, including dermatitis, benign neoplastic processes, or a different malignancy such as basal-cell carcinoma or squamous-cell carcinoma. A poor prognosis is associated with<unk> lesions, partially due to the difficulty in achieving a diagnosis; however, metastatic<unk> has a worse prognosis than other subtypes. Survival after diagnosis of<unk> was found in a 2014 seven-year study of 3,000 patients to be poorer than for pigmented<unk> , which was attributed to the more advanced stage at diagnosis due probably to difficulty of diagnosis. The study also suggested that<unk> s might grow faster than pigmented<unk> s. | Amelanotic melanoma | Pseudomelanoma | Melanocytic nevus | Nodular melanoma | Polypoid melanoma | Cherry angioma | Acral lentiginous melanoma | Desmoplastic melanoma | 00
| 47,928 |
If<unk> goes untreated, the patient is at risk of developing venous ulcers and Acroangiodermatitis. | Stasis dermatitis | Cellulitis | Nummular dermatitis | Phototoxic tar dermatitis | Xerotic eczema | Lacquer dermatitis | Noxzema | Essential dermatitis | 00
| 22,369 |
<unk> monohydrochloride is a slightly yellow to yellow crystalline substance. It is synthesized in several steps, the first involving the preparation of racemic 2,8-diazabicyclo4.3.0nonane which is then resolved using tartaric acid. A suitably derivatised quinolinecarboxylic acid is then introduced, in the presence of DABCO, followed by acidification to form<unk> hydrochloride. | Moxifloxacin | Telithromycin | Azithromycin | Dirithromycin | Roxithromycin | Amikacin | Gemifloxacin | Levofloxacin | 00
| 32,583 |
<unk> , sold under the brand name Plaquenil among others, is a medication used to prevent and treat malaria in areas where malaria remains sensitive to chloroquine. Other uses include treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and porphyria cutanea tarda. It is taken by mouth, often in the form of<unk> sulfate. Common side effects may include vomiting, headache, changes in vision, and muscle weakness. Severe side effects may include allergic reactions, vision problems, and heart problems. Although all risk cannot be excluded, it remains a treatment for rheumatic disease during pregnancy.<unk> is in the antimalarial and 4-aminoquinoline families of medication.<unk> was approved for medical use in the United States in 1955. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. In 2019, it was the 122nd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 5million prescriptions.<unk> has been studied for an ability to prevent and treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‑19), but clinical trials found it ineffective for this purpose and a possible risk of dangerous side effects. Among studies that deemed<unk> intake to cause harmful side effects, a publication by The Lancet was retracted due to data flaws. The speculative use of<unk> for COVID‑19 threatens its availability for people with established indications. | Hydroxychloroquine | Azathioprine | Teriflunomide | Leflunomide | Tofacitinib | Etanercept | Cyclizine | Prednisolone | 00
| 27,713 |
An 1880 painting by Jean-Eugène Buland showing a stark contrast in<unk> <unk> <unk> is an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family's economic access to resources and social position in relation to others. When analyzing a family's<unk> , the household income, earners' education, and occupation are examined, as well as combined income, whereas for an individual's<unk> only their own attributes are assessed. Recently, research has revealed a lesser recognized attribute of<unk> as perceived financial stress, as it defines the "balance between income and necessary expenses". Perceived financial stress can be tested by deciphering whether a person at the end of each month has more than enough, just enough, or not enough money or resources. However,<unk> is more commonly used to depict an economic difference in society as a whole.<unk> is typically broken into three levels (high, middle, and low) to describe the three places a family or an individual may fall into. When placing a family or individual into one of these categories, any or all of the three variables (income, education, and occupation) can be assessed. Education in higher<unk> families is typically stressed as much more important, both within the household as well as the local community. In poorer areas, where food, shelter and safety are a priority, education can take a backseat. Youth audiences are particularly at risk for many health and social problems in the United<unk> , such as unwanted pregnancies, drug abuse, and obesity. Additionally, low income and education have been shown to be strong predictors of a range of physical and mental health problems, including respiratory viruses, arthritis, coronary disease, and schizophrenia. These problems may be due to environmental conditions in their workplace, or, in the case of disabilities or mental illnesses, may be the entire cause of that person's social predicament to begin with. | Socioeconomic status | Performance status | Family history | Race and health | Pregnancy category | History of birth control | Psychiatric history | Body mass index | 00
| 46,930 |
Treatment of<unk> may differ depending on the type of cancer and staging of the tumor. In early stages, minimal invasive surgery is preferred. For endometrial cancer, five main types of treatments are used, including surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, and targeted therapy. The most common treatment modality for endometrial cancer is surgery, whereby the uterus is removed via a total hysterectomy. Hysterectomies may also be accompanied by removal of ovaries and fallopian tubes, called a salpingo-oophorectomy. Additionally, hormone therapy which seeks to block the growth of cancer cells may also be used in the treatment of endometrial cancer. Targeted therapy may include monoclonal antibodies, mTOR inhibitors, and signal transduction inhibitors which all act to target cancer cells specifically. As of 2021, treatment options for<unk> sarcoma include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and hormone therapy. | Uterine cancer | Vaginal cancer | Endometrial cancer | Cervical cancer | Ovarian cancer | Ovarian disease | Fallopian tube cancer | Pyometra | 00
| 12,213 |
thumb The<unk> maneuver is a technique used to void urine from the bladder of an individual who, due to disease, cannot do so without aid. The<unk> maneuver is executed by exerting manual pressure on the abdomen at the location of the bladder, just below the navel. Patients can learn to perform the maneuver on themselves as it is simple to do. The method is also used in obstetrics to aid the body in expelling the placenta after childbirth. | Credé's maneuver | Wright's maneuver | Queckenstedt's maneuver | LeCompte maneuver | Rubin maneuver | Leopold's maneuvers | Müller's maneuver | Zavanelli maneuver | 00
| 58,328 |
A<unk> is a nanoparticle that contains<unk> materials.<unk> s have applications in medical diagnostics, medical imaging, toxicokinetics, and environmental health, and are being investigated for applications in nuclear nanomedicine.<unk> s present special challenges in operational health physics and internal dosimetry that are not present for other substances, although existing radiation protection measures and hazard controls for nanoparticles generally apply. | Radioactive nanoparticle | Immunoconjugate | Perfluorinated compound | Magnetic-targeted carrier | Small molecule drug conjugate | Solid lipid nanoparticle | Immunologic adjuvant | Small modular immunopharmaceutical | 00
| 70,297 |
The frequency of BD diagnoses in French hospitals has been declining due to the widespread acceptance of international classification systems such as the ICD-10 and DSM-5. However, the BD diagnosis has been used as recently as 2019 in Le Groupe Hospitalier Universitaire Paris psychiatrie & neurosciences (GHU Paris), Maison Blanche Bichat XVIII. Older estimates of the incidence of BD in psychiatric hospitalizations ranges from 1–5%. Psychiatric admission reviews show that 2–7% of first episode psychotic episodes are due to brief psychotic disorder; here serving as a surrogate diagnosis for BD. Some authors state that the diagnostic category of BD can be eliminated because it can be fully integrated into the 'Polymorphic subgroup of Acute and Transient Psychotic Disorders' of the ICD-10. | Bouffée délirante | Ugeskrift for Læger | Self-surgery | Revue Médicale de Bruxelles | Mary de Lourdes Gogan | Souffle | Revista Cubana de Cirugía | Sanatorium | 00
| 64,222 |
Cancer cells within these tumors are highly proliferative. As such, this can result in a lack of sufficient nutrients to some cells; leading to their starvation. As these starved cells die off, a build up of dead cancer cells will begin to form inside the tumor. These groups of necrotic cells are often referred to as comedones, hence the classification of this type of high-grade DCIS as "comedo necrosis". As of yet, it is still unclear the mechanism by which DCIS of the breast develop into a comedo-type morphology. However, a strong correlation between Tenascin and DCIS nuclear grade has been shown. In a pathological analysis, tenascin was present in all excised tissue from carcinomas. It was found that there were variations in the expression patterns of tenascin in comedo DCIS<unk> versus non-comedo DCIS. Specifically, numerous and thick tenascin bands were found in the surrounding stroma of comedo DCIS whereas non-comedo DCIS had a single thin tenascin band surrounding them. The difference in these expression patterns implicates Tenascin as a possible factor in the development of the comedo-type morphology in carcinomas. | Comedocarcinoma | Mucinous carcinoma | Ductal carcinoma | Peritoneal mesothelioma | Clear-cell ovarian carcinoma | Adenocarcinoma | Tubular carcinoma | Eccrine carcinoma | 00
| 50,762 |
Two<unk> 300mg tablets<unk> tablets and oral solution, in combination with other antiretroviral agents, are indicated for the treatment of HIV-1 infection.<unk> should always be used in combination with other antiretroviral agents.<unk> should not be added as a single agent when antiretroviral regimens are changed due to loss of virologic response. | Abacavir | Fosamprenavir | Saquinavir | Coronavir | Entecavir | Fostemsavir | Indinavir | Tipranavir | 00
| 17,323 |
The<unk> Process (XP), is a form of acute and chronic<unk> characterized by an exuberant clustering of foamy macrophages among other inflammatory cells. Localization in the kidney and renal pelvis has been the most frequent and better known occurrence followed by that in the gallbladder but many others have been subsequently recorded. The pathological findings of the process and etiopathogenetic and clinical observations have been reviewed by Cozzutto and Carbone. | Xanthogranulomatous inflammation | Hypergranulosis | Keratinizing metaplasia | Follicular hyperplasia | Caseous necrosis | Plasma cell granuloma | Necrobiosis | Reticular formation | 00
| 62,709 |
This is very poor with a median age at death of 15 months. | Juvenile hyaline fibromatosis | Diffuse infantile fibromatosis | Aggressive fibromatosis | Aggressive infantile fibromatosis | Cellular angiofibroma | Desmoplastic fibroma | Ameloblastic fibroma | Myxoid cyst | 00
| 53,175 |
A barium swallow test is often performed, where the child is given a liquid or food with barium in it. This allows the consulting medical practitioners to trace the swallow-function on an X-ray or other investigative system such as a CAT scan. An endoscopic assignment test can also be performed, where an endoscope is used to view the oesophagus and throat on a screen. It can also allow viewing of how the patient will react during<unk> . | Feeding disorder | Craniofacial abnormality | Neural tube defect | Musculoskeletal abnormality | Sexual anomalies | Birth defect | Growth attenuation | Congenital limb deformities | 00
| 60,645 |
The<unk> is the region at the interface between the non-lymphoid red pulp and the lymphoid white-pulp of the spleen. (Some sources consider it to be the part of red pulp which borders on the white pulp, while other sources consider it to be neither red pulp nor white pulp.) A<unk> also exists in lymph nodes. | Marginal zone | Blue zone | Inner nuclear layer | Watershed area | Outer nuclear layer | Trigger zone | Episcleral layer | Sommer's sector | 00
| 30,783 |
Image showing the<unk> or SA node, the normal pacemaker within the electrical conduction system of the heart. The contraction of cardiac muscle (heart muscle) in all animals is initiated by electrical impulses known as action potentials. The rate at which these impulses fire controls the rate of cardiac contraction, that is, the heart rate. The cells that create these rhythmic impulses, setting the pace for blood pumping, are called pacemaker cells, and they directly control the heart rate. They make up the<unk> , that is, the natural pacemaker of the heart. In most humans, the concentration of pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial (SA) node is the natural pacemaker, and the resultant rhythm is a sinus rhythm. Sometimes an ectopic pacemaker sets the pace, if the SA node is damaged or if the electrical conduction system of the heart has problems. Cardiac arrhythmias can cause heart block, in which the contractions lose any useful rhythm. In humans, and sometimes in other animals, a mechanical device called an artificial pacemaker (or simply "pacemaker") may be used after damage to the body's intrinsic conduction system to produce these impulses synthetically. | Cardiac pacemaker | Artificial cardiac pacemaker | Biological pacemaker | Artificial heart valve | Ventricular assist device | Antiarrhythmic agent | Transvenous pacing | Artificial heart | 00
| 8,749 |
A physician places the coils into the fallopian tubes by a catheter passed from the vagina through the cervix and uterus. This occurs successfully between 63% and 100% of the time. Once in place, the ingrowth continues over a period of three months, resulting in blockage in the Fallopian tubes; the tissue barrier formed is supposed to prevent sperm from reaching an egg. During that intervening three-month period, women are advised to use an alternate contraceptive method. Unlike tubal ligation, it may not require a general anaesthetic (though is often done under general anaesthetic). Despite this, some women have reported considerable pain during the procedure. In one 2007 prospective study, the mean time for procedure was 6.8 minutes (range = 5–18 minutes) for a trained physician to perform. The procedure can be performed in a physician's office. The procedure is reported to be permanent and not reversible by the manufacturer. Nevertheless, several<unk> reversals have been performed. Device The small, flexible inserts are made from polyester fibers, nickel-titanium, stainless steel and solder. The insert contains inner polyethylene terephthalate fibers to induce inflammation, causing a benign fibrotic ingrowth, and is held in place by flexible stainless steel inner coil and a dynamic outer nickel titanium alloy coil. Unlike temporary methods of birth control, the<unk> inserts do not contain or release hormones. The inserts do not prevent the transmission of sexually transmitted infections. | Essure | Singe | Whonamedit? | Serenic | Hovid | Aidman | Purell | Sultiame | 00
| 33,513 |
<unk> is an ACE inhibitor used to treat high blood pressure. It may also be used to treat other conditions. It is similar in structure to another ACE Inhibitor, Ramipril but has a cyclohexane group. It also is a pro-drug and must get metabolized. It has an extended half-life and therefore has a higher potency. It was patented in 1981, and approved for medical use in 1993. It is marketed by Abbott Laboratories under the brand name Mavik. | Trandolapril | Enalapril | Quinapril | Telmisartan | Nitroxinil | Lisinopril | Nebivolol | Captopril | 00
| 35,645 |
The enlargement is not permanent in all cases, and in some cases the growth can regress with the reduction of blood pressure.<unk> may be a factor in determining treatment or diagnosis for other conditions. For example,<unk> causes a patient to have an irregular ECG. Patients with<unk> may have to participate in more complicated and precise diagnostic procedures, such as imaging, in situations in which a physician could otherwise give advice based on an ECG. | Left ventricular hypertrophy | Athletic heart syndrome | Right ventricular hypertrophy | Aortic unfolding | Ventricular hypertrophy | Atrial enlargement | Left atrial enlargement | Right atrial enlargement | 00
| 21,329 |
The common adverse effects of<unk> with the greatest difference from placebo are dry mouth, nausea, constipation, insomnia, anxiety, tremor, and excessive sweating.<unk> has the highest incidence of insomnia of all second-generation antidepressants, apart from desvenlafaxine. It is also associated with about 20% increased risk of headache.<unk> raises blood pressure in some people. One study showed an average rise of 6 mm Hg in sysolic blood pressure in 10% of patients. The prescribing information notes that hypertension, sometimes severe, is observed in some people taking<unk> , both with and without pre-existing hypertension. Safety of<unk> in people with cardiovascular conditions and its general cardiovascular safety profile remain unclear due to the lack of data. Seizure is a rare but serious adverse effect of<unk> . It is strongly dose-dependent: for the immediate release preparation, the seizure incidence is 0.4% at the dose 300–450 mg per day; the incidence climbs almost ten-fold for the higher than recommended dose of 600 mg. For comparison, the incidence of unprovoked seizure in the general population is 0.07 to 0.09%, and the risk of seizure for a variety of other antidepressants is generally between 0 and 0.5% at the recommended doses. Cases of liver toxicity leading to death or liver transplantation have been reported for<unk> . It is considered to be one of several antidepressants with greater risk of hepatotoxicity. The prescribing information warns about<unk> triggering an angle-closure glaucoma attack. On the other hand,<unk> may decrease the risk of development of open angle glaucoma.<unk> use by mothers in the first trimester of pregnancy is associated with 23% increase of the odds in congenital heart defects in their children.<unk> has rarely been associated with instances of Stevens–Johnson syndrome. Psychiatric The FDA requires all antidepressants, including<unk> , to carry a boxed warning stating that antidepressants may increase the risk of suicide in persons younger than 25. This warning is based on a statistical analysis conducted by the FDA which found a 2-fold increase in suicidal thought and behavior in children and adolescents, and 1.5-fold increase in the 18–24 age group. For this analysis the FDA combined the results of 295 trials of 11 antidepressants in order to obtain statistically significant results. Considered in isolation,<unk> was not statistically different from placebo.<unk> prescribed for smoking cessation results in 25% increase of the risk of psychiatric side effects, in particular, anxiety (about 40% increase) and insomnia (about 80% increase). The evidence is insufficient to determine whether<unk> is associated with suicides or suicidal behavior. In rare cases,<unk> -induced psychosis may develop. It is associated with higher doses of<unk> ; many cases described are at higher than recommended doses. Concurrent antipsychotic medication appears to be protective. In most cases the psychotic symptoms are eliminated by reducing the dose, ceasing treatment or adding antipsychotic medication. Although studies are lacking, a handful of case reports suggest that abrupt discontinuation of<unk> may cause antidepressant discontinuation syndrome. | Bupropion | Atomoxetine | Hydroxybupropion | Entropion | Citalopram | Duloxetine | Dapoxetine | Fluoxetine | 00
| 11,595 |
<unk> is used as a general solvent for inks, waxes, shellacs, paints, lacquers, and epoxy resin coatings. Thus it can be used in paint strippers, especially when combined with compatible viscosity enhancers to encourage the mixture to cling to painted surfaces. It is a precursor to a variety of esters and ethers, used in the soap, perfume, and flavor industries. E.g.<unk> benzoate,<unk> salicylate,<unk> cinnamate, dibenzyl ether,<unk> butyl phthalate. It can be used as a local anesthetic, especially with epinephrine. As a dye solvent, it enhances the process of dying wool, nylon, and leather. Use in health care<unk> is used as a<unk> cteriostatic preservative at low concentration in intravenous medications, cosmetics, and topical drugs. Some caution is necessary if a high percent of<unk> is used as<unk> dehyde arises from<unk> when used as preservative in an injectable formulation solution.<unk> , sold under the brand name Ulesfia, was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2009, as a 5% solution for the treatment of head lice in people 6 months of age and older. It affects the louse's spiracles, preventing them from closing. These then become clogged with water or mineral oil or other matter and cause the insect to die from asphyxiation.<unk> is used effectively for treating lice infestations as the active ingredient in lotion shampoo with 5%<unk> . | Benzyl alcohol | Methanol | Khat | Cannabis | Cannabis | 4-Dimethylaminophenol | Desmethylchlorotrianisene | Ethylene glycol | 00
| 18,205 |
The weakness from LEMS typically involves the muscles of the proximal arms and legs (the muscles closer to the trunk). In contrast to myasthenia gravis, the weakness affects the legs more than the arms. This leads to difficulties climbing stairs and rising from a sitting position. Weakness is often relieved temporarily after exertion or physical exercise. High temperatures can worsen the symptoms. Weakness of the bulbar muscles (muscles of the mouth and throat) is occasionally encountered. Weakness of the eye muscles is uncommon. Some may have double vision, drooping of the eyelids and difficulty swallowing, but generally only together with leg weakness; this too distinguishes LEMS from myasthenia gravis, in which eye signs are much more common. In the advanced stages of the disease, weakness of the respiratory muscles may occur. Some may also experience problems with coordination (ataxia). Three-quarters of people with LEMS also have disruption of the autonomic nervous system. This may be experienced as a dry mouth, constipation, blurred vision, impaired sweating, and orthostatic hypotension (falls in blood pressure on standing, potentially leading to blackouts). Some report a metallic taste in the mouth. On neurological examination, the weakness demonstrated with normal testing of power is often less severe than would be expected on the basis of the symptoms. Strength improves further with repeated testing, e.g. improvement of power on repeated hand grip (a phenomenon known as<unk> 's sign"). At rest, reflexes are typically reduced; with muscle use, reflex strength increases. This is a characteristic feature of LEMS. The pupillary light reflex may be sluggish. In LEMS associated with lung cancer, most have no suggestive symptoms of cancer at the time, such as cough, coughing blood, and unintentional weight loss. LEMS associated with lung cancer may be more severe. | Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome | Botulism | Congenital myasthenic syndrome | Guillain–Barré syndrome | Tension myositis syndrome | De Quervain syndrome | Nemaline myopathy | Inclusion body myositis | 00
| 1,312 |
<unk> has been shown to be effective in a variety of psychiatric conditions including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, substance use disorders, eating disorders, and postpartum depression.<unk> has also shown to be effective in a variety of medical conditions including breast cancer, ovarian cancer, diabetes, leukemia, heart disease, chronic bronchitis, emphysema, inflammatory bowel disease, back pain, and for hemodialysis patients. Additionally,<unk> therapy is recognized as the treatment of choice for patients seen by psychiatrists and residents who are suffering from extra-psychic problems, such as poverty, social and political oppression, and abuses of power in relationships that threaten to overwhelm their coping capacities. | Supportive psychotherapy | Institutional psychotherapy | Educational therapy | Insight-oriented psychotherapy | Metaphor therapy | Brief psychotherapy | Cognitive therapy | Group psychotherapy | 00
| 56,565 |
Coronary artery disease (CAD), also called coronary heart disease (CHD), ischemic heart disease (IHD), myocardial ischemia, or simply heart disease, involves the reduction of blood flow to the heart muscle due to build-up of plaque (atherosclerosis) in the arteries of the heart. It is the most common of the cardiovascular diseases. Types include stable angina, unstable angina, myocardial infarction, and sudden cardiac death. A common symptom is chest pain or discomfort which may travel into the shoulder, arm, back, neck, or jaw. Occasionally it may feel like heartburn. Usually symptoms occur with exercise or emotional stress, last less than a few minutes, and improve with rest. Shortness of breath may also occur and sometimes no symptoms are present. In many cases, the first sign is a heart attack. Other complications include heart failure or an abnormal heartbeat. Risk factors include high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, lack of exercise, obesity, high blood cholesterol, poor diet, depression, and excessive alcohol. A number of tests may help with diagnoses including: electrocardiogram, cardiac stress testing, coronary computed tomographic angiography, and coronary angiogram, among others. Ways to reduce CAD risk include eating a healthy diet, regularly exercising, maintaining a healthy weight, and not smoking. Medications for diabetes, high cholesterol, or high blood pressure are sometimes used. There is limited evidence for screening people who are at low risk and do not have symptoms. Treatment involves the same measures as prevention. Additional medications such as antiplatelets (including aspirin), beta blockers, or nitroglycerin may be recommended. Procedures such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG) may be used in severe disease. In those with stable CAD it is unclear if PCI or CABG in addition to the other treatments improves life expectancy or decreases heart attack risk. In 2015, CAD affected 110 million people and resulted in 8.9 million deaths. It makes up 15.6% of all deaths, making it the most common cause of death globally. The risk of death from CAD for a given age decreased between 1980 and 2010, especially in developed countries. The number of cases of CAD for a given age also decreased between 1990 and 2010. In the United States in 2010, about 20% of those over 65 had CAD, while it was present in 7% of those 45 to 64, and 1.3% of those 18 to 45; rates were higher among men than women of a given age. Clogged artery | complications of Dyslipidemia | complications of Hypertriglyceridemia | complications of Prediabetes | types of Dyslipidemia | symptoms of Dyslipidemia | complications of Cardiovascular disease | complications of Fibrosis | complications of Left ventricular hypertrophy | 00
| 560 |
Common diagnostic techniques include: * MRIs * CAT scans * blood samples. Blood samples are assessed for the absence or presence of aldosterone and cortisol. Physical examinations are also useful in patients in order to examine vision, skin pigmentation, how the body replaces steroids, and the cranial nerves. Recent advancements in high-resolution MRIs allow for adenomas to be detected during the early stages of<unk> syndrome. Physical examination including height, weight, vital signs, blood pressure, eye examination, thyroid examination, abdominal examination, neurological examination, skin examination and pubertal staging needs to be assessed. Through blood pressure and pulse readings can indicate hypothyroidism and adrenal insufficiency. Hyper-pigmentation, hyporeflexia, and loss of vision can also indicate<unk> when assessed together. Specifically for a child who might have<unk> , the patient should be questioned about the symptoms of the disease, and well as symptoms of other diseases to narrow down which disease the patient presents with. The patient should be questioned about how often and to what degree headaches, visual disturbances, and symptoms associated with pituitary malfunction occur. Additionally, adrenal steroid replacement should be assessed. | Nelson's syndrome | Mendelson's syndrome | Fowler's syndrome | Schwartz–Matsuo syndrome | Coffin–Lowry syndrome | Young–Simpson syndrome | Grisel's syndrome | Renpenning's syndrome | 00
| 33,725 |
No treatment is available to cure or slow down the progression of<unk> . Bone marrow transplants have been conducted in hope that the bone marrow will produce the missing enzyme. The results of the tests thus far have shown to be inconclusive. Preventions/interventions to signs and symptoms Since ear infections and respiratory infections are common for children diagnosed with<unk> , it is best to have regular checkups for both the ears and the respiratory tract. Extreme sensitivity to the sun’s rays may develop; the best way to protect an individual diagnosed with<unk> is to have them wear sunglasses, hats or caps to protect their eyes.Epilepsy and insomnia can both be treated with medication. It will be beneficial to children who are diagnosed with<unk> to receive an education from a school with special teaching. Habilitation The process of habilitation for individuals diagnosed with<unk> needs to be established in their early stages of life. The team for habilitation should include professionals who are experienced in disabilities and the effects that having a disability can have on everyday life. Habilitation will include assessments, assistance with the choice of aids, and information concerning disabilities and counseling. | Aspartylglucosaminuria | Hawkinsinuria | Alkaptonuria | Essential fructosuria | Orotic aciduria | Cystathioninuria | Dicarboxylic aminoaciduria | Urocanic aciduria | 00
| 39,994 |
Modest benefits have been seen from early access to cognitive behavioral therapy. Critical incident stress management has been suggested as a means of preventing<unk> , but subsequent studies suggest the likelihood of its producing negative outcomes. A 2019 Cochrane review did not find any evidence to support the use of an intervention offered to everyone", and that "multiple session interventions may result in worse outcome than no intervention for some individuals." The World Health Organization recommends against the use of benzodiazepines and antidepressants in for acute stress (symptoms lasting less than one month). Some evidence supports the use of hydrocortisone for prevention in adults, although there is limited or no evidence supporting propranolol, escitalopram, temazepam, or gabapentin. Psychological debriefing Trauma-exposed individuals often receive treatment called psychological debriefing in an effort to prevent<unk> , which consists of interviews that are meant to allow individuals to directly confront the event and share their feelings with the counselor and to help structure their memories of the event. However, several meta-analyses find that psychological debriefing is unhelpful and is potentially harmful. This is true for both single-session debriefing and multiple session interventions. As of 2017 the American Psychological Association assessed psychological debriefing as No Research Support/Treatment is Potentially Harmful. Risk-targeted interventions Risk-targeted interventions are those that attempt to mitigate specific formative information or events. It can target modeling normal behaviors, instruction on a task, or giving information on the event. | Post-traumatic stress disorder | Borderline personality disorder | Acute stress disorder | Dissociative disorder not otherwise specified | Adjustment disorder | Exploding head syndrome | Stress-related disorders | Hodophobia | 00
| 5,387 |
<unk> , or<unk> emoglobinaemia, is a condition of elevated<unk> moglobin in the blood. Symptoms may include headache, dizziness, shortness of breath, nausea, poor muscle coordination, and blue-colored skin (cyanosis). Complications may include seizures and heart arrhythmias.<unk> can be due to certain medications, chemicals, or food or it can be inherited from a person's parents. Substances involved may include benzocaine, nitrates, or dapsone. The underlying mechanism involves some of the iron in hemoglobin being converted from the ferrous Fe2+ to the ferric Fe3+ form. The diagnosis is often suspected based on symptoms and a low blood oxygen that does not improve with oxygen therapy. Diagnosis is confirmed by a blood gas. Treatment is generally with oxygen therapy and<unk> lene blue. Other treatments may include vitamin C, exchange transfusion, and hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Outcomes are generally good with treatment.<unk> is relatively uncommon, with most cases being acquired rather than genetic. | Methemoglobinemia | Argyria | Sulfhemoglobinemia | Heart failure | Hyperaemia | Hypoxemia | Organic acidemia | Hypercapnia | 00
| 9,852 |
<unk> is a very rare X-linked malformation syndrome caused by mutations in the ephrin-B1 gene (EFNB1). The EFNB1 gene codes for a membrane-anchored ligand which can bind to an ephrin tyrosine-kinase receptor. This ephrin receptor is, amongst other things, responsible for the regulation of embryonic tissue-border formation, and is important for skeletal and craniofacial development. As the ephrin receptor and its EFNB1 ligand are both bound to the (trans)membrane of the cell its cascade is activated through cell-cell interactions. These cell-cell interactions are disturbed due to the presence of cells with the mutant EFNB1 gene, as a result causing incomplete tissue-border formation. Paradoxical to other X-linked conditions, with<unk> the females are more severely affected than males. This is due to the process of X-inactivation in females, where at random either the maternal or paternal X-chromosome is inactivated in a cell. Due to this process, the body’s tissues contain either cells with normal EFNB1 or the mutated EFNB1. This is called a mosaic pattern. This mosaic pattern of cells 'interferes' with the functionality of the cell-cell interactions, as a result causing the severe physical malformations in females. As with all X-linked conditions<unk> has a preset chance of being passed down from parents to their offspring. Females have two X-chromosomes and males have one X-chromosome. When a mother is a carrier of<unk> , there is a 50% chance of her passing down the X-chromosome containing the mutated EFNB1 gene to her offspring, regardless if the child is a boy or girl. If the father is a carrier there is a 100% chance of him passing down his X-chromosome with the EFNB1 mutation to a daughter, and 0% chance of him passing it down to a son. | Craniofrontonasal dysplasia | Frontonasal dysplasia | Oculodentodigital dysplasia | Cleidocranial dysostosis | Cranio-lenticulo-sutural dysplasia | Cleft Lip and Palate Association | Thanatophoric dysplasia | Sponastrime dysplasia | 00
| 41,002 |
<unk> is a chronic condition, and<unk> sions will last for several years without treatment. 50% of patients will eventually get better on their own. If a patient does not have any signs of systemic lupus<unk> , such as generalized hair loss, ulcers in the mouth or nose, Raynaud's phenomenon, arthritis, or fever at the time that they develop<unk> lupus, they will most likely only have<unk> lupus and will never develop systemic lupus<unk> . | Discoid lupus erythematosus | Chilblain lupus erythematosus | Tumid lupus erythematosus | Drug-induced lupus erythematosus | Lupus erythematosus | Lupus vulgaris | Scleroderma | Arthritis mutilans | 00
| 47,553 |
Some people experience difficulty adjusting to<unk> therapy and report general discomfort, nasal congestion, abdominal bloating, sensations of claustrophobia, mask leak problems, and convenience-related complaints. | Continuous positive airway pressure | Positive airway pressure | Airway clearance therapy | Oxygen therapy | Hyperinflation therapy | Mechanical ventilation | Intermittent positive pressure breathing | Pulmonary hygiene | 00
| 41,615 |
<unk> <unk> is a rare congenital disease of heart muscle that affects both children and adults. It results from abnormal prenatal development of heart muscle. During development, the majority of the heart muscle is a sponge-like meshwork of interwoven myocardial fibers. As normal development progresses, these trabeculated structures undergo significant compaction that transforms them from spongy to solid. This process is particularly apparent in the ventricles, and particularly so in the left ventricle.<unk> results when there is failure of this process of compaction. Because the consequence of<unk> is particularly evident in the left ventricle, the condition is also called left ventricular<unk> . Other hypotheses and models have been proposed, none of which is as widely accepted as the<unk> model. Symptoms range greatly in severity. Most are a result of a poor pumping performance by the heart. The disease can be associated with other problems with the heart and the body. | Noncompaction cardiomyopathy | Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy | Amyloid cardiomyopathy | Restrictive cardiomyopathy | Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy | Ischemic cardiomyopathy | Dilated cardiomyopathy | Alcoholic cardiomyopathy | 00
| 45,679 |
As pelvic inflammatory disease is the major cause of<unk> formation, steps to reduce sexually transmitted disease will reduce incidence of<unk> . Also, as<unk> is a sequel to a pelvic infection, adequate and early antibiotic treatment of a pelvic infection is called for. | Hydrosalpinx | Hematosalpinx | Hydrocolpos | Spermatocele | Cystocele | Theca lutein cyst | Paraovarian cyst | Hematocele | 00
| 36,142 |
Ruptured 7mm left vertebral artery<unk> resulting in a subarachnoid hemorrhage as seen on a CT scan with contrast Diagnosis of a ruptured cerebral<unk> is commonly made by finding signs of subarachnoid hemorrhage on a computed tomography (CT) scan. If the CT scan is negative but a ruptured<unk> is still suspected based on clinical findings, a lumbar puncture can be performed to detect blood in the cerebrospinal fluid. Computed tomography angiography (CTA) is an alternative to traditional angiography and can be performed without the need for arterial catheterization. This test combines a regular CT scan with a contrast dye injected into a vein. Once the dye is injected into a vein, it travels to the cerebral arteries, and images are created using a CT scan. These images show exactly how blood flows into the brain arteries. | Aneurysm | Baker's cyst | Coma | Angioma | Hematoma | Vascular tumor | Gliosis | Pseudoaneurysm | 00
| 10,892 |
<unk> is the process of calculating the centre of the<unk> <unk> during hip resurfacing surgery. This can be done by hand or using electronic aides. __TOC__ | Femoral neck targeting | Triple arthrodesis | Limb-sparing techniques | Radiofrequency targeted vertebral augmentation | Minimally invasive spine surgery | Knee cartilage replacement therapy | Facetectomy | Hip resurfacing | 00
| 50,621 |
The disease is transmitted by skin-to-skin contact with an infective lesion, with the bacterium entering through a pre-existing cut, bite, or scratch. Early (primary and secondary)<unk> lesions have a higher bacterial load, thus are more infectious. Both papillomas and ulcers are infectious. Infectivity is thought to last 12–18 months after infection, longer if a relapse occurs. Early<unk> lesions are often itchy, and more lesions may form along lines that are scratched.<unk> may be evolving less conspicuous lesions.<unk> is most common among children, who spread it by playing together. It is not thought to be transmitted from mother to child in the womb.<unk> is not a venereal disease. T. pallidum pertenue has been identified in nonhuman primates (baboons, chimpanzees, and gorillas) and experimental inoculation of human beings with a simian isolate causes<unk> -like disease. However, no evidence exists of cross-transmission between human beings and primates, but more research is needed to discount the possibility of a<unk> animal reservoir in nonhuman primates. | Yaws | Enanthem | Scrubs | Exanthem | Chilblains | Tuberculosis hut | Scabies | Saddle sore | 00
| 10,391 |
Plasma concentration of renin is measured prior to and following the administration of<unk> . The CCT is considered positive if the renin levels increase substantially or the baseline renin level is abnormally high. An abnormal<unk> test is indicative of the presence of renovascular disease. In adults CCT in adults is known to have high sensitivity, but a low specificity. Subtraction angiography is considered a more suitable test for renal artery stenosis in adults. | Captopril challenge test | Captopril suppression test | Aldosterone-to-renin ratio | Fractional flow reserve | Plasma renin activity | Cold pressor test | Electrocochleography | Glucose clamp technique | 00
| 35,167 |
<unk> is a tetracyclic compound and is closely related structurally to clozapine, olanzapine, loxapine, and other tetracyclic antipsychotics. Synthesis The synthesis of<unk> begins with a dibenzothiazepinone. The lactam is first treated with phosphoryl chloride to produce a dibenzothiazepine. A nucleophilic substitution is used to introduce the sidechain. center | Quetiapine | Sertraline | Mirtazapine | Fluparoxan | Asenapine | Aripiprazole | Citalopram | Loxapine | 00
| 7,310 |
Diagnosis is based on observing the appearance of the lesions. | Lichen striatus | Tinea imbricata | Lichen myxedematosus | Lichen scrofulosorum | Lichen nitidus | Nevus lipomatosus superficialis | Ichthyosis bullosa of Siemens | Lichen spinulosus | 00
| 54,639 |
<unk> normally results from direct skin contact with<unk> gens, although ingestion and inhalation are also possible causative routes.<unk> gens are fat-soluble, meaning they persist in the body fat for a very long period following exposure.<unk> is a chronic inflammatory condition that results from this persistence, in combination with the toxin's chemical properties. It is believed, at least from rodent models, that the toxin activates a series of receptors promoting macrophage proliferation, inducing neutrophilia and leading to a generalised inflammatory response in the skin. This process may also be augmented by induction of excess tumor necrosis factor in the blood serum. The inflammatory processes lead to the formation of keratinous plugs in skin pores, forming yellowish cysts and dark pustules. The associated pus is usually a color of green approximating that of a tennis ball. The skin lesions occur mainly in the face, but in more severe cases they involve the shoulders and chest, the back, and the abdomen. In advanced cases, the lesions appear also on the arms, neck, thighs, legs, hands and feet. In some instances,<unk> may not appear for three to four weeks after toxic exposure; however, in other cases—particularly in events of massive exposure—the symptoms may appear within days. | Chloracne | Lacnunga | Mersa | Shiatsu | Laudanum | Scyllatoxin | Allergic salute | Ephedra | 00
| 17,276 |
Echocardiography and tissue Doppler echocardiography are both needed to fully diagnose the different types of<unk> . | Ventricular dyssynchrony | Pacemaker crosstalk | Premature junctional contraction | Dorsal intercalated segment instability | Premature atrial contraction | Sinus node dysfunction | Premature ventricular contraction | Junctional escape beat | 00
| 64,204 |
Under normal breathing, the lungs inflate under a slight vacuum when the chest wall muscles and diaphragm expand; this "pulls" the lungs open, causing air to enter the lungs to inflate under a gentle vacuum. However, when using a manual resuscitator, as with other methods of positive-pressure ventilation, the lungs are force-inflated with pressurized air or oxygen. This inherently leads to risk of various complications, many of which depend on whether the manual resuscitator is being used with a face mask or ET tube. Complications are related to over-inflating or over-pressurizing the patient, which can cause: (1) air to inflate the stomach (called gastric insufflation); (2) lung injury from over-stretching (called volutrauma); or (3) lung injury from over-pressurization (called barotrauma). Stomach inflation / lung aspiration When a face mask is used in conjunction with a manual resuscitator, the intent is for the force-delivered air or oxygen to inflate the lungs. However air entering the patient also has access to the stomach via the esophagus, which can inflate if the resuscitator is squeezed too hard (causing air flow that is too rapid for the lungs to absorb alone) or too much (causing excess air to divert to the stomach)." Gastric inflation can lead to vomiting and subsequent aspiration of stomach contents into the lungs, which has been cited as a major hazard of<unk><unk> -mask ventilation, with one study suggesting this effect is difficult to avoid even for the most skilled and experienced users, stating "When using a self-inflatable<unk> , even experienced anesthesiologists in our study may have performed ventilation with too short inspiratory times or too large tidal volumes, which resulted in stomach inflation in some cases." The study goes on to state that "Stomach inflation is a complex problem that may cause regurgitation, gastric acid aspiration, and, possibly, death." When stomach inflation leads to vomiting of highly acidic stomach acids, delivery of subsequent breaths can force these caustic acids down into the lungs where they cause life-threatening or fatal lung injuries including Mendelson's syndrome, aspiration pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome and "pulmonary injuries similar to that seen in victims of chlorine gas exposure". Apart from the risks of gastric inflation causing vomiting and regurgitation, at least two reports have been found indicating that gastric insufflation remains clinically problematic even when vomiting does not occur. In one case of failed resuscitation (leading to death), gastric insufflation in a 3-month-old boy put sufficient pressure against the lungs that "precluded effective ventilation". Another reported complication was a case of stomach rupture caused by stomach over-inflation from a manual resuscitator. The causative factors and degree of risk of inadvertent stomach inflation have been examined, with one published study revealing that during prolonged resuscitation up to 75% of air delivered to the patient may inadvertently be delivered to the stomach instead of the lungs. Lung injury and air embolism When an endotracheal tube (ET) is placed, one of the key advantages is that a direct air-tight passageway is provided from the output of the manual resuscitator to the lungs, thus eliminating the possibilities of inadvertent stomach inflation or lung injuries from gastric acid aspiration. However this places the lungs at increased risk from separate lung injury patterns caused by accidental forced over-inflation (called volutrauma or barotrauma). Sponge-like lung tissue is delicate, and over-stretching can lead to adult respiratory distress syndrome – a condition that requires prolonged mechanical ventilator support in the ICU and is associated with poor survival (e.g., 50%), and significantly increased care costs of up to $30,000 per day. Lung volutrauma, which can be caused by "careful" delivery of large, slow breaths, can also lead to a "popped" or collapsed lung (called a pneumothorax), with at least one published report describing "a patient in whom a sudden tension pneumothorax developed during ventilation with a<unk><unk> device." Additionally, there is at least one report of manual resuscitator use where the lungs were accidentally over-inflated to the point where "the heart contained a large volume of air," and the "aorta and pulmonary arteries were filled with air" – a condition called an air embolism which "is almost uniformly fatal". However, the case was of a 95-year-old woman, as the authors point out that this type of complication has previously only been reported in premature infants. | Bag valve mask | Hutchinson's mask | Schimmelbusch mask | Pocket mask | Binasal occlusion | Venturi mask | Simple face mask | Surgical mask | 00
| 25,557 |
It is important to consider a potential cardiovascular cause of hoarseness particularly in patients with progressive disease. Once suspected, performing a laryngoscopy is the first step in identifying damage to the left recurrent laryngeal nerve. Examination includes: * Swallowing evaluation to assess for risk of aspiration (food going down the trachea instead of the esophagus). * Breathing testing to rule out incomplete vocal cord closure. * Voice quality. | Ortner's syndrome | Hartnup disease | Gardner's syndrome | Trotter's syndrome | Meige's syndrome | Mirizzi's syndrome | Milroy's disease | Zimmermann–Laband syndrome | 00
| 35,393 |
<unk> , sold under the brand name Zestoretic among others, is a fixed-dose combination medication used for the treatment of high blood pressure. It contains<unk> , an ACE inhibitor, and hydrochlorothiazide, a diuretic. Typically, it becomes an option once a person is doing well on the individual components. It is taken by mouth. Common side effects include dizziness, headache, cough, and feeling tired. Severe side effects may include angioedema and low blood pressure. Use during pregnancy may harm the baby. The combination was approved for medical use in the United States in 1989. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. In 2019, it was the 44th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 15million prescriptions. | Lisinopril/hydrochlorothiazide | Losartan/hydrochlorothiazide | Enalapril/hydrochlorothiazide | Olmesartan/hydrochlorothiazide | Valsartan/hydrochlorothiazide | Atenolol/chlorthalidone | Telmisartan/hydrochlorothiazide | Amlodipine/benazepril | 00
| 33,012 |
Pleural effusion Transudative The most common causes of transudative pleural effusion in the United States are heart failure and cirrhosis. Nephrotic syndrome, leading to the loss of large amounts of albumin in urine and resultant low albumin levels in the blood and reduced colloid osmotic pressure, is another less common cause of pleural effusion. Pulmonary emboli were once thought to cause transudative effusions, but have been recently shown to be exudative. The mechanism for the exudative pleural effusion in pulmonary thromboembolism is probably related to increased permeability of the capillaries in the lung, which results from the release of cytokines or inflammatory mediators (e.g. vascular endothelial growth factor) from the platelet-rich blood clots. The excessive interstitial lung fluid traverses the visceral pleura and accumulates in the pleural space. Conditions associated with transudative pleural effusions include: * Congestive heart failure * Liver cirrhosis * Severe hypoalbuminemia * Nephrotic syndrome * Acute atelectasis * Myxedema * Peritoneal dialysis * Meigs's syndrome * Obstructive uropathy * End-stage kidney disease Exudative Pleural effusion Anteroposterior Chest X-ray of a pleural effusion. The A arrow shows fluid layering in the right pleural cavity. The B arrow shows the normal width of the lung in the cavity When a pleural effusion has been determined to be exudative, additional evaluation is needed to determine its cause, and amylase, glucose, pH and cell counts should be measured. * Red blood cell counts are elevated in cases of bloody effusions (for example after heart surgery or hemothorax from incomplete evacuation of blood). * Amylase levels are elevated in cases of esophageal rupture, pancreatic pleural effusion, or cancer. * Glucose is decreased with cancer, bacterial infections, or rheumatoid pleuritis. * pH is low in empyema (<7.2) and maybe low in cancer. * If cancer is suspected, the pleural fluid is sent for cytology. If cytology is negative, and cancer is still suspected, either a thoracoscopy, or needle biopsy of the pleura may be performed. * Gram staining and culture should also be done. * If tuberculosis is possible, examination for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (either a Ziehl–Neelsen or Kinyoun stain, and mycobacterial cultures) should be done. A polymerase chain reaction for tuberculous DNA may be done, or adenosine deaminase or interferon gamma levels may also be checked. The most common causes of exudative pleural effusions are bacterial pneumonia, cancer (with lung cancer, breast cancer, and lymphoma causing approximately 75% of all malignant pleural effusions), viral infection, and pulmonary embolism. Another common cause is after heart surgery when incompletely drained blood can lead to an inflammatory response that causes exudative pleural fluid. Conditions associated with exudative pleural effusions: * Parapneumonic effusion due to pneumonia * Malignancy (either lung cancer or metastases to the pleura from elsewhere) * Infection (empyema due to bacterial pneumonia) * Trauma * Pulmonary infarction * Pulmonary embolism * Autoimmune disorders * Pancreatitis * Ruptured esophagus (Boerhaave's syndrome) * Rheumatoid pleurisy * Drug-induced lupus Other/ungrouped Other causes of pleural effusion include tuberculosis (though stains of pleural fluid are only rarely positive for acid-fast bacilli, this is the most common cause of pleural effusions in some developing countries), autoimmune disease such as systemic lupus erythematosus, bleeding (often due to chest trauma), chylothorax (most commonly caused by trauma), and accidental infusion of fluids. Less common causes include esophageal rupture or pancreatic disease, intra-abdominal abscesses, rheumatoid arthritis, asbestos pleural effusion, mesothelioma, Meigs's syndrome (ascites and pleural effusion due to a benign ovarian tumor), and ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. Pleural effusions may also occur through medical or surgical interventions, including the use of medications (pleural fluid is usually eosinophilic), coronary artery bypass surgery, abdominal surgery, endoscopic variceal sclerotherapy, radiation therapy, liver or lung transplantation, insertion of ventricular shunt as a treatment method of hydrocephalus, and intra- or extravascular insertion of central lines. | complications of Ewing's sarcoma | complications of Fibrous dysplasia of bone | complications of Ehlers–Danlos syndromes | complications of Lesch–Nyhan syndrome | complications of Prader–Willi syndrome | complications of Cat-scratch disease | complications of Mesothelioma | complications of Kallmann syndrome | 00
| 11,340 |
A<unk> is a fracture of the anteroinferior aspect of a cervical vertebral body due to<unk> of the spine along with vertical axial compression. The fracture continues sagittally through the vertebral body, and is associated with deformity of the body and subluxation or dislocation of the facet joints at the injured level. A<unk> is usually associated with a spinal cord injury, often a result of displacement of the posterior portion of the vertebral body into the spinal canal. The<unk> should not be confused with a similar-looking vertebral fracture called "extension<unk> fracture". Both usually occur in the cervical spine, but as their names suggest, they result from different mechanisms<unk> -compression vs. hyperextension). Both are associated with a small fragment being broken apart from the anteroinferior corner of the affected vertebra.<unk> s usually involve instability in all elements of the spine at the injured level, commonly occur at the C4-C7 vertebra, and have a high association with spinal cord injury (in particular anterior cord syndrome). In comparison, the extension-type fracture occurs more commonly at C2 or C3, causes less if any disruption to the middle and posterior elements, and does not usually result in spinal cord injury (however it may co-occur with more dangerous spine injuries). | Flexion teardrop fracture | Jefferson fracture | Torus fracture | Holdsworth fracture | Smith's fracture | Smith fracture | Rolando fracture | Clay-shoveler fracture | 00
| 52,300 |
Rarely is any soreness associated with the condition. Apart from the appearance of the lesion, there are usually no other signs or symptoms. The typical appearance of the lesion is an oval or<unk> shaped area located in the midline of the dorsal surface of the tongue, just anterior (in front) of the sulcus terminalis. The lesion is usually symmetric, well demarcated, erythematous and depapillated, which has a smooth, shiny surface. Less typically, the lesion may be hyperplastic or lobulated and exophytic. There may be candidal lesions at other sites in the mouth, which may lead to a diagnosis of chronic multifocal oral candidiasis. Sometimes an approximating erythematous lesion is present on the palate as the tongue touches the palate frequently. The lesion is typically 2–3 cm in its longest dimension. | Median rhomboid glossitis | Trapeziometacarpal osteoarthritis | Metatarsophalangeal joint sprain | Tenosynovitis | Morton's neuroma | Plantar fibromatosis | Plantar calcaneal bursitis | Olecranon bursitis | 00
| 56,176 |
An audiologist conducting an audiometric hearing test in a sound-alt=a female medical professional is seated in front of a special sound-proof booth with a glass window, controlling diagnostic test equipment. Inside the booth a middle aged man can be seen wearing headphones and is looking straight ahead of himself, not at the audiologist, and appears to be concentrating on hearing something Identification of a hearing loss is usually conducted by a general practitioner medical doctor, otolaryngologist, certified and licensed audiologist, school or industrial audiometrist, or other audiometric technician. Diagnosis of the cause of a hearing loss is carried out by a specialist physician (audiovestibular physician) or otorhinolaryngologist. Hearing loss is generally measured by playing generated or recorded sounds, and determining whether the person can hear them. Hearing sensitivity varies according to the frequency of sounds. To take this into account, hearing sensitivity can be measured for a range of frequencies and plotted on an audiogram. Other method for quantifying hearing loss is a hearing test using a mobile application or hearing aid application, which includes a hearing test. Hearing diagnosis using mobile application is similar to the audiometry procedure. Audiograms, obtained using mobile applications, can be used to adjust hearing aid applications. Another method for quantifying hearing loss is a speech-in-noise test. which gives an indication of how well one can understand speech in a noisy environment. Otoacoustic emissions test is an objective hearing test that may be administered to toddlers and children too young to cooperate in a conventional hearing test. Auditory brainstem response testing is an electrophysiological test used to test for hearing deficits caused by pathology within the ear, the cochlear nerve and also within the brainstem. A case history (usually a written form, with questionnaire) can provide valuable information about the context of the hearing loss, and indicate what kind of diagnostic procedures to employ. Examinations include otoscopy, tympanometry, and differential testing with the Weber, Rinne, Bing and Schwabach tests. In case of infection or inflammation, blood or other body fluids may be submitted for laboratory analysis. MRI and CT scans can be useful to identify the pathology of many causes of hearing loss. Hearing loss is categorized by severity, type, and configuration. Furthermore, a hearing loss may exist in only one ear (unilateral) or in both ears (bilateral). Hearing loss can be temporary or permanent, sudden or progressive. The severity of a hearing loss is ranked according to ranges of nominal thresholds in which a sound must be so it can be detected by an individual. It is measured in decibels of hearing loss, or dB HL. There are three main types of hearing loss: conductive hearing loss, sensorineural hearing loss, and mixed hearing loss. An additional problem which is increasingly recognised is auditory processing disorder which is not a hearing loss as such but a difficulty perceiving sound. The shape of an audiogram shows the relative configuration of the hearing loss, such as a Carhart notch for otosclerosis, 'noise' notch for noise-induced damage, high frequency rolloff for presbycusis, or a flat audiogram for conductive hearing loss. In conjunction with speech audiometry, it may indicate central auditory processing disorder, or the presence of a schwannoma or other tumor. People with unilateral hearing loss or single-sided deafness (SSD) have difficulty in hearing conversation on their impaired side, localizing sound, and understanding speech in the presence of background noise. One reason for the hearing problems these patients often experience is due to the head shadow effect. | symptom of Tay–Sachs disease | symptom of Lesch–Nyhan syndrome | symptom of Maroteaux–Lamy syndrome | symptom of Bannayan–Riley–Ruvalcaba syndrome | symptom of Myotonic dystrophy | symptom of Myasthenia gravis | symptom of Rotor syndrome | symptom of Multiple sclerosis | 00
| 3,346 |
<unk> squamous cell carcinoma (Bas-SqCC) is an uncommon histological variant of lung cancer composed of cells exhibiting cytological and tissue architectural features of both squamous cell lung carcinoma and basal cell carcinoma. | Basaloid squamous cell lung carcinoma | Salivary gland–like carcinoma of the lung | Adenosquamous lung carcinoma | Epithelial-myoepithelial carcinoma of the lung | Sarcomatoid carcinoma of the lung | Basaloid large cell carcinoma of the lung | Mucinous cystadenocarcinoma of the lung | Giant-cell carcinoma of the lung | 00
| 61,260 |
<unk> is a type of headache that occurs in the skull and neck during<unk> activity, including masturbation or orgasm. These headaches are usually benign, but occasionally are caused by intracranial hemorrhage and cerebral infarction, especially if the pain is sudden and severe. They may be caused by general exertion,<unk> excitement, or contraction of the neck and facial muscles. Most cases can be successfully treated with medication. | Sexual headache | External compression headache | Cold-stimulus headache | Orthostatic headache | Tension headache | Ictal headache | Lupus headache | Vascular headache | 00
| 28,261 |
<unk> is a type of radiation therapy used to treat eye tumors. A thin piece of metal (usually gold) with radioactive seeds placed on one side is sewn onto the outside wall of the eye with the seeds aimed at the tumor. It is removed at the end of treatment, which usually lasts for several days. Iodine-125 is among the isotopes used. | Plaque radiotherapy | External beam radiotherapy | Microwave thermotherapy | Radiation therapy | Tomotherapy | Chemoradiotherapy | Photothermal therapy | Irradiation | 00
| 49,228 |
<unk> (MPAL) is a group of blood cancers (leukemia) which have combined features of myeloid and lymphoid cancers. It is a rare disease, constituting about 2–5% of all leukemia cases. It mostly involve myeloid with either of T lymphocyte or B lymphocyte progenitors, but in rare cases all the three cell lineages. Knowledge on the cause, clinical features and cellular mechanism is poor, making the treatment and management (prognosis) difficult. The name<unk> " was adopted by the World Health Organization in 2008 to include leukemias of ambiguous lineage, acute undifferentiated leukemias and natural killer lymphoblastic leukemias. According to WHO criteria, myeloid lineage is characterised by the presence of myeloperoxidase, while B and T lymphoid lineages are indicated by the expression of CD19 and cytoplasmic CD3. __TOC__ | Mixed-phenotype acute leukemia | Prolymphocytic leukemia | Leukemoid reaction | Aggressive NK-cell leukemia | Biphenotypic acute leukaemia | Acute myeloblastic leukemia with maturation | Large granular lymphocytic leukemia | B-cell leukemia | 00
| 72,942 |
<unk> is radiochemistry applied to medicine and thus the pharmacology of radiopharmaceuticals (medicinal radiocompounds, that is, pharmaceutical drugs that are radioactive). Radiopharmaceuticals are used in the field of nuclear medicine as radioactive tracers in medical imaging and in therapy for many diseases (for example, brachytherapy). Many radiopharmaceuticals use technetium-99m (Tc-99m) which has many useful properties as a gamma-emitting tracer nuclide. In the book Technetium a total of 31 different radiopharmaceuticals based on Tc-99m are listed for imaging and functional studies of the brain, myocardium, thyroid, lungs, liver, gallbladder, kidneys, skeleton, blood and tumors. The term radioisotope, which in its general sense refers to any radioactive isotope (radionuclide), has historically been used to refer to all radiopharmaceuticals, and this usage remains common. Technically, however, many radiopharmaceuticals incorporate a radioactive tracer atom into a larger pharmaceutically-active molecule, which is localized in the body, after which the radionuclide tracer atom allows it to be easily detected with a gamma camera or similar gamma imaging device. An example is fludeoxyglucose in which fluorine-18 is incorporated into deoxyglucose. Some radioisotopes (for example gallium-67, gallium-68, and radioiodine) are used directly as soluble ionic salts, without further modification. This use relies on the chemical and biological properties of the radioisotope itself, to localize it within the body. | Radiopharmacology | Neuropharmacology | Psychopharmacology | Electrotherapeutics | Radionics | Nuclear medicine | Molecular medicine | Nanomedicine | 00
| 19,971 |
Possible causes include: *Syncope (fainting) *Reflex anoxic seizures *Breath-holding spells of childhood *Cataplexy *Hyperekplexia, also called startle syndrome *Migraine *Narcolepsy *Non-epileptic myoclonus *Opsoclonus *Parasomnias, including night terrors *Paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia *Repetitive or ritualistic behaviours *Tics *Hypoglycemia | Non-epileptic seizure | Reflex seizure | Musicogenic seizure | Febrile seizure | Gelastic seizure | Focal seizure | Post-traumatic seizure | Atonic seizure | 00
| 28,876 |
<unk> (also known as "Infundibuloma," and "Tumor of the follicular infundibulum") are a cutaneous condition characterized by flat, keratotic papules of the head and neck, skin lesions that are usually solitary. | Isthmicoma | Trachoma | Nasal septal abscess | Adenoiditis | Cholesteatoma | Nasal polyp | Nasal vestibulitis | Laryngeal cyst | 00
| 56,131 |
The mainstay of treatment is total avoidance of<unk> protein intake. This is complicated because the declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory (see regulation of labelling). Treatment for accidental ingestion of<unk> products by allergic individuals varies depending on the sensitivity of the person. An antihistamine such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl) may be prescribed. Sometimes prednisone will be prescribed to prevent a possible late phase Type I hypersensitivity reaction. Severe allergic reactions (anaphalaxis) may require treatment with an epinephrine pen, an injection device designed to be used by a non-healthcare professional when emergency treatment is warranted. Immunotherapy There is active research on trying oral immunotherapy (OIT) to desensitize people to<unk> ns. A Cochrane Review concluded that OIT can desensitize people, but it remains unclear whether long-term tolerance develops after treatment ceases, and 69% of the people enrolled in the trials had adverse effects. They concluded there was a need for standardized protocols and guidelines prior to incorporating OIT into clinical practice. A second review noted that allergic reactions, up to anaphylaxis, can occur during OIT, and recommends this treatment not be routine medical practice. A third review limited its scope to trials of baked<unk> -containing goods such as bread or cake as a means of resolving<unk> . Again, there were some successes, but also some severe allergic reactions, and the authors came down on the side of not recommending this as treatment. Avoiding<unk> s Prevention of<unk> -allergic reactions means avoiding<unk> s and<unk> -containing foods. People with an allergy to chicken<unk> s may also be allergic to other types of<unk> s, such as goose, duck, or turkey<unk> s. In cooking,<unk> s are multifunctional: they may act as an emulsifier to reduce oil/water separation (mayonnaise), a binder (water binding and particle adhesion, as in meatloaf), or an aerator (cakes, especially angel food). Some commercial<unk> substitutes can substitute for particular functions (potato starch and tapioca for water binding, whey protein or bean water for aeration or particle binding, or soy lecithin or avocado for emulsification). Food companies produce<unk> -free mayonnaise and other replacement foods. Alfred Bird invented<unk> -free Bird's Custard, the original version of what is known generically as custard powder today. Most people find it necessary to strictly avoid any item containing<unk> s, including: * Albumin <unk> white protein) * Apovitellin <unk> yolk protein) *<unk> Beaters (cholesterol-free, uses<unk> whites) * Dried<unk> solids, powdered<unk> *<unk> ,<unk> white,<unk> yolk *<unk> wash *<unk> nog * Fat substitutes (some) * Livetin <unk> yolk protein) * Lysozyme <unk> white protein) * Mayonnaise * Meringue or meringue powder * Ovalbumin <unk> white protein) * Ovoglobulin <unk> white protein) * Ovomucin <unk> white protein) * Ovomucoid <unk> white protein) * Ovotransferrin <unk> white protein) * Ovovitelia <unk> yolk protein) * Ovovitellin <unk> yolk protein) * Silici albuminate * Simplesse * Vitellin <unk> yolk protein) Ingredients that sometimes include<unk> protein include: artificial flavoring, natural flavoring, lecithin and nougat candy. Probiotic products have been tested, and some found to contain milk and<unk> proteins which were not always indicated on the labels. | Egg allergy | Corn allergy | Milk allergy | Latex allergy | Poultry allergy | Peanut allergy | Shellfish allergy | Fruit allergy | 00
| 39,419 |
There are more than 200 types of headaches. Some are harmless and some are life-threatening. The description of the headache and findings on neurological examination, determine whether additional tests are needed and what treatment is best. Headaches are broadly classified as "primary" or "secondary". Primary headaches are benign, recurrent headaches not caused by underlying disease or structural problems. For example, migraine is a type of primary headache. While primary headaches may cause significant daily pain and disability, they are not dangerous from a physiological point of view. Secondary headaches are caused by an underlying disease, like an infection, head injury, vascular disorders, brain bleed, stomach irritation, or tumors. Secondary headaches can be dangerous. Certain "red flags" or warning signs indicate a secondary headache may be dangerous. Primary Ninety percent of all headaches are primary headaches. Primary headaches usually first start when people are between 20 and 40 years old. The most common types of primary headaches are migraines and tension-type headaches. They have different characteristics. Migraines typically present with pulsing head pain, nausea, photophobia (sensitivity to light) and phonophobia (sensitivity to sound). Tension-type headaches usually present with non-pulsing "bandlike" pressure on both sides of the head, not accompanied by other symptoms. Such kind of headaches maybe further classified into-episodic and chronic tension type headaches Other very rare types of primary headaches include: * cluster headaches: short episodes (15–180 minutes) of severe pain, usually around one eye, with autonomic symptoms (tearing, red eye, nasal congestion) which occur at the same time every day. Cluster headaches can be treated with triptans and prevented with prednisone, ergotamine or lithium. * trigeminal neuralgia or occipital neuralgia: shooting face pain * hemicrania continua: continuous unilateral pain with episodes of severe pain. Hemicrania continua can be relieved by the medication indomethacin. * primary stabbing headache: recurrent episodes of stabbing "ice pick pain" or "jabs and jolts" for 1 second to several minutes without autonomic symptoms (tearing, red eye, nasal congestion). These headaches can be treated with indomethacin. * primary cough headache: starts suddenly and lasts for several minutes after coughing, sneezing or straining (anything that may increase pressure in the head). Serious causes (see secondary headaches red flag section) must be ruled out before a diagnosis of "benign" primary cough headache can be made. * primary exertional headache: throbbing, pulsatile pain which starts during or after exercising, lasting for 5 minutes to 24 hours. The mechanism behind these headaches is unclear, possibly due to straining causing veins in the head to dilate, causing pain. These headaches can be prevented by not exercising too strenuously and can be treated with medications such as indomethacin. * primary sex headache: dull, bilateral headache that starts during sexual activity and becomes much worse during orgasm. These headaches are thought to be due to lower pressure in the head during sex. It is important to realize that headaches that begin during orgasm may be due to a subarachnoid hemorrhage, so serious causes must be ruled out first. These headaches are treated by advising the person to stop sex if they develop a headache. Medications such as propranolol and diltiazem can also be helpful. * hypnic headache: moderate-severe headache that starts a few hours after falling asleep and lasts 15–30 minutes. The headache may recur several times during night. Hypnic headaches are usually in older women. They may be treated with lithium. Secondary Headaches may be caused by problems elsewhere in the head or neck. Some of these are not harmful, such as cervicogenic headache (pain arising from the neck muscles). The excessive use of painkillers can paradoxically cause worsening painkiller headaches. More serious causes of secondary headaches include the following: * meningitis: inflammation of the meninges which presents with fever and meningismus, or stiff neck * bleeding inside the brain (intracranial hemorrhage) * subarachnoid hemorrhage (acute, severe headache, stiff neck without fever) * ruptured aneurysm, arteriovenous malformation, intraparenchymal hemorrhage (headache only) * brain tumor: dull headache, worse with exertion and change in position, accompanied by nausea and vomiting. Often, the person will have nausea and vomiting for weeks before the headache starts. * temporal arteritis: inflammatory disease of arteries common in the elderly (average age 70) with fever, headache, weight loss, jaw claudication, tender vessels by the temples, polymyalgia rheumatica * acute closed angle glaucoma (increased pressure in the eyeball): headache that starts with eye pain, blurry vision, associated with nausea and vomiting. On physical exam, the person will have a red eye and a fixed, mid dilated pupil. * Post-ictal headaches: Headaches that happen after a convulsion or other type of seizure, as part of the period after the seizure (the post-ictal state) Gastrointestinal disorders may cause headaches, including Helicobacter pylori infection, celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, gastroparesis, and hepatobiliary disorders. The treatment of the gastrointestinal disorders may lead to a remission or improvement of headaches. Migraine headaches are also associated with Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (CVS). CVS is characterized by episodes of severe vomiting, and often occur alongside symptoms similar to those of migraine headaches (photophobia, abdominal pain, etc). | symptom of Altitude sickness | symptoms of Altitude sickness | symptom of Panic attack | symptom of Malignant hyperthermia | symptom of Acne | symptom of Lightheadedness | symptom of Dysautonomia | symptom of Sleep apnea | 00
| 4,947 |
<unk> has no record of FDA approved medical use. It has been shown to produce robust reinforcing effects and compulsive self-administration in rats, though this had already been provisionally established by a number of documented cases of misuse and addiction in humans before the animal tests were carried out. MDPV is the 3,4-methylenedioxy ring-substituted analog of the compound pyrovalerone, developed in the 1960s, which has been used for the treatment of chronic fatigue and as an anorectic, but caused problems of abuse and dependence. Other drugs with a similar chemical structure include α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (α-PPP), 4'-methyl-α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (M-α-PPP), 3',4'-methylenedioxy-α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (MDPPP) and 1-phenyl-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)-1-pentanone (α-PVP). | Methylenedioxypyrovalerone | Tetrahydropapaveroline | Orellanine | Testosterone nicotinate | Bolandiol dipropionate | 4-Methylaminorex | Oxalyldiaminopropionic acid | Renin | 00
| 43,220 |